Fashioning Brazil: Globalisation and the …...1 Fashioning Brazil: Globalisation and the...

Title Fas hioning Brazil: Glob aliza tion a n d t h e Re p r e s e n t a tion of Brazilian Dre ss in N a tion al Geog r a p hic

Type The sis

URL h t t p s://ual r e s e a r c ho nline. a r t s . ac.uk/id/e p rin t/121 1 1/

Dat e 2 0 1 6

Cit a tion Kut esko, Elizab e t h (201 6) Fas hioning Br azil: Glob aliza tion a n d t h e Rep r e s e n t a tion of Brazilia n Dre ss in N a tion al Geog r a p hic. P hD t h e sis, Cou r t a uld Ins ti t u t e of Art.

C r e a to r s Kut e sko, Elizab e t h

U s a g e Gui d e l i n e s

Ple a s e r ef e r to u s a g e g uid elines a t h t t p://u al r e s e a r c ho nline. a r t s . ac.uk/policies.h t ml o r al t e r n a tively con t a c t u al r e s e a r c honline@ a r t s. ac.uk .

Lice ns e: Cr e a tive Co m m o ns Att rib u tion N o n-co m m e rcial No De riva tives

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http://ualresearchonline.arts.ac.uk/policies.html

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FashioningBrazil:GlobalisationandtheRepresentationofBrazilianDressinNationalGeographic

(TwoVolumes)

ElizabethKutesko

DoctorofPhilosophyintheHistoryofArt

TheCourtauldInstituteofArt,UniversityofLondon

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Abstract

Asapopular‘scientific’andeducationaljournal,NationalGeographic,sinceitsfoundingin1888,haspositioneditselfasavoiceofauthoritywithinmainstreamAmericanprintmedia,offeringwhatpurportstobeanunprejudiced‘windowontotheworld’.Previousscholarshiphasbeenquicktocallattentiontothemagazine’sparticipationinanimperialistrepresentationalregime.CatherineA.LutzandJaneL.Collins,TamarRothenbergandLindaSteethaveallarguedthatNationalGeographic’sdistinctive,quasi-anthropologicaloutlookhasestablishedhierarchiesofdifferenceandrenderedsubjectsintodehumanisedobjects,aspectacleoftheunknownandexoticother.AmorenuancedunderstandingcanbereachedbydrawinguponMaryLouisePratt’sconceptofthe‘contactzone’.Prattdefinedthecontactzoneas‘spaceswhereculturesmeet,clashandgrapplewitheachother,oftenincontextsofhighlyasymmetricalrelationsofpower’.PhotographssinceNationalGeographic’scentenaryeditioninSeptember1988havetracedthebeginningsofadifferentviewofencounterswithintheUnitedStates-Brazilcontactzone,drivenbytheforcesofglobalisation,whichhaveresistedtheprocessesofobjectification,appropriationandstereotypingfrequentlyassociatedwiththerectangularyellowborder.Thisisbecausetheyhaveprovidedevidenceofafluidandvariouspopulation,whichhasselectedandexperimentedwithpreferredelementsofAmericanandEuropeandress,andusedittofashiontheirown,distinctlyBrazilianidentities.

ThisthesiswillexamineboththevisualandtextualstrategiesthatNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil(thePortuguese-languageversionofthemagazine,establishedinSaoPauloinMay2000)haveusedtofashionBrazil,butalsotheextenttowhichBraziliansubjectscanbeseentohaveself-fashioned,throughthestrategicappropriationofclothingandideasderivedfromanexistinganddominantglobalculture.Itwillapproachdressnotsimplyasclothbutasasystemofcommunication,whosemanymeaningsarenotfixedbutcontinuallyinformedandtoanextent,evenperformed,byitsvisual,material,andtextualrepresentation.ThisthesisemploysamultidisciplinarymodeofanalysisthatdrawsonfiveBrazilianscholars,eachofwhomhaveuseddressandfashionmetaphorsintheirwritings,whichhaveencompassedpoetry,filmstudies,poststructuralisttheory,literarycriticismandanthropology.

