Feasibility of Land Reclamation using Construction Wastes ...fishing port and its area was estimated...
Transcript of Feasibility of Land Reclamation using Construction Wastes ...fishing port and its area was estimated...
Feasibility of Land Reclamation using
Construction Wastes in Gaza
استخدام ركام المباني في طمر مساحات من المياه داخل جدوى البحر في غزة
Hassan Nezam Ziara
Supervised by
Dr. Mazen Taha Abualtayef
Associate Professor in Civil/Environmental Engineering
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Civil Engineering – Infrastructure
November, 2016
زةــغ – تــلاميــــــت الإســـــــــبمعـالج
شئىن البحث العلمي والدراسبث العليب
قسم الهندست المدنيت – الهندستت ليــــــك
هندست بنيت تحتيتمبجستير
The Islamic University–Gaza
Research and Postgraduate Affairs
Faculty of Engineering
Master of Infrastructure Program
إقــــــــــــــرار
أنا الموقع أدناه مقدم الرسالة التي تحمل العنوان:
Feasibility of Land Reclamation using
Construction Wastes in Gaza
جذوى استخذام ركام المباني في طمر مساحات من المياه داخل
البحر في غزة
أقر بأن ما اشتممت عميو ىذه الرسالة إنما ىو نتاج جيدي الخاص، باستثناء ما تمت الإشارة إليو حيثما ورد، وأن ىذه الرسالة ككل أو أي جزء منيا لم يقدم من قبل الآخرين لنيل درجة أو
أو بحثية أخرى. وأن حقوق النشر محفوظة لقب عممي أو بحثي لدى أي مؤسسة تعميمية فمسطين- مجامعة الإسلامية غزةل
Declaration
I hereby certify that this submission is the result of my own work, except
where otherwise acknowledged, and that this thesis (or any part of it)
has not been submitted for a higher degree or quantification to any other
university or institution. All copyrights are reserves toIslamic University
– Gaza strip paiestine
:Student's name زيارةحسن نظام اسم الطالب:
زيارةحسن نظام التوقيع: Signature:
:Date 21/01/2017 التاريخ:
I
Abstract
The world experience rapidly growing in population density and lack of areas
especially coastal areas which is considered the most vital, economic and cultural areas
around the world. This force the experts investigating different suggestions such as sea
reclamation and its exploitation for many goals.
Gaza Strip is considered one of the most densely area in the world. Where the
population is nearly 2 million inhabitants by 2016 while the area is 365 km2. This
reflects on the availability of lands in the future that will raise the lands prices.
Moreover, the existing fishing harbor constructed in 1994 – 1998 period has locally
disturbed the coastal erosion and sedimentation pattern and resulting in sand erosion
problems. On the other hand, two million ton of debris have been accumulated in the
last aggression on Gaza Strip in 2014. This massive volume of concrete rubble is
considered huge burden on the landfills in the Gaza Strip which are already
overloaded. In this study, an investigation of the best way to dispose these debris by
land reclamation in Gaza Strip.
The aim of this study is to suggest solutions of the existing Gaza fishing harbor
problems and to present the possibility of using construction wastes in land
reclamation in Gaza.
In this study, it is proposed to relocate the construction features of the Gaza fishing
port for better sediment transport and hydraulic conditions. So the study methodology
started with estimation the construction waste quantity resulted from 2014 aggression,
then ensuring its testing results, specifications and possibility of using it in land
reclamation. Also, the existing Gaza fishing port sediment transportation and features
were studied and its bathymetry was identified. Based on that, the new proposed
reclaimed area was identified in west of the existing western breakwater at Gaza
fishing port and its area was estimated according to estimation the quantity of debris
resulted from removing the existing breakwaters in addition to construction wastes
resulted from 2014 aggression. The total estimated quantity of available debris is about
one million m3 which adequate to reclaim about 114.25 dunums. However, the new
reclaimed area should be surrounded by sheet piles, so the sheet pile type is assumed
to be PZC 28 and finally the total cost of the proposed reclaimed area was estimated
as 130$US of one square meter of reclaimed area. Finally, to facilitate transportation
and movement through this reclaimed area, the bridge is recommended to construct.
Based on this result, the cost of sea reclamation is very feasible especially that Gaza
fishery seaport is very vital and important place which will be as a fishery port for
recreational activities.
II
ملخص البحث
ث تعتبر بحي ،الساحلية على وجه الخصوصالأراضي في ومحدودية يشهد العالم نمو متسارع في التعداد السكاني
واق الأكثر حيوية سياحيا عدة بحث عن الخبراء الى ال دفع وهذابالإضافة الى كونها مظهرا حضاريا. ،تصاديا
طمر مساحات داخل البحار واستغلالها لأهداف عديدة. حلول من بينها
أراضي جديدة العالم بدأ التفكير في خلق مساحات حولفي قطاع غزة والتي تعتبر من أكثر المناطق كثافة سكانية
-1994ا بين موبما أن انشاء ميناء الصيادين في البحر وخصوصا أن المناطق الساحلية محدودة وعالية التكلفة.
رب نتجت من الح م المباني ركامليون طن من 2وإن حوالي ،الشاطئ انحسارقد تسبب بغزة م بمدينة 1998
لنفايات في سعة مكبات اتشكل عبئا على هائلة من النفايات . هذه الكمية ال2014الأخيرة على قطاع غزة في عام
ات في طمر هذه الكميستغال في هذه الدراسة تم اقتراح أفضل الطرق لات سعتها فعليا. لذا التي انتهقطاع غزة
مساحة من البحر.
ل ركام ودراسة جدوى استغلا ،ي اقتراح حلول لحل مشكلة ميناء الصيادين الحاليتكمن أهمية هذه الدراسة ف
نمليون ط 2 تي تقدر بوال 2014المباني التي تم تدميرها في العدوان الاسرائيلي على قطاع غزة عام .تقريبا
لرواسب. لتحسين حركة اعمل تغييرات على ميناء الصيادين الحالي في مدينة غزة في هذه الدراسة تم اقتراح
لتأكد من اعلى قطاع غزة ومن ثم 2014حيث تم اتباع منهجية بدأت بتقدير كمية ركام المباني الناتج عن حرب
سبقا. من صلاحيتها وامكانية استخدامها في ردم البحر وذلك بناءا على دراسة فحوصات ونتائج أجريت عليها م
له. ن الحالي وحركة الرواسب فيه وتحديد المناسيب والأعماقجهة أخرى تمت دراسة خصائص ميناء الصيادي
ن ثم تم تقدير وبناء عليه تم تحديد المنطقة المقترح طمرها وهي المنطقة الواقعة غرب كاسر الأمواج الغربي، وم
الحالية بعض كواسر الأمواجازالة مساحة المنطقة المقترح ردمها من خلال تقدير كميات الردم الناتجة عن
تي تكفي والتي قدرت محصلتها بمليون متر مكعب وال 2014بالإضافة الى كمية ركام المباني الناتجة عن حرب
ض نوع بي تم افترا يجب إحاطة المنطقة المقترح ردمها بجدران استناديةوبما انه دونم. 114.25 مساحة لطمر
وأخيرا مربع. مريكي للمتر الدولار أ 130والي الكلية وكانت حبالنهاية تم حساب تكلفة الردم لها . 28زيد سي
مقترح. بما يتناسب مع هذا البحث ال لتسهيل حركة العربات الناقلة للردم تم التوصية بتصميم وتركيب جسر
بر منطقة حيوية تكلفة الردم تعتبر مجدية خصوصا ان منطقة ميناء الصيادين في غزة تعت انبناءا على هذه النتائج
.استغلالها فيما بعد لانشاء ميناء وأماكن ترفيهيةويمكن
III
منبه ( كلوابر لأ حب ر ٱلب ي سخذ م وهو ٱلذ ا ا طري لب
منبه حلبية رجوا تخب وت وتسب رى ٱلبفلبك مواخر تلببسونهالهۦ ) كرون ولعلذكمب تشب فيه ولببتغوا من فضب
[ 14النحل: ]
IV
Dedication
I am dedicating this thesis to beloved people who have meant and continue to mean
so much to me.
First and foremost, to my mother for her continuous sacrifices, prays and big love.
Next, to my wife for her love, trust and great effort of create happiness and real life
for our small family.
I also want to dedicate this to my lovely and naughty son (Qusay) who is completed 9
months during writing this page.
Also, I am dedicating this to my father, my brother and my little sister Yasmeen for
their support and happy moments shared with them.
Last but not least I am dedicating this to my friend (Hasan) for his support and sincerity
in addition to my closely friend (Ali) who I always miss.
V
Acknowledgement
First and above all, I praise God, the almighty for providing me this opportunity and
granting me the capability to proceed successfully. This thesis appears in its current
form due to the assistance and guidance of several people. I would therefore like to
offer my sincere thanks to all of them.
I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor (Dr. Mazen Abualtayef)
for his encouragement, fruitful assistance and vision which inspired me in
accomplishing this research. He hasn’t hesitated helping me whenever I need his
experience and support.
I would like to express my grateful appreciation and thanks to everyone who gave me
support to complete this research. Especially Eng.Emran Elkharouby, Eng Hasan
Alnajjar and Eng.Hasan Shehada. This gratitude is for their generosity and kindness to
provide me with their time and all the necessary information and discussions which
helped me a lot in achieving this work.
My appreciation is also extended to the (IUG) for giving me the opportunity to carry
out this study. Furthermore, great thanks are also to my colleagues and lecturers in the
Engineering Faculty and the Civil Engineering Department in particular for their
continuous encouragement and support.
Also, I could not forget the role of my friends for their help, encouragement,
constructive and positive feedback.
Finally, I express my very profound gratitude to my parents and to my wife for
providing me with unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my
years of study and through the process of researching and writing this thesis. This
accomplishment would not have been possible without them. Thank you.
VI
Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... I
II .................................................................................................................... ملخص البحث
Dedication .................................................................................................................. IV
Acknowledgement ....................................................................................................... V
List of Tables ............................................................................................................. IX
List of Figures .............................................................................................................. X
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................. XI
Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 1
Background ......................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem .................................................................... 2
Research Objectives ............................................................................ 3
Research Significance ......................................................................... 4
Thesis Structure ................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2 Literature Review ......................................................................................... 5
Introduction ......................................................................................... 5
Alternatives and Properties of Land Reclamations Materials ............. 8
Financial and Environmental Benefits of construction waste ............. 9
Financial benefits ................................................................................ 9
Environmental benefits ..................................................................... 10
Impact on Marine Environment ........................................................ 11
Sheet Piles ......................................................................................... 11
Types of sheet pile walls ................................................................... 11
Sheet pile construction methods ....................................................... 13
Sheet pile basic categories ................................................................ 15
Case Study: Reclamation Project of Taparura- Tunisia .................... 18
Excavation of the phosphogypsum plate .......................................... 19
Under water excavation .................................................................... 19
Dry excavation and breakwaters construction .................................. 19
Deposit remodeling ........................................................................... 19
Works for the isolation of phosphogypsum deposit ......................... 20
Drainage system ................................................................................ 21
VII
Hydraulic fill ..................................................................................... 21
Construction works of drainage canal .............................................. 22
The environmental follow-up of the Taparura site ........................... 22
Chapter 3 Study Area .................................................................................................. 25
Introduction ....................................................................................... 25
Geology of Sea Bed .......................................................................... 27
Soil .................................................................................................... 29
Water Level and Tides ...................................................................... 29
Climate .............................................................................................. 30
Mean annual wave climate ............................................................... 30
Extreme wave climate ....................................................................... 30
Mean annual wind climate ................................................................ 31
Extreme wind climate ....................................................................... 31
Currents ............................................................................................. 31
Climatic characteristics ..................................................................... 32
Gaza Seaport ..................................................................................... 32
Sediment Transport and Shoreline Change ....................................... 34
Impacts of Gaza Fishery Seaport on sedimentation .......................... 40
Chapter 4 Materials and Methods ............................................................................... 50
Introduction ....................................................................................... 50
Site Bathymetry ................................................................................. 50
Materials and Quantities ................................................................... 51
Characteristics Analysis of Debris .................................................... 52
Sieve analysis .................................................................................... 52
Analysis of gradation ........................................................................ 53
The Study Methodology .................................................................... 55
Bridge Configuration ........................................................................ 56
Types of Bridges According to Superstructure System .................... 56
Chapter 5 Results and Discussion ............................................................................... 56
Introduction ....................................................................................... 56
Existing Breakwaters Quantity Estimation ....................................... 56
Estimation of the Proposed Reclaimed Area (Gaza Fishery Port) .... 59
VIII
Cost Estimation of Proposed Reclaimed Area .................................. 60
Proposed Reclamation Process ......................................................... 64
Chapter 6 Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................ 69
Conclusion......................................................................................... 69
Recommendations ............................................................................. 69
References ................................................................................................................... 71
IX
List of Tables
Table (2.1): Allowable stress for steel sheet piles ..................................................... 12
Table (3.1): Astronomical measurements for tidal levels .......................................... 29
Table (3.2): Return periods wave height over 100 years ........................................... 31
Table (3.3): Winds speed return periods .................................................................... 31
Table (3.4): Environmental impact of various mitigation alternatives ...................... 35
Table (3.5): Accretion analysis for the study area ..................................................... 38
Table (4.1): The bathymetry features of the Gaza fishing port ................................. 51
Table (4.2): Detailed quantity of generated rubble .................................................... 52
Table (4.3): Physical properties of concrete aggregate fraction ................................ 53
Table (4.4): Course and fine aggregate contents ....................................................... 53
Table (4.5): Test results of essential characteristics of concrete rubble .................... 54
Table (5.1): The main estimated results ..................................................................... 63
X
List of Figures
Figure (2.1): The influence of breakwater on living organisms with and without
breakwater on Kochi coast ................................................................................. 11
Figure (2.2): Example of waterfront sheet-pile wall .................................................. 12
Figure (2.3): A typical steel sheet pile ....................................................................... 13
Figure (2.4): Sequence of construction for a backfilled structure ............................. 14
Figure (2.5): Sequence of construction for a dredged structure ................................ 15
Figure (2.6): Cantilever sheet pile wall stress diagram ............................................. 16
Figure (2.7): Free earth support method .................................................................... 16
Figure (2.8): Fixed earth support method .................................................................. 17
Figure (2.9): Reclaimed Taparura project, Tunisia .................................................... 18
Figure (2.10): The concrete wall to isolated the phosphogypsum deposit ................ 20
Figure (3.1): Location of Gaza fishing port ............................................................... 26
Figure (3.2): Population growth in Gaza Strip .......................................................... 26
Figure (3.3): Seabed characteristics for Gaza coast ................................................... 28
Figure (3.4): Monthly sea level variations at Hadera GLOSS station no. 80 between
1992 and 2002 .................................................................................................... 30
Figure (3.5): Gaza fishing harbor .............................................................................. 33
Figure (3.6): Gaza shoreline change from 1972 to 2010 ........................................... 37
Figure (3.7): North to Gaza fishery port: a) dunes and mitigation measures such as b)
revetments, c) gabions and d) groins ................................................................. 39
Figure (3.8): Marine structures along Gaza coast: a) Two groins built in 1972, b) Nine
detached breakwaters built in 1978 (Zviely and Klein, 2003), and c) Gaza fishing
harbor built in 1994~1998 ................................................................................. 41
Figure (3.9): Offshore fishing harbor model test: a)Wave heights b)Currents
c)Bathymetry before modelling d) Bathymetry after one year modelling ......... 42
Figure (4.1): The bathymetric features of the Gaza fishing port ............................... 51
Figure (4.2): The proposed reclaimed area ................................................................ 56
Figure (4.3): Types of bridges: a) A typical rolled-beam bridge, b) Slab bridge, c)
Reinforced concrete T-beams bridge ................................................................. 58
Figure (5.1): The existing Gaza fishing harbor .......................................................... 56
Figure ( 5.2): Illustration of the existing Gaza fishing harbor dimensions ................ 57
Figure (5.3): Dimensions and the depth of Breakwater (a) ....................................... 58
Figure (5.4): Breakwater (b) dimensions ................................................................... 58
Figure (5.5): Breakwater (c) dimensions ................................................................... 59
Figure )5.6): Dimensions of proposed reclaimed area ............................................... 60
Figure )5.7): The proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28) ............................................ 61
Figure )5.8): The characteristics of the proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28) ......... 62
Figure (5.9): The real shape of the proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28) ................ 62
Figure (5.10): Illustration of the proposed reclaimed area location and method ....... 64
Figure (5.11): Installation of sheet piles .................................................................... 64
Figure (5.12): The trucks movement during reclamation process ............................. 65
Figure (5.13): Reclamation activities ......................................................................... 65
Figure (5.14): The general view of proposed reclamation and bridge installation .... 66
XI
List of Abbreviations
AEL Association of Engineers Laboratory
CBD Biodiversity Convention
CDW Construction and Demolition Wastes
GCT Tunisian Chemical Group
HDPE High-Density Polyethylene
IUL Islamic University Laboratory
MEPA Malta Environment & Planning Authority
PCBS Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics
RCR Recycled Concrete Rubble
UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
UNOSAT United Nations Operational Satellite
UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency
UXOs Unexploded explosive Ordnance
WFP World Food Program
Chapter 1
Introduction
1
Chapter 1 Introduction
Background
More than one-third of the world’s population resides in coastal areas, which account
for just 4% of Earth’s total land area. Coastal population densities are nearly three
times that of inland areas and are increasing exponentially. Coastal human settlements
usually exploit their position by reclaiming tidal and shallow sea areas through land
reclamation. This phenomenon can be observed in many coastal countries and cities,
such as Korea, Japan, Singapore, the Netherlands, Hong Kong and Macau (Feng et al.,
2014).
Reclamation in coastal zones is effective for relieving population pressure and
ensuring food safety. Since the 1950s, the development of coastal zones has entered a
peak period. At present, the reclamation of coastal zones mainly occurs in developing
countries. The coastal reclaimed lands are mainly used for agricultural production,
urban and industrial development, and port construction (Li et al., 2014).
Land reclamation is a process to create new land from the sea which can be achieved
with a number of different methods. The simplest method involves simply filling the
area with large amounts of heavy rock and/or cement, then filling with clay and dirt
until the desired height is reached (Nadzir et al., 2014).
As coastal area is a very sensitive area, any development needs to be highly evaluated
for its possible disturbances. It is because the coastal reclamation comes with its
adverse impacts to the land. Hazard in the coastal area found through erosion activity
and also caused by environmental change and human actions. If ecosystem
undermined, the ability of the coastal areas to adapt and regenerate would erode
(Nadzir et al., 2014).
The conversion of sea to land permanently changes the natural characteristics of the
ocean and coastal environment and cause considerable damage to the marine
ecosystems upon which human-kind depends. The impacts of reclamation not only
limited to the area where damped/dredged and reclaimed occurred, but impacts felt
over a larger area where siltation or change in current happened (Azwar et al., 2013).
This research investigates in focus the feasibility of sea reclamation practices in the
Gaza Strip where due to the lack of lands for several activities pushes the decision
makers toward sea reclamation. Actually, Gaza Strip is considered as one of the highly
populated density area around the world, where the population is nearly 2 million
inhabitants by 2016 while the area is 365 km2 (PCBS, 2016). The implementation of
2
such reclamation projects can be considered as an urgent to Gaza Strip, for a number
of reasons. The main of these reasons are the increasing in population growth, the
economic recession and lack of areas.
Indeed, the coast of Gaza was affected by man-made structures prior to the
construction of fishing harbor. In the early 1970s two groins, 120 m long each 500 m
apart were built in Gaza City (Zviely and Klein, 2003). In 1994, extended 500 m into
the sea, the construction of Gaza fishing harbor started in 1994 and completed in 1998.
The fishing harbor has locally disturbed the coastal erosion and sedimentation pattern
and resulting in sand erosion problems. Furthermore, the building and roads adjacent
to the shoreline are facing a stability problem and it is expected to have a serious
erosion problem in the coming few years specially in the region of Beach camp that
locates to the north of the port`s site (Abualtayef et al., 2013).
As a counter-measure to this, the construction waste was deployed in the eroded area,
which works as a beach revetment, to mitigate the severe beach erosion and protecting
the hotels. UNRWA has constructed gabions along the Beach camp with a total length
of 1650 m to protect the main coastal road. Several short groins have been constructed
along the Beach camp for shoreline preservation. Actually, these mitigations are not
effective and hence significance measures should be undertaken to protect the beaches
against coastal processes due to the fishing harbor (Abualtayef et al., 2013).
Statement of the Problem
Gaza Strip is considered one of the most densely area in the world. This reflects on the
availability of lands in the future that will raise the lands prices. Moreover, the fishing
harbor has locally disturbed the coastal erosion and sedimentation pattern, resulting in
local coastal sand erosion problems. Buildings and roads that have been constructed
close to the shoreline are already faced stability problems and other related negative
impacts. It is expected to have serious erosion problems in the coming years.
Generally, deposits are in balance with erosion, however changing the shape of the
present coastal line by building barriers, wave breakers and sea ports can prevent the
movement of sand and therefore cause beach erosion. Recently after the construction
of the fishing harbor, the need to protect the coastal zone of Gaza is increased.
On the other hand, due to the three aggressive invasions that occur in Gaza Strip in
2008, 2012, and 2014, about two million ton of debris have been accumulated in the
lands from damaged buildings and facilities. However, the last war on the Gaza Strip
was one of various rationales that played big role in deteriorating infrastructure
conditions in the Strip. The ten-year closure had already left most of infrastructure
facilities inadequate to function. Hence, people are not able to exercise many of their
3
most basic rights and severely reduced their access to services, amidst collapsing
infrastructure and acute shortages of power, water, shelter, food and medical services.
In particular, municipal services, especially solid waste and solid waste treatment, had
to be curtailed, leading to the accumulation of hundreds of tons of rubbish on the streets
each day. Restrictions on the imports of essential consumables (diesel and spare parts)
and other materials also reduced the efficiency of the operation of sanitary landfills
and garbage collection trucks. (UNDP, 2014).
To overcome solid waste storage problem, Municipality of Rafah was the first who
carried out crushing activities in relatively large quantities. Funded by Italian
Government, the municipality was supplied by a small scale crusher capacity of 70
tons per hour and started crushing of concrete rubble generated in the south of the Gaza
Strip. The produced crushed material was used by the municipality in agricultural
roads. Later on a small quantity was used by UNRWA in some roads in Tal El Sultan
area in Rafah. The next large scale crushing of concrete rubble was followed by UNDP
after disengagement of Israeli occupation from Gaza ex-settlements. In 2006, UNDP
was assigned by quartet to remove and crush more than 700,000 tons of mixed concrete
rubble from Gaza ex-settlements. Nearly 400,000 tons of this rubble was removed in
very good and clean conditions (UNDP, 2014).
In general, two million tons of construction waste that was generated from the last war
on Gaza. One of these problems is how and where to dispose this massive volume of
concrete rubble taking into consideration that almost all available landfills in the Gaza
Strip are already overloaded. The Palestinians ministries proposed many ideas to
effective disposal for these debris. In this study, an investigation of the best way to
dispose these debris by land reclamation in Gaza Strip especially that the huge need to
mitigate the problem of the existing Gaza fishing port.
Research Objectives
The aim of this study is to present the feasibility of using construction wastes in land
reclamation in Gaza in order to achieve the following objectives:
To relocate the construction features of the Gaza fishing port, for better
sediment transport and hydraulic conditions.
To provide enough areas for recreational activities.
To highlight the possibility of using the construction wastes materials that
resulted from destroyed buildings in land reclamation.
Mitigate the erosion/accretion problems in the areas locate in the vicinity of the
sea port.
4
Research Significance
This study provides a significantly addition to research library, where the study gives
the officials good indicators on the possibility of implementation the reclamation
projects and to solve the problems of Gaza fishing port.
Thesis Structure
Chapter One / Introduction: this chapter contains a general overview about the trend
of land reclamation around the world as an option to increase the land use in response
to the increasing in urbanization. In this regard, this chapter provides overview about
the needed for land reclamation in Gaza Strip.
Chapter Two / Literature Review: this chapter provides in some details literatures
about land reclamation process, environmental impact, filling materials, etc.
Chapter Three / Study Area: this chapter contains port’s site, bathometry,
environment.
Chapter Four / Materials and Methods: this chapter contains data collection, site
description, materials quantities, basic design port, and etc.
Chapter Five / Results and Discussion: this chapter contains the main outputs of this
study of reclamation and its process.
Chapter Six/ Conclusion and Recommendations: this chapter provides
recommendations about fishing port reclamation.
Chapter 2
Literature Review
5
Chapter 2 Literature Review
This chapter describes many of countries experience in reclamation projects and the
trials of reusing of construction waste in land reclamation and its financial and
environmental impacts. Also, the main international legal instrument addressing
coastal and marine resources in addition to dumping waste in sea are shown. Moreover,
the Taparura case study is detailed and discussed in this chapter.
Introduction
Coastal erosion is an ongoing hazard affecting Gaza beach, but is worsening due to a
wide range of human activities such as the construction of Gaza fishing harbor in 1994-
1998. The net annual alongshore sediment transport is about 190×103 m3, but can vary
significantly depending on the severity of winter storms (Abualtayef et al., 2013).
In recent years, many countries (including China, Japan and others) have tried to
overcome land-based bottlenecks with the design and construction of new offshore
lands (Yan et al, 2013). In Singapore a small project in 1963 to reclaim 19 ha of land
at 14 km east coast road, the east coast reclamation scheme was launched in April
1966. The whole scheme carried out in seven phases and until end of 1986, 1525 ha
has been reclaimed at a cost of $613 million. That’s means about 40$/m2. Phase VII,
which involved the reclamation of 360 ha of land had been completed in 1986 and
added about 1000 m of shoreline (Lin Sien, 1988).
In Netherlands a reclamation project for 2000 ha was taken place between 2008 and
2014 to establish Rotterdam Port, which is estimated to require nearly 400 Mm3 of
sand (Wikipedia, 2015).
Recently, in the United Arab Emirates, the Palm Island in Dubai is considered as one
of the most attractive reclamation project in the world. The artificial palm island is a
series of three artificial islands. The design of each of the three islands, Palm Jumeirah,
Palm Jebel Ali, and Palm Deira, is in the shape of a palm tree with an encircling
crescent. The islands added approximately 520 km of beach area to the city of Dubai
(Kevin, 2011).
In Japan, after the Second World War, an increase in food production, to become self-
sufficient, had a high political priority. Some laws relating to reclamation and land
development, such as the guideline of urgent reclamation (1945) and the act for
comprehensive development of the national land (1950) were enacted. Most Japanese
principle larger reclamation projects were a result of these acts such as Kojimawan
(Okayama), Hachirogata (Akita), Kahokugata (Ishikawa), Isahayawan (Nagasaki),
6
Nakaumi-Shinjiko (Tottori and Shimane). The initiative was begun by the
government, as they had planned to develop in total about 100,000 ha of new lands
(Graaf and Hooimeijer, 2008).
In Gaza Strip, many researchers have investigated the feasibility of reusing
construction wastes in roads and construction fields. Rustom et al. (2007) investigated
the possibility of utilizing the recycled crushed aggregates of the construction and
demolition wastes (CDW) in engineering applications in Gaza Strip. The
characteristics of the crushed aggregates were determined and compared to
international standards. The reuse alternative is investigated in concrete mixes and
road construction throughout the testing program. Eight representative samples were
selected from different locations in Rafah and Khan Younis. In general, the test results
showed that the recycling of the CDW aggregates and its use in both concrete and road
sub-base give acceptable results. Most of the characteristic test results were within the
standard limits. The results of the tests that concern road applications were good and
verified the adequacy of materials. The results of the tests for concrete applications
were also desirable and proved that these materials, CDW, could be used in some
concrete applications.
Qreaq'a (2011) investigated the reuse of recycled aggregates of demolition building
debris as an asphalt binder. Under number of aggregate and bitumen tests to investigate
the applicability of using the recycled aggregates of demolition building debris as an
asphalt binder in road pavements. The results showed that it is possible to use the
recycled aggregates in preparing the asphalt binder course taking into account the need
to increase the bitumen content (about 0.4%) more than the asphalt binder course using
the conventional aggregates. However, the economic study in this research shows that
using the recycled aggregate is feasible and has less cost than using the conventional
one.
Also El Dada (2013) studied the possibility of using mixtures of reclaimed asphalt
pavement and demolition debris in pavement base layers. The properties of these
mixtures were tested. Results showed that some properties are improved with adding
reclaimed asphalt pavement as Los Angeles value, sand equivalent and absorption, but
other properties decreased specially California bearing ratio.
Beside that the possibility of using recycled aggregate concrete in the structural usages
in lieu or mixed with natural aggregates has been investigated by Zuhud and et al.
(2008). The experimental tests of physical properties, and mechanical properties
shown that the workability of recycled aggregate is lower than the workability of
natural aggregate concrete, the slump test increases as the percent of recycled
aggregate decreases. The compressive strength increases as the percent of recycle
aggregate in concrete mixes decreases. The concrete of recycled aggregate exactly
7
behaves as natural aggregate concrete in flexural tests and the flexural strength have
same percent of corresponding compressive strength.
The majority of reclamation projects carried out elsewhere are constructed on relative
shallow waters to facilitate construction works and keep costs at its lowest possible
level. This applies to cases such as the land reclamation in Holland, airport of Hong
Kong, reclamation in Shanghai and creation of islands in Malaysia. In deeper waters,
the use of land has been designated to very high value activities. E.g. the reclamation
at 30 m depth in Singapore expanding the container port, which represents an essential
cornerstone in the country economy (MEPA, 2005).
The main purpose of any land reclamation is to create high value land, the value of
which is above the construction cost. The value of the land is hence tied to the
subsequent activities to be placed on the land. The Maltese government has decided,
not to provide financial support to any land reclamation projects, but rather promote
private developers to initiate any such reclamation activities, based on economically
self-sustainable projects. The activities foreseen on the reclaimed land, are hence
required to create revenues that enable both land reclamation and the cost of
establishing the activities on the reclaimed land. The location of a land reclamation
project close to the shore is likely to cause environmental impact in coastal areas which
sustain ecologically sensitive benthic habitats. The impacts will most probably be
largest during the implementation of the land reclamation project, but since any impact
depends on the construction, the construction methods applied and the location, the
magnitude of the impact is at present not assessable. At least three likely types of
impacts are envisaged to arise from land reclamation, namely increased turbidity of
the water column, obliteration of the benthic environment1 on the land reclamation
site and smothering of benthic habitats from the settlement of suspended particles. The
spatial extent of these impacts will amongst others depend on local current conditions
(MEPA, 2005).
The main international legal instrument addressing coastal and marine resources is the
Biodiversity Convention (CBD) adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and
Development in Rio 1992. Aiming to adopt a broad approach to conservation, it
requires Contracting Parties to adopt national strategies, plans or programs for the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and to integrate the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral
plans, programs and policies (article 6). The establishment and maintenance of marine
protected areas for conservation and sustainable use is one of the main tools for
attaining the objectives of the CBD.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS) gives a
framework for the determination of the rights and obligations of States relating to
oceans. Part XII contains provisions with regard to protection and preservation of the
8
marine environment. States are obliged to undertake measures in preventing and
controlling pollution of the marine environment. The Convention makes provisions for
individual States by invoking them to use the best practicable means at their disposal
and in accordance with their capabilities (Art 194). This is not a loophole through
which States can carry out activities that may cause pollution in the marine
environment. The Convention still calls for States to design measures that will
minimize to the fullest possible extent the release of toxic, harmful or noxious
substances, especially those which are persistent, from land-based sources, from or
through the atmosphere or by dumping (Art 194). Recognizing that appropriate waste
management strategies can provide measures which reduce those sources of marine
pollution, the Convention calls for Party States to act so as not to transfer, directly or
indirectly, damage or hazards from one area to another or transform one type of
pollution into another (Art 195). Moreover, the London Dumping convention, to which
Malta has acceded, regulates the disposal of material at sea. While dumping of a
number of specific hazardous substances is prohibited, dumping of substances which
do not in themselves constitute an environmental hazard, are not considered prohibited
by the convention, subject to certain restrictions. The dumping of such materials is
regulated by the national legislation. According to the convention, the dumping
activity is required to be preceded by an assessment of the environmental
consequences, assuring that no significant environmental impact can be expected from
the dumping of the material (MEPA, 2005).
Alternatives and Properties of Land Reclamations Materials
The reuse of recycled materials derived from construction and demolition waste is
growing all over the world. Many researchers are therefore actively promoting policies
aimed at reducing the use of primary resources and increasing reuse and recycling.
One of the most environmentally responsible ways of meeting the challenges of
sustainability in construction is the use of recycled concrete and masonry waste as
aggregate in new construction.
There is a misconception in the field of civil engineering materials that recycled
aggregate is a waste product which has substandard quality and so there is little drive
in recycling this material. The strength of resulting filling materials usually depends
on the strength of parent materials, i.e. the recycled aggregates, their strength level
determination is very important. Traditionally, engineers have experienced lower
compressive strength and workability in the use of recycled aggregate in the concrete
filling material and it was determined that 20% was the maximum amount of recycled
aggregate fines as a rule of thumb that would be allowed in the concrete. Initially, there
was a lack of information on the cost benefits and performance of recycled aggregate
and the lack of quantitative data. The recycled aggregate could be considered as an
9
option with the economics of the low bid system drives the use of recycled aggregate
coupled with the environmental impact on sustainability would give rise to the use of
this material. Benefits could be realized where there is an ample supply of quality
recycled aggregate. Actually, using recycled aggregate as reclamation filling material
could provide engineering, economic, and environmental benefits to our society (De
Brito and Saikia, 2013).
Research and experimental works on the use of recycled aggregates for road works
and concrete production have been conducted all over the world and it is proven
that high quality could also be achieved with recycled aggregates. Many European
countries, Japan and the United States have modified their specifications to make
provision for the use of recycled aggregates in different construction works. The
construction industry in Hong Kong generates about 11 million tons of construction
waste each year. In recent years, a major portion of this construction waste (around
80%) is reused as fill material in land reclamation and the rest is dumped in landfills.
In view of the scarcity of land for new landfills and the finishing of major reclamation
projects in near future, it is necessary to consider the recycling of inert construction
waste. The use of aggregates produced from recycled construction waste is proven in
other parts of the world and there is no technical reason to restrain their use in
Hong Kong (Cheng, 2000).
No doubt that the Post-war generated rubble was a big challenge for all population of
the Gaza Strip as well as for all institutions dealing with environment and construction
industry. The huge volume of the rubble accompanied with limited places and landfills
to store the rubble had seriously threatened the overall environment in the Gaza Strip.
In addition, the shortage of construction materials beside the high prices of very limited
available construction materials especially natural aggregate made the recycle of
concrete rubble as one of top priority for reconstruction process after the war.
Fortunately, during removal and crushing process of post–war rubble in Gaza, almost
all actors had taken into consideration the main principles to obtain best financial and
environmental benefits from the whole recycle process such as protection of public
health and insuring sustainability of recycling achievements (El Kharouby, 2011).
Financial and Environmental Benefits of construction waste
These benefits could be summarized in two main domains: financial and
environmental benefits.
Financial benefits
After removal of a large amount of post-war generated rubble from affected sites in
the Gaza Strip, the prices of sorting, removal and crushing of this material showed that
the recycling of concrete rubble could be very competitive to natural crushed stone
10
that has been using in roads and concrete industry. The removal process showed that
the collected rubble contained nearly 10% of non-concrete reusable materials such as
steel, wood, aluminum and others. The cost of these materials varied from US$15-20
per ton that reduced the total cost of removal and crushing process. In addition, the
sale price for crushed concrete rubble that used in roads construction was around
US$7.5 per ton. This price was much higher and exceeded US$30 per ton after
screening of crushed concrete and producing aggregate for concrete construction.
Therefore, from economic point of view, the removal and crushing process as a whole
has several advantages (Mulder, 2008). The most illustrative advantage could be
summarized as follows:
Closing the material cycles for concrete rubble within its own chain. With regard
to the framework of sustainable development, this fulfils one of the objectives of
required sustainability.
Recovery of suitable raw materials for construction industry that reduces the
excavation of primary materials such as sand and gravel and reduces the export of
expensive aggregate.
Generated new job opportunity.
The removal and crushing process finally implies a reduction in transport costs and
reduced the damping fees and landfill’s running costs. This means less fuel
consumption and less exhaust gases.
Environmental benefits
In this time of increasing attention to the environmental impact of construction and
sustainable development, recycled crushed concrete has much to offer because of its
efficiency to minimize depletion of natural resources and its direct positive impact in
reducing the total area for storing huge volumes of concrete rubble (Environmental
Council of Concrete Organization, 1999). As the available solid waste landfills are
already overloaded in the Gaza Strip, any additional quantities will only make the
problem more complicated. Reducing the amount of concrete rubble and reusing it in
construction industry will facilitate storing of other solid waste quantities produced by
residents of the Strip and will facilitate the process of collecting and transporting
organic waste from households. Moreover, sorting of non-concrete and hazardous
materials from concrete rubble before crushing decreased the effect of such material
on human welfare. To identify the quality of generated concrete rubble from
construction and economical point of view it was essential to make both visual and
sample inspections of all possible pollutants and contents of non-concrete materials.
For this purpose, site visits carried out in the rapid as well as in detailed survey of
damages. Detailed tests for hazardous materials, asbestos, and heavy metals was
carried out by UNEP team that visited Gaza after the war and the tests showed that the
post-war rubble concrete contained around 10% of asbestos and some UXOs that were
a big threat for human health, also no heavy metals were found and the amount of other
hazardous materials were within standard for reuse of concrete rubble in construction
11
industry (El Kharouby, 2011). Removing these items and materials and storing them
in a proper way had reduced this hazard to the minimum.
Impact on Marine Environment
Construction of breakwater is environmentally the friendliest protection alternative. It
has the least impact on adjacent properties and the environment, and instead of
harming the surroundings, a beach fill will benefit adjacent eroding properties.
Artificial nourishment in most areas becomes a beach maintenance solution.
Figure (2.1): The influence of breakwater on living organisms with and without
breakwater on Kochi coast
(Source: Kamphous, 2000)
Sheet Piles
Connected or semi-connected sheet piles are often used to build continuous walls for
waterfront structures that range from small waterfront pleasure boat launching
facilities to large dock facilities Figure (2.2). In contrast to the construction of other
types of retaining wall, the building of sheet pile walls does not usually require
dewatering of the site. Sheet piles are also used for some temporary structures, such as
braced cuts.
Types of sheet pile walls
Several types of sheet pile are commonly used in construction: (a) wooden sheet piles,
(b) precast concrete sheet piles, and (c) steel sheet piles. Aluminum sheet piles are also
marketed (Braja M. Das, 2014).
12
Wooden sheet piles are used only for temporary, light structures that are above the
water table. The most common types are ordinary wooden planks and Wakefield
piles. The wooden planks are about 50×300 mm in cross section and are driven
edge to edge. Wakefield piles are made by nailing three planks together, with the
middle plank offset by 50 to 75 mm. Wooden planks can also be milled to form
tongue-and-groove piles. Metal splines are driven into the grooves of the adjacent
sheeting to hold them together after they are sunk into the ground.
Figure (2.2): Example of waterfront sheet-pile wall
(Source: Braja M. Das, 2014)
Precast concrete sheet piles are heavy and are designed with reinforcements to
withstand the permanent stresses to which the structure will be subjected after
construction and also to handle the stresses produced during construction. In
cross section, these piles are about 500 to 800 mm wide and 150 to 250 mm
thick.
Steel sheet piles in the United States are about 10 to 13 mm thick. European
sections may be thinner and wider. Sheet-pile sections may be Z, deep arch,
low arch, or straight web sections. The interlocks of the sheet-pile sections are
shaped like a thumb-and-finger or ball-and-socket joint for watertight
connections. The allowable design flexural stress for the steel sheet piles is
shown in Table (2.1).
Table (2.1): Allowable stress for steel sheet piles
Type of steel Allowable stress (MN/m2)
ASTM A-328 170
ASTM A-572 210
ASTM A-690 210
(source: Braja M. Das, 2014)
13
Steel sheet piles are convenient to use because of their resistance to the high driving
stress that is developed when they are being driven into hard soils. Steel sheet piles are
also lightweight and reusable.
Figure (2.3): A typical steel sheet pile
(source: WIKI, 2016)
Sheet pile construction methods
Sheet pile walls may be divided into two basic categories: (a) cantilever and (b)
anchored. In the construction of sheet pile walls, the sheet pile may be driven into the
ground and then the backfill placed on the land side, or the sheet pile may first be
driven into the ground and the soil in front of the sheet pile dredged. In either case, the
soil used for backfill behind the sheet pile wall is usually granular. The soil below the
dredge line may be sandy or clayey. The surface of soil on the water side is referred to
as the mud line or dredge line. Thus, construction methods generally can be divided
into two categories:
1. Backfilled structure
2. Dredged structure
The sequence of construction for a backfilled anchored structure is as follows (see
Figure (2.4):
14
Step 1) Dredge the in situ soil in front and back of the proposed structure.
Step 2) Drive the sheet piles.
Step 3) Backfill up to the level of the anchor, and place the anchor system.
Step 4) Backfill up to the top of the wall.
For a cantilever type of wall, the sequence of construction for a dredged structure is as
follows (see Figure (2.5):
Step 1) Drive the sheet piles.
Step 2) Backfill up to the top of the wall.
Step 3) Dredge the front side of the wall.
Figure (2.4): Sequence of construction for a backfilled structure
(source: Braja M. Das, 2014)
15
Figure (2.5): Sequence of construction for a dredged structure
(source: Braja M. Das 2014)
Sheet pile basic categories
2.5.3.1 Cantilever sheet pile walls
Cantilever sheet pile walls are usually recommended for walls of moderate height
about 6 m or less, measured above the dredge line. In such walls, the sheet piles act as
a wide cantilever beam above the dredge line. Because the hydrostatic pressures at any
depth from both sides of the wall will cancel each other, we consider only the effective
lateral soil pressures. Figure (2.6) shows the stress diagram on a cantilever sheet pile
(Braja M. Das, 2014).
In this project, this type of sheet piles will not be effective because of depth of the sea
and the high stresses applied on the sheet pile, so we are going to use the other type of
sheet piles which will be discussed in the following section. Also the second types is
better for economic considerations.
16
Figure (2.6): Cantilever sheet pile wall stress diagram
(source: Braja M. Das, 2014)
2.5.3.2 Anchored sheet pile walls
When the height of the backfill material behind a cantilever sheet-pile wall exceeds
about 6 m tying the wall near the top to anchor plates, anchor walls, or anchor piles
becomes more economical. This type of construction is referred to as anchored sheet
pile wall or an anchored bulkhead. Anchors minimize the depth of penetration required
by the sheet piles and also reduce the cross-sectional area and weight of the sheet piles
needed for construction. However, the tie rods and anchors must be carefully designed
(Braja M. Das, 2014).
The two basic methods of designing anchored sheet-pile walls are (a) the free earth
support method and (b) the fixed earth support method. Figure (2.7) and Figure (2.8)
show the assumed nature of deflection of the sheet piles for the two methods.
Figure (2.7): Free earth support method
(source: Braja M. Das, 2014)
17
Figure (2.8): Fixed earth support method
(source: Braja M. Das, 2014)
The free earth support method involves a minimum penetration depth. Below the
dredge line, no pivot point exists for the static system (Dfree>Dfixed). Fixed earth support
will have smaller deflection and therefore smaller moment and smaller cross section.
In this project, we are assuming that the earth support is free.
18
Case Study: Reclamation Project of Taparura- Tunisia
The project of Taparura consists of two Phases 1 and 2 with a total reclaimed area of
380 ha. The objective of Taparura was sit to improve, cleanup and rehabilitate the
northern coasts of the City of Sfax as shown in Figure (2.9). These works are a single
batch and the main components are the following:
Figure (2.9): Reclaimed Taparura project, Tunisia
(Source: Photos by Abualtayef, 2014)
19
Excavation of the phosphogypsum plate
The deposit of phosphogypsum is surrounded by a plate covering an area of
approximately 90 ha and whose volume was estimated at 1.1 million m3. The spatial
and vertical area of the phosphogypsum plate was determined and confirmed by the
company before starting the excavation works. The excavation of the plate is carried
out through isolated compartments. In this way, it is easier to pump the inland waters
and the non-excavated limits enable access from one area of the site to another.
Under water excavation
In under water excavation works, the used material consists in two stations each
consisting of a backhoe mounted on a pier and a barge. The barges are moved by means
of a tug. The backhoes are equipped with sophisticated and precise computer systems
for the follow-up of underwater excavation operations of contaminated materials.
Besides, these backhoes are equipped with a high performance positioning system.
These systems enable operators to visualize the shovel bucket of the machine on a
computer screen mounted in the cabin. The excavated materials are placed in the
barges that are routed to a temporary pier once they are filled. At the quay, a giant
shovel with a long arm enables the transfer of materials in the dumpers. The latter carry
the materials to the phosphogypsum deposit where they are drained and spread out.
Dry excavation and breakwaters construction
Dry excavation works are carried out through the use of earth-moving engines and
equipment. These works include the excavation of contaminated soils located within
the contractual line separating the dry excavation from the underwater one. All dry
excavated material of the phosphogypsum plate or of the contaminated soil of the site
were taken to the phosphogypsum deposit where they were placed and deposited in
successive layers. To enable the dry excavation of the above-mentioned areas and the
hydraulic fill works, main breakwaters on the sea side have been constructed. These
breakwaters limit to some extent the site on the seaside and help protect the
downstream area against currents and swells. Other secondary breakwaters have also
been constructed. A pumping system was set up to pump the pools water behind the
main breakwater towards the sea to dry them up. These breakwaters equally allow
access to different parts of the site and facilitate the pumping in areas to be cleaned up.
All construction works of the breakwaters are completed.
Deposit remodeling
The work of remodeling the phosphogypsum deposit began from the second fortnight
of September 2006, in the form of a cone trunk having a diameter of 880 m wide and
a height of 16 m. Given the reduction in the quantities of contaminated soil, it was
decided to reduce the diameter of the phosphogypsum deposit to only 810 m and to
implement it in two platforms.
20
Works for the isolation of phosphogypsum deposit
The phosphogypsum deposit and the polluted underlying soil will be isolated through
the use of a Waterproof barrier made up of a 0.6 m-wide trench filled with a mixture
of bentonite - cement in which d 3 mm-thick high-density polyethylene {HDPE} sheet
is inserted, see Figure (2.10). This barrier will extend from the backfill platform up to
the clay layer situated at a depth of 11 to 13 m from the projected level of the ground.
The construction of the barrier started on July 3, 2008. With a view to protecting the
barrier and to drain the runoff to the drainage ditch, the construction works of the head
of the barrier started in December 2008. The barrier system- exhaustion system- must
always maintain the level of the groundwater inside the area of the phosphogypsum
deposit below the level of the groundwater outside the barrier. This condition is
important to avoid any possibility of pollutants spreading to the outside of the barrier.
According to the current plans, the groundwater is pumped from a level located below
the clay layer, which is located below the deposit. After having implemented two
pumping tests, 105 geotechnical investigation drilling tests, 22 piezometers and
processing of test results, the choice was to increase the number of pumping wells
from 7 to 10 and a drain was also to be set up around the deposit inside the barrier.
The pumping rate of the 10 wells is 5 m3 / hr. The effect of the pumping system on the
groundwater is continuously monitored by 30 piezometers installed on the deposit, as
well as on both sides near the barrier.
Figure (2.10): The concrete wall to isolated the phosphogypsum deposit
(source: Photos taken by Abualtayef, 2013)
21
Drainage system
The system added following the new conditions of permeability of subsoil. It is
designed to ensure that the level of the groundwater does not exceed the level specified
in the vicinity of the deposit. The drainage system will lead to a quicker initial lowering
of the water table inside the barrier. When the specified groundwater level is reached
inside the entire deposit, the drainage system will catch only the runoff from
exceptional rainfall for a limited period.
Hydraulic fill
The hydraulic fill works have a field to reclaim from the sea and whose surface will
be about of 380 ha. The amount of sand needed for the creation of this platform is
about 7 million m3. The borrowing lodging identified by the pre-project studies is
located at the Canal of Kerkennah limited in the west by the herbarium, in the east by
the Kerkennah plateau, and in the north and south by the isobaths -10 m.
The hydraulic fill includes:
Borrowing sand
Discharging sand
Spreading out sand to the required levels
Compacting the sand to the prescribed densities in the contract in the areas
where compaction can be carried out
For the discharge of dredging sand, a system of floating and land delivery mains has
been installed. The dredge is located in the basin of the Commercial Port opposite the
quay of the Tunisian Chemical Group (GCT). Floating pipes of 900 mm have been
installed in the basin. Land pipes have been installed above the railway located along
the basin and under the pavement of the beach road. In the work site area, land pipes
have been installed in order to discharge the dredged sand directly on the backfilling
site. The setting up of the land pipes in the work site area were changed as the setting
up of the hydraulic fill progresses. The hydraulic fill works can be considered as cycles
that repeat continuously 24H/24H. Three main tasks that can be distinguished in the
hydraulic fill are:
Sand extraction
Sand transport
Sand discharge
For the basins north of the backfilling, and given the importance of the discharge
distance, a provisional stock of materials was placed near the dredge to transport it by
land to the basins to be backfilled.
22
Construction works of drainage canal
The implementation plans relating to the covered part of the drainage canal in precast
culvert. Completion of works for coast protection: The jetties are used for two
purposes:
Prevent the transported sediments which come from the North to settle on the
beaches. In the absence of jetties, these sediments, consisting of fine particles,
lead to the silting up of the beach.
Avoid the recovery of sand from the new coast through transport capacity,
sediments halted by the jetty, thus contributing to the stability of the beach.
The environmental follow-up of the Taparura site
Given the importance of environmental aspects of the project, some ambitious
programs have been established. They include in particular:
1. Radiological follow-up of the site and workers during and after works
The Centre National de Radio protection (National Centre for Radiation
Protection), the Centre National des Sciences et Technologies Nucleaires
(National Center for Nuclear Sciences and Technology and the French Company
ALGADE have been hired to carry out radiation monitoring program of the site
before, during and after works. This program includes the following activities:
Analysis of the initial situation of the site
radiological monitoring of the environment
Analysis of the final situation.
2. Follow-up of the quality of surface water and groundwater at the site
In this respect, follow-up campaigns have been conducted by two different
laboratories in order to analyze the following parameters: ALCONTROL
(Belgium): pH / conductivity / Arsenic / Cadmium / Chrome / Mercury / Lead /
Copper / Nickel /Zinc every two weeks. CITET (Tunisia]: pH / Temperature /
Conductivity / Salinity / Color / NTK / Nitrate / Phosphorus T / Chlorophyll a /
Arsenic / Cadmium / Chrome / Lead / Nickel / Zinc: on a monthly basis.
3. Follow-up of sea water quality and ecology in the deposit of the marine backfill
during dredging operations
The environmental follow up program in the Kerkennah canal consists of the
following: Analysis of water quality
10 sampling stations
Samples at 1 and 5 m of depth
Sampling before, during and at the end of the dredging period
Analysis of material in suspension
23
Surface follow-up
Distribution of the herbarium area and fragmentation through the analysis of
satellite images before and after the dredging campaign
Indication of five model areas for characterization Characterization of the
vegetation and macro benthos met per quadra from 1 m2 to 0.4m2.
4. Follow-up of the quality of sea water and ecology along the coast of the project
during the dredging operations
At the level of the coast of the project area, the environmental follow-up consists
in the following:
Analysis of water quality:
Three stations 700m away from one another located at 1km from the future
beach
Sampling before, during and at the end of the dredging period
Weekly sampling and analysis during the backfilling works
Analysis of suspended material Characterization of vegetation and macro
benthos met per quadra of 1 m2 or 0.4 m2
Finally, Taparura is important reclamation project aim to protect the environment by
disposing of the phosphogypsum by sea reclamation. This case study considered the
environment protection like Gaza Strip case which aim to dispose the construction
waste resulted from the 2014 aggression on Gaza Strip on one hand, especially that the
existing landfills capacity is overloaded. On the other hand, land reclamation in Gaza
Strip will mitigate the environmental problems resulted from the existing Gaza fishing
port and its negatively impact on sediment transportation.
Chapter 3
Study Area
25
Chapter 3 Study Area
In this chapter, data about oceanographic characteristics of Gaza seaport were
described in order to define the nature of the study area. Also, sediment transport and
shoreline change were discussed and finally the impact of Gaza fishery seaport on
sedimentation was shown.
Introduction
The characteristics of study area are the major factors that affect the process of land
reclamation. The choice of the site that the artificial island will be created is critical
from environmental and structural views. The site must be as far as possible from the
districts that have high volumes of people. However, the location of Gaza Sea Port has
the following merits:
• flexible for expansion
• land ownership is mainly Government
• no hinder to urban settlements
• in the center of Gaza Strip
• excellent transport track.
The method of land reclamation is mainly affected by the type of reclamation site. The
type of soil and its characteristics below the sea is critical for the reclamation of the
island structures. Also choice of site affects the weather conditions that will dealt with.
Wind, tides, and temperature of the site are the main weather conditions that affect the
design process. In spite of the importance of site conditions, a degree of uncertainty of
all conditions should be noticed. Hence, enough studies on the sea and seabed can
higher the implementation of reclamation.
Gaza Strip, shown in Figure (3.1), is a small part of area, 365 km2, locates along the
eastern coast of the Mediterranean and it is considered as one of the most populated
area in the world.
26
Figure (3.1): Location of Gaza fishing port
The population growth is highly increase in Gaza Strip as shown in Figure (3.2).
Figure (3.2): Population growth in Gaza Strip
(source: PCBS, 2016)
Gaza coastal zone is growing fast, and the growth rate is attributed to its potential for
several economic activities and the existing pressure of urban expansion.
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
27
Geology of Sea Bed
The south eastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea is at the junction of Africa, south-
west Asia (the Arabic peninsula) and Eurasia. The area is tectonic active and its
geology contains some particularly interesting information. The coastal area of Gaza
is a fault zone, which consists of several coast parallel faults, approximately between
the coastline and 15 km offshore, with a total cumulative (post Jurassic) vertical
displacement of some kilometers. The coastline itself is bordered by a continuous
linear escarpment (10-50 m in elevation), running from Rafah to the Carmel mountain
in Haifa. This cliff arose due to a vertical fault, the "coastal fault". During the transition
from the Pleistocene to the Holocene (approximately 10 thousand years ago) the
eastern Mediterranean was subsiding while the continental crust became uplifted. The
coastal belt functioned as a hinge for this differential vertical movement. The coastal
cliff did not seem to exist at that time. The fall of the Mediterranean basin may have
been caused by the enormous amount of sediments that are transported by the Nile and
deposited in the area during the geological history. Consequences of the above are:
The Artificial Island is located in the fault zone; this results in extra uncertainties
considering the subsoil conditions, as well as unpredictable variations. Due to the
recent tectonic activities the area is seismically active; the risk and magnitude of
earthquakes, however, are limited because the movements seem to have a creeping
nature rather than catastrophic faulting. The slope of seabed for a distance of 3.5
kilometers from the coast ranges between 0.5 m to 2 m for each 100 m distance from
the shoreline, depending on the position of the area along the coast of Gaza strip. After
this distance, the slope becomes much higher (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).
Coast and Seabed Geological Features
Going from land to sea, the coastal profile can be divided into the seabed, the beach,
the dune faces or Kurkar cliffs, and the adjacent body of the dune or cliff plateau.
The coastal profile does not only consist of sand, but locally also erosion-resistant
formations of rock and Kurkar protrude, on the seabed, on the beach, and in the cliffs.
The geophysical survey for the Port of Gaza demonstrated the presence of non-erodible
layers at a mean distance of about 3 m below the alluvial seabed. Further, a detailed
bathymetric survey of the area where the Gaza Sea Port is planned revealed that
between the shoreline and 10 m depth; the seabed is characterized by areas of rock
outcrops and linear features of sand bars (Sogreah, 1996). On the beach and near the
waterline of the Gaza shoreline on many places Kurkar outcrops and rocky ridges can
be seen (Al-Agha, 2000).
These hard ridges are important coastal features in that they form natural breakwaters
which tend to mitigate an eroding trend. Where these hard layers are covered only by
28
a relatively thin layer of sand, a retreating coastal profile will gradually consist of an
increasing amount of erosion-resistant surface (Al-Agha, 2000).
Defining the credibility and composition of the steep Kurkar cliffs along the Gaza
coastlines is another important challenge. These cliffs themselves are to an (un-)certain
extent able to retard an erosional tendency. If they are attacked by waves and locally
collapse, the eroded Kurkar material will feed the beach with a mixture of very fine to
very coarse sediment. The fines will soon be transported to deep water, whereas the
coarse particles will act as an armor layer, protecting the freshly exposed Kurkar cliff
face during some time. Figure (3.3) shows the characteristics of Gaza strip seabed to a
contour of depth of 700m (Al-Agha, 2000).
Figure (3.3): Seabed characteristics for Gaza coast
(source: Ministry of Environmental Affairs, 2000)
29
Soil
The Holocene and Pleistocene deposits in the Gaza terrestrial area are approximately
160 m thick and cover the underlying Pliocene sediments. These deposits consist of
marine Kurkar formation, shell fragments and quartz sands cemented together, and
sometimes calcareous sandstone. Due to its high porosity and permeability the marine
Kurkar forms a good ground water aquifer. Most of the groundwater in the Gaza Strip
is extracted from this layer. The thickness of the marine Kurkar varies between 10 m
and 100 m showing a tendency to be thicker near the coast. The continental Kurkar
formation varies from friable to very hard, depending on the degree of cementation.
Alluvial and windblown sand deposits are found on top of the (Pleistocene) Kurkar
formations and can locally reach a thickness of 25 m. Four types of alluvial deposits
can be distinguished (Al-Agha, 2000).
• Sand dunes especially in the south near Rafah, oriented mainly ENE to WSW. More
to the north dunes become sporadic and the sand accumulations are scattered in a
zone of 2 to 3 km from the coast.
• Wadi fillings consisting of sandy loess and gravel beds, which can reach a thickness
of10 to 20 m.
• Alluvial and Aeolian deposits of varying thickness. In the northern part from the
Wadi Gaza alluvial deposits are widely distributed and are dominated by heavy,
loamy brown Clay.
• Beach formation consisting of a fairly thin layer of sand and shell fragments.
Water Level and Tides
The required data of High Annual Tide (HAT), and Low Annual Tide (LAD) with
respect to the Mean Sea Level (MSL) are obtained from the astronomical tidal tables
of 1988 and shown in Table (3.1) (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).
Extreme water level variations are commonly caused by barometric pressure variation
rather than by tides. These meteorological variations may often have more effect on
the sea level than tides. Figure (3.4) shows the monthly sea level variations (Delft
Hydraulics, 1994).
Table (3.1): Astronomical measurements for tidal levels
State Water level
HAT + 0.45 m
MSL 0.00
LAT - 0.35 m
(source: Delft Hydraulics, 1994)
30
Figure (3.4): Monthly sea level variations at Hadera GLOSS station no. 80 between
1992 and 2002
(source: Delft Hydraulics, 1994)
Climate
The climate is subtropical with well-defined climatic periods, i.e. prolonged hot and
dry summers and short mild winters, during which, most of the rain falls. The climate
is officially classified as Mediterranean-type climate. Temperatures during June-
September rise to 30° and in the winters fall to about 15° on average. The average
meteorological conditions during the summer seasons are related to the almost
permanent low pressure region north-east of Cyprus, with increasing pressure towards
the west. These atmospheric pressure conditions result in predominantly westerly wind
directions over the eastern part of the Mediterranean. These winds are usually weak,
rarely exceeding 15 m/s. The waves in the summer are low and consist mostly of swell
waves. The weather in the winter season is dominated by cyclones passing in easterly
directions. This results in rather unstable conditions with the most frequent winds
occurring from directions between south-east and north-east (through north-west).
These high winds generate high waves during the winter season (Delft Hydraulics,
1994).
Mean annual wave climate
As waves travel to the shore, a number of processes like refraction, shoaling, breaking,
friction and generation change the characteristics of the wave, generally towards lower
waves and a tendency to direct the wave more perpendicular to the coast (Delft
Hydraulics, 1994).
Extreme wave climate
On the basis of ships' observations, extrapolation to a 100 year occurrence was carried
out. The relation between the significant wave height Hs and the peak period Tp of the
31
wave energy spectrum was estimated upon HsTp 5 .Results for return periods
between one and 100 years are tabled below in Table (3.2) (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).
Table (3.2): Return periods wave height over 100 years
(source: Delft report, 1994)
Where:
Hs: Significant wave height.
H1000: Highest of 1000 waves in a storm characterized by Hs value above.
Hs: for return period of 50 years and contour of 18 m can be considered as 3.5 m.
Mean annual wind climate
Due to land and sea breeze the onshore wind climate is different from the offshore
wind climate, where in winter the prevailing wind direction is SW. During summer the
prevailing winds are from NW directions (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).
Extreme wind climate
For the extreme winds, it is expected that the dominantly westerly extreme winds
onshore and offshore produce similar results. The complete data set is given below in
Table (3.3) (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).
Table (3.3): Winds speed return periods
(source: Delft report 1994)
Currents
The general current pattern in the east Mediterranean Sea is a counter-clockwise flow
around Cyprus. However, when winds from unusual directions are strong and
persistent, local drift current opposed to the general circulations may develop.
return period 1 5 10 25 50 100
Open sea Hs (m) 6.5 7.8 8.3 9.0 9.6 10.0
10m contour Hs (m) 4.9 5.8 6.2 6.6 7.0 7.4
10 m contour H1000 (m) 7.9 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.5
Return period (year) 1 hour (m/s) 6 hours (m/s)
1 23.6 19.6
50 31.5 27.8
100 32.6 29.0
500 35.7 __
32
Flow velocities due to the tide and the large-scale anti-clockwise gyre in the SE corner
of the Levantine Basin are small in the near shore zone. In the deeper regions their
maximum magnitude is about 0.2 m/s. Wave-induced currents in the breaker zone,
under extremely severe wave conditions, might reach maximum velocities of 1.0 m/s
according to numerical model results. These values are so low that currents have no
significance for nautical consideration (Delft Hydraulics, 1994).
Climatic characteristics
For wind magnitude and direction, we've got a study that was made by the Ministry of
Transportation for the wind direction and magnitude for year 1993 and 2006. Also we
found a study on the magnitudes of waves on monthly basis. In our design process, we
are going to consider these studies.
Gaza Seaport
The Mediterranean coast of Gaza strip, which is covered about 40 km in length, is rich
by coastal resources. The development that occurred along the coastal lines has led to
the host of problems such as increased erosion, siltation, loss of coastal resources.
The primary sediment source of the Eastern Mediterranean is the Nile River. Nile
sands have been transported from the outlets of the river to the Palestinian coast by
consistent west-to-east and southwest-to-northeast alongshore currents generated by
westerly approaching waves (Goldsmith, 1980). In recent decades, the coast has been
plagued by a serious shortage of sand and by erosion. The sand shortage results from
the building of coastal structures that are acting as sediment traps and therefore causing
sand shortages on adjacent beaches. Construction of the low Aswan dam in 1902 and
the high Aswan dam in 1964 has almost completely interrupted the Nile River
sediment discharge to the sea. Fortunately for Gaza, the Bardawil lagoon sandbar
continues to act as a significant source and supplier of sand to Gaza coast (Inman,
1976).
The coast of Gaza was affected by man-made structures prior to the fishing harbor. In
the early 1970s two groins, 120 m long each 500 m apart were built in Gaza City. Sand
accumulation occurred south of the southern groin to a distance of 1.1 km. On the other
hand, erosion took place north of the northern groin to a distance of 1.2 km. The
erosion was controlled by a series of nine detached breakwaters built in 1978. The
detached breakwaters, 50-120 m long, were built 50 m from the coast line at a depth
of 1 m (Zviely and Klein, 2003).
Gaza fishing harbor, shown in Figure (3.5), is located on the Mediterranean coast of
Palestine. It was built between 1994 and 1998 on a straight sandy beach backed by
33
sand dunes. The length of the existing main breakwater is 1,000 m and that of the lee
breakwater is 300 m. The head of the main breakwater is at water depth of 9 m, and
the entrance of the harbor was 6 m deep when it was built. The harbor penetrates
seaward from the shore to a distance of about 500 m (Abualtayef et al., 2013).
Figure (3.5): Gaza fishing harbor
(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)
The development that occurred along the coastal lines has led to the host of problems
such as increased erosion, siltation, loss of coastal resources and the destruction of the
fragile marine habitats. In order to conserve the depleting coastal resources, the
changes due to development and associated activities must be monitored. Studying the
temporal pattern of shoreline change is considered one of the most effective means of
monitoring the cumulative effects of different activities. The analyses identified the
erosion and accretion patterns along the coast. The shoreline was advanced south of
the Gaza fishing harbor, where the wave-induced littoral transport was halted by
southern breakwater and the annual beach growth rate was 15,900 m2. On the down-
drift side of the harbor, the shoreline was retreating and beaches erode at an annual
rate of -14,000 m2. The coastal band is considered as a critical area, it is therefore
necessary to monitor coastal zone changes because of the importance of environmental
parameter and human disturbance. In particular, the projections of future shoreline
erosion and accretion rates are considered important for long-term planning and
environmental assessment for a variety of projects, including the construction and
tourism facilities (Abualtayef et al., 2013).
34
Sediment Transport and Shoreline Change
The rapid increase of the population on and near the coastal areas leads to an increase
of coastal resources exploitation. Thus, coastal zone areas are under great pressure
from both the human activates and geomorphologic coastal processes. Coastal erosion
is evidenced by collapsed trees, buildings, roads and other structures, including groins
which prompting the need for immediate and local protection to prosperities, there is
a need to ensure the long term protection for the overall coast from serious problems
such as erosion.
The fishing harbor has locally disturbed the coastal erosion and sedimentation pattern,
resulting in local coastal sand erosion problems. Buildings and roads that have been
constructed close to the shoreline are already faced stability problems and other related
negative impacts. It is expected to have serious erosion problems in the coming years.
Generally, deposits are in balance with erosion, however changing the shape of the
present coastal line by building barriers, wave breakers and sea ports can prevent the
movement of sand and therefore cause beach erosion. Recently after the construction
of the fishing harbor, the need to protect the coastal zone of Gaza is increased.
Gaza coastal zone is growing fast, and the growth rate is attributed to its potential for
several economic activities and the existing pressure of urban expansion.
As a counter-measure to this, the construction waste was deployed in the eroded area,
which is working as a beach revetment, to mitigate the severe beach erosion and
protecting the hotels. UNRWA has constructed gabions along the Beach Camp with a
total length of 1650 m to protect the main coastal road. Several short groins have been
construction along the Beach Camp for shoreline preservation. However, these
mitigations are not effective. Therefore, significance measures should be undertaken
to protect the beaches against coastal processes due to the fishing harbor (Abualtayef
et al., 2013).
In response to the negative impacts of Gaza fishing harbor, Abualtayef et al. (2012)
evaluated several mitigation measures which are:
Relocation of Gaza fishing harbor to offshore,
Groins,
Detached breakwaters,
Wide-crested submerged breakwaters and
Beach Nourishment
Several numerical model tests associated with coastal structures are conducted to
investigate the influence on morphodynamics. The results is presented in Table (3.4)
show that the relocation of the harbor is the best alternative to stop trapping of the
35
sediments. If for any reason the relocation was not carried out, the wide-crested
submerged breakwater alternative is an effective structure for preventing sandy beach
erosion. The artificial reef type of submerged breakwaters with beach nourishment is
recommended for Gaza beach, because it is an environmentally friendly and improving
the ecosystem of marine life (Abualtayef et al., 2013).
The environmental impact on the morphodynamic of the five scenarios of Gaza fishery
harbor show that the offshore harbor model test has the most positive impact on the
environment in which nearly no sand trapping or erosion is taken place at the study
area.
Table (3.4): Environmental impact of various mitigation alternatives
Mitigation alternative Annual rate
[m3 km-1] Remarks
Relocation of harbor + 4×103 Accretion
Detached Breakwater -23×103 Erosion
Submersed Breakwater +28×103 Accretion
Groins field system -22×103 Erosion
(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)
The incident waves at the deep sea are almost normal to the shoreline and accordingly
the cross-shore sediment component will be dominated and less amount of sediment
transport will be transported alongshore. Therefore, offshore breakwater will
decelerate the cross-shore current and then reducing the amount of sediment to be
transported. For the time being, the submersed breakwater (artificial reef type) shows
an attractive protection from both morphological and environmental points of view
(Abualtayef et al., 2013).
Based on the sediment transport, the environmental impact and the numerical model
analysis, the recommended alternative is the relocation of harbor. Abualtayef et al.
(2012) studied the variation in the shoreline along the Gaza coast during 38 years from
1972 to 2010. the analyses identified the erosion and accretion patterns along the coast.
The shoreline was advanced south of the Gaza fishing harbor, where the wave-induced
littoral transport was halted by southern breakwater and the annual beach growth rate
was 15,900 m2. On the down drift side of the harbor, the shoreline was retreating and
beaches erode at an annual rate of -14,000 m2.
Most of the soft sandy coasts are subject to the dynamics of sediment transport which
is supplied to the coast by valleys or rivers and then redistributed along the shore and
seashore by the action of waves, tides and winds. The littoral active zone is therefore
a dynamic area, where sand is stored, transported and exchanged. Sandy beaches are
the central element of this sedimentary system and are considered as buffer zones,
protecting the coast from sea attack and erosion. Therefore, reduction in sand supply
36
or increase in sand loss, by natural or anthropogenic factors, can result in the long term
change in beach morphology. Human activities like harbor’s construction on beach
can modify and upset the fluxes in the beach mechanisms. These changes cause the
localized erosion or deposition of sediments or their shifts along the coastline
(Abualtayef et al., 2012).
The shoreline is the interface between land and sea. This is not a fixed or stationary
line since it is affected by various factors such as storms, tides, waves, current,
sediment transport, morphology of sea bed and sea level rise, which vary in time. A
natural shoreline can therefore accrete or erode depending on the prevailing forces or
elements of nature in the coastal processes. A stable shoreline is one where its mean
position remains unchanged over a period of time. This is also described as being in a
state of dynamic equilibrium. When one or more of these natural forces or elements
are disturbed or changed, it results in imbalance in sediment transport in the coastal
system and the coastline will no longer be in dynamic equilibrium and a net erosion or
accretion will take place.
One can understand the proportion of beach erosion by comparing the width of the
beaches south and north of the Gaza harbor. The lack of data and regular monitoring
constitutes a serious obstacle in assessing the erosion rate and observe any trends in
erosion and accretion. Therefore, the accuracy of the computed results is heavily
leaning on the quality of the input. Figure (3.6) demonstrates the shoreline change and
the rate of erosion and accretion extent during the period of 1972-2010.
37
Figure (3.6): Gaza shoreline change from 1972 to 2010
(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)
38
The average annual accretion and erosion rates from 1972 to 2010 were 5.3 m and 4.7
m, respectively. Detailed analysis for the four intervals of times is as follows:
Table (3.5): Accretion analysis for the study area
Image
period
Erosion Accretion
total ×103
[m2]
rate ×103
[m2 year-1]
average
[m year-1] total ×103
[m2]
rate ×103
[m2 year-1]
average
[m year-1]
1972-1984 180 15.0 5.0 122 10.2 3.4
1984-1998 200 14.3 4.8 224 16.0 5.3
1998-2003 8 1.6 0.5 190 38.0 12.7
2003-2010 143 20.4 6.8 70 10.0 3.3
Total 531 14.0 4.7 606 15.9 5.3
(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)
The post-classification change detection image Figure (3.6) reveals a total accretion of
122×103 m2 with a rate of 10.2×103 m2 year-1, and a total erosion of 180×103 m2 with
a rate of 15.0×103 m2 year-1 (Abualtayef et al., 2013).
Table (3.5). After the construction the two groins and nine detached breakwaters, the
advancing shoreline and accretion occurred on the up drift side of these structures that
was constructed in 1972 and 1978. These structures have interrupted the prevailing
north ward flowing alongshore current; consequently, its load of sediment has been
deposited south of the structures. When the alongshore current reaches the down drift
side of the breakwaters, it becomes active and thus erosion and retreat of the shoreline
occurs.
Gaza fishing harbor was completely constructed in 1998, and its effect on the shoreline
was examined during this interval of period. The analysis of Landsat images indicated
that a total of 224×103 m2 of land (accretion) has been added to this site. The post-
classification change detection image Figure (3.6) indicates the location and
magnitude of coastal change. The shoreline south of Gaza harbor has advanced as a
result of the interruption of the dominant north ward flowing alongshore current by the
harbor breakwater. Consequently, its sediment load was deposited and the shoreline
has advanced. The new land has been added on the up drift side of the breakwater
south of Gaza harbor, at a rate of 16.0×103 m2 year-1.
Table (3.5). On the other hand, severe erosion has occurred on the down drift side of
the breakwater south of the harbor, where wave-induced alongshore currents become
active leading to greater erosion. The result has been shoreline retreat with a total loss
of land approaching 200×103 m2 with a rate of 14.3×103 m2 year-1.
Moreover, foreshore dunes have been removed and many roads and building close to
the shore have been faced instability problems Figure (3.7.a). To mitigate this erosion,
beach revetment from construction waste, gabions and series of short groins were
39
constructed Figure (3.7); however, these measures failed to diminish erosion and the
beach erosion is still continuing.
Figure (3.7): North to Gaza fishery port: a) dunes and mitigation measures such as
b) revetments, c) gabions and d) groins
(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)
The Landsat image analyses shown in Figure (3.6) estimated a 190×103 m2 have been
added to the beach area in 5 years Table (3.5) with a rate of 38.0×103 m2 year-1, which
represents the highest rate of accretion. However, the erosion is the minimum rate in
38 years. This is due to the dumping of construction waste as a revetment. The
revetment protection was active for a short period and the erosion rate was increased
after 2003.
The analyses result showed that the total erosion between 2003 and 2010 was 143×103
m2 with a rate of 20.4×103 m2 year-1. The erosion rate during this period was the highest
and this was due to the continuous wave actions and the mitigation of revetment and
groins were no longer being active. Furthermore, because of large quantities that
trapped behind the harbor (at the updrift side) may redirect the alongshore currents to
deep water and
40
Consequently, large amount of sediments were redirected into deep sea. The total
accretion area was 70×103 m2 with a rate of 10.0×103 m2 year-1. During 38 years, a
total added land at the up drift side of Gaza harbor was 606×103 m2 with an average
rate of 15.9×103 m2 year-1 and the total erosion at the down drift side was 531×103 m2
with an average rate of 14.0×103 m2 year-1. From these figures, it was found that
negative rates are taken place and the erosion was the predominant process. Gaza
harbor caused a serious damage to the northern beaches and it prevents the free
movement of sediments that lead to sedimentation in the south and erosion in the north.
Comparing aerial images from 1972 and 2010 show that the southern side of the beach
was enlarged by 0.75 m per year and the northern side of the beach was eroded by 1.15
m per year over a beach length of 6 km.
Impacts of Gaza Fishery Seaport on sedimentation
Coastal erosion is an ongoing hazard affecting Gaza beach, but is worsening due to a
wide range of human activities such as the construction of Gaza fishing harbor in 1994-
1998. The net annual alongshore sediment transport is about 190×103 m3 , but can vary
significantly depending on the severity of winter storms. According to the observed
wave heights and directions, the net waves are cross-shore, therefore vast quantities of
sediments may transfer to deep sea. Abualtayef et al. (2012) provide various models
to mitigate the erosion problem of Gaza coast. Change detection analysis was used to
compute the spatial and temporal change of Gaza shoreline between 1972 and 2010.
The results show negative rates in general, which means that the erosion was the
predominant process. Gaza fishing harbor caused a serious damage to the Beach Camp
shoreline. Consequently, several mitigation measures were considered in this study,
which are: relocation of Gaza fishing harbor to offshore, groins, detached breakwaters,
wide-crested submerged breakwaters and beach nourishment. Several numerical
model tests associated with coastal structures are conducted to investigate the
influence on morphodynamics. The results show that the relocation of the harbor is the
best alternative to stop trapping of the sediments. If for any reason the relocation was
not carried out, the wide-crested submerged breakwater alternative is an effective
structure for preventing sandy beach erosion. The artificial reef type of submerged
breakwaters with beach nourishment is recommended for Gaza beach, because it is an
environmentally friendly and improving the ecosystem of marine life.
41
Figure (3.8): Marine structures along Gaza coast: a) Two groins built in 1972, b)
Nine detached breakwaters built in 1978, and c) Gaza fishing harbor built in
1994~1998
(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)
Offshore fishing harbor model test: Figure (3.9 (a, b) shows the computed results of
wave height distribution and depth average current velocity around the offshore
harbor, respectively. From these figures, it was found that two vortices are formed
between the harbor and shoreline. Clockwise vortex and counter-clockwise vortex are
formed at the right side and at the left side, respectively. The strongest currents of 1.0
ms-1 are observed near the harbor’s entrance. The wave height decreases toward the
shoreline and nearly calm behind the harbor. Figure (3.9 (c, d) shows the initial
bathymetry and computed one after one year beach revolution, respectively. It was
found from these figures that slight changes of the morphodynamic were taken place
in which the shoreline was advanced and forming two small salients, siltation was
accumulated at the harbor’s entrance and erosion up to 4 m water depth was taken
place near the edge of northern breakwater. In general, no significant morphodynamic
changes were taken place within the study area (Abualtayef et al., 2013).
42
Figure (3.9): Offshore fishing harbor model test: a)Wave heights b)Currents
c)Bathymetry before modelling d) Bathymetry after one year modelling
(source: Abualtayef et al., 2013)
Based on the sediment transport, the environmental impact and the numerical model
analysis, the recommended alternative is the relocation of harbor. In case the relocation
could not be implemented, the submerged artificial reef breakwater would be selected.
However, the artificial reef breakwater will transfer the problem to the north.
Therefore, combination of nourishment alternative and submerged breakwater is
required. The nourishment is used to maintain the shoreline and the erosion at the
down-drift side while submerged breakwaters are used as a protection structure. The
annual amount of nourishment of 110×103 m3 is required at the down-drift side (i.e.
82×103 m3 due to trapping of sediments behind the existing harbor and 28×103 m3
due to the trapping of sediments behind the artificial reef).
Chapter 4
Materials and Methods
50
Chapter 4 Materials and Methods
Introduction
Producing of reusable crushed material was an essential step to obtain the best bene-
fits from generated post-war rubble such as reducing the total volume of the rubble in
already overloaded landfills and bridging the gap between demand and supply of
construction aggregates in construction demand industry taking into consideration
performing required tests that approve the application of such recycled materials.
This chapter provides detailed analysis for the quantities of the debris materials, soil,
and conceptual design for the recommended offshore fishery port by Abualtayef et al.
(2013). Also, this chapter shows the detailed study methodology.
In 2009, the quantities of debris were gathered from UNDP and other relevant
authorities in the Gaza Strip. Then, the samples were taken by two teams from IUL
and AEL labs arranged for taking a sample from 30,000 tons of crushed materials from
post-war rubble. All tests were performed according to the international standards.
The objective of testing crushed materials was to determine the technical
feasibility/applicability of using the recycled concrete rubble collected from post-war
affected sites in Gaza Strip in road construction as an alternative for the natural
aggregate in road construction or other applications. Generally, the performed tests
aimed to highlight the possibility of producing recycled aggregates from concrete
rubble. The characteristics of such aggregates were determined and compared to
international standards. The reuse alternative was investigated in road and concrete
construction throughout all performed tests.
The test results showed that the recycling of the concrete rubble aggregates and its use
in road sub-base gives acceptable results. Thus, recycled aggregates can be considered
as a good alternative to natural aggregates especially in road constructions.
Site Bathymetry
The bathymetric features of the Gaza fishing port were gathered by real field survey
using sonar as it shown in Figure (4.1). Sonar is a technique that uses sound propagat-
ion underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigate, communicate with or detect
objects on or under the surface of the water, such as other vessels. According to the
bathymetric survey, the water depth was taken at every 250 meter along the fishing
port shoreline and these data are shown in Table (4.1).
51
Table (4.1): The bathymetry features of the Gaza fishing port
Offshore (m) 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Depth (m) 0 -4 -7 -9.5 -11 -14 -16
Figure (4.1): The bathymetric features of the Gaza fishing port
Materials and Quantities
The 51-day July-August 2014 military operation in the Gaza Strip has brought tragic
consequences to all 1.8 million Gaza residents and caused the destruction of social and
public basic infrastructure. In order to verify the preliminary infrastructure damage
assessment findings and to further inform on the actual damages, the Higher Inter-
Ministerial Committee tasked UNDP to conduct a detailed infrastructure damage
assessment in collaboration with line ministries, UNRWA, UNOSAT and WFP.
UNDP estimated that around two million tons of rubble have been generated during
the 51 days Israeli military operation on Gaza, which is three times more than the
amount of rubble generated during 2008-09 Gaza war. The detailed quantity of
generated rubble according to the Gaza Strip governorates is shown in Table (4.2)
(UNDP, 2016).
52
Table (4.2): Detailed quantity of generated rubble
No. Governorate North Gaza Middle Khan
Younis Rafah
Total
(Actual)
Total
(UNDP
Target)
1 Total Rubble
(ton) 547,526 611,225 148,205 382,342 286,816 1,976,115 2,000,000
2 No. of
Buildings 352 352 121 329 341 1,495
The analysis results of specific gravity for the crushed material is 2.35, accordingly
the available volume of filling material for reclamation is about 850,000 m3 (UNDP,
2016).
Characteristics Analysis of Debris
UNDP (2009) conducted testing program on samples were taken from concrete rubble
collected from post-war rubble. Beside these practical tests, many other researches and
tests for research purposes were performed. The results show good opportunities for
using crushed concrete rubble in construction industry. In parallel with recycling
concrete rubble, many researches and tests were conducted focusing on potential reuse
of this material in construction industry. Most of conducted tests were performed
taking into consideration previous international experience in this field where more
than 900 million tons of concrete rubble is annually generated and partially reused in
USA, Europe and Japan (El Kharouby, 2011).
For this purpose, United Nations Industry Development Organization (2005)
conducted a testing program to investigate the application of construction and
demolishing wastes in construction industry in the Gaza Strip. The performed testing
program aimed to highlight the possibility of producing recycled aggregates from the
construction and demolition wastes (CDW) and was performed on a sample taken from
concrete rubble in Rafah area. The characteristics of such aggregates were determined
and compared to international standards. The reuse alternative is investigated in
concrete mixes and road construction throughout comprehensive testing program. The
test results showed that the recycling of the CDW aggregates and its use in both
concrete and road subbase gives acceptable results (El Kharouby, 2011).
Sieve analysis
The collected samples of crushed concrete rubble were sieved and the results were
plotted on a logarithmic scale in order to compare the test results of the samples with
the standard values of AASHTO for base course and sub-base materials grade (A).
According to both labs, both samples showed that they were going down to lower
standard limit which represents the course limit. Some of the samples were courser
than the standard limits and others were slightly matching these limits. From technical
point of view, this gradation is acceptable to some extent. The large particles, greater
53
than 2.5 cm are suitable for road applications However, for concrete application it is
recommended to use small particles, smaller than 2.5 cm (El Kharouby, 2011).
For concrete application it was recommended to conduct three tests: Compressive
Strength Test at 7 and 28 days, Slump Test and Air Content test by using small
particles, smaller than 2.5 cm. These particles were available in the sieve analysis of
the studied samples. In addition, the sieved particles are preferred to be classified
according to the prevailing local market sizes and local common names in Gaza Strip
which are: Folia, Adasia and Semsemia. Physical properties of these fractions as
obtained from previous studies are shown in Table (4.3) (El Kharouby, 2011).
Table (4.3): Physical properties of concrete aggregate fraction
Commercial
Name
Used in Gaza
Size
Fraction
(mm)
Fineness
Modulus
Unit Weight
kg/m3
B.S.G Absorption %
Type1 (Folia #5) 25.0-4.75 7.42 1478.5 2.65 3.13
Type2 (Adasia) 12.5-4.75 6.89 1468.1 2.60 3.00
Type3 (Semsemia) 9.5-2.36 5.72 1526.6 2.55 2.00
(source: El Kharouby, 2011)
Analysis of gradation
Results of the sieve analysis for the collected samples in comparison with AASHTO
standards for road applications showed that the crushed material is classified as coarse
material greater than 4.75 mm (sieve no. 4). As shown in
Table (4.4) , the coarse and fine materials in the samples were on average of 76.68%
and 23.32% respectively. The amount of course materials according to AASHTO
should not exceed 70% and for fine materials 40%. This means that an additional
amount of fine materials should be added to increase the percentage of this material.
Table (4.4): Course and fine aggregate contents
LAB Coarse
Aggregate (%) Fine Aggregate (%)
Islamic University Laboratory (IUL) 82.00 18.00
Association of Engineers Laboratory (AEL) 71.36 28.64
Average of two labs 76.68 23.32
(source: El Kharouby, 2011)
Table (4.5) shows the test results for other essential requirements of crushed concrete
comparing to international standards
54
Table (4.5): Test results of essential characteristics of concrete rubble
Test Name Standard Average
Result Standard Requirements
Liquid Limit
BS 1377
20.25%
According to AASHTO and ASTM
for sub-base and base materials, this
value should not exceed 25%.
Specific Gravity ASTM-854 2.35 Lower than crushed natural rock stone
Absorption ASTM-2216 5.55 %
Finer than #200
sieve (%)
ASTM-1140
1.95
Clay lumps &
Friable Particles
(%)
ASTM-142
0.15
According to BS 882:1992, this value
is very low which this is advantage
for construction application.
Flakiness Index
BS 812
24.5%
According to BS 882: 1992, this
value should be less than 40% for
road construction.
Elongation Index
BS 812
9.1%
According to BS 882: 1992, this
value should be less than 40% for
road construction.
Max. Dry
Density ASTM-1557
1.97
gm/cm3 Local CODE 2.15%
Optimum Water
Content ASTM-1557 10.25%
Los Angeles
Abrasion Test
ASTM-131
41.75%
AASHTO maximum allowed value,
to be used in the road construction as
base course material is 45% at 500
Rev.
California
Bearing Ratio
“CBR” at 100
Rev.
ASTM-1883
163%
Minimum required value (80%) for
base course at 100% compaction
according to AASHTO (T180-D)
and T193.
Sand Equivalent
ASTM-2419
66.6%
local standards for base course:
Minimum 35% sand equivalent at any
stage of road construction.
Impact Value BS 812 28% According to BS 882: 1992, this
value is SUITABLE.
Crushing value BS 812 26.15%
(source: El Kharouby, 2011)
55
Recycled Concrete Rubble (RCR) seems to have satisfying properties for the most
common exposure conditions. It can solve many of the basic problems concerning
shortage of construction materials in roads and concrete construction and reclamation.
In addition, as natural resources diminish, the demand for recycled concrete aggregate
is likely to increase, making concrete recycling the economically and environmentally
preferable alternative to traditional “smash and trash” demolition. Wherever good
natural aggregates are not locally available, where natural aggregate costs exceed
removal and recycling costs or where disposal of existing concrete pavement or
concrete structures is problematic, concrete recycling should be evaluated. Moreover,
concrete recycling appears to be profitable. In most cases, it can meet demand
requirements of lower value product applications such as land reclamation.
Finally, the detailed tests for hazardous materials, asbestos, and heavy metals was
carried out by UNEP showed that the post-war rubble concrete contained around 10%
of asbestos and some UXOs that were a big threat for human health and no heavy
metals were found and the amount of other hazardous materials were within standard
for reuse of concrete rubble in construction industry (El Kharouby, 2011). Removing
these items and materials and storing them in a proper way had reduced this hazard to
the minimum. Generally, based on the results of all performed tests, it is recommended
to utilize of this material in land reclamation.
The Study Methodology
Based on the problems of the existing Gaza fishing harbor and the lack of lands and
its high cost on one hand and the large quantity of rubble resulted from the last 2014
war on Gaza Strip on the other hand. Moreover, the results of characteristics of
concrete rubble showed the possibility of using it in sea reclamation. Therefore, sea
reclamation will be the best solution to alleviate these problems. The study
methodology was implemented as it shown in the following steps:
Estimation the total quantity of rubble resulted from the 2014 war on Gaza Strip.
Testing characteristics of concrete rubble for sea reclamation possibility.
Studying the existing fishing harbor area and characteristics to determine the suitable
interventions and which tongues will be removed.
Defining the bathymetric features of the Gaza fishing port by real field survey using
sonar to determine the sea water depth at different points as it shown in Figure (4.1).
Estimation the rubble quantity resulted from removing the existing breakwaters of
the Gaza fishing harbor.
Estimation the total rubble quantity will be reclaimed by adding the previously
estimated removed rubble quantity to the resulted from the 2014 war on Gaza Strip
Defining the proposed reclaimed area dimensions and estimating its area as it shown
in Figure (4.2).
56
Figure (4.2): The proposed reclaimed area
Choosing the suitable sheet pile needed to reclamation based on the soil type, sea
water depth and loads.
Cost estimation of the proposed area reclamation.
Defining the trucks movement and routes during reclamation implementation.
Bridge Configuration
According to the view of this research, the recommended offshore port should be
connected by an appropriate bridge to the nearest shore’s bank. actually, in the design
process trial should be carried out to make a solution so that the tides cannot affect the
bridge span between the port and the shore line. That solution would be a bridge that
is high enough so that the tides are free beneath it. In this section, different types of
bridges were discussed to provides the designer with the suitable type to be used in
this project.
Types of Bridges According to Superstructure System
Generally, there are two types of bridges, which are steel bridges and reinforced
concrete bridges.
For the steel bridges, there are two main types of beam bridges: the simple span beam
supported at its ends and the cantilever, or a beam which substantially overhangs its
main supports. There are variations of both kinds of beam. The most common is the
truss, generally a combination is linked triangles or other various configuration, while
beam bridges of both types exert a vertical downward thrust on their supports, the
cantilever, owing to its inherent tendency to pivot when the overhangs are loaded, exert
an additional upward thrust at the other end. The piers for both beam types normally
have to support vertical load only, and are therefore comparatively simple in design.
But the forces with in a beam vary in its different parts, and include both thrust and
57
tension. The material used in a beam bridges must be capable of withstanding both
tension and compression. This type of bridges is called Rolled-Beam Bridges. (Figure
(4.3-a) shows a typical shape of this type of bridges.
However, the reinforced concrete bridges can be classified into: slab bridges, Deck-
Girder bridges, T-beams bridges and etc.
The slab bridges (Figure (4.3-b) are A simply supported highway slab bridge
consists of a monolithically placed slab which spans the distance between
supports without the aid of girders or stringers. The slab bridge is an efficient
structure for short span. Because of the weight of the solid slab, it is not
economical for long spans. Slab bridges have been used for simple spans up to
35 ft, but many designers find them most economical when they are not more
than 20-25 ft. continuity over the supports increases the economical span
length, but at the expense of simplicity in design and field procedures. For
simple spans, the span is the distance to the center of supports. Concrete slab
bridges are longitudinally reinforced and should also be reinforced transversely
to distribute the live loads laterally. The slab should be strengthened at all
unsupported edges. In the longitudinal direction, strengthening may be consist
of a slab section additionally reinforced, a beam integral with and deeper than
the slab, or an integral reinforced section of slab and curb.
The deck-girder bridges are A deck-girder bridge consists of longitudinal
main girders with concrete slabs spanning between the bridges. The spacing of
longitudinal girders or floor beams should be close enough to permit the use of
thin slabs so that the dead load remains relatively small. Deck-girder bridges
have many variations in design and fabrication. Deck-girder bridges are simple
to design and relatively easy to construct. They are economical to a
considerable range of span length. Some variations of deck-girder bridges in
design and fabrication are:
a) Reinforced-concrete T-beams, which is mostly used
b) Beams and floor cast monolithically
c) Precast beams and floor cast in place
d) Precast beams and precast floor section
e) Prestressed concrete
f) Prestressed girders and floor cast in place
g) Precast Prestressed girders with reinforced concrete floor slab cast in place.
h) Precast Prestressed girders with many possible methods of fabricating and
placing the floor.
The Reinforced Concrete T-beam This type of bridge, widely use in highway
construction, consists of concrete slab supported on and integral with girders.
It is especially economical in the 50 to 80 ft range where false work is
prohibited. Because of traffic conditions or clearance limitations, precast
construction of reinforced or pre stressed concrete may be used. But adequate
bond and shear resistance must be provided at the junction of slab and girder
58
to justify the assumption that they are integral. Figure (4.3-c) shows a typical
reinforced concrete T-beam.
(b) (a)
(c)
Figure (4.3): Types of bridges: a) A typical rolled-beam bridge, b) Slab bridge, c)
Reinforced concrete T-beams bridge
(source: T. R. Jagadeesh, 2009)
Chapter 5
Results and Discussion
56
Chapter 5 Results and Discussion
Introduction
Gaza fishing harbor considers the only port for the ships and boats of Gaza’s fishers,
but unfortunately this port causes significant problems of erosion/accretion along
Gaza’s coastline. In this regard, the coastal researchers studied in deep several
alternatives to relocate/redesign the port in order to mitigate its impacts on the
coastlines and nearby structures.
In this effort, Abualtyef et al. (2013) recommended that relocating the current situation
of Gaza fishing harbor into offshore fishing harbor is the most suitable alternative to
mitigate the erosion/accretion impacts, but the main obstacle of this design is the
generation of strong current of 1 m/s at the entrance of the harbor. However, this
obstacle can be overcome by some arrangements of structures. So, this chapter
explains and discuss the estimation process of the proposed reclaimed quantity and
area in addition to estimate the reclamation cost.
Existing Breakwaters Quantity Estimation
The quantity of construction wastes that intent to be used in relocating the current
design into offshore fishing harbor is 850,000 m3. Fortunately, the reclaimed area can
be increased if we exploit the used materials in the 300 m and 500 m breakwaters as
shown in Figure (5.1).
Figure (5.1): The existing Gaza fishing harbor
(source: Google earth, 2016))
57
To calculate the volume of rubble resulted from removing the 300 m and 500 m
breakwaters of the offshore fishing harbor, it assumed that this area is divided to three
different segments areas; a, b and c, then their dimensions is shown in Figure ( 5.2).
After that, the area of each segment is calculated separately as the following:
Figure ( 5.2): Illustration of the existing Gaza fishing harbor dimensions
Segment (a) area and volume estimation:
As segment length and width are 300m and 20m respectively, then
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
=300×20= 600m2
As the existing breakwater ground is 2m above sea water level and according to the
contour map of the sea water depth is shown in Figure (4.1) , the sea water depth at
the end of 300m breakwater away from the beach is -5m. Therefore, the volume of this
segment is calculated based on the dimensions is shown in Figure (5.3).
58
Figure (5.3): Dimensions and the depth of Breakwater (a)
Because of the resulted segment shape is trapezoidal, the volume is calculated by the
following equation:
The trapizoidal area = ((2 + 7) ÷ 2) × 300 = 1,350m2
Then, Segment (a) volume = 1350×20 = 27,000m3
Segment (b) area and volume estimation:
It assumed that the segment (b) is tringle shape with base 180m and the height 325m
as it shown in Figure (5.4).
Figure (5.4): Breakwater (b) dimensions
59
The segment surface area = ½ × 180 × 329 = 29250 m2
According to triangles calculation, the center of tringle considered within the closest
third to the triangle base, so the center is about 108m away from the beach. As it shown
in Figure (4.1), the sea water depth at this point is -3m and the existing breakwater
ground is 2m above sea water level. So,
The volume of the segment (b) = 29250× (2+3) = 146,250 m3
Segment (c) area and volume estimation:
It is assumed that the segment (c) is rectangular shape with base 175m length and 20m
width as it shown in Error! Reference source not found.) . So the area of segment
(b) = 175×20 = 3,500m2
Figure 5.5): Breakwater (c) dimensions
According to the contour map is shown in Figure (4.1), the sea water depth is -6 and -
7 at the distance 325m and 500m far away the beach respectively. Also, the existing
breakwater ground is 2m above sea water level. So,
The area of the trapezoidal = ((9+8)÷2)×175 = 1487.5 m2. Then,
The segment (c) volume = 1487.5×20 = 29,750 m3
Based on the calculated volume for each segment, the total volume of rubble produced
from removed these three segment is 203,000 m3. In addition, the available volume of
rubble accumulated from the last 2014 war on Gaza Strip is approximately 850,000 m3
as it shown in the section three in chapter four. So, the total available rubble volume
for proposed reclaimed area is 1,053,000 m3.
Estimation of the Proposed Reclaimed Area (Gaza Fishery Port)
In this section, the required area for proposed reclamation is calculated by using the
total amount of produced rubble which previously estimated as 1,053,000 m3.
60
According to the contour map is shown in Figure (4.1), the sea water depth at 500m,
600m and 700m away from the beach are -7m, -8m and -9m respectively. However,
the existing breakwater ground is 2m above sea water level.
Figure )5 6. ): Dimensions of proposed reclaimed area
To calculate the required area as it shown in Figure )5 6. ) , the following equation is
used:
The volume of new reclaimed area = [(𝒅𝟏+𝟐)+(𝒅𝟐+𝟐)
𝟐] × 𝒙 × 𝒍
D1 is the sea water depth at 500m away from the beach 7m (at the existing tongue)
D2 is the sea water depth at the end limit of the proposed reclaimed area away from
the beach
X is the distance from the existing 500m breakwater to the end limit of the proposed
reclaimed area away from the beach
l is the existing 500m breakwater length
by substitution with the variables values, the resulted equation with two
variables is solved by goal seek on excel program.
1,05,3000𝑚3 = [(7 + 2) + (𝑑2 + 2)
2] × 𝑥 × 500𝑚
So, the resulted value of d2 and x are 9.2m and 208.5m respectively.
As the existing 500m breakwater width is 20m approximately, so its area is 10000m2.
The proposed reclaimed area that will be added to the existing 500m tongue is
208.5 × 500 = 104,250 𝑚2
Cost Estimation of Proposed Reclaimed Area
Rubble transportation cost estimation
Based on the coordination with rubble relevant sectors, the accumulated rubble from
the last war in 2014 on Gaza Strip is considered available. So, the accumulated rubble
61
will be transported to the project site by assumption that the truck capacity is 16 m3.
As the cost of one truck trip is about 65$ and as the total quantity need to transport is
1,053,000m3, so the required trips number is 1053000÷16= 65813 trips
The total transport cost = 65813×65$= 4,277,812 USD
The filling and damping cost is estimated to be 200% of transport cost, so the total
needed cost= 4.3M USD×2 = 8.6M USD
Sheet piles cost
It is assumed that the need sheet pile section is PZC 28 as it shown in Figure )5 7. ). So,
the characteristics of the proposed sheet pile section is shown in Figure )5 8. ). However,
the real shape of the proposed sheet pile is clarified in Figure (5.9).
Figure )5 7. ): The proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28)
(source: Grand Piling, 2016)
62
Figure )5 8. ): The characteristics of the proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28)
(source: PilePro. 2016)
Figure (5.9): The real shape of the proposed sheet pile section (PZC 28)
(source: GERDAU, 2016)
Regarding to Figure )5 8. ), the weight of 1 square meter of PZC 28 section is 166.1
kg/m2.
63
Based on the previous calculation of the new reclaimed area with 500m length and
208.5m width in addition to the 20m width of the existing 500m breakwater, the total
width of the new reclaimed area is 228.5m.
The resulted shape is rectangular, so the total perimeter is (500+228.5) × 2 = 1457m
By assumption that the average of sea water depth at the new reclaimed area is 8m and
as the existing breakwater ground is 2m above sea water, the sheet pile will be installed
at 5m underground, so the total height of the installed sheet pile is 15m.
The total required sheet pile area = 1457×15 =21,855 m2
As the weight of 1 square meter of PZC 28 sheet pile section is 166.1 kg/m2, the total
needed weight of sheet pile is 166.1×21,855 = 3,630,115 kg ≈3630 tons
The global cost of PZC 28 sheet pile section is about 550$/ton. So,
the total cost of need sheet pile steel is 550×3,630 = 2M USD
Sheet pile installation cost
In common the sheet pile installation cost at the site is about 300% of the sheet pile
steal cost. So the installation cost is 2M ×300%= 6M USD
Finally, the total cost of the new reclamation area is equal to summation of rubble
transportation to the site project cost and installation of sheet pile steel cost. Therefore,
the total project cost is 8.6M + 6M = 14.6M USD.
In conclusion, as the total reclaimed area is 500 × 2285= 114,250m2, the cost of one
square meter of reclaimed area is 14,600,000/114,250 =130 USD/m2.
The results of all estimations and calculations discussed in this chapter are summarized
in Table5.1).
Table5.1): The main estimated results
Estimated item Result
The rubble quantity available from the 2014 aggression on Gaza 850,000m3
The rubble quantity from removing the existing breakwaters 203,000m3
The total quantity of rubble for reclamation 1,053,000m3
The total reclaimed area 114,250m2
Rubble transportation and dumping cost 8.6M USD
Sheet piles installation cost 6M USD
The total cost of the proposed reclamation area 14.6M USD
The cost of one square meter of reclaimed area 130 USD/m2
64
Proposed Reclamation Process
Defining the proposed reclaimed area that is the area located in the west of the
existing western breakwater.
Figure 5.10): Illustration of the proposed reclaimed area location and method
(source: DEME, 2014)
Choosing the suitable sheet pile needed to reclamation based on the soil type, sea
water depth and loads. Therefore, the chosen sheet pile type is hot rolled steel sheet
pile PZC 28. The sheet pile installation will be around the proposed reclaimed area.
Figure (5.11): Installation of sheet piles
(source: WIKI, 2016)
65
Defining the trucks movement and routes during reclamation implementation which
will be through segment b to segment c to fill the area is located in west segment d.
See Figure (5.12).
Figure (5.12): The trucks movement during reclamation process
Source: (Yin Pumin, 2014)
The reclamation steps will start with using the rubble resulted from 2014 war on
Gaza Strip, then continuing reclamation by using the rubble from removing the
existing tongues a, b and c respectively. Trucks movement during reclamation
process is considered, so the removing will be started by segment a then b and will
be finished by segment c. See Figure (5.13).
Figure (5.13): Reclamation activities
(source: BART CALLAERT, 2016)
66
Due to the problem of erosion and corrosion that previously discussed previously,
it is proposed that removing a, b and c existing breakwaters. So, it is recommended
that replacing them by a bridge as it shown in Figure (5.14).
Figure (5.14): The general view of proposed reclamation and bridge installation
(source: Xinhua, 2016)
Chapter 6
Conclusion and
Recommendations
69
Chapter 6 Conclusion and Recommendations
The fishing port of Gaza is an essential infrastructure to the Palestinian people
however, this port causes several accretion/erosion problems along Gaza shoreline. So,
this study provides an overview about using crashed construction materials in
relocating the existing port into an offshore port.
Conclusion
The following concluding remarks of the study are:
The implementation of such reclamation projects can be considered as an
urgent to Gaza Strip because of the increasing in population growth, the
economic recession and lack of areas.
Land reclamation in Gaza Strip is significant choice to mitigate problems of
massive volume of concrete rubble that was generated from the last war on
Gaza especially that almost all available landfills in the Gaza Strip are already
overloaded. On the other hand, the shortage of natural aggregate beside the
high prices made the recycle of concrete rubble as one of top priority for land
reclamation process.
Sea reclamation is the best solution for many problems, main of these is solving
problem of the area located in the north of Gaza fishery seaport. Reclamation
process will permit to sediments transport to the northern area.
Steel sheet piles are convenient to use because of their resistance to the high
driving stress that is developed when they are being driven into hard soils. Steel
sheet piles are also lightweight and reusable.
The total cost of reclamation 114 dunums area is 15M USD. So, the cost of one
square meter of reclaimed area is 130 USD. Based on this result, the cost of
sea reclamation is very feasible especially that Gaza fishery seaport is very
vital and important place which will be as a commercial port for goods
transportation.
Recommendations
On the light of all the discussions above, there are the research recommendations:
For the offshore seaport of Gaza, it is highly recommended to use the rubbles
as a filling or back up materials between several concrete tripods.
Because of the waves and tides, the borders of the reclamation area maybe
exposed to abrasion. So it is proposed that construction of water breaker in
front of the reclaimed area.
70
Same concrete blocks can be put beside the sheet pile on the other side. These
blocks also strengthen the sheet pile and makes it safer.
The concrete that must be used in the construction of bridge is pre-cast
concrete. It is easier in construction and requires less labor force.
This research recommends the researchers to increase their investigations on
modelling the proposed seaport against several scenarios by taking the change
in the characteristics of seawater and erosion and corrosion along several years.
This research recommends the researchers to carry studies about exploitation
of the Gaza fishery seaport as a commercial seaport for goods import and
export instead of paying enormous costs for goods exchange which are not
beneficiary to the Palestinian economy.
This research recommends the researchers to investigate on expansion of the
sea reclaimed area in the future and utilizing it for creational goals, football
playground and airstrip.
It is recommended that study feasibility of generating electricity from wave
energy surrounded the reclaimed area.
It is recommended to design a strong and economical bridge that shows the
exactly dimensions and details of all the bridge elements.
References
71
References
Abualtayef, M., Ghabayen, S., Abu Foul, A., Seif, A., Kuroiwa, M., Matsubara, Y.,
Matar, O. (2012). The impact of Gaza fishing harbor on the Mediterranean coast
of Gaza. Journal of Coastal Development, 16(1), 1-10.
Abualtayef, M., Abu Foul, A., Ghabayen, S., Abd Rabou, A., Seif, A., Matar, O.
(2013). Mitigation measures for Gaza coastal erosion. Journal of Coastal
Development, 16(2), 135-146.
Al-Agha, M.R. (2000). Access to the coast and erosion control: use of wastes on local
engineering works in the coast of Gaza City. Environmental Geology 39(3-4),
405- 410.
Azwar, S. A., Suganda, E., Tjiptoherijanto, P., Rahmayanti, H. (2013) “Model of
Sustainable Urban Infrastructure at Coastal Reclamation of North Jakarta”
Procedia Environmental Sciences 17, 452 – 461.
BART CALLAERT AND JAN VAN DEN BOGAERT. (2016). THE TAPARURA
PROJECT: SUSTAINABLE COASTAL REMEDIATION AND
DEVELOPMENT AT SFAX, TUNISIA.
Braja M. Das. (2014). Principle of foundation Engineering 8th Edition.
Cheng, N. T. (2000). Investigation of opportunities for recycling inert construction
and demolition material in Hong Kong. Technical Note 2/2000, Hong Kong:
Civil Engineering and Development Department
Delft Hydraulics, (1994).Port of Gaza, basic engineering study. Final report, part II,
Coastal impact study prepared for the Palestinian national Authority and the
Ministry of Economic Affairs, The Netherlands, Sep 1994.
DEME. (2014). “Land Reclamation” retrieved from http://www.deme-
group.com/expertises/land-reclamation
El dada, B., and Jendia, S. (2013).” Use of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement and
Demolition Debris in Road Pavement Base Layers” M.S. thesis, IUG Univ.,
Gaza, Palestine.
El Kharouby, A. (2011). Post-war rubble removal and potential use of recycled
construction rubble in Gaza governorates. The Islamic University Journal, 19(1),
179-212.
Environmental Council of Concrete Organization: Recycling Concrete and Masonry:
Illinois, USA 1999
Mulder, E: Closed Cycle Construction: A concept for the separation and reuse of C&D
waste: TNO Science and industry Dept. Netherland, 2008
Feng, L., Zhu, X., and Sun, X. (2014). “Assessing coastal reclamation suitability
based on a fuzzy-AHP comprehensive evaluation framework: A case study of
Lianyungang, China” Marine Pollution Bulletin 89, 102–111.
Graaf, R., and Hooimeijer, F. (Eds) (2008). “Urban water in japan” Taylor & Francis
Group: London, UK.
Grand Piling. (2016). http://www.china-steelpiling.com/product/z-type-sheet-pile-
6.html
GERDAU. (2016).” Z-Profile Steel Sheet Piling” retrieved from http://sheet-
piling.com/pzc-z-profile/
72
J. William Kamphous (2000). Introduction to Coastal Engineering and Management.
Advanced Series on Ocean Engineerig Volume 16. World Scientific, Singapore,
pp437.
Jorge de Brito and Nabajyoti Saikia. (2013). “Recycled Aggregate in Concrete, Green
Energy and Technology” Springer-Verlag London DOI, 978-1
Jonathan Noggle and Scott Click: Utilizing Concrete Rubble for Post-Disaster
Reconstruction: Colorado State University. Colorado, 2009
Kevin, F. (2011). “ Palm Islands, Dubai: Eighth Wonder of the World” retrieved from
http://www.brighthub.com/education/homework-tips/articles/57707.aspx.
Li, J., Pu, L., Zhu, M., Zhang, J., Li, P., Dai, X., Xu, Y, and Liu, L. (2014). “Evolution
of soil properties following reclamation in coastal areas: A review” Geoderma
226–227,130–139.
Lin Sien, C., Khan, H., and Loke Ming C. (1988). The Coastal Environmental Profile
of Singapore. Manila, Philippines: International Center for living Aquatic
Resources.
Malta Environment & Planning Authority (MEPA): Land Reclamation Study: Project
Identification Report, Malta 2005.
Nadzir, N. M., Ibrahim, M., and Mansor, M. (2014). “Impacts of Coastal Reclamation
to the Quality of Life: Tanjung Tokong community, Penang” Procedia - Social
and Behavioral Sciences 153,159 – 168.
PCBS. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/
PilePro. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.lbfosterpiling.com/
Qreaq'a, A., and Jendia, S. (2011). “Reuse of Recycled Aggregates of Demolition
Building Debris as an Asphalt Binder Course in Road Pavements” M.S. thesis,
IUG Univ., Gaza, Palestine.
Rustom, R., Taha, S., Badarnah, A. and Barahma, H. (2007). "Properties of Recycled
Aggregate in Concrete and Road Pavement Applications." The Islamic
University Journal (Series of Natural Studies and Engineering), 15(2), 247-264.
Tianjin Yichengtong Steel Trade Co., Ltd. (2014). Q295 JIS Standard Steel Sheet Pile
400X170X16mm. Retrieved from http://yctsteel.en.made-in
china.com/product/SBHJLgDyZbcr/China-Q295-JIS-Standard-Steel-Sheet-
Pile-400X170X16mm.html
T. R. Jagadeesh, M. A. Jayaram. (2009). Design of Bridge structures, second edition.
United Nation Industrial Development Programme (UNIDO): Testing Program to
Investigate the Application of Construction and Demolition Wastes in
Construction Industry in Gaza Strip: Analysis Report, Gaza 2005.
United Nation Development Programme (UNDP): Examining Potential Use of
Recycled Construction Wastes: Analysis Report, Gaza 2007
Wikipedia (2015), retrieved November 7, 2014, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_Strip.
WIKI. (2016). “Sheet piles” retrieved from
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Sheet_piles
World Business Council for Sustainable Development – WBCSD: The cement
Sustainability Initiative, Recycling Concrete. Geneva, July 2009
Xinhua. (2016). “Bridge connects China's first artificial offshore island with
mainland” retrieved from http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/985582.shtml
Yan, H., Wang, N., Yu, T., Fu, Q., and Liang, C. (2013). “Comparing effects of land
reclamation techniques on water pollution and fishery loss for a large-scale
73
offshore airport island in Jinzhou Bay, Bohai Sea, China “Marine Pollution
Bulletin 71, 29-40
Yin Pumin. (2014). “A Sea Besieged, Land reclamation poses great challenges to the
country's ecosystems” retrieved from
http://www.bjreview.com.cn/nation/txt/2014-11/02/content_648513.htm
Zuhud, A., Arafa, M., and Hamad, J. (2008).” Performance of Recycled Aggregate
Concrete” M.S. thesis, IUG Univ., Gaza, Palestine.
Zviely, D. and Klein, M. (2003). The environmental impact of the Gaza Strip coastal
constructions. J. Coast. Res., 19(4): 1122-1127.