Final PSUJIA Proof

8/3/2019 Final PSUJIA Proof

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COVER


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Penn State UniversityJournal of

International AffairsFall 2011

Volume 1, Issue 1


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D R,

W w v Penn State Journal o International Aairs 2010, w w v p. M K K Jg-I w , O b L w g. S S x, p Ab Spg pp w w. A w g pb g w 2012, w gz pac cuag a aa aas dscuss as u wds cpxy cass, ad UdS vv.

T pg g Penn State Journal o International Aairs g-pvgquss. Wy d aucac gvs d cs? Wa spsby d ay sups av acvs subdas? Wa s asp bw c quay ad ducaa ppuy?

Hw d cus cp w gcd? W w p yu pck up s ssu kg asws, w as wa yug w q. O v q p.

T Penn State Journal o International Aairs, Uv g j-, v g w v pp gz. W w gz g pp M. J Hg Sg Gb S SPg; D. J Sz P Fw Pg; D. M B P S Dp- P S.

Mv, w p v D. Sb Mj, w D. GCp, D. Ew D, M. D G, D. Dg L, D. Dv P vwg b- g w g q. W E W gg g v J N Kvv w gg g wb pj.g. M p, w w g ppg pb.

T , w w pb w v v. W p wg b g v.

S,

E Gz, E H, Ev Kw, & A SpPennsylvania State University Class o 2012


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Contents

T Sb-Ib Px: T C Kg W 7

Aj P, Emory University

Fg H: M Rv A A 15

E Jb, Emory University

Hg E C: A S Y Pp 27

B J L, University o Caliornia - Berkeley

P A Dp: Hw Rg H C E

M B 39

H M, University o Washington - Seattle

T Ev C Rpb I H Lw 50

Mx M, Stanord University

S 59


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Fall 2011 Penn State Journal o International Aairs 7

The Stability-Instability

Paradox: The Case o the

Kargil WarAnuj Panday, Emory University

Tis paper examines the role o nuclear weapons in the Kargil War in 1999 and nds thatIndia and Pakistan both acted in ways consistent with the Stability-Instability Paradox.Te paradox states that nuclear weapons simultaneously induce stability at level o nuclear

war and instability at lower intensity levels o violence. Te nuclear bomb gave Pakistan theassurance needed to initiate cross-border proxy conict, while inducing cautious responsesin India to avoid uncontrollable escalation. Ultimately, nuclear weapons spurred conictinitiation but also limited the conicts scope and duration.

P

akistans military incursion Iy May 1999 akd bgg Kg W. Ag w w u ad cc bw w cu- , w a b sds vy dsad uca

capabs pvus ya. Tus, Kag cagdd Cd W d y uwaps wud ak wa csy. Fa dgwa, waps gav Paksa assuac dd -b . Nv, I p p pp g waps w pv scaa ad kp ccs udc. O a was bw w cus , Kg xp ; w

v q , w p b b J 1999. T, KgW p b-b px,wc sas a uca waps suausy duc

saby a v uca wa ad saby a w v .

T pp b Jv w Kg,D, I R T b - xag aa vv K. I d vv w px, g b gg P d u d- .

A Paradoxical WarW w P b pp -p wp? uuy ud duw dud y v. W w

v ud d- - , b pb g gg v bg w y w w u ud

Anuj Panday is a senior at Emory University majoring in International Studies with a ocus in International Political Economy

and History with a concentration in Europe. O Indian descent, Anuj has lived in Atlanta or the majority o his lie. He is a

member o the Emory Barkley Forum Debate Society and an editor o the Emory Political Review. He plans to attend graduate

school or public policy or oreign policy. His email address is [email protected].


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The Stability-Instability Paradox: The Case of the Kargil War

b . I w bv . T w wg b g v - v. F wsas, uca waps ca duc axy v cva capabs. Mv, w ss dbak u, uca waps d kp ccs d

(K 2008, 52). F b, y d v u d pb p p pp wp dcapag s-sk (Ragava 2010, 13). Accdg dc y, , Paksa sud av avdd w I.

Cd d y . T, w b w, p P p g pcy wads Ida s cssay. I Deterrence in

American Foreign Policy, Axad Gg ad RcadS d y.I , Gg S g s pa da dc au s vy vu , y wc s ad cc. I aav ps ab, v gs advsays d a (Gg ad Sk 1974,521). I vw P , wv, p v g bjv v pv w (J 2009, 124).

A x P v v wj jv: u S G 1984 wg - K . I P, pv g bg wg b pv I . T P w I p- S G, vy u- g p g g L C, p bg (Ka, Lavy, ad Cay 2009, 75). Is ads wad ak a p a Paksa was a pusv, ad aKas was s a a Paksa aa pd.Ag P Pvz M, Kg w b KT I v b u P y S (Kp 2009, 122). P bga casgy dspa a Kas wudw I , g- w v -y wd (K, Lvy, d Cy 2009,74). Ag P M Fg A

D G S A J J, Kg w pp . C j gv p y. Ows, g ad gy w cu [ P ] g b (Kp2009, 123). F , Kg w Ipas g ad say usd wd aK d. Nwz S, P M-

P , , b bjv Kg w w uy wd K u (Ku 2009,122). p P g v Kgud P dc Ida aks Paksas s (G 2009, 94).

M w w v w gas. Sc 1984, aa da ad ad sv Sac Gac dspu. T aks cu-uy dvvd u d w pg pv w j

(M 2000, 29). Ap I S w .W P, S b p, p p b Z - Hq v dd P y.Fg g , p p p g p Kg s s psg (Ka, Lavy, ad Cay 2009, 75-76).I , Kg w , j aa , bu as ass gacy ay

p .B d u duK vd dqu juv Kas ssu aay. W was -aa v, ad sv dspu aw vb P. T w b v-ab skg dc asssac cus;w w p P K w-, w b gI pp w (Jv 2009, 383). F,P d d w Svv Ag. F w vwa s , Paksa dvd uc a su dy . Id, ud yAg, g b I g,P K u w d (J 2009, 119). I ddd wy d wd uK w g . Nw, w wp, w dy by ad ak sk scaa uca us. Ad


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Fall 2011Penn State Journal o International Aairs 9


cc cud suausy bg d pas adgv Paksa vag gas. Cagg Ida b v p P- . P w pp wy u [ud] p w b p b paavs avaab (s, Fa, ad Mdby 2001, 40).

T P v w wp b pp .

T g P I u w, u P d y b bg y. T d v x pv , Paksa cas ad b pag a Kag pauu 1980 (Ku 2009, 117). Wy w

P w ? T w xp px g wp . Nwp, g , v b g P w pv pgKg pb (, F, Mb 2001, 48).

Paksas uca capaby payd a ca s . W , P wav ackd aby gg a css ag ug Id. I u wd, u

Kg w v b b I v p ad spd ay aas. Bcaus p w v b v p sa, Ida wud y asy b ab py ,u d wud v d-b g pbb P w gg p (Jv 2009, 384).Nuca waps, Paksa cas ug, wud dI g v I vw . I wv d y, wv , (J2009, 126).

S b P b . Dg w, PF Sy wd P wud u yw (, F, d Mdy 2001,48). T sa was dbay abguus susacy uca a. Paksas Rgus AasM Rj M Z Hq pb

a Paksa cud a back uca p sudPaksa scuy b ad. Ov cus w, P -zuca as (Hy 2009, 157-161). Nuca capabypv P x pwy dd ak up cva waksscpad Ida. Paksas d sucs sud

a s cva y a Ida wudcu cas. Paksas ads saw cu- g pg I w w b b p p. I ,P y dd wp v b p (C 2005, 18). N wpcud v payg d by wadg ws Idacu-spss by dg cva ucaaa (s, Fa, ad Mdby 2001, 49). Accdg Jaa, sc Paksas acqus uca capacy,

P b I -v p (Kp 2005, 144). F,uca waps w pc sus daw -aa a Kas sua. May sPaksa ay cs ad pubc sas sag bs a wud uca capabs wudz US p bgg . (, F, Mb 2001, 49).

T, Kg xp b-b p-d. T d, d y R Jv TeIllogic o American Nuclear Strategy,

x b b v - w, w b b wv v (Jv 1982, 31). T d ws appd US-Sv as dug Cd Wa xp pv w-v px w absc dc uca cva ca.Bcaus b sds ad suvvab scd-sk capab-, b xw. Hwv, dud y w v v. C w gv v (K 2004, 1). Jv

pp p S A bb v p g w , y w w v -akg w bw uca sd (Kp 2010).I, Jv v b-b pxp x Kg Kg,D, d I R Ty. Hccus was a Kag was css w paa-x: Sg b p b


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by akg w vs vc avy sa bcausscaa up uca add s dagus (Jvs2009, 393).

T w d, u, w US-Sv d d Id-Pd . Id d P d u , w u -

gapcay, ad ad d-pay ss ad sugsd w ud uy dy vv (K 2008, 54). Nv-, p subc. Dsp avg sa asas, bI P v bd- y ( qu d saby-saby paadx appy). I aks vy v d- y uf d . T z uca waps a gy b, ad a y ds

w w wp , wp, w w b v y u uu -. w g, w w , xg (Wz 1981, 9). Dg Kg, I P wg , b, w. Du d d , g wp u s sckp, ad a s wa ad.Dg v j p

b g v b vvg w (Wz2003, 123). W a cds bg cc, adPaksa bdd by uca capaby, saby-saby paadx apps ay sua b 1999.

War ProgressionI p ppb y-y d K W.Cay Paksa xpcas, Ida was udd scaag sy cc. Ida apdy

spdd w a ap dv Paksa back acss bd (Jck 2009, 131). Paksa ay ads,zg I w pp p w , g pd y u . Nv,dags uca scaa ducd cau Ida . T bv P - p b w wp-, bv P g v

u w vy w ud w y Id v . T g I p p Ida aucg u-sca cva aa(J 2009, 131). I pg gP , I p p b y, d y

d, d d d vu d y d Pgg. A , ,

vg x pb p, - ddd Id w b b, b P (J 2009, 132). I p pca a up Ida ay css L C u w (G 2009, 105). Ts sa was a x dva Id d y. Id d dd

v P b ( 1949wa, 1965 wa, ad sva s 1980s) wscaa acss LOC. Ida ay pas cusd badg cc pay Idas quaav vg. Nw, w wp, I p w (Hy 2009, 159-160). Mv, sagy ad y . C d wudv wd Id A F Pcucas, supps, ad gscs, s wa,ad dp w sucs. Nw cba as wud

v v p I Kg g I (K2008, 69-70). I ss a Idas dcs xpadss, ad by scaa wa, was a dba .

S, I vg . Id zd A F,dyd w d u -ads pss ag bd w Paksa, add w Nvy w u . T u dd I w g b pg g b (J 2009, 132).