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TableofContents

VOLUMEI

TitlePage p.1

Abstract p.2

TableofContents pp.3-5

ListofFigures pp.6-22

Acknowledgements p.23

Introduction.NationalGeographicasaContactZone. pp.25-61

‘L’OrigamiduMonde’:MakingContactwithNationalGeographic pp.30-35NationalGeographicasaContactZone pp.35-37Re-addressingPreviousAcademicContactwithNationalGeographic pp.37-40APhenomenologyofContactThroughDressandthePhotographicObject pp.41-44TheGlobalContactZonesince1988 pp.44-47SnapshotsoftheContactZone pp.47-49BrazilianAuto-EthnographyandStructureofChapters pp.50-54EnteringtheContactZone:ACommentonMethodologyandMyAuto-Ethnography pp.54-60ResearchQuestions pp.60-61PartOne.

Chapter1.Anthropophagy:theFirstHundredYearsofBrazilianDressinNationalGeographic. pp.

• Snapshot1:TheMakuWoman’s‘OldPieceofCloth’,April1926.• Snapshot2:PaulistaWomen’sWhiteSportswear,October1942.• Snapshot3:TheCintaLargaWomen’sBlackBodyPaintand

BeadedNecklaces,September1971.

TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicOverOneHundred Years pp.62-64AnEthnographicGazeontheMakuinanAgeofPan-Americanism pp.64-67Snapshot1:TheMakuWoman’s‘OldPieceofCloth’ pp.68-77ADocumentaryGazeonSaoPauloduringWorldWarTwo pp.77-83Snapshot2:PaulistaWomen’sWhiteSportswear pp.83-88AnEthnographicGazeontheCintaLargasduringtheMilitaryRegime pp.88-91Snapshot3:TheCintaLargaWomen’sBlackBodyPaintand BeadedNecklaces pp.92-102

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Chapter2.AestheticsofGarbage:GlobalisationandtheRepresentationofBrazilianDressinNationalGeographicsince1988. pp.103-143

• Snapshot4:Djaui’sRedT-shirtandAdidasShorts,December1988.• Snapshot5:TheAfro-BrazilianWoman’sLycraTopandDenim

Jeans,August2002.

TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicsince1988 pp.109-110BeyondtheYellowBorder:AHeightenedPhenomenologyofContact pp.110-117AnEthnographicGazeontheUrueu-Wau-Wauin1988 pp.117-123Snapshot4:Djaui’sRedT-shirtandAdidasShorts pp.123-130ADocumentaryGazeonAfro-BrazilianSubjectsin2002 pp.130-136Snapshot5:TheAfro-BrazilianWoman’sLycraTopandDenimJeanspp.136-143

Chapter3.SpaceIn-Between:BrazilianFashioninNationalGeographicsince2001. pp.144-186

• Snapshot6:TheYanomamiBoy’sGazeattheNationalGeographicPhotographer’sClothing,September2001.

• Snapshot7:BiancaMarque’sBikinisandVictorDenzk’sDresses,September2011.

NationalGeographicFashion:In-BetweenExoticSpectacleandCriticalRecognition pp.144-163Snapshot6:TheYanomamiBoy’sGazeattheNationalGeographicPhotographer’sClothing pp.163-163AFashionableGazeonBrazilianWomenin2011 pp.166-172Snapshot7a:BiancaMarque’sBikinisintheMagazine pp.172-177Snapshot7b:VictorDenzk’sDressesontheWebsite pp.178-186PartTwo:HoldingupamirrortoNationalGeographic. pp.187-189

Chapter4.MisplacedIdeas:BraziliandressasreflectedinthefirsttenyearsofNationalGeographicBrasil. pp.190-226

• Snapshot8:TheMayongongMan’sRawhideBagandCottonLoincloth,July2000.

• Snapshot9:LourençoLoy’sRedandWhiteBandanaandGoldMedallion,February2001.

• Snapshot10:TheJapanese-BrazilianWomen’sCottonYucataandWoodenGeta,June2008.

TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicBrasilOverADecade pp.198-200

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ABrazilianGazeonNationalGeographicin2000 pp.200-203Snapshot8:TheMayongongMan’sRawhideBagandCottonLoinclothpp.203-206ADocumentaryGazeonAngolan-Braziliansin2003 pp.206-209Snapshot9:LourençoLoy’sRedandWhiteBandanaandGoldMedallionpp.210-216APortraitureGazeonJapanese-Braziliansin2007 pp.216-218Snapshot10:TheJapanese-BrazilianWomen’sCottonYucataandWoodenGeta pp.219-226 Chapter5.Mundialization:BraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasil,August2013. pp.227-258

• Snapshot11:TheGuarani-Kaiowa’sWestern-styledressandFeatheredHeaddresses,August2013.

AnEthnographicGazeontheGuarani-Kaiowain2013 pp.233-236Snapshot11a:Magazine pp.236-245Snapshot11b:iPad pp.246-250Snapshot11c:Film pp.250-258Conclusion pp.259-280

VOLUMEII

Figures pp.281-349

ArchivesandMuseumCollections pp.350-370

Bibliography pp.371-393

ListofAppendices p.394

Appendices pp.395-588

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ListofFigures

Introduction

Fig.1.0AuthorassemblingCyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,inthearticle‘HappyBirthday,NationalGeographic’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013/14,frontcover.

(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)

Fig.1.1AuthorassemblingCyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,inthearticle‘HappyBirthday,NationalGeographic’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013/14,pp.158-159.












Fig.1.7CyprienGaillard,Pop-UpArtwork,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,2013/4.


Fig.1.8BrentStirton,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.34-35.

(Image:photographtakenbyauthor,London,March2014)

Fig.1.9SteveMcCurry,EdKashi,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.36-37.


Fig.1.10StephanieSinclair,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.76-77.


Fig.1.11SteveMcCurry,WilliamAlbertAllard,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.78-79.

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Fig.1.12LynseyAddario,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.94-95.


Fig.1.13DavidGuttenfelder,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.98-99.


PartOne:

Chapter1.

Fig.2.0MapoftheroutefollowedontheAlexanderHamiltonRiceExpedition,1924-5publishedinCaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.354.

(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)

Fig.2.1CaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.370.






Fig.2.4AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyCaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.396-397.




Fig.2.6A.H.Bruno,‘AirplanesaidexplorersinBrazil’,PopularMechanics,November1925,p.788.

(Image:PopularMechanicsDigitalArchive)

Fig.2.7AlexanderHamiltonRice,‘TheRioNegro,theCasiquiareCanalandtheupperOrinoco’,Sept1919-April1920,typescriptreadattheMeetingoftheRoyalGeographicSociety,21February1921,fromPapers,HamiltonRiceExpedition1919-1920.

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(Image:photographtakenbyauthorattheRoyalGeographicalSociety,London,September2013)

Fig.2.8Advertisement,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.3.


Fig.2.9Anonymous,RiodeJaneiro,1926,FOLDER016–DiversosAutores,InstitutoMoreiraSalles.

(Image:fromthecollectionoftheInstitutoMoreiraSalles,RiodeJaneiro)

Fig.2.10HenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,p.523.


Fig.2.11HenryAlbertPhillipstoJ.R.Hildebrand,Letter,18June1942,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.116948.

(Image:scannedmicrofichefileobtainedbyauthoratNationalGeographicSocietyArchive,WashingtonD.C.,June2013)



Fig.2.13AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyHenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,pp.504-505.


Fig.2.14Advertisement,NationalGeographic,May1941,p.16.




Fig.2.16HorstP.Horst.,PortraitofSenhoraAlziraVargasdoAmaralPeixote,inanon,‘SouthAmericanVisitors:FiveBeautifulNeighborsfromBrazil,PeruandtheArgentine…recentvisitorstotheU.S.,Vogue,July1941,p.22.

(Image:VogueDigitalArchive)

Fig.2.17Advertisement,Vogue,February1941,p.3.

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Fig.2.18Anon.,‘AVisitadoSr.PresidenteGetulioVargasaSaoPaulo’,EstadodeSaoPaulo,28April1940,p.7.

(Image:BritishLibraryNewspaperCollections)

Fig.2.19Detail,Anon.,‘AVisitadoSr.PresidenteGetulioVargasaSaoPaulo’,EstadodeSaoPaulo,28April1940,p.7.








Fig.2.23MapofCintaLargaTerritorypublishedinW.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,p.426.


Fig.2.24W.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,p.442-443.


Fig.2.25AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyW.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,p.442-443.


Fig.2.26JoseMedeiros,‘IndioXavante’,1949.

(Image:http://www.ims.com.br/ims/artista/colecao/jose-medeiros/obra/2140)

Fig.2.27HenriBallot,‘IndiosTxucarramães’,c.1953.

(Image:http://www.ims.com.br/ims/artista/colecao/henri-ballot/obra/9873)

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Fig.2.29AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyW.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,p.440-441.


Fig.2.30JohnDominis,’TamingtheGreenHell’,Lifemagazine,12November1971,p.30.

(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratLibraryofCongress,WashingtonD.C.,June2013)

Fig.2.31AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyJohnDominis,’TamingtheGreenHell’,Lifemagazine,12November1971,p.30.

(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)

Fig.2.32JoanG.WallistoTheSecretaryNGS,Letter,29August1971,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397.


Fig.2.33JohnScofieldtoJoanB.Wallis[sic],Letter,20September1971,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397.


Fig.2.34JohnT.GosstoMelvilleB.Grosvenor,Letter,5October1971,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397.


Fig.2.35JonSchneebergertoJohnT.Goss,2November1971,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397.


Chapter2.

Fig.3.0AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyWilburGarrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder’,NationalGeographic,174:6,(December,1988),pp.270-286


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Fig.3.5JosephR.JudgetoJohnMcPhee,Memorandum,12August1988,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.115517.


Fig.3.6JonSchneebergertoJeffreyLawson,Memorandum,22June1989,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.115517.


Fig.3.7W.JescovonPuttkamer,'LastDaysofEden:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,p.804.


Fig.3.8AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyLorenMcIntyre(withphotographsbyW.JescovonPuttkamer),'LastDaysofEden:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,p.804.


Fig.3.9W.JescovonPuttkamer,'LastDaysofEden:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,pp.812-813.


Fig.3.10AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyLorenMcIntyre(withphotographsbyW.JescovonPuttkamer),'LastDaysofEden:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,pp.812-813.


Fig.3.11AuthorviewingthebackcoverofNationalGeographic,December1988.

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Fig.3.12Jean-PierreDutilleux,‘PrimalSting’,Vogue,June1988,p.244.


Fig.3.13BaianadressforsaleatMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro.(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro,May2014)Fig.3.14Detail,BaianadressforsaleatMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro.(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro,May2014)Fig.3.15Detail,BaianadressforsaleatMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro.(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro,May2014)Fig.3.16Detail,BaianadressforsaleatMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro.(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro,May2014)Fig.3.17Detail,BaianadressforsaleatMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro.(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro,May2014)Fig.3.18Anon,‘GuiasebaianasrecepcionamturistasquedesembarcamnoportodeSalvadorparaoCarnava’l[‘GuidesandbaianasreceivetouristswhodisembarkattheportofSalvadorforCarnaval’],TurismobahiaonInstagram,February2014.

(Image:http://instagram.com/p/lH8dWEBD5g/,accessedApril2014)

Fig.3.19DavidAlanHarvey,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,NationalGeographic,August2002,p.79.


Fig.3.20AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyCharlesE.Cobb,(withphotographsbyDavidAlanHarvey),‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,NationalGeographic,August2002,pp.78-79.


Fig.3.21MariStockler,imagefromMeninasdoBrasil[GirlsofBrasil],(SaoPaulo:Cosac&Naify,2001),takeninSalvadordeBahia,1996.

(Image:MariStockler)

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Fig.3.22ArthurElgort,imagefrom‘WhiteHeat’,Vogue,March2006,p.521.


Chapter3.

Fig.4.0AuthorviewingfrontcoverofNationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001).


Fig.4.1AuthorviewingNationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),pp.2-3.










Fig.4.6AuthorviewingbackcoverofNationalGeographicFashion,Newman,Cathyed.,(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001)


Fig.4.7Anon.,‘Global:Fashion’sSecondCircuit’,Women’sWearDaily,24July2001,pp.16-17.

(Image:Women’sWearDailyDigitalArchive)

Fig.4.8LorenMcIntyre,NationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),p.178.


Fig.4.9LorenMcIntyre,‘Amazon–TheRiverSea’,NationalGeographic,October1972,pp.494-495.

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Fig.4.10RobertW.Madden,NationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),p.12.


Fig.4.11RobertW.Madden,‘Yanomamo,theTruePeople’,NationalGeographic,August1976,p.211.


Fig.4.12MichaelNichols,NationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),p.13.


Fig.4.13MichaelNichols,PhotographofYanomamiFatherandSon,1990.

(Image:http://www.natgeocreative.com/ngs/photography/search/comp-view/index.jsf)

Fig.4.14Advertisement,NationalGeographic,September2011,backcover.


Fig.4.15JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,September2011,pp.98-99.

(Image:photographscannedbyauthor,London,March2015)

Fig.4.16JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,September2011,pp.114-5.


Fig.4.17JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,220:3,(September,2011),pp.118-9


Fig.4.18AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyCynthiaGorney(withphotographsbyJohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,September2011,pp.118-119.


Fig.4.19AngeloPennetta,imagefrom‘TheFullBrazilian’,NewYorkTimesTStyleHolidayMagazine,December2011,p.169.


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Fig.4.20JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,220:3,(September,2011),n.p.

(Image:screengrabfromhttp://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/09/girl-power/stanmeyer-photography#/08-fashion-boutique-670.jpgtakenbyauthor,London,July2014)

Fig.4.21AuthorviewingtheonlinearticlebywrittenbyCynthiaGorney(withphotographsbyJohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,220:3,(September,2011),n.p.


PartTwo:

Chapter4.

Fig.5.0DeborahReis,‘FelizNatal’[‘HappyChristmas’],DeborahReisonFacebook,12December2014.

(Image:https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=10205506497210490&set=pb.1493261988.-2207520000.1432288715.&type=3&theater,accessedDecember2014)

Fig.5.1Advertisement,NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,pp.2-3.

(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)

Fig.5.2Advertisement,NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,p.169.


Fig.5.3Advertisement,NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,p.13.




Fig.5.5MarinaMoraes,(fotosdeCapitãoAlbertW.Stevens),‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde.Formigasgigantes,onçasàespreita,piranhas,corredeiras,mosquitos,malaria.AsdescobertaseossustosdeumaexoediçãodehidroaviãoàAmazônicaem1924’[‘BigReports:thelandisgreen.Giantants,jaguarslurking,piranhas,rapids,mosquitoes,malaria.ThefindingsandthescaresofanexpeditionbyhydroplanetotheAmazonin1924’],NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,pp.156-157.


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Fig.5.9RicardoBeliel,‘MaisBrasil:AngolanosnoRio.FugitivosdaGuerraemseupais,imigrantesdeAngolavivemhojeemcounidadenocentrovelhodoRiodeJaneiro–onde,háumsécolo,influênciasafricanasgerminaramosambacarioca’[‘LittleAfrica:LivinginacommunityinRiodeJaneiro,peoplefromAngolarecreatetheenvironmentwheresambaandcarnivalwereborn.],NationalGeographicBrasil,February2003,pp.116-117.


Fig.5.10MarcioScavone,‘OrientePróximo:NoBairrodaLiberdadeemSãoPaulo,resideoespiritodes100anosdaimigraçãojaponesanoBrasil[‘NearEast:InLiberdadeinSãoPaulo,thespiritof100yearsofJapaneseimmigrationtoBrazilresides’],NationalGeographicBrasil,June2008,pp.42-43.






Fig.5.13YukataforsaleinshoponRuaGalvãoBueno,inLiberdade,SaoPaulo.(Image:photographtakenbyauthorinLiberdade,SaoPaulo,May2014)

Fig.5.14GetaforsaleoutsideshoponRuaGalvãoBueno,inLiberdade,SaoPaulo.(Image:photographtakenbyauthorinLiberdade,SaoPaulo,May2014)

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Fig.5.15MarcioScavone,‘MissTanabata’,Print,2007.

(Image:takenbyauthoratSandraHigginsFineArtGallery,London,December2014)

Fig.5.16MarcioScavone,‘OCalendario’,Print,2007.

(Image:takenbyauthoratSandraHigginsFineArtGallery,London,December2014)

Chapter5.

Fig.6.0PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,August2013,pp.126-127.

(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilArchive,SaoPaulo)




(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratNationalGeographicBrasilArchive,SaoPaulo)

Fig.6.3PauloSiqueira,Untitled,Photograph,2013.

(Image:PauloSiqueira)







Fig.6.7PaulPatrickBorhaug,‘ONGassociaaltataxadesuícidioentreíndiosjovensaproblemasfundiários’,EstadãodeSaoPaulo,9October2013.(Image:http://politica.estadao.com.br/blogs/roldao-arruda/ong-associa-alta-taxa-de-suicidio-entre-indios-jovens-a-problemas-fundiarios/,accessed17February2015)

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Fig.6.8AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyNadiaShiraCohen,(withphotographsbyPauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.

(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,May2015)





Fig.6.11PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.

(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)







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Fig.6.17AuthorviewingthefilmproducedbyNadiaShiraCohenandPauloSiqueirainassociationwithPlanetaSusteneval,entitled‘Hopeless:thegovernmentneitherindemnifiesthefarmersnorregulatestheindigenouslands’,includedin‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.


Fig.6.18FilmStill,NadiaShiraCohenandPauloSiqueirainassociationwithPlanetaSusteneval,‘Hopeless:thegovernmentneitherindemnifiesthefarmersnorregulatestheindigenouslands’,0.03.








Fig.6.22FilmStill,MarchoBechis,Birdwatchers(ItalyandBrazil:ArtificialEye,2008),01.26.

(Image:takenbyauthor,London,May2015)

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Conclusion.





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Fig.7.3W.JescovonPuttkamer,'LastDaysofEden:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,pp.812-813.


Fig.7.4DavidAlanHarvey,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,NationalGeographic,August2002,p.79.


Fig.7.5MichaelNichols,NationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),p.13.


Fig.7.6JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,220:3,(September,2011),pp.118-9


Fig.7.7JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,220:3,(September,2011),n.p.

(Image:screengrabfromhttp://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/09/girl-power/stanmeyer-photography#/08-fashion-boutique-670.jpgtakenbyauthor,London,July2014)

Fig.7.8MarinaMoraes,(fotosdeCapitãoAlbertW.Stevens),‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde.Formigasgigantes,onçasàespreita,piranhas,corredeiras,mosquitos,malaria.AsdescobertaseossustosdeumaexoediçãodehidroaviãoàAmazônicaem1924’[‘BigReports:thelandisgreen.Giantants,jaguarslurking,piranhas,rapids,mosquitoes,malaria.ThefindingsandthescaresofanexpeditionbyhydroplanetotheAmazonin1924’],NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,pp.156-157.


Fig.7.9RicardoBeliel,‘MaisBrasil:AngolanosnoRio.FugitivosdaGuerraemseupais,imigrantesdeAngolavivemhojeemcounidadenocentrovelhodoRiodeJaneiro–onde,háumsécolo,influênciasafricanasgerminaramosambacarioca’[‘LittleAfrica:LivinginacommunityinRiodeJaneiro,peoplefromAngolarecreatetheenvironmentwheresambaandcarnivalwereborn.],NationalGeographicBrasil,February2003,pp.116-117.


Fig.7.10RobertW.Madden,‘Yanomamo,theTruePeople’,NationalGeographic,August1976,p.211.

22








23

Acknowledgements

Ihavecomeintocontactwithnumerouspeopleduringthethreeyearperiodspentresearchingandwritingthisthesis,whichwasgenerouslyfundedbytheAHRC.Firstandforemost,IwouldliketothankDrRebeccaArnold.Ihavebenefitedgreatlyfromhercriticaladvice,support,enthusiasmandfriendshipthroughout.

InWashingtonD.C.,IwouldliketorecordmythankstothefollowingatNationalGeographic:ReneeBraden,SusanWelchman,CathyNewman,CynthiaGorney,JohnStanmeyer,AnnieGriffithsBelt,andAmyKolczak(inadditiontopart-timecontributors,ValerieMendesandProfessorJoanneEicher),butparticularlytoHeidiSchultz,whowassointerestedintheproject,andputmeintouchwithcolleaguesinSaoPaulo.

InSaoPaulo,IwouldliketothankthefollowingatNationalGeographicBrasil:RonaldoRibeiro,RobertoMatsui,MatthewShirts,RicardoBeliel,MarcioScavone,NadiaShiraCohenandPauloSiqueira,whoweresorelaxed,helpfulandunremittinglyenthusiastic.ThankyoutoPedroFelipeattheMuseudoFutebol,whoshowedmesomefantasticphotosfromtheinaugurationofPacaembuStadium.

InRiodeJaneiro,IhadusefulandinterestingconversationswithMariStockler,DeborahReisandVincentRosenblatt.JoannaattheInstitutoMoreiraSalleswasalsoveryhelpful,aswellasstaffattheBibliotecaNacional.ThankyoutoAmandaCalazans,whohelpedmewithmytranslations,andsavedmewhenmyaccommodationinPavãoPavãozinhoencountereddifficulties.

InGoiana,IwouldliketothankDrRitaAndradeforinvitingmetogiveapapertoherstudentsatPUCandforsharingideas,inadditiontoProfessorPauloCesar,attheJescovonPuttkamercollection.

IamalsoverygratefultoVirginiaRounding,forherthoughtfulandcriticalcomments,andcontinuedsupportandadvice.ThankyoutoJonathanVickersforencouragingmetolook,andtothink,inamorenuancedlight,andforofferingadviceonpreviousdrafts.Iwanttothankmyparents,forallowingmetoseekrefugeoutofLondon,andtheCourtauldSlideLibrary,forprovidingacalmhaveninLondon.

Finally,IwouldliketoexpressmythankstoJohnHemmingwhopointedmeinanumberofhelpfuldirections,butalsocastdoubtonthemeritofthisstudy.Hespurredmeontoprovetheopposite!

24

ForDziadek

(8thJuly1925–26thOctober2014)

25

Introduction.NationalGeographicasaContactZone.

Asapopular‘scientific’andeducationaljournal,NationalGeographichasself-

consciouslypositioneditselfasavoiceofauthoritywithinmainstreamU.S.print

media,offeringwhatpurportstobeanunprejudiced‘windowontotheworld’.In

recentyears,academicscholarshiphascritiquedthemagazine’squasi-anthropological

outlook,fororganisinghierarchiesofrace,gender,sexualityandidentityand,under

theguiseofobjectivescience,pursuingaformofU.S.-drivenculturalimperialism.1

NationalGeographicunquestionablyconstitutesafascinatingresource,yettobe

seriouslyexaminedbyscholarship,ontheglobaluseofdressandfashiontoconstruct

andperformindividual,social,cultural,nationalandinternationalidentities.Despitea

growingnumberofinterdisciplinaryandcross-culturalexaminationsof‘non-Western’

dressandfashionsincetheearly1990s,thatdressandfashionhistoriansareyetto

conductanin-depthanalysisofNationalGeographiccanbeunderstoodaspartofa

1ThefourkeycriticalmonographsonNationalGeographictodatethatwillbeaddressedintheintroductiontothisthesisare:CatherineA.LutzandJaneL.Collins,ReadingNationalGeographic(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1993);LindaSteet,VeilsandDaggers:ACenturyofNationalGeographic'sRepresentationoftheArabWorld(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2000);TamarY.Rothenberg,PresentingAmerica'sWorld:StrategiesofInnocenceinNationalGeographicMagazine,1888-1945(Aldershot:AshgatePublishing,2007);StephanieL.Hawkins,AmericanIconographic:NationalGeographic,GlobalCulture,andtheVisualImagination(Charlottesville:UniversityofVirginiaPress,2010).OthercriticalstudiesofNationalGeographichaveincluded:PhilipJ.Pauly,'TheWorldandAllThatisInIt:TheNationalGeographicSociety,1888-1918',AmericanQuarterly,31.4(1979),517-32(p.523);HowardS.Abramson,NationalGeographic:BehindAmerica’sLensontheWorld(NewYork:CrownPublishers,1987);JoanGeroandDoloresRoot,'PublicPresentationsandPrivateConcerns:ArchaeologyinthePagesofNationalGeographic',inThePoliticsofthePast,ed.byPeterGathercoleandDavidLowenthal(London:UnwinHyman,1990),pp.19-37;LisaBloom,‘ConstructingWhiteness:PopularScienceandNationalGeographicintheAgeofMulticulturalism’,Configurations,2.1(1994),15-32;AlisonDevineNordstrom,‘WoodNymphsandPatriots:DepictionsofSamoansinTheNationalGeographicMagazine’,VisualSociology,7.2(1992),49-59;JulieA.Tuason,‘TheIdeologyofEmpireinNationalGeographicMagazine’sCoverageofthePhilippines,1898-1908’,GeographicalReview,89.1(1999),34-53;SusanSchulten,TheGeographicalImaginationinAmerica,1880-1950(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2001);RadhikaParameswaran,‘LocalCultureinGlobalMedia:ExcavatingColonialandMaterialDiscoursesinNationalGeographic’,CommunicationTheory,12.3(2002),287-315;DavidR.Jansen,‘AmericanNationalIdentityandtheProgressoftheNewSouthin“NationalGeographicMagazine”’,GeographicalReview,93.3(2003),350-69;RobertM.Poole,Explorer’sHouse.‘NationalGeographic’andtheWorlditMade(NewYork:Penguin,2004).

26

largerscholarlytendencytoprivilegeenquiriesinto‘Western’highfashion.2A

revisionistexaminationofNationalGeographicneedstobridgethisperceivedgap

betweentheWestandthenon-West.3Itneedstoconsider,firstly,whatthemagazine

cantellusaboutthedressandfashionchoicesoftheