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Chapter 8
Development
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Determining the Relative Influence
of Nature and Nurture Developmental psychology studies the patterns of
growth and change that occur throughout life.
The question is: How can we distinguish between theenvironmental causes of behavior (parents, siblings, family,
etc.) and hereditary causes (based on genetic make-up)?
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Determining the Relative Influence of
Nature and Nurture
Developmental psychologists agree that, in most instances,
environmental factors play a critical role in enabling people
to reach the potential capabilities that their genetic
background makes possible.
Nature refers to the hereditary factors and nurture
refers to the environmental factors. Developmental
psychologists today agree that both nature and nurture
interact to produce specific developmental patterns and
outcomes. Developmental psychologists typically take an
interactionist position, suggesting that a combination of
hereditary and environmental factors influence
development.McGraw-Hill 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 5
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Nature, Nurture, and Prenatal
Development (cont.)
Nature-nurture issue: the issue of the degree
to which environment (nurture) and heredity
(nature) influence behavior
No longer a question of nature versus nurture because
both factors interact to produce developmental
patterns and outcomes
Now we ask, how and to what degree do nature andnurture produce their effects?
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Developmental psychologists use several
approaches to discuss the nature-nurture
issue, or determine the relationship between
genetic and environmental factors on
behavior.
Nonhuman research
Study of identical twins
People raised in similar environments with
different genetic backgrounds.
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Determining the Relative Influence of
Nature and Nurture
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Experimentally control genetic makeup of
laboratory animals, then study environmental
influences
Identical twins (share 100% of their geneticmakeup) and non-twin siblings raised apart:
similarities as adults show importance of heredity
Adopted children: similarities with biologicalchildren in same family show importance of
environment
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Developmental Research Techniques
Cross-sectional research: comparing people of
different ages at the same point in time
Longitudinal research: studying the same people as
they age Sequential research: combination of cross-sectional
and longitudinal; considers different age groups,
examined at several points in time
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2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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For Women..
At birth, a girl have 2 million immature ova
Follicle: Small sac in the ovary containing the immature ovum.
Ovulation: The rupture of a mature follicle and expulsion of
the ovum occurs about once every 28 days until
menopause.
Cilia: Tiny hair cells in the fallopian tubes that sweep the
ovum along.
2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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For Men..
Sperm is produced in testicles (testes) in the
form of semen and release in sexual climax
called ejaculation.
Deposited in the vagina and try to swim
through the cervix - the opening of the uterus
and into the fallopian tube.
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Prenatal Development: Conception to
Birth Basics of genetics
Chromosomes: rod-shaped structures that contain all basichereditary information; 23 pairs, one chromosome of each pairfrom the mother and one from the father
Each chromosome contains genessmaller units, through which
genetic information is transmitted. Some genes control the development of systems common to all
humans.
Some genes are also responsible for a wide variety of personalcharacteristics.
Zygote: the new cell formed by the union of an egg and
sperm
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Prenatal Development: Conception to
Birth (cont.)
Embryo: a developed zygote that has a heart, a
brain, and other organs (2 weeks after
conception)
Embryonic stage
Fetus: a developing individual, from eight
weeks after conception until birth
Fetal Stage
Age of viability: the point at which a fetus can
survive if born prematurely (about 22 weeks)McGraw-Hill 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18
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Embryonic Stage
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1 week 7 weeks
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Fetal Stage
3 months
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4 months
5 months 6 months
3 months
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7 months
2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
8 months
9 months
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Prenatal Development: Conception to
Birth (cont.)
Sensitive/critical periods: during prenataldevelopment, time when the fetus is particularlysusceptible to certain kinds of stimuli
At the end of38 weeks of pregnancy, a fetus willweigh around 7 pounds and typically be about 20inches in length.
Preterm infants, born before week 38 (8 to 8.5months), run a higher risk for illness, future
problems and even death. Infants born after 30(7.5 months) weeks have relatively goodprospects.
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Prenatal Development: Conception to
Birth (cont.)
In 2 to 5 percent of pregnancies, children are bornwith serious birth defects.
A major cause of birth defects is faulty genes orchromosomal difficulties. Three common geneticand chromosomal difficulties are:
Genetic influences on the fetus Phenylketonuria (PKU):child cannot produce enzyme needed
for normal development; causes intellectual disabilities
Sickle-cell anemia: causes abnormally shaped red blood cells Down syndrome: zygote receives extra chromosome at
moment of conception; one of the causes of mentalretardation
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2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Prenatal Development: Conception to
Birth (cont.)
Prenatal environmental influences
Teratogens: environmental agents (drugs, chemicals, etc.)
that produce a birth defect
Mothers nutrition
Mothers illness
Alcohol & nicotine use
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)/fetal alcohol effects (FAE)
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Infancy and Childhood
Learning Outcomes
Describe the major competencies of newborns
Explain the milestones of physical, social, and
cognitive development during childhood
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The Extraordinary Newborn
A newborn is known as a neonate.
While a baby doesnt look like the perfect
picture of a newborn right after birth, the
neonate makes a remarkable change duringthe first two weeks after birth, as it takes on
the more familiar appearance.
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The Extraordinary Newborn
Even more astounding are the capabilities the
neonate displays from the moment of birth.
These capabilities grow at an amazing rate
over the ensuing months.
Many of the reflexes that a neonate is born
with are critical to survival and unfold
naturally as part of an infants ongoing
maturation.
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The Extraordinary Newborn
Reflexes: automatic, involuntary responses to
incoming stimuli
Neonate born with rooting, sucking, gag, startle, &
Babinski reflexes
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Neonates are born with a number
ofreflexes:
Rooting reflex -turning the head towards
things that touch their cheeks.
Sucking reflex - sucking at things that touch
their lips.
Gag reflex - for clearing their throat.
Startle reflex - response to sudden noise.
Babinski reflex - the toes fan out when the
inside edge of the sole of the foot is stroked.
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The Extraordinary Newborn
Sensory development: neonates can follow movingobjects within their field of vision, show some depth
perception, discriminate facial expressions, recognize
their mothers voices at 3 days old, and recognize
different tastes and smells They raise their hands to block objects moving toward their
face.
By 2 days of age, infants can distinguish between their
native tongue and a foreign language.
They can discriminate different language sounds.
They discriminate between sweet and unsweetened tastes.
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The Growing Child: Infancy
Through Middle Childhood
From infancy into middle childhood and the
start of adolescence, children develop
physically, socially, and cognitively in
extraordinary ways.
Physical growth provides the most obvious
signs of development. The nature of a childs
early social development provides thefoundation for social relationships that will
last a lifetime.
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The Growing Child: Infancy
Through Middle Childhood (cont.) During infancy the most important form of social
development is attachmentthe positive emotional
bond that develops between a child and a particular
person. Developmental psychologists suggest that human
attachment grows through the responsiveness of
caregivers to the babys signals, such as crying.
The greater the responsiveness, the more likely it is thatthe child will become securely attached.
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The Growing Child: Infancy Through
Middle Childhood (cont.)
Attachment: positive emotional bond that
develops between a child and a particular
individual, usually a caregiver (Harlows
research with monkeys) Classified as secure, avoidant, ambivalent, or
disorganized-disoriented
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P h l i t h d i d f i tt h t
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Psychologists have devised a way of measuring attachment.
The Ainsworth strange situation consists of a sequence of
events involving a child and (typically) his or her mother.
Secure attachmentthe child explores independently, but
returns to mother occasionally. When the mother leaves the
child exhibits distress, but goes for her when she returns.
Avoidant attachmentthe child does not cry when the
mother leaves, but the child avoids her when she returns.
Ambivalent attachmentthe child displays anxiety before
separation, is upset when the mother leaves, but the child
shows ambivalent reactions to her return.
Disorganized-disorientated attachmentthe child shows
inconsistent, often contradictory behavior.
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As children grow, social interaction helps childreninterpret the meaning of others behavior and develop
the capacity to respond appropriately.
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Fathers Role
Fathers role: nature of
attachment is similar to
mothers, but type of
play/interaction may bedifferent (fathers engage
in more physical
activities, while mothers
are more verbal)
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Child care outside the home can be beneficial, especially for
children from disadvantaged homes, if it is a high-quality
program The effect of childcare outside the home depends on several
factors, but especially on the quality of the child care
provided.
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ik h f h i l
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Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial
Development
Eriksons theory ofpsychosocial development:change in our interactions and understanding of each
other and our knowledge and understanding of
ourselves as members of society; passing through
each stage necessitates resolution of a crisis or
conflict
Trust vs. mistrust (birth 1 ): develop trust if physical
and psychological needs are met Autonomy vs. shame-and-doubt (1 3): develop
autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged
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E ik Th f P h i l
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Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial
Development
Initiative vs. guilt (3 6): resolved positively if parents react
positively to childrens attempts at independence
Industry vs. inferiority (6 12): resolved positively if child
shows increased competency in social interactions and
academic skills
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Th G i Child I f
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The Growing Child: Infancy
Through Middle Childhood (cont.)
Erickson suggests that passage through each
of the stages necessitates the resolution of a
crisis or conflict. Although each crisis is never
resolved entirely life becomes increasinglycomplex as we grow older it has to be
resolved sufficiently to equip us to deal with
demands during the following stage ofdevelopment.
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Th G i Child I f
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The Growing Child: Infancy
Through Middle Childhood (cont.)
Cognitive development: the process by which
a childs understanding of the world changes
as a function of age and experience;
intellectual development
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The Growing Child: Infancy
Through Middle Childhood (cont.)
Some theorists have suggested that children
cannot understand certain ideas and concepts
until they reach a particular stage ofcognitive
development. In contrast to the theories of physical and social
development such as those of Erikson, theories of
cognitive development seek to explain the
quantitative and qualitative intellectual advances
that occur during development.
Piagets Theory of Cognitive
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Piagets Theory of Cognitive
Development
No theory of cognitive development has had
more impact than that of Swiss psychologist
Jean Piaget. Piaget (1970) suggested that
children around the world proceed through aseries of 4 stages in a fixed order.
He maintained that these stages differed not
only in the quantityof the informationacquired in each stage but in the quality of
knowledge and understanding as well.
Piagets Theory of Cognitive
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Piagets Theory of Cognitive
Development
He suggested that movement from one stage
to the next occurs when a child reaches an
appropriate level of maturation and is
exposed to relevant types of experiences.Without having such experiences, said Piaget,
children cant reach their highest level of
cognitive growth.
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)
Sensorimotor Stage birth to age 2
infants interact with and learn about their
environments by relating their sensory
experiences to their motor experiences
object permanence
develops over a period of 9 months
refers to the understanding that objects or eventscontinue to exist even if they can no longer be heard,
touched or seen
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)
Preoperational Stage
about age 2 to 7 years
children learn to use symbols, such as words or
mental images, to solve simple problems and to
think or talk about things that are not present
Conservation
refers to the fact that even though the shape of some
object or substance is changed, the total amount
remains the same
Egocentric thinking
refers to seeing and thinking of the world only from
your own viewpoint and having difficulty appreciating
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.) Concrete Stage
about age 7 to 11 years
children can perform a number of logical mental
operations on concrete objects (physically
present) Conservation
children gradually master the concept of conservation
during the concrete operations stage
Classification
ability to classify items by color and size for example
children still have difficulty figuring out relationships
among objects that are not present or imaginary
situations
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)
Formal Operations Stage about age 12 to adulthood
adolescents and adults develop the ability to
think about and solve abstract problems in a
logical manner
adolescents develop thinking and reasoning
typical of adults
ability to think in a logical, systematic, andabstract way is one of the major characteristics
of the formal operations stage
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The Growing Child: Infancy Through
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Many psychologists believe changes in
information processing (the way in which
people take in, use, and store information) are
how children develop their cognitive abilities Metacognition: an awareness and understanding
of ones own cognitive processes
The Growing Child: Infancy Through
Middle Childhood (cont.)
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The Growing Child: Infancy Through
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The Growing Child: Infancy Through
Middle Childhood (cont.)
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Vygotskys view of cognitive development
Culture in which we are raised significantly affects
cognitive development
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the level atwhich a child can almost, but not fully,
comprehend or perform a task on his or her own;
if information falls within the ZPD, children can
master it
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Adolescence: Becoming an Adult
Learning Outcomes
Summarize the major physical transitions that
characterize adolescence
Explain moral and cognitive development inadolescents
Discuss social development in adolescents
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Adolescence
Adolescence: the developmental stage between
childhood and adulthood.
The physical changes that occur at the start of
adolescence result largely from the secretions of various
hormones, and they affect virtually every aspect of anadolescents life.
Not since infancy has development been so dramatic.
Weight and height increase rapidly because of a growth
spurt that typically begins around age 10 for girls and age12 for boys.
Adolescents may grow as much as 5 inches in one year.
Physical Development: The Changing
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Physical Development: The Changing
Adolescent
Puberty: the period at which maturation of the
sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age
11 or 12 for girls (start of menstruation) and 13
or 14 for boys (spermarche: first ejaculation)
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Physical Development: The
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Physical Development: The
Changing Adolescent In Western cultures, the average age at which
adolescents reach sexual maturity has been steadily
decreasing over the last century, most likely because
of improved nutrition and medical care.
Sexual attraction to others begins even before the
maturation of the sexual organs, at around age 10.
Just as important as the physical changes, however,
are the psychological and social changes that unfoldduring adolescence.
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The physical changes of adolescence are
important, but there are psychological and
social changes going on during adolescence.
According to Lawrence Kohlberg, people passthrough a series ofstages in the evolution of
their sense of justice and in the kind of
reasoning they use to make moral judgments.
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Levels of Morality
Preconventional moralitythe concrete
interests of the individual are considered in
terms of rewards and punishments.
Conventional moralitypeople approachmoral problems as members of society. They
are interested in pleasing others.
Postconventional moralitypeople use moralprinciples which are seen as broader than
those of any particular society.
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COGNITIVE & EMOTIONAL
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COGNITIVE & EMOTIONAL
CHANGES (CONT.)
Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning Three levels of moral reasoning
1.Self-Interest: Preconventional level
lowest level of moral reasoning
stage 1, moral decisions are based primarily on fear of
punishment or the need to be obedient
stage 2, moral reasoning is guided most by satisfying ones
self-interest
may involve bargaining
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Example
Stage 1
Dont steal the drug because youll be caught and
go to jail.
Stage 2 You can steal the drug and save your best friend,
but in return youll have to give up some freedom
by going to jail.
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COGNITIVE & EMOTIONAL
CHANGES (CONT.)
Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning Three levels of moral reasoning
2.Social approval: Conventional level
represents an intermediate level of moral reasoning
stage 3, moral decisions are guided most by conforming to the
standards of others we value
stage 4, moral reasoning is determined most by conforming to
laws and society
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COGNITIVE & EMOTIONAL
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COGNITIVE & EMOTIONAL
CHANGES (CONT.)
Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning Three levels of moral reasoning
3.Abstract ideas: Postconventional level
stage 5, moral decisions are made after carefully
thinking about all the alternatives and striking a
balance between human rights and laws of society
Ex. One should steal the drug because life if important than
money.
stage 6, has been omitted because few people havereached it
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p. 413
Social Development: Finding Oneself in
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Social evelopment: Finding Oneself in
a Social World
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Eriksons theory of psychosocial development: thelast four stages
Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): a time of
major testing to determine ones unique qualities; an
attempt to discover their identity (who each of us is,
what our roles are, and what we are capable of)
Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood): resolved
positively if the person develops intimaterelationships on physical, intellectual, and emotional
levels
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p g
a Social World (cont.)
Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood):taking stock of ones contributions to family andsociety; resolved successfully if the person feelspositive about the continuity of life
Ego-integrity vs. despair (later adulthood until death):reviewing lifes accomplishments and failures;resolved successfully if one feels a sense ofaccomplishment and has no regrets
Most young people go through adolescencewithout the stereotypical turmoil
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Social Development: Finding Oneself in
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a Social World (cont.)
Suicide is the third-leading cause of death foradolescents in the U.S.
Males are five times more likely to commit suicide
than females, but females attempt suicide moreoften
Rate higher among whites than nonwhites
Possible causes: depression, social anxiety, family
background, adjustment difficulties, parental
conflict, alcohol and drug abuse
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Ad lth d
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Adulthood
Learning Outcomes Explain physical development in adulthood
Discuss social development in adulthood
State the impact of marriage, children, and divorce on families
Discuss the later years of adulthood
Explain the physical changes that occur in late adulthood
Identify the cognitive changes that occur in late adulthood
Discuss the social aspects of late adulthood
Describe how people can adjust to death
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Physical Development: The Peak of
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y p
Health For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of
physical health. From about 18 25 years of age,
peoples strength is greatest, their reflexes are
quicker, and their chances of dying from disease are
quite slim. In addition, reproductive capabilities are
at their highest level.
During middle adulthood, people gradually become
aware of changes in their bodies. People oftenexperience weight gain, the sense organs become
less sensitive, and reactions to stimuli are slower.
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The major biological change that occurs in middleadulthood pertains to reproductive capabilities. On
average, during their late 40s or early 50s, women
begin menopause, during which they stop
menstruating and are no longer fertile.
For men, the aging process during middle adulthood
is somewhat more subtle. No male menopause exists
and in fact, men remain fertile and are capable offathering children until well into late adulthood.
Physical Development: The Peak of
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y p
Health
Menopause: usually occurring in late 40s orearly 50s, the period during which women
stop menstruating and are no longer fertile
Symptoms can be treated through hormonetherapy (HT), replacing estrogen and
progesterone, but it can be dangerous: increased
risk of breast cancer, blood clots, and coronary
heart disease
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Social Development: Working at
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p g
Life
Many people find their forties and fifties arewarding period where they can focus on the
present and their families.
During the last stages of adulthood, peoplebecome more accepting of others and become
less concerned about issues or problems that
once bothered them.
People accept the fact that death is inevitable
and try to understand their accomplishments in
the broader meaning of life.
Marriage, Children, and Divorce:
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g
Family Ties
In the typical fairy tale, a dashing young man and a beautifulyoung woman marry, have children, and live happily ever
after.
In the twenty-first century, however, things are very different.
Households made up of unmarried couples have increasedover the last two decades.
The risk of divorce is high, especially for younger couples.
Almost 25% of households are now single parent households.
For children in minority households, the single parentpercentage increases.
In most single parent households, children reside with the
mother.
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One of the major changes in family life in thelast two decades has been the evolution of
men/ and womens roles.
More women are acting in multiple roles: mother,wage earner, wife.
Almost 75% of married women with school-age
children are employed outside the home.
The Later Years of Life: Growing Old
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The Later Years of Life: Growing Old
Gerontology: the study of olderadults & aging
Gerontologists focus on the
period of life that starts around
age 65. They are makingimportant contributions to
clarifying the capabilities of older
adults. Their work is
demonstrating that significantdevelopmental processes
continue even during old age.
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Physical Changes in Late
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Adulthood: The Aging Body Many physical changes are brought about by the
aging process. The most obvious are those in
appearance: hair thinning and turning grey; skin
wrinkling and folding, and sometimes a slight loss of
height as the spine grows more fragile.
More subtle changes also occur in the bodys
biological functioning. For example, sensory
capabilities decrease as a result of aging: vision,hearing, smell, and taste become less sensitive.
Reaction time slows, and physical stamina changes.
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Cognitive Changes: Thinking About
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and During Late Adulthood In the past, many gerontologists would have agreed
that older adults are forgetful and confused.
Because of more sophisticated research techniques,
however, we now know that this belief is inaccurate.
There are some declines in intellectual functioning in
later adulthood, although the pattern of age
differences is not uniform for different types of
cognitive abilities.
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The Social World of Late
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Adulthood: Old but Not Alone
Late adulthood brings significant challenges.People whove spent their adult lives working
enter retirement. Many people must face the
death of their spouse. There are also significantchanges in economic well-being.
There is no single way to age successfully. People
in late adulthood are not just marking time until
death. Rather, old age is a time of continuedgrowth and development, as important as any
other period in life.
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Adjusting to Death
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Adjusting to Death
Elisabeth Kubler-Rosss five stages of dealingwith ones own impending death
Denial: resist the idea they are dying
Anger: angry at people in good health around them, at
medical professionals, at God
Bargaining: trying to postpone death
Depression: bargaining will not work; preparatory grief
for their own death
Acceptance: made peace with themselves; usually
unemotional and uncommunicative