S u w y-b px w p, b-asp by b sds dcad a wgss scaa (C 2005, 17). B w v -p -g xp b-b px.Uy, v u w v jy d - y


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px w gbw U S Sv U g C W. Dp ggg v b-asp, Ida s cgzd dags scaa v w v pp v ww . I p w g

wd u P dw, bg p v .F, p , I gv- bga ak a psc vw ucay . Id d -g v P ggv bv uca psug was jus a bu. Accdg a sI g , I bg bv a Paksa w us uca waps u g b I p y (Ku 2005, 147). A u

w g I, b wud y wud P. T u y- I g Pwud scaa uca us. Idd, Paksas w

vu K y v v Id pg v b w. IP ud y u K, Id ud dw (Ku 2005, 146). T,Idas wgss cvay scaa s vdc y-y d Idg p

v.Hw wg w I v b L C P wp x? S.P Kp g en Year o Instability in a NuclearSouth Asia a paadx was a pay bcaus Ida

wud v wd y L C g pv p-ac cacuas, a a Paksa uca wap-s, w pay spsb Ida usa LOC (Kp 2008, 79). I wvd y d u p w P wp w

va bcaus Ida cud succssuy p Paksawu xpadg cc. Mv, Ida ads p xp b, , w wg v P (G 2009, 124). Mv g b-b px w p g (Kp 2008) (M 2009).

Hwv, g xp w I

dd . Au y u-cs dsad a was ucssay Ida css d da Paksa cvay,g w v p I p p w q. Tw w v , b ay casuas. T wud av b as,

, Ida avd cssg L Cad Paksa b ab a uca scaa.Ev Kp P pw [] v I -g(Kapu 2008, 79). Ev ug Ida ad pas css LOC , px pp. IGa Vd Pakas Mak bvd a suc pas wad y bcaus pud ay gc qud .Lg q q pp . E LOC,, was y a cgcy pa, ad v , u

ud d (Lvy 2009, 192).T y w vd u- w. Idd w qu . V.P. M, Id Ayc sa dug Kag pa, xpad aPaksa uca waps d Ida ay pas u u u- v w w P(Kp 2008, 79).

Paksa ac Ida scaa was u, wud d wud w. Ib w g gg. I gv bz A F

Navy way a Ida dd. Had Paksa gagd Id A F d Nvy w u,Paksa skd avg Ida spd acss a-a bd, sug apd xpas cc vs dagusy cs uca sd. Tus,v d , P p v v - (K 2008, 71). I b g Pw b I v p, b a uca wa. Ts agu cus ww. T P ddd w Kg w v b I.

Oc Ida spdd w c, Paksa cs sads gud, kwg a Ida was cvay sup-. T s as k a Paksas dcs w v g p w (Gg 2001, 312). S, pp vg, I g v vg w - 1945. I p vvb g w v


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ps, a sx-- advaag d aca ad -- dv (Cd 2008).T v P- gg p p.I 1947 1965, P bz g p b w w d w y d .

Ts , uca waps w cay vacg .

International PressureA va ac wa a s accud d-c y s psc a d pay as a caays was ccus. W Paksa dcdd , g b uy, uy Ud S d C,wud v s sd p acv s sagc. A pv , P j

g w vg K aa ssu. By dg aa c-uy a Kas was a uca asp, Paksapd us aa vv gg p v K. P xp Ud S d C w u dup s pvus cdas Idas uca ss(, F, d Mdy 2001, 38). P, wv,b . T w wg b P, w w gg. P w p p b USas ss pssu s saus qu uc-day ad Cas ucac back Paksa ayg w (K 2008, 72). I, ad, was pasay supsd w uxpcd A- vv w v (K 2008, 73).

Hw p w - b-b px? O- vv g p pg - u w d u K. T pp vw p waps ds wa. Nvss, gv Paksas -

w b w , Kg v p w g b wp w. I , xp-s aa as a as paay cuagdP dvu. T v K Wd w vv dub-dgd swd ccs bw uca-adadvsas a s wy css w wa

b-b px w p.I qu vd P w ud y

u. P w bg , g -v w (J 2009, 118). P, p wp w bg b vv . S Sg

g xp pw bv bg. H pb v g gv Id P y v, css, akg d uss c, pcsy bcausy u w y p gg g g (Sg2009, 392). T Ud S, C, Ru, F,Egad, ad Saud Aaba a pssud b Ida adP w b ca. Ts acs gg wa P Lavy

-p p v. H g g pw w vy vvd vvuca-ad sas, duc pssus ay sca-a, ad dscuag ay sa vagg a u w d saus qu (Lavy 2009, 175). I s g, aavv svs spy as a cas b-b px xp Kg W.Appa Paksas bav ad subsqu supsa s dpac sa, xpcas aa

vv w- .F d d, vv

us y pay a abg cc a,u u yz u dv u v.I uuu dd KW. T U S p p u . A w dgg b P, P M Nwz Sp U S pv p-. W w y u qud P wdw w. O U S p (R 2009, 4).

C wud u w -q g w b p, b p wp. I Pw b gagg bkasp ad w ppad p uca dvasa. Adday, y wud agu a


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ssus aa vv a sad u u, d u u - v b-b px, w b w wp bv.

Hwv, b g w bu , K W, -

a vv ad uca waps a sad.R, xb g pbw Ida ad Paksa. Iaa vv b q p wp b.T U S jp w av b ay as apd as dadg ad ucawaps b vvd. T aj pws w w- b (J 2009, 122). Nw pPsd C a cacs w Paksa ad

p vv xpg ww cba ad pvg scaa u-sca wa(Hy 2009, 144). Spccay, gd wy ca S A Pd dS D N E S A A Naa Scuy Cuc a W Hus BucRd d US u Id dPaksa w wa bk u. H w, T UdS w bgg b p . W asy agdady dsc uca caacys.

T w bv v . S p I M 1998 dag a uca xcag ad dad Aca u Su A (Rd 2009, 4). Ay vv, , p dc c uca waps uc . T wp -p v b vb. Iaa pssu by s was pay ac d-scaa cc, appcaby saby-saby paadx cc s d.B w vv - , b-b pxb v .

The Future o a Nuclear South AsiaT Kg W w Id d P dy dd y psc uca waps. Hwv, kd - v w g

b b g-ca gas a quck a (s, Fa, ad Mdby2001, 78). T -g , w - p w bv wb-b px. T v- w gz pp b

dubbd ugy saby (s, Fa, ad Mdby 2001, 77).T w uv u -d d w u u v w v pbv . N wp w bsds gag subcva ccs. W sub-v v w gvs vc ad a csquy qu pbac,y d vv zd w vb . Ogz pp bg w p

zy d vy d, u, -g b w bv v v v (, F, Mb 2001, 80).

T, Kg W pv p pp y-y d. T wc sg supp dc ss wv uu u w . O u, uwp w- v, b suy b a ug csdaby bd

ad cug u-sca was Ida ad Paksa ug d u w. I y Kg, w v p,p w j -p asp. T Su Asa sub-c w w v v , ug- w w b v .

Reerences

C, P R. Nu R, Nu R Rdu-, d SuyIuy Pd Su

Asa. Ss C. p://www.ss.g/ags/p/-p/NRRMC.p.

C, A H. T I-P MB. C S I Sud.p://www../p3/100P1.p.

Gg, S. Conict unending: India-Pakistan ten-sions since 1947. Nw Y: Cb Uv P,2001.


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Gg, Ax, R S. Deterrence inAmerican oreign policy: theory and practice. Nw Y:Cb Uv P, 1974.

G, J H. May pas Kag Cc.IAsymmetric Warare in South Asia, b P R.Lv, 92-129. Nw Y: Cbg Uv P,

2009.

H, D. Kg: N D. IAsymmetric Warare in South Asia, dd y P R.Lavy, 171-204. Nw Yk: Cabdg Uvsy Pss,2009.

Jv, R. K, d, d . I Asymmetric Warare in South AsiaTe Causes and Consequences o the Kargil Conict, PR. Lvy, 377-397. Cd: Cd UvyP, 2009.

Jv, Rb. TeIllogic o American Nuclear Strategy.I, NY: C Uv P, 1985.

Jck, N. T Kag Wa ad Nuca Dc. INuclear prolieration in South Asia: crisis behaviour andthe bomb, S Gg S. P Kp, 117-143.Nw Y: Rg, 2008.

Kp, S. P. Dangerous Deterrent: Nuclear WeaponsProlieration and Conict in South Asia. Sgap: NUS

P, 2009.

Ku, S. Pu. Id d P U P:W N S A I N L C W Ep.International Security 30, . 2 (2005): 127-152.

Kapu, S. Pau. Ya Isaby a Nuca SuA. International Security 33, . 2 (2008): 71-94.

K, H, P R. Lvy, d C Cy.P Mv d Cu.AsymmetricWarare in South Asia. Ed. P R. Lvy. Nw Y:

Cbg UP, 2009. 64-91. P

Kp, M. T P P SA. Rvw Asymmetric Warare in South Asia:Te Causes and Consequences o the Kargil Conict, bP R. Lavy, Nuclear Prolieration In South Asia: CrisisBehaviour and the Bomb, b S Gg S. PKp, Inside Nuclear South Asia E b S D.S. A C A. A 2010. ://www..g//2010_04/BRvw.

Kp, M. T Sb-Ib Px IS A . S C. p://www..g//-b-b-px---/.

Ku, Rj. Rv K Iuy,K, d w P C: W Sy/Ib Px P? Te New England Journal

o Political Science 3, . 1 (2008): 49-97. ://www.as.du/psa/jua/acvs/_w_g-ad2/dcus/Rvsg__Kag_Isugcy.pd.

M, A. SiachenGlacier Flashpoint : A Studyo Indian Pakistani Relations.W . 65.D: Uv D, 2000.

Msy, Dsaw. pg Ops abu NucaD Su A. Security Studies 18, . 1(2009): 148-182.

Rv, V.R. Ld W d Nu E Su A. Te Nonprolieration Review 8, . 3(2001): 82-98.

Rd, Buc. Aca Dpacy ad 1999 KagSu a Ba Hus. C Advacd Sudy I. p://www..g/wp/b02/b02.p.

Sg, S. N Ib S A. I TeUse o Force Military Power and International Politics,R J. A d K Wz, 382-393. Pyu,

Ud Kgd: Rwa & Ld Pubss, 2009., A J., C. C F, J Mb.Limited conicts under the nuclear umbrella: Indian andPakistani lessons rom the Kargil crisis. N.p.: R C-p, 2001.

Wz, K N. T Sp N Wp: D Rwd: w Nw S Id dP, , d M D. Nw Y:W.W. N &, 2003.

Waz, K. T Spad Nuca Waps: WyM M B B.Adelphi Papers 171 (1981).


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Fall 2011Penn State Journal o International Aairs

15

Facing History: Memory and

Recovery in the Atermath o

AtrocityEmily Jastromb, Emory University

Tis paper examines how a people and a nation use memory to heal afer experiencingegregious violence and atrocities. It explores the themes o truth, justice, and reconciliationthrough the lens o post-conict justice modalities employed, or sometimes not employed,

by the state and international actors in an attempt to encourage personal and social re-covery. I contend that aspects o post-conict justice mechanisms that prioritize justice byengaging memory ultimately help to acilitate recovery in that society. In contrast, aspectso post-conict strategies that emphasize orgetting, rather than memory, ultimately de-teriorate the path towards peace, justice, and reconciliation. Facing History demonstratesthis assertion through aspects o healing mechanisms implemented in post-conict societiesincluding domestic and international prosecutions, truth commissions, conditional am-nesty, lustration, personal memoirs, education reorm, and memorialization. It draws onexamples rom a variety o conicts or genocides, including those that occurred in Armenia,

Rwanda, Cambodia, Nazi Germany, South Arica, El Salvador, Korea, and Japan.

Forgiving is not orgetting; its actually remembering -remembering and not using your right to hit back. Itsa second chance or a new beginning. And the remem-bering part is particularly important. Especially i youdont want to repeat what happened.

Dsd uu, Had Su Aca u adR C

One million, three , sx (Ud N, Of SAdvs Pv Gcd).Ts sad da s 20-cuy gcds quay pyscag

y. Au y , d u d v , b w pp v.T bg x pgad a daag ccs av cd up

v, y vy uu

Emily Jastromb grew up in Highland Park, Illinois. She studied International Studies at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia.

The seed or Facing History sprouted during a conversation about Cambodia with a proessor in August 2009. He asked her,

How do people start to recover ater experiences o tremendous violence? She thought about it, and answered, with truth,

which comes rom memory. Facing History was awarded the 2011 Woodru Undergraduate Research Award at Emory. Emily

thanks Dr. Carol Anderson or her support in helping her keep the aith. She is 22 years old and enjoys music, travel, good

ood and yoga.


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Penn State Journal o International AairsFall 2011

daag sa ad s scy. Fu, da d u b v -, w w . Hwv,gcd jus a bs acd scy. AsDsd uu ausy addssd pp SuA , W

wudd W d d (W 2001, 14). A pp b g say acus vc pssss a udaa d ju d w d d v.

Scs dcad by ggus vc bg ay dd ud d ju. P- j p v wg: p,u d , ,, , vg, -

z (B 2007). E v pp vg p p j. F, u u y p pp g uu, was u csss ad duca g p v d. Bu u v, p g v p p- . T w w , ,

uc xpcd. I s ssa a cassaddss udaa d jusc a pacua w v pg - g . T p wg j v, b v b v (Bgg 2010, 10).

T, p- j bg w .P y uy dvdu qu, d v wd p xp -g (Cas ad R ds. 2003, 94). Idvdua y b v p p(Cas ad R ds. 2003, 95). W a a ackw-d y d v, j p w - b p; w g, g , p g w v. S p d juv wy wd u d vu

.B bg ad gg pay pa

v p, j, - g. Rbg g- d vy -cc sas. Aayzg succsss ad as y ad s suazd s ps-cc

jusc s ssa cag a awk addssgj, p, ccs. Sasyg d jusc a dvduaad aa v csus a usy dcu, bu p, v, , - . T x w d y vy y , u uu du d w . I wy, vv p .

T s d ad jusc a b xy va

xag w bg abu pac a ps-ccy. S d y acv d abv a jusc. F xap, H B g p p ,z v uu ju-. H j pb w uu d (Bu 1977). Hwv, Bu y w, ggg b pp x px asa cc. Cay Bus a dagss,

pp bw j pvuc ss sv w pac s dd cud w p. B w ccp gav pac, a absc da

v. 1 Ngv p bg b g p v. Hwv, a v cvy bcaus ds addss v j.

T A g pv x- xp w w vb v w . I 1915-1916, -s ( Oa) gv cby vd ayC A SyD , g w v -dd usad Aas dd. Os w udd p v (G K

1 Gg p gv p b p v, pp pv p, w v gp v bv p. J Gg, V,P P R, J P R 6 . 3:167-191


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2003, 41). , w p g p.O , j p, pp A, g vs a ccud as s gcd 20. T gv, p-cag scay p, ad sagc sas d

. Isgy, s w dy as gcd gayd u acs sd, bu accusa p b g (Lw 2005, 4).T as s a scaag jusc ay wc pg A g .

I ps-cc Aa, w gv cuasad bs Yug uk g, skgv . T p, gy Te Memoirs o Maim Be, w dycad sc gas dcag , cdd b Yg Sp Ogz

p C A. Svg-akg bs w scd ja ad da.Ag pp p-jusc by pvdg pus s s sps-b g , w - g g j b du pcss dda. Fu, sw , vg pp vd (Lwy 2005, 5). T ddp g v j, g g . T, T

gv vw wv pv, awg gcd da ak du as vdc ad py cducd as. T gas pusg s spsb w udd by p.

N ju v ud A , g bw vd u 90 y v.T p p v , F d Eu w g A pp g b gg Ep U. T j wg b -gad Eupa cuy (Hakbya 2004). uky adA v w- wgg j, g w g. T Ad vd y g gg v , b w p cvy as gavy pdd by a ack jusc.

T, g b gv p wb 1917, b p q j v.

T A gg j p v y y v -a acy. Jusc dd gs pg pp av pca xpdcy. As Havad Law

pss Maa Mw asss, puy acsz g, j v (Mw 1998, 15).Ev jusc dayd ds vcs pss pas,pg b . A , p p.

P- Cb xp j-c dayd. Ngav pac Cabda was ayaad by usd v; Vas vadd 1978 v p P P g z, v,

u. Au y d wddv d dd, u K Ru -ud agd aacks. T Vas ay cud ccupy cuy ad aa cuyw pz v g g gv-. A cpsv pac s was sgdu Augus 1990 (U.S. Dpa Sa). I k 12 V v b p Cd u uy w sabs. T pacca ass cud aacks ad v g p b,

bu udaa gd cvy was abs j.T gg v b p w

wu adqua a sug vcs.T Cb v, y -v. My Cd Sg, p - v K Rg, p g g v w b v . S v v b , , u v b w g w w-d u y p- j (C R .2003, 151). Ev w g g U S pg b , w v. S M, K Rug suvv ad ug, pgay pda xpss ss s s . H w, A I w I w(M 1986, 287).


20/6418


Fall 2011


P, Cb p , w y -b v p pw.Fu, Cd v, ud u Ud N, dd Edy C Cu Cd(ECCC) u 2001. P P, ad sa a

g, b (ECCC). T pb g p b v j g

vg. Vg p-s pvds caass vcs by ackwdgg wg d ad awg a bu. Hwv, vg z p. V w vg w d v u p v (Mw 1998, 13).

O - f vd y, u dy ju vy ud g. T Cb w p p gg p j. F, j -sw sds vc, as dcad by spadc ud y dd. Sdy, w j v v- x w g - vabadd by a, uab v wad w- wg . T bp

Vas vas ad vw ay av ad sysac vc ppad by K Rug, bu day jusc ad sucy ackwdg sug vcs u dcads a. Wu ackw-g v g , b g, ppg -z g (Mw 1998, 12).

T ECCC v 20 b b-d u u gg p b b p, p w p.I a bg s accusd wa cs, csg , g j, - R S w -ad ad dwd Iaa Ca Cu wd pws pscu s cs, cv 2002 (Ud N, y S v. 2187, .38544). Hwv, C b w z s dcuy bag ad cvy pscug , g d uv . Mw u

v p pb b g gp vb (Mw1998, 6). Ag p g- ud, y dud v y u . T -y acqud, dcud, ad dssad a asackwdgs juy vcs ad abs

. B xpg p v p, x g w ca accss s, sy ay aca bak-g w vb p.

Say, w s, s psa accu p xp, p-a y dpsy vs a pssq ppv. T bgp H vv p xp ppp .

P Lv, a suvv Auscwz ccap, w v w gg xp Hu uvv. I wd Survival in Auschwitz, v Pp R vw b xp pg w. R v ud w- [Lv] w wd d v C (Lv d R 1996, 182). waspcs Rs c a xpay. Fs a, Lv w , b

p b Awz.S, g v w cx s pas xpc, csay gagg ws y. T, cdg a psa sas uc abu pcss as s abu u cd p. Tg , v ab ac w psa s ad bg v . Vay b ab vuay cc xpc w , Lv.

P v d u v. M d -

p g w . F, p sabs a u cd vs a ccud.Scd, s a pss a acd scyp z w pp ,p v pp. T g- q g pp b g , w p, gp pp


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(Gy d K 2003, 373-380). Pbc us, a ak a way a y pcv

v b , g v cagy. Naz dcs w xpd cca- p gz v lebensunwertesLeben, w (L 2000, 21). Tpg b Jw pp p

dvd d d gv p pp v . O b v b , p w w -g g b g udd wy v ud. N u g v x d, u wd v , w pp. I g , vw .

T g pp pp wq g pp . O g ,wy cud s s w acvy c-d w cpc cs? Wy xa - w b v? W a s vcs gcd ads w aagd suvv? Pa asw s as s p cp udsadg vs a ccud ad d ukab acs gcd ad ad acy kab. Wg abug, b v, g

quss abu ks, abu gu, abu ass cuy ad daTa a as sud dbawss (, B as. 2003, 114). Bag wssqus gagg s ppas d j v wg .

B , g g u u y dy ua sc a s acs ggus vc a

j w. T, w p b w v gg v pz vcd accpd, psay as pa acd scy. Ms, as a- accus, bg p pa psycgca awass gcd assg a, sg d ca bg gasp.A s a pa udsadg gcd v j pz b v (Mw 1998, 92).

T w v w d

ppv v T F S.

I dy d w u g; b v .ad ypus wasvybdy ad ypus, cudgys. S was dw abu 60 puds gb b g ,

ad, by a , w s ay dad a y b b . T w j pp b . A, I w v, v , w p p .

Lva Gs, Hcaus Suvv (L 1978, 4).

W w gj. W w j uc ubs as pssYu w ay. Hw w q g?

D 9, F W C (W

G 1996, 146).

T u vu - v Auwz. T, p pp p , pv pg j-ca acy. B cu a xpc cca caps, y dascay d ssu w . E ppv g x, p v jgw pzz pg

Hu w udd dy yud y Jw ads Naz g. Eac pc s a pasc y, ad ac y bgs a bg .

F, vv pp v y. B s sa c ad a ss p, p . T accu suvv cas a a vcd . Hwv, v g, pp . Ag vv H, p vb, g jas uc a vc as vc s dscbs w waskd cap. S s was s Auscwz, uy d d ddd. P wuy, d qu pg p duz. H dud j,

u, wy dd


22/6420


Fall 2011


w . Txp p w ppsd as pssb, w accuab ad a cvg . Hwv, b aavs vv pp xp p pbg d y d u d-

v b g.

W v , cus. Idvdua pp ad scs y c-p, g v, pp, v bw, w , d uv. T d u d dvdud y. Uddy,d v z , , v . T - , b -, dy uy (Lu 2003, 86).

Aug xy dcu, a vcs awass pp bpeople w bcrimes, w pp b . I p -y v uy w (Mw 1998, 92). b ,gzg pp qgv, gg. T g spy wak us ad dvd ad puys cxsc. I s paps v ssa app gz v bg,

ad bak udsadg us ad as w.I u u d ,p J Gg , T j v ujv y u (Gu 2000, 162). T vup H p x- v ujv y . T Rw g p pxz . T Rwg ppx-y 800,000 Rwd, y gp, g w p b H u (Gy d K 2003, 325-333). E d y u

u d y H . I g , - - Rwd v y w a cy pcs ad p aa uy.Hwv, p p dss by pczg vcd. F xap, w

us-dad gv ps a pcy as-g c dy, y ay a cs b g . Twd inzirakarengane d abarokotse, w

vcs ad suvvs spcvy, as xcusvyc us Rwada scy. Lkws, abicanyi adabacengezi, wc a ppas ad as

spcvy, d Huu (H ad ON ds. 2009,80-97). D y, y - g Rw H v g cgzd as suc. F xap, Sap s a RwadaHuu. H us usbad was udd up by AdF Rw (FAR) b , aagd agay suvv aacks. S was asbj p p b FAR . B H, xp gz v: I vv, v

pp (H ON . 2009, 91).T uy y

v w p z.Ts s ky a su wd s wus g a succssuy bzs pas (H ON . 2009, 100). T p p-Rwada pss xap w gg p p g b g p g .

I p, p- Rw sg xap a succssu ps-cc jusc. T

dscgacaca jusc sys was pd 2002 p p 1990 v. Ag x I C b Rw(ICR) uuy vd pb gg g,Rwada dvpd capacy aag dsc p-g w-p , pg 1.5 p g (H ON . 2009, 90). T p g- vp Rw b c a u aw sys a sgs cuy.Fu, Rwd dwd y dd y d. T Rwdgcd aud usads pp w ccvyd u , Icyi-reze, ag p (H 2009). Ts dspay uyg gg p w g j .

A dd Rwd, y


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b z . Ag z p vpds ag, ca ccv y cap cca bs sug . P- g p p . T gz

css, wv, acs s uc. F xa-p, UN b 1992 xa sus acs vc dug cv wa E Savad bw gv ad FaabudM N L F (FMLN), wp p. S v b-ay ass, cd dsappaacs ad pca kgsbw 1980 1992, w p g wg p UN. T dw w w w - v d d

j. 1,145 v v 1982 a gav dc sy u cs-, pvg w (UNScuy Cuc, Rp UN u Css E Svd 1993). Hwv, u C-s ud a dsc judca sys was p v-p, w [E Sv] b p (E 1994,659). T, C E Svw p , b j (E 1994, 657).

T Su Aca u ad Rcca Cs-s, cas, succssuy gad psa - v . , g, . T S A RC (SARC) w b bw pp S A pg b p b S A.D , p C-s, assd a w a a wudd pp SuA d (W 2001, 14). H wd

pvdd a sg syb aa uy a cudd S A g v, pp, b.

O way wc Css aagd vvs ay pp was ug Rgsa Rcca-, wc awd a pp w su d, , ju d . Ig g , Rg- p , xpg

vw pp b SA (S A Dp J 2003, 651).T p SARC p p j, v .V, pp, b S Aad abad w cuca gs, ad, , p pb

C. T wg xp - vv SARC:

Aj Kg xp g v p v.

Bvd, d d. D da d! I, suvv,I wp w .I g. I , p g w wp b (Bgg . 2001,27-28).

L Bb Swp, w w b b pw , xp .

I waas bug y ysg back s cback ad y sy. Bu I wa as bakg sck a s ac a I cud (Bgg . 2001, 27-28).

B w u u-vv p g

p.N M, w A N C- (ANC) , wd y vdpscus apad. Isad, cs bac g g v , g u ad ubuntu, ag uass (Bgga d. 2001,207-215). H v p w w s ccs by s w agu a pscus ssa ag bcaus gay as a w wg, j w (B d. 2001, 57). I ,u d R C y

-b p p p. TC vv pg p v d. Hwv, uu ju u dcca s a bgs a da ss u vcs, awg a as a vb p. O b , b S A, ppM bg


24/6422


Fall 2011


d d d . Fxap, s bsvs Csss pcss S A v g vz bp g w gvcas ad pc cs w w pa spsb cayg u dsca apad (Mw1998, 17). Aug s ag ds cssay c-

gvss ad cca, pvds vdc g gg , w C bg g. I cssay vcs gv ppas ss , , d v, u gz pp , , bg v w g.

T dvy u uy v wy j (Bgg . 2001, 101). C-v, M Ig g w b bv, pg

bv (Mw 1998,52). T Cd . I S A S A R C xg bw . O w wc Css gad vdc u wasb gg pp w w b vd u C- bv w b g g p S

Aca. I ga, asy ad y appa as pps- , y y pg , b g g . Hwv, yg S A w g- y . I, pp w vb b d ud y Ay C,g xg p cv s asy, guaad appcaw b g w , -g b . A SARC ad asy cda up a ppaswgss sa a s kw abu vc g p (S ADpa Jusc 2003, 680). T, sbw bg gg b asy ad u ad- ac csus uc p g .

T p w p bjv p ju w d g . T bjv , pv , w w uu u uv v-. M u u uy pb pp w z.

T bjv , w p w , w wg- bw v pp.

q buu u, , d

ju. T d y vv vcs, ppas, ad bysads, bu us as ud d y. T, z , p- j p w. Cp

u y v vy. My uzd wy -. O w g z, wxz p p us pas. Maza as a ps-cc

ju dy, u, duay vcs, b vg ad dad, by bsvg g v. T g pb, , b p, g pb

p, v pb ggw p (B 2007, 60). Mz- p .

u Sg, a cvd ps, w usu, Ca-b, b v K Rg. Ivd y v ww p pb p w . T v v-g w p g v p-y v y. Pvdc ad dca ds ay pssb g b pp. T g p v xp d daw a ua cs gcdd uy d du K Rg g. I , Kg GM C Rw w p -a a s g vcs a gcd, Rw g.T -v C v


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u u d-c (Kga Gcd Ma C). Ts appacd ud

vcs gcd a cuss scp gcd gb v.

Mz gg p b b v. T g

, , y vd - p p, w v x p. Mz w , j v. T g y u ad cca s a adcpsv sy, bu y spcc jus-cs ad ga aza s ccv apb pg v (Mw 2003,101). A , z pp v .

Mas ca b usd b bu as g.

T J ud u ud -v g w (H S 2000, 30). I g , d du P W dWW II J y. J vd vy, g, p v w-gg Jp b p p v w p p v p.

T pcss wg ad wg sy xbks

Japa as sagcay csucd pas. Bcausy uv v, yxbks a ags y ad uc as a s p g g-s wads a udsadg pas (Wag 2009,12). B v d aa aav a bas v cpg s,dazd pass, ad way wc ccv ybcs gad uu. T, dbas v xb b x , v zp (H S 2000, 28). Jp xp b gs sy xbks. I 1953, Japa gad Msy Educa pw sc xbks,ccd w psg cuy as pacu a du WW II. J wd w pw p , b xp gg v p p w ggv gbg A .

F , J y u

w P W d WW II u Jsy, ad csquy sy xbks. C- w, u 80% w w K, wccd sxua savy by Japas pa ay.T vv My Edu yx Jp xb

.I 1990s, pssu Ka ad Japas -

gva gazas ud, vvg svawu K w J, dd . O Jp x-b xp b w.T dd ud Jp g w as a c pa ay, ad cuad a 1996 UN cda Japa s us sxua

savy dug WW II (S 1996, 1132). T ba vJ , , wy wc a d c sy ad y ay up .

Sc 1996, Japas xbks agy adpd UNcda cud us c w xbks. O xap s wg: w w K d w d p w w w b (H S 2000, 25). T c w s pacuay p, bu

g w dd . Hwv, vvbackas s xss, wc agus a Japas suds b p xp . T My Edu- vd , uuu (Nw Hyxbk), w by csvav gup Scy M Nw H xb 2001 z wd J y dgs us c w. Ts bk aks up .5 p xb , v v g bg w p (S 2003,168). Hwv, wg c w a a Nw Hsy xbk ds- v w b v w .

Jp g w d d v v. I , vy u uv v v. , xp, p


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xcud ay Aa gcd . Fu, udd u d xv v A g (S . 1995, 1-22).

Rb J L, p gud, vd u Ad

Nuz Kd 1990 d u scas cs Aa gcd sw, Te Nazi Doctors, Medical Killing and the Psychol-ogy o Genocide. T asss wg ps A g: p g vw (pp b g A )ad ua sug wug b Musd C u, w - p pp,s, ay aa w sy qus, spy (S . 1995, 10).

w p A g. F, vg g, g v w bg gA v. Sd, zs au cc by cpag Hu. T wd w-b g p gv g g,bu y a vc Aa sudb caaczd as gcd. T, s d-

A gu v, y gv p p acs cd by Naz Gay agas Jwspp. uky vkd avs d agu g g, b p g ay wgdg ug avs a u.A P Db Lp , D p b p z v. W v (Lp 1993, 216).

A sacs gcd a ac sui generis, as y b p v . d yy quv u, s a quvac xpa a sac g w. A xp H , -g H w b g d d Huw d. S u w y, d w w

acs a s cas xcudd pvd (Lpsad 2010).Lp , I H - g, g , , (Lp 1993, 216). Ag g H , w p p, g , , g w

. A g w y, vd yd , w v v ud , , d -b. T, wg

v, pp b w p- j, v b pp -g, j, .

Reerences

Gv I B M:

U.S. Dpa Sa. Cambodia. p://www.sa.gv//p//bg/2732.. A Ob 14, 2010.

Edy C Cu Cd.A Ob 14, 2010.p://www..gv./g/b_.px.

S A Dp J. R- C S ARp, 2003. p://www..gv.za/dcs/2003//. A Ob 12, 2010.

UN. T Oc Spca Advs Pv G GENOCIDE. ://www.u./vd/v/g.. A Spb 17, 2010.UN S C. Rp UN C- E Sv, 1993. S/25500.://www.d./z/vd//.. A Nvb 30, 2010.

UN. R Sau Iaa Ca Cu, 1 J 2002, U N, S, v. 2187, . 38544.

P M:

Lv, P, S. J. W, d P R. Survival inAuschwitz: the Nazi Assault on


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Humanity. Nw Y: S & Su, 1996.My,S. Cambodian Witness: An Autobiography oSometh May. E b J F. L: Fb Fb, 1986.

, Uw. In My Brothers Shadow (Am Beispiel meinsBruders.) b A B.

Nw Y: F, S Gx, 2003.

W, P, d Ad G. Te Investigation:Oratorio in 11 Cantos. L: M. B, 1996.

Ivw:

Lp, Db. Ivw b A. A, GA.Ob 5, 2010.

M, L, Lv G. ranscript o Interview

with Mrs. Livia Greeson. PDF.Aaa: Ey Uvsy. C Rsac ScaCg, 1978.

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B, N, ed. Burying the Past: Making Peace andDoing Justice afer Civil Conict. Wasg, D.C.: G-gw Uv P, 2001.

B, H. Te Anarchical Society a Study o Order in

World Politics. Nw Y: Cb Uv. P, 2002.Cas, Ed, ad Mca D. R, eds.Te Role o Memoryin Ethnic Conict. Nw Yk: Pagav Maca, 2003.

C, Ezb A, ed. eaching the Violent Past: HistoryEducation and Reconciliation. L: Rw & L- Pb, 2007.

G, Rb, B K, eds. Te Specter oGenocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective. NwY: Cbg Uv P, 2003.

H, L M S, eds. Censoring History:Citizenship and Memory in Japan, Germany and theUnited States. A, NY: M.E. Sp, I, 2000.

H, Ax Lb Kv Lw ON, eds.Genocide: ruth, Memory, and Representation. Dua,NC: D Uv P, 2009.

Lu, Pu Gd. Te Evolution o International

Human Rights: Visions Seen. Pd: Uvy Pv P, 2003.

L, Rb Jay. Te Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing andthe Psychology o Genocide. Nw Yk: Basc Bks, 2000.

Lp, Db E. Denying the Holocaust: Te Grow-

ing Assault on ruth and Memory. Nw Y: T FP, 1993.

Mw, M. Between Vengeance and Forgiveness:Facing History afer Genocide and Mass Violence. Bs:B P, 1998.

Mw, M. Breaking the Cycles o Hatred: Memory,Law and Repair. P: P Uv P,2003.

Ws, Rcad. Te Politics o ruth and Reconciliationin South Arica: Legitimizing the post-apartheid state.Cbg: Cbg Uv P, 2001.

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E, M. C C ESvd: A R d A. Human RightsQuarterly 16, . 4 (1994): 656-675.

Gaug, Ja. T ask Pac Juas. Ethical

Perspectives (2000): 161-170.

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Hakbya, Aa. Aa: Gcd Agda.ransitions Online, Db 20, 2004.

H, Md. Iyz Rwd F YP-G. P Rvw 21, . 3 (2009): 275-79.Lwy, Gu. Rv A Gd.

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M, J. V R. Law& Social Inquiry 33, . 1 (2008): 195-231.

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S, Cg S. T K C W:Mv R.American Asian Review 11, .4 (2003): 145-178.

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B, M. C, Exv D. Te ChicagoPrinciples on Post-Conict Justice, Ccag: IaaH Rg Lw I, 2007.

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Kg G M C. A Ob26, 2010. p://www.kgaac.g/d/dc-/x..


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27

Higher Education in Chile: A

Study o Youth Perceptions

Jane Leer, University o Caliornia - Berkeley

Higher education in Chile has undergone vast expansion since reorms in the 1980s priva-tized the system. Troughout the same period, Chile has seen rapid economic growth pro-

pelled by the transition to a market-driven economy. While the expansion o higher educa-tion has led to increased educational attainment overall, certain socioeconomic groups have

beneted rom this growth more so than others, and social inequality persists. Troughinterviews and surveys, I examine Chilean youths perceptions o higher education, socialmobility, and class stratication. I nd that while educational opportunities have greatlyincreased, inequalities in access persist, and rapid privatization has ofen ignored qualitystandards. Furthermore, class-based discrimination and an emphasis on social status limitthe perceived equality o opportunities in Chilean society.

W

ithin the six-block du Ba Rpbca Saag, C, ud -

uv wd. S 1980, uv-s ad pssa sus av

spug up by dzs, cvg wa usd b spawg ass Saags was bus-, g, gg, , w a w d Ba Rpbca as Ba Uvsa, gb. Bb g aa advs sud a pgas, dg pgas, g pp . Gp s cs passg u bcus, pg vaus

v .

T B R C p d dy, y

p, , p, g sa uvss a pvazd sys v 206sus g duca. Rs 1980 dc-azd ad dguad sys g duca,ad ay vs av sc casd - (Sp Kz 2009).

Sc s u dcacy 1989, C as adus sds cc gw. T Wd Bakw dscbs C as a upp-dd c dvp-g , 2010 C b Su Aca j Ogaza Ecc

Cpa ad Dvp. T ub Cas

Jane Leer graduated with a B.A. in Development Studies rom UC Berkeley in May 2011. Ater volunteering or three months

with a community development organization in rural Nicaragua, she has since moved to the capital o the country, Managua,

to start a job as a Research Fellow with the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB). Jane continues to be passionate about

education, although her work with the IADB ocuses on early childhood development and pre-school education. In the next

ew years she plans to go to graduate school, and she hopes to one day work in international educational policy design. Once

her own (uture) kids are grown up, and she retires rom the policy feld, Jane dreams o opening up her own daycare in the

U.S. For the time being, however, Jane is thoroughly enjoying the adventure o lie in Managua, and scheming up ways to

spend the next six months on a boat, sailing around the world...


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Higher Education in Chile: A Study of Youth Perceptions

vg bw pvy 38.8 pc 15.1p bw 1989 2009 (M 2010). Dp vp, wv, q. I ud du,C s 16 s uqua a wd (C-a Igc Agcy 2010).1 Sak cass dvss adb b p (

W 2004).T udy vd quv udd

quy du C. Tg v -vw w C , I x w g g xp gdu v du, y, w C . Md u du u v xp 1980,, ,

v du. W dd y, vd quy du-a ppuy s dsd by sva acs. Rapdpvazd xpas as gd quay sadads, adj p x v g . F, C g g q v p , g -b - pzg , ppsd . Tus, ducaa ad sca quay

C - sys, bu as ac a cass saca p g pp p.

Ipg v g b udd u w quy dud d dud. Fu, -b xp C y udwy u du, US, J, dGay, ag s. Uvss casgy y xa sucs udg w ga ad aagv v pubc duca (Ps ad S. J 2003). My sudy C, w pvaza as b udway as , pv g q uvy y y .1 C G 57.1, w w p g 41.7 p , w p p 1.6 p (CIA 2010).

I wg, I bg by sabsg cx , w b C g , w b b vw xg xp, q, b C. I p g, g, .

Historical ContextHg duca C as xpadd b ub p . P 1980, g g duca sus C cssd w v L Uv C (LC) d P Uvdd C d C(PUC), w w pg v- , x pv , wbgd Cac cuc ad wc w b pv . A g w pb ,wv, w u a suds (Maa 2006).

Sc 1980s, ga g sus av bdvdd 23 spaa sus ad -sucud aspva-subsdzd uvss, cvg udg d v u. Du -d sabs a adda 35 uvss,43 cca sus, ad 102 sus pssag, w p pv ., v g ; s xpsv a pva uvss, w c-ca sus a as xpsv (Kaz & Spc 2009).

Literature ReviewSuds suggs a Ca ducaa aa as,ag pcags uvsy-agd pp w a g , v g p -v xp. Ajy , wv, - , d uu y d dsccc gups uv ways (s, xap,Kz d S 2009; Ez 2006; M 2006).O dv u dbw xp . S p -

uv d u (Ez2006; c 2005b) w s cus qua-s sd by scday duca sys (Maa2006), b (Sp 2009).

Scas aayzg cags cass sucu sc pg C 1970 (B LFu 2002; d Wd 2005; d 2005) wg v ,b g . T d u qu,


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bg C g q. ad Wad (2004) ad Espza ad cagus (2009)d a da v by bw agcuua b , b v b v . M dwwdb w v p w w v

aa xcusvy pssa svcs. (2005) b b,v bw bw v.

S g du u du - y d dd y (Nz dMd 2007 d 2008; d Wd 2004;Epz 2009). Mv, (Epz 2006;c 2005b ad Maa 2006) a s sgca

da ps-scday s aby y ud y ud w g v - (Nz M 2007 2008; W 2004; Epz 2009).

Tuu u, -quy d qu w duy . Ey H (2002) ud w d , I u (d ud w) g vv pvg

q p , vwd d d . My b b p-g qv, qv . ASub (2006) agus, udsadg quay qusxg j x g q,b p g w p . T, I z w bq, w pw.

Methods2M v b -, --, vw w C. I x pp C du, y, d . I uv, w w p -

g .T v bg w b gp q

u , , d , wd yqu u d dvdu du d d y, d wq b - w w. T q d vd y dd (-dd) v gg g C .

Ivw w uud. I wd -

vw w v , w qus d. Eac bga w quss abu p xp, , I qabu duca sys ga, w ducaad u vy w d , v, bw, b.

M p p p vud L Uvdd d C (L C) dPUC. Hwv, y 137 d3, w

v, w p 2 I J g Ag 2010 I b C, pg P Uv C C (PUC). Ag I -w g v , xp b p . A PUC j vg b-g. T v v p w v I v , w I w C wg bg. I C I w v g g - . I p, w , w, b v g bw

.

T xp w pb , I bv w p gw w p b p g q. W v C ?W w g ? W - b? A w q, I C p .

3 121 v p 16 vw p


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cca sus, ad w ad v pusud ay g . W pp p- w udy uv L C PUC, w a -suds, s sa, s addap v v p, g .

I sug b suvy ad vw spds usg

swba sapg, uzg cacs a vaus sudad yu gazas C: sud cubs a PUC, L C, F Sp Pz (FSP), -v-z(NGO). Gv I u -y d, y y -v u C yu.Hwv, uvy d vw d d v g ggp ud, d d d. Fu-, qv w

pv -p pp p qv .

Findings

I s baassg, dg quay w sys g duca, ad gs ad adw q pv .- Sv p; - P- Uv C

H du, y, d - vd u-d, dy wdu. My d d qu w g b pp dud yqu w y. Suvyd vw d d g g xp, ppscay abu w ppus upwadsca by. Hwv, quay, ay a aspcs scy, ad a sgca cc a spd- g. I w, q b p

, d y d dv w y.W du dd pw b, g , b x w g v v-g - p.

I ud j w - g v

du, y, d . R, p -c ad ducaa backguds dscbd sa. I wg, I b g vb, g w du, wd y - b, , pp

.

Perceptions o Higher EducationA4, w-dd yu w w vw b w-- S, dd w du uv g p g. A p p g g, b d d d y vd y. W s dd dsss dcus a s b v g ( )

, -cay b a was y yas ag. H pas bd y u v d, wg (g) .

B, u [-u, w-dd-cass a abs] dd av p sudy.Evy sc by y w 15, a , wg. Wg, g, w . Y j , I w udy. Nw, yu . H du p ; j v w g .

Aas wds c ps a vw spd-, y w - suds. Say, vwg ajy suvyspds (76 pc) csd w ducaapp b b p5.

W du, wv, uvy d d-d u v vw. W 1 qu

, 10 q

cdc sys, avag sps was 3.79,w g 1 9 ( 10).

W g ? I uvy d vw, d

4 A v b g pv .5 23 p p pp- b p, w v p g ww pp , w v g .


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cus ccaza sys, ack quay ad ccy w sys, ad quas , w bw.

The Business o Higher EducationIvw ad suvy daa suggs a pvaza g duca sys as g a. Rspd-

b w b, pp pvg pb g. T -bxp w bv v qd y . Sv, u-dd w w A B, pg pv v, , Is as sudy w, bu jus ss a yu av pw , . Rp a suds a ckd, dcvd, ad d uppg g gdgs a pvd w a sks, kwdg,

b jb . E, L C, , Hg g pvg, b q g , b p.

Dg v d u uv C v jb d v uv. T yu y v uv d.D -dd uv v b jb , vg , w p p g, w d a jb ps ay b b a y g .

C g b, vg pb v q g, pg gv x w xp . P pvz g duca sys appd suausy w pa ba pcsag b g p, -basd cy. T cy, jus sys

g duca, was dguad ad dcazd.Fu, Cs cc pduc gw apdy, p . T - ud d du y quy ddw gd, as pva cpas ad dvduasw gv u g cp gy pab

b g .My d u z

sys as ass s yps kwdg p, w pp b -, ad wc ds sudy a avd. Rspdsd y y v pduc robots del mercado, (bs ak), p-g g pv v g

a, au, usc, ad scgy. Sva spdsp g w .Sv , M g bv - w v b v. Td ju u quyd y w u, u g uduy u q v.

Inequalities in Access

My daa vwgy suggs a sgca bas . Sv vw p ud ud sys g duca y cs ad ppu-as sccc quay w Ca scy. I w p, I b , g g, g q w .

Iquay accss s agy csdd s q w p y, du w d d

vu y. Rd dd up: w pvscs pva-subsdzd scs, w acgq, , b pb p . Rp w p-

va ad pva-subsdzd scs pd a gg cg s , ad suds cv ap cgppaa. I pubc scs, aw, spdsd du . S v q pp g x, g -

ca-basd sks a ppa a jb, a a g . A , pvad pva-subsdzd scs a gad adss v g . Rp ,, a sccc saus s a bus pdc v .

I p v, v p pv v . Ts psgus wv, a s cca,


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ad w c suds w d pusu g duca- a w cc bu ad ss psgus,w-quay, pva uvss. Ty d up ag g v jb , w b b pv cd, by g ppus upwadb.

W s vcus cc s csdd agaz w , p w p v w- . Gp, cass yug w s, cad, Ys, a ay scasps day a v b, bu wa abu ? M p, b ,b p w uvsy. Say, Nc, a w-dd cass su- L Uv Sg C (USACH)xp w g xg-

ga s ays cc d d cv y dd d uvyu. Cy, u du uv xp, q g b v.

Perceptions o Social MobilityRspds w gay psc abu wp pw b. T I w b p pv g -

vw, 75% v p pp b b p. Hwv, gg pd y v d b w w. Rpdd du dy d b, b w v v, b bw.

Suvy d vw d y d pp b b p- p b v g duca. Hwv, casd ub ud uu y du u , g . Rp -

cc gs ad duca vs xpssd ws C jb ( gg ) b w p. M, -d w a dg psycgy USACH, cad,

T a ay pssas, ay ppgg g, b g, , bb w p. A pp- w,

W d wy d

p b g g v, wd p ad bud up cca ad pssa.

Hwv, w b w , y dvdu, uvyg v p, wg.

Tg vw, I w y, du y

ukab, dsp ac a scasps ad u d . Rd u v, g p g, g. I , v v p.

Rd w dd v d v-u-z p gw p -

g , j w g , g , u , y w d wa abu scasps, appca pcss,ad cg ppaa. Maas, aw, a w cass w p g -, d a dascay d g sc xpc:

Hg p [w p g ]. B yu d z w

v d u u w d, , uy , b w. Fw pp b b w , z, , I g

S, M Rq b p -as bw w cddsugu wcy w ud d ud uu v w g - a y wss ug wk w-c. M xp, I j p

d ayxpcas a uc w, gdu dd v . Rqub L P, w w. C w w w v, w p, Y, I w LC. T p w w, Yo no soy para la U(I v). F Rq M, u y u uy v du is


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w pv. Y, y w v w yd ud y dv-d ud, u y d y , v pv v, g pssby. I ss cag ducaa quay, -, b g b

b gg xp b g g .

A d vd uy b , g , C y. Ivw d uvy d-s a sccc ad ducaa backgudscad a saus ad ccs a jus as uc, , .

N v p p wg w d d j u , pituto , d, u,

--w, . Pitutos pv w q. Ts bvd app acss a scs scyg-v pss way cpas, cac

jb -b p. T p pg ,wv. M, xp, b b w g . C-

v, pp v p w bw : Gb, w w c acady bcaus s ccs, dsp

w v -q; Rb, ww x q, b bg, w . I w,pitutos uvy u db p b b.

C p : ,p Sgv sk, cs yu wa, ca yu dv. Rspd- bg xp , quy, s quss pa pys , W v Sg, w comuna() Sg , w w,q v g w q-. Ag v p, j jbg, b v , b - .

g, p q ppus w Ca scy. M a ky, p g v v z C , wg .

Perceptions o Class StratifcationW ackwdgg a absu pvy as dcasd as y yas, spds a scccd du ud v dv . C dd y , w b -cc saus. A dd cass suvy spd w,

C z b p psca quay. Ivw daa supp s spss;vy d dd C y dvdd,xy casss cuy. My daa a spcay ggv a allspds pd a awass cassdv d quy, ju w d- w y dvy d d y uqu du u pp .

Rd d bw b . E,

L C, b, Evv w d. A u uvyd w, T uy w , p w p, w , gg w p gg p. N v p p . T vw C g xgbw , g g, bw .

Csy ad s ack cs bw casss

-d d. A dd dd w w pp . I b, w v ; w cd pay w u cd, v a k u d. A w y d wd dsca dcypaps bcaus, asa b w-dd cass, s as b p b pj. W xpcy dscb dsca, cass-basd pjudcs ss vd uc pus ad p pv .

S, Sv -b av b gad Ca scy cus. Hb , p w q , pp w b b p b , w w pvv s pva uvsy. Lkws, uvsy sudsd -u d bw , p w g


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Fall 2011


duca. I wds Eau, Educa sud wd d d quy, ud . My ddC y y , d d,g w .

Uvy ud w y d xp p g

u. Rd du -guds, wv, csdd cass dvss b ga-vy cd scyg sca cs ppg q pj. E s wsd s cud pu a Saag gaw gb p, comunas, b-, , , d vy, dd xd up, ad pp cud a a ac .

DiscussionMy u d d -

g p bw q ps g duca C. Rspss suggs q w g sys a b a su , ad a cbu , d y d w C.

M , g w , gg pvz xp g -cay pvd ducaa ppus C; v yd. S, y d d quy , g g qw pay ad scday duca syss, asw as sucu uvsy ac qusad scasps. Rspds xpss u ccsa s xpas as gd quay sadads,

ud d d v b .

I p , p gg -v xp ud w y wd d d udy vd. I C , u b p b. Gv g

quy u - p vp ( 2005). C-a suds uu ads cuyus bquppd w a cpsv, bg pcu kwdg v g gww q (F Dv 2011). I gg v-p v C -cad w ak dgy ad gaduas a b . N, v

vz y wd v.

Mv, quy du , g sca by, jb ak us b ab absb ux pssas. My daa suggs a ak sau- b . F xp

asp bw xpas g ducaad Ca jb akw as sucu y d w wg b? W b?

A y udd quy x b .My d u y C y y, w d yu y w v.6 Hwv, ud C u

extent quy, d d du quy. My d,w, vd d wy b , why C .

I s ss, appas a sccc bas a y acs cbug sca quay. Tac a ccs ad saus ca d vau a s capacy Cs ducaa xpas s quay ppus. Fu, gduca ad sca by a ukab

gp, p x d w- dvdu . Iquy jus abu cagg pcy. I s as abug b g , q . Pg w w w g b - w g b w. Fu sac sud xa cuua cus, w p .

Ecc gw ad xpas g duca- w v p C. I w, v g p. I w poblaciones sp sayg Yo no soy para la U.W sucs d xs p g, , g - b pvg v . Aaa ba s Aca Caba agus, scag p q gg pp-s ds, asg dvduas udsadgs w ppus, dy, ad ps w6 S, xp, B L F 2002; Epz 2009; W 2004; 2005.


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scy (1973). W s pcss s cay udway C, b g w g.

As d, a sudy Ca cx pvds u ud wd ud p pvz. Hg Ud Sas, xap, s bcg casgypvz. F gv -

g pb v ,g pb v v bgu. My uv v ud wd vaca sucsasg u, ad g cacsw pv p. Bg v d daac cus cass gs, a x- pg,ad ccs a as p uvss a bc- y dd d wcasss (Mda 2011). As a su, Aca yu, k C u, dy

g .As wd cus vc gba aca, pb v w b w pv udg. S ay v d pva sucs b

vab a sa udg g u. Pcy aksd du d ud d w, wv. Dwg C xp v , w b w g g , pv q

b g .A p g, g

pp g v psv cag ad va. By svg cud g p v p, g q, w w v g w w.

Addendum - Update:T ccs vcd by spds y sudy av

b v b v C. O a I cpd y sudy, Ap 2011, Casuds bga a ss ass dsas a as udway day. Uvsy ad g sc sudsav b sk pas v s, dadgducaa pv quay ad quy , vv, p-g . T p v b bgg

1990. N w v v y, v pppp v p pss. Hwv, a uca du gazdb , C

v v , j-y cuy as supp vs

bjv.

Reerences

As, P. 2008. T Maks ad ags gwgup: Cpay yug ws ass ad-scc adud. Gender and Society 22(1): 56-82.

Bas, L. 2005. H Gs a ax Cu: Iquay adPu Py A Md. Perspectives onPolitics 3:15 32.

Basc, Ads. 2005. Uvsy pusp dv uy: T P. UvddC d C, 1985-2000. Journal o Higher Edu-cation 50: 247-274. A Spb 15, 2010. 10.1007/10734-004- 6353.

By, Haad ad Ca L Fu. 2002. A Exa-a Wag Iquas C. Esuds Pubcs85. Ad Nv 1, 2010. ://www.uv-.g/.

Caba, Aca. 1973. Naa Lba ad Cuu.I Return to the source; selected speeches Nw Y:M Rvw P, 39 - 56.

T Ca Igc Agcy. Cuy P, C.T CIA W Fb. A Nvb 5, 2010.://www..v/y/u-wd./..

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Dv, Ky d W.E. M. 1945. S P- S. American Sociological Review.10:242-245.

Eb, J E Eg. 2008. DgW Iquy C, d UNDPpjcMarkets, the State, and Dynamics o Inequality inLatin America. Accssd Nvb 1, 2010 p://cws.


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c.ya.du/~g/pubs/_duca-as.pd.

E, Rb, J Gp. 1991 Te Con-stant Flux: A Study o Class Mobility in Industrial Societies.Ox: Uv Ox.

Epz . 2009. Mv C:

g Sg b. Rv C S15:4 (586-606). Accssd Ocb 15, 2010. www.day.g.

Espza, Osca. 2006. Cag ()quas accss g x j- d -dju : C.Jua Hg Educa 55: 269-284. Accssd Oc-b 31, 2010. D 10.1007/10734-007-9054-8.

F Dv, Rd. 2011. T C Md:M u, ju , y u.

Te riple Crisis Blog. Ad A 15, 2011. ://p./--/.

G, M, Ez, O, P, S d, Myu. 2003. Pv, d - g : vb pp C R w -w WO/GAS. Globalisation, Societies and Edu-cation,1:3, 413-445. Ad Nv 1, 2010. d:10/1080/1476772032000141825.

Gd, Ez . 2000. Ad Ud-sadgs Sca Cass: A Cpas W UppMdd Cass ad Wkg Cass Yu.Journal o Ado-lescent Health, Nw Y.

Ha, Ga. 2002. Lkg ad, abu ad vdgg. South Arican Labour Bulletin 26:6.

H-Ns L, a. 2002. C: ua sucs kwdg cy. Wasg (DC): Wd Bak,L A d C R Of;(LCSHD Pp S, Dp H Dvp-

). Accssd Ocb 1, 2010. p://.ducac.c//jjbu/acvs/Hua%20Capa%20C.p

Kz, J d Rdy S. 2009. C u-v -dv y. H Edu M d Py,OECD. Ad O 1, 2010. ://.d.v:80/ERICWP//d.j?_pb=u&_&ERICExSac_SacVau_0=EJ86533

9&ERICExSac_Sacyp_0=&acc=EJ865339

Kgsy, Davd. 1942. A Ccpua Aayss Sa-. A Sg Rvw. 7:3 ANvb 2, 2010. p://www.j.g.

H-Ns L, a. 2002. C: ua sucs

kwdg cy. Wasg (DC): Wd Bak,L A d C R Of;(LCSHD Pp S, Dp H Dvp-). Accssd Ocb 1, 2010. p://.ducac.c//jjbu/acvs/Hua%20Capa%20C.p.

Kz, J d Rdy S. 2009. C u-v -dv y. H Edu M d Py,OECD. Ad O 1, 2010. ://.d.v:80/ERICWP//d.j?_

pb=u&_&ERICExSac_SacVau_0=EJ865339&ERICExSac_Sacyp_0=&acc=EJ865339.

Kgsy, Davd. 1942. A Ccpua Aayss Sa-.American Sociological Review. 7:3 AdNvb 2, 2010. p://www.j.g.

La Uvsdad d C. 2010. Cpd EsadscPcs d Ads A Acadc 2010. F p://www../. ( Nvb 5,2010).

L, C Sv Z. 2007. T wsud a sys Cs g duca.Journalo Higher Education 55: 683 702. A Spb20, 2010. 1007/10734-007-9083-3.

Maa, A. 2006. Bas quab acccss: g C 1990. Higher Education Policy19: 31-49. A Nvb 1, 2010. www.pgv-j./p.

MC, L L Kw. 2009. A

S P P E Rg Iq-. Perspectives on Politics 7: 459-484 A M1, 2011. :10.1017/S153759270999081

McEwa, P.J. ad Cay, M. 2009. T cvss ad pv C v .Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 22: 213239.

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y. S: C: Mu P REPENAv. My Edu S N.23321.Ad O 5, 2010. ://www..u.u-.23321.

My, P J. 2010. C: P d EC US R. Cg RSv 7-5700. A Ap 1, 2011. www..gv.

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Ms, Lawc, Jad Bs, ad Ha Busy.2003. Te state o working America 2002/2003. I,NY: C Uv P.

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Practiced at the Art o

Deception: How the Regime

Has Controlled Elections in

Modern BurmaHunter Marston, University o Washington - Seattle

Tis paper emerges rom an underlying question that has not ound a satisactory answerin scholarship on authoritarianism and transitions to democracy: why do authoritarian re-

gimes hold elections? Tis paper analyzes the connection between mass movements, popu-lar elections, and constitutional reorm, in authoritarian Burma.

Te essay will consider November 2010s elections in Burma as one such data point in a his-torical timeline amidst numerous social and political actors. Moreover, it will consider theelections as indicative o two overlapping processes: on the one hand, authoritarian elec-tions are a way to contest the powers that be and open up political power to other parties(access to power); on the other hand, the authoritarian regime controls rules o the electoral

process (exercise o power). Te rules surrounding power and how people perceive themthereby change during and through the electoral process.1

I argue that the 2010 elections was a highly ordered process o regime consolidation vis--vis partial military withdrawal rom political power, and that the shif to a new politi-cal apparatus represented elite collective action that was non-threatening to those with aconcentration o power and resources at the state center. Te 1990 elections lef an indeliblemark on state-society relations in Burma, and the outright NLD victory was a mistake themilitary was unwilling to repeat by allowing the political opposition genuine space. Moreo-

ver, the enduring institutional links created by nearly hal a century o military rule had alarge impact on the process and outcome o the 2010 elections.

1 B g w w M g g pp vg, b g vb b (S 2010, 27).

Hunter Marston is a concurrent MA candidate in Southeast Asian Studies at the Jackson School o International Studies and

MPA candidate at the Evans School o Public Aairs at the University o Washington - Seattle. He has worked in non-profts in

Thailand and Vietnam, and most recently interned at the Council on Foreign Relations. He enjoys blogging about Southeast

Asian aairs, with special emphasis on Vietnam and Burma. He speaks Vietnamese fuently and has studied Burmese language

or one year. In his ree time, he likes to go on extended hikes, read, and cook. His email address is [email protected].


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Practiced at the Art of Deception: How the Regime has Controlled Elections in Modern Burma

I d dd d y 1990, gua cs d svs bg pcab, v g b.

- Pau Nug, Sas ad Sca Cacs Aca(Ng 2010, 61).

F p , , gw was, vus, ad cups, pvd dv- y w u du p . L v g, bw g v g v.

- Rb ay, Te Politics o Elections in SoutheastAsia ( 1996, 179).

This paper emerges udyq w u- : w g ? T yz

gad cc bw ass vs u Bu, u, , p z.

I Nv 2010, Bu -u y

j p w .T pvus cs 1990 wssd a ugy w- v v N Lg D-y (NLD), d y Dw Au S Suu Ky d d- 1988 pp pv g G N W B SP Py (BSPP). T S Lw d OdRsa Cuc (SLORC), pw Bua,dd NLD w d du d. T u S Pd Dv Cu (SPDC, y SLORC)

ad 2010 cs as a pa wad dscpu dy ud v v,u W v d Bu uy dd u SG T Sw pw2 (BBC 2010).

Hw ca w xpa c pca asa

2 Cv, C R ( pg) b UN B , ASEAN S G S Pw b p (Ng, 2010).

paaay gv ud a w csu3 g au assv dsas 1988 1990 bg b w w ?

Evy w d w v w upu s Buas pca sy. Rupus pva, sca s wc sg

cas a pws a b, g pca sag, sdy gasp pw, cdp . Exp 1962 cup, 1988 pss, ad 2003 Dpay Massac, wc a gv b aackd ad kd bs pp p. T b j b ggu w (w w), vg bz (x pw w w)4. T p p p v

B. pg g g b p quay suc upus, w us qus vadyas daa ps ad sua scay c-dd spacs g auaass cuy.

T y w d Nv 2010cs Bua as suc daa p a sca p .Mv, w v w v : d, u- w pw bad p up a dg pw sag pca

pas (accss pw); ad, au- g p u ( w). T ug pw p pw by cag during and through ca pcss. 5

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3 T SPDC M 2008. Pv-, B S Pg P (BSPP) w

w p g pw 1974, w -p .4 S wx pw v pw. H , w v p g , (EA) .O B, ,E B/M (S 2006, 6).5 B g w w M g g pp vg, b g vb - b (S 2010, 27).


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p v , bw DS , y w -g w pw . T 1990 b - B, u NLD vy w yw wg p b wg g p

pca pps. Mv, dug su- b g p p 2010 .

Burma StudiesI v d d y d-pd da ad updd acadc quy, Bua u y dd u d u, d d, u- B v x,

sac basd Bua. As suc, Bua suds su a abudac spcua ad a da c-v , jdz j y uu Buu d (Bu 2007, 205-242).Adw S uu d qudy d u Bu udd ud b g ad ay sgca cpaav pca (S2007). W Bua suds, s a sg dcy back d as sy dsc as:1948 dpdc Bs ad subsqupaaay gv ud P Ms U Nu;G N W 1962 p p; B pd (1974-1988); 1988 ps. 6 S pays ag v qud ppv b pg g B, p pw, b bg v: T abay au sadad pdsa d ad g, b v (S 2007, 4).7

S g B w b 6 I pbb p w 2010 p v, gg Bp , w .7 T pp wg b Rb zg , w g - B p- p , bg B p xp g p . T w vp,wv (, 2009).

p , p 1988w d w dw ssus suc as ccs ad dcacy s u appy acadc spcazas Buas cx.S p pp p w y dv p B, S, b it also springs rom the

inter-related nature o many o the problems the countrycurrently aces (emphasis added) (S 2007, 23). T, u u w Bu d u, , d u d w v , w v B-p.

Electoral AuthoritarianismT d Bu ud w -paav pca scc y gg d

b g B g p q -p g vg (. 1990-2010). S g - g w (S 2006, 8). W vg , wv, g q:

Eca auaa gs, jus k d- u, d uy p gv b. Y, bj p , y dv db. (S 2006, 8)

T , y u u- u u dy(Sd 2006, 3). A u, p w g s av. T pps, w awd cs b p, pg g u d: g g de acto b

d u vy udaw s accss pca psa wgv; ad, byc cs w , b ps cud a z psa sus .

Sd d y , u y s aswg w ad wy s pps pas


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pacpa. As a sp u, xpas Scd, cu-b g ( dz), w du u (Sd 2006, 7). T u pv p v w b g b pp- b g. A g

p p bv g -p cs, pps s bud ac a csadw. Mv, S p b p- dd . W g w p- w gv, bz pbpp -g , b b d s cauy ad suc a way a y a awd pg -g b.

Burmas Electoral PrecedentB p d s s pca sy. say a Bua v g p w b p v pxaps. p a d av cs gadu-ay bc aspa? av y xdd accss w ? v y dpw ads a w?s cpcad, w-v, p g v pa Bua ud ay dcasp sc 1962.

B p 1922, y dd aac ga pacpa; v uu wasss a sv pc gb czs.8 Rb ayu v uyw w p p pp w b (y 1996, 166). T B w w v uu vd y uqu 1925 1928 (x gp pv) ( 2009, 185). B ,aacs ad vas, wa ay cas pay ga, ,

p ( 2009, 167). Ag b c aa, wd cx swd a badd Rg:

8 B I b pv b . I , 1922 p b. S , E B/M, 164-165; Hg , Te Union o Burma: A Studyo the First Years o Independence (L: Ox UvP, 1967), 2-3; , Te State in Myanmar, 185.

s pp, cs sa cagy x, , pb u: y d uw d v v v ( 1990, 66).

Sy, D S ud v b pvg bj (S 2003, 81-101).

W cs 1920s w agy a w adg sys gvac wc czg pwp, 1932 p d : w B-ddBua wud a pvcay a pa Ida ga as-auus, spaa adsav saus (ay2009, 176). Dsp a ajy v av adg Ida, Bs spaad w. Accdg

B gv B w , p v b ( 1996,176). Bu dd 1936 (y-w ), d BBu P (G 1940, 341-61). Hwv, f d v uu 1947 p ( 1996,172). Lua C N W (a ad Ga, w z pw gv 1962 p) p du w B d

p ( 1996, 171).V pp g -dd 1951 (ud wypc ca). Wav u c-a acvs ad gad dcads adg up dpdc ad cdd.9 ay abus w vuu da by ay psc, ay qu w ud u: I vd y v, 1951 Bu vdd (y 1996, 173).10 P M UNu ud , A-F P FdLg (AFPFL), w j .

T 1956 dduy du v 1951, d u AFPFL g pp, jy y (y 1996, 173).

9 Ag, p bw B - B w g p.10 F 1951 , , 67-72.


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Fay, 1960 saw Buas as upay cs u1990. A, v d y-v vu 1956 (y1996, 174). T pg gv w p AFPFL, U N p w . T d w y gv w w g bw

1958-1960. P gv pgad b wak uc ca pas gs, wc ad b gwg s by ga ads s bud wks ugu 1950 ( 1996, 175).

I 1962 Ga N W ad ay ud s c- z p pw, b ad -dssu a. T ay saw s p - dz uy. ypcvs ps-dpdc paaay gv-

1948-1962 w 1962 p d (y2009, 293). T p w y d y y d w dd cva buaucacy, bag pca pas 1963, g g p.M C g g dz d u as dcazd pw ads ca Rg-b g 1957, v

1958-1960 (C 1998, 32).W wg -usss vs 1962, sss ay-pcadv d , zd uypssb. Caaa dssss pca savvy psa b gvv CIA pp a-cus cs suc as Kuag (KM) Bu, u y d w w pp bp (C 2003).

S g p p, g d d y Buu , R. S bw ga bs ad aza au- S A.

Rga bs gay ps ss a dcp , , , w p gy udd j . I u

v p v g

gp, b -s, w ypcay sud acua spsby qg g .

R ud u d uyg c aa ay, bu up gups w ca pay csu

a pc pac. Te most likely institutional resultis a highly unifed but militarized state with weaklinks to societal elites (p ) wv p b (S 2010, 25).

S g B -y u u duy. A p , p vv 11 w pw, w xp w.

I J 1974, -p -du udy vd w u-. O-p w .12 A B S Pg P (BSPP) gg b g w B pp, z v p 1988, pp - vw N WBSPP Ag .

The 1990 ElectionsPp p g , w g 1987-1988, d a ay cup Spb 18, 1988, w G Sw Mu d y f pw b S Lw O R- C (SLORC), g p gq Rg.

W w us b awa u assup a aajcy Buas sy, appas pa a sa dc causa a bw s ass pss ad 1990 , w b d v u.13 S qu-d s aa-cc y dsp

11 I p w p p vv J Mg (Mg 1988).12 T pp w g S- (1974-1988) , b B -p .13 I w N W w b g , I pgv p g . BI w g v p vw gv b w b b .


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. T 1990 cud ay u w cpc s, p pca appaaus, y ps cas dcs SPDCs dcs d a csua du p w .

O SLORCs s asus a ay cup

Spb 1988 w p p -s, wc wud ad ca a w NaaAy d d w u. A, w SLORC g 1974 BSPP Cu, u w u dy w dd u. E g v , -y y v udd vy wy, v d pw s ads a sp dsac d dpss. Ov udd pca pas gsd

, g - w p (y 1990, 66). A zy d ud, u p p w w w pp p ( 2007,37). Bw Spb 1988 M 1990, w w , bv v b-pg pb p b SLORC.

T M 1989 E Lw p b- ud , u yuy w w N

Ab w ( 2007, 39).T x SLORC pzzg p -, cag ay ps a sw adv p- pw:

W pw a dT cd psavs a daw up csu. I pp appv csu-, w w pw pb gv w g g (SLORC 2007, 39).

Dw Ag S K, G S wgNLD y, d u SLORC:

Wv s cd w s av daw up a cs-u a w av b adpd b as w. Ty v d w uw b p. I b g ,b b ,

(A W 2007, 33).

L w vw, Dw S Kwud ud u w NLDd. N, NLD w vwj v N Ab (x p-), w , N Uy

Pay, gag y wypc vs (k2007, 34). G. Sw Mg M 30,1990 SLORC w pw g , pv b b g w d ( 2007, 45). W NLD ddd w u 1990, SLORCdd w d y d uv w w y - b , , pgv , w w

( 2007, 46).B L ad Dk k ak dvg ud-d v SLORC D N. 1/90.W L xp uquv d u w, z b 1989-1990 p . F , w b jb xpg , b NLD bdg SLORCs csas (k 2007, 51; g, L 1990). I w NLD SLORC w v g pw -

v NLD b g SLORC g.T wg sc w k a pca ac-

y y w 1990 d2010 w xpg SPDC b,b w q b b pvdc s ds pca as ad ds bg.

The SLORC/SPDC YearsCaaa as agud a ay g, a a p v gb D

G p b, p w g wa adp a pcs (Caaa 2003, 2; g-ay, s Guy 1966, 51). Nss, gas avd [], v u, vp ( 1988 2007) bg d -ud, u wy pw w v vb -g (ay 1990, 68). W Daw Suu Ky ud usas ay pas wy- yas,


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gas ad c ud adsp ag- pp p p w . 14

SLORC vd bs s csg a NaaCv bg g J1993, ss a a ya a Ta Sw ad bc PMs ad SPDC Caa, pacg S GaSw Mg C C. T g 700

N Cv d, ud NLD, v ,dsp cpas sv as psd by g (H 2008, 1046). S g Dw S K J 1995,wv, NLD w v byc, ad Ap 1996, gas suspdd aks(H 2008, 1046).15 b bw NLD u v SLORCxb p ( 2007, 51).

W K Nyu pacd Ta Sw as P M-s Augus 2003, ppsd a adap dc- v My y, d (Hdy2008, 1046). Bu vd vv Dw AuSa Suu Ky aks ad was wg cpsa s pdcss, qucky pvkd S GaT Sw g (Jg 2006, 30-31). A , L Jg Fg MW Aug d ASEAN ads cs wud w aw csu w sv yas (Jaga 2006, 31). A

ay pug add K Nyu ud us as Ocb 2004, ad udds s May Igc pp w j.

T p b j b w JMg p vv. T , gus pw app, bg suf ad dycks, su w d pw (Mgda 1988,212). T pw app pacs ya supps w - - p w (p)u y ud. T v T Sw pg K Nd w. Dy ud u v v p S K B M 2003, w v pp .

14 C, b g p p.15 I b w g p w vg , p g wb g g g K NU (KNU) T b (C 1996, 162-163).

T qu y d: ddT Sw u w p vv, w - 2010? H v d v w ud u V.S. Np p Z d, Muu S S: I Z, Muu

w (Np 1975, 206).T p bg w Spb

2007 g ppag. A s p, y ad aady, y ad s g z. I M 2008,C Ng w v Iw Dv-s, kg ad dspacg ay usads (Lsg V 2009, 15). Nv, SPDC -g p pp pp csua du a w a y-w v v .16 T w

akg s xpd adap dcacy.

The 2010 ElectionsB vv pb vgp v. F xp, vy sv K Nyus pug capas suddv Nyydw 2005 (S 2007, 30-31). Tpp v g 2010 , b pp -p x.

T g vg 2010 g w cd csua du suc a way a - v wud ps a sus cag auy , w guaad by dug pca yas ad ccks ky pw ds. A sa , gas p j g dwv dy. I y , y b g p .

T 1990 w gv pp gz p pg (S2010, 201). T , pp g

ad s ss. I aucd ca aws Mac8, 2010, jus sv s b c k pac(Su 2010, 27-28). By Nvb, w cs wd, y-sv pas w gsd cp, wud a ub 1990 c (Su 201030). T sa-backd U ad Sday DvpPay (USDP) ad a py sucs, wc ad pg px gz16 T g pp ppv bb SPDC b (H 2008, 1046).


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SPDC, U Sdy d DvA (USDA). Mv, 2008 Cvd qu y y, E C, v b ay, spuad a ay cuy svg a pssc cud pacpa cs, us ba-g NLD Ag S S K (BBC 2010). A

su, ay ps w ccupy 110 440 sas Lw Hus (Pyithu Hluttaw) ad 56 224 sas Naa Hus (Amyotha Hluttaw). T USDP w g p v (Hv 2011).T paa scd P Ms adG T S B w P.17

T g pv 2010 g w ud w dd v d uu d -v a a SLORC ad ppad u up 1990

cs. W 2010 cs dw sap ccs w , g pp g w B gv p p- p g . T N DF (NDF) p NLD w w y y Dw Suu Ky dd y . T yd d y w v u add s d ppus pps c- pgg.18

The Elections Revisited: A Comparison of1990 and 2010T v w 1990d 2010 : y, wd upg w b p. I 1988 sud-d dsas, SLORC pd 440d, u uwd 3,000 (Sbg 2010, 79).19 Mv, b w gazd by ay, wc xcsd vayg

17 T S b P M B Ob 2007, j USDP

w gv. T S g w p wg . H v p w V P Ag M O, w pw b g (A 2011).18 T NDF w x w p (Hg,2010).19 T 1987-88 p w wp p-. W 2007 S Rv v g , w Rg p .

dgs c v pcss. Fay, b gd dcads pcdg auaa u ad wak ccd s c b gups.20

T a sgca dscs daw bw w , wv, w g SPDCp g 2010 g w 1990 c a dc avab w p-

. D d SLORC v- pp 1988 p-g, 1990 cs d swa a bak sa p wg p w cay spd u SLORCs aucs bw1988 d 1990.21 T uy d d w SLORC udswd a ack gu ds ad awd p w w p pw NLD, w g NLD p bz

pp g p g.A scd dsc bw 1990 ad 2010 c-s was a 2008 csu gvd a,w sud av d a w csua 1974 . S w w , w election, constitution,d transer o political power wud wg:

1990: election, SLORC constitution

b w b transfer of

political power, d d u bgg 1993 ;

2010: 2008 constitution, 2010 election, u w zd u u a transfer of power paaay gv22

Aga, csua du pcdg 2010

20 I 1989, B g - w U W S A bg w gp.

I 2009 b , SPDC b gp j pp B G F (BGF) b (M 2009).21 SLORC j, w w g v pw , bw - p p, w vb ( 2007, 49).22 T w - b p p. S , B A-bg Bg, 66-69, g 1990.


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pv v b w g gad a ca pcss. T ua pcav b 2010 w g vg pg p .

I 1990, d d gz w w g- (S 2010, 201). T w

ppv p p bw 1989-1990( 1990, 66). I , 2009-2010 ECss gav vy pssb advaag sa-d U Sdy d Dv Py(USDP),23 USDP dv - w u d v y ud . A u, dy , ud du gv b, p ppgas ad ppua cas a cud da b p. S

ca auaas, s d baks dw w pp bv xp .R u y du u , p 2010 g p b g. , dv uwd vg b.

Why Do Authoritarian Regimes HoldElections?P d v du d d w uz - pw v b aud cs ac cas. Sa as agud a v v (S2010, 10). W p b, z b - (S 2010, 10). J d wu 2000 w -dd -PMK N p , b x-S. G.T Sw. T

wy v u u u - b w xv pugs 2004. Ev , su was ady saby,b p . O,

23 T USDP g g USDA, -p gz. Dp 2008 C- pb p v v gp p, E C,T S, g USDP w g w (Ag, 2010).

pg p.Ppp S g,

Rg g d , ud dg g [] g uca suggs as sucus,

.. p b w, g-ay paccd ad abuay accpd by s p- v pp/z/bj (S 1995, 7).

T g B - pp q g w 2010 pg.

W ass pss 1987-1988 ad bg abud , y w -

d dvd w y 2003-2004 bw w w gw vcs 1990 cs ad s w a pw w b g b. I w b - dy Bu zy d d wy dd d uvyd 2007 u. Tpss w wud u bad cda ,b w g w wg

. T y u y d g w .

F , SPDC -du My 2008 w x bq pw . T 2010 w b v pp b p p udcu ass bza by ay sgca cag USDP.

T gy cd 2010 cs xb-d d d

cac 1980s/1990s. Buas ay g ad skdd d u wdd u 1990 dcvd a csua cv cpsd by

v . A g,

T d u w d d d uu dw dpd sas d csu w


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y w y w d( 1997, 55).

T g us av udsd pac g p p g 2008 . T b p 2007 S- Rvu dcas a gas w wg

pw g b pg .

W K Nyus ac s u 2004, assc b a sgg k bw das g, , v gg pv , . A g vz y 1990/2000,pw bg z w g-g ccs bw ay ad cva s ww b g vpg y. A , y

v w g g w wg gg w g p w .Ts asc wk as gw cs p gv w p g v C T.

T w p gv - u , u uqucs w dub c 2010s pcd ad bud w pg. I

pw - p B w wvp xp z pb p gg.

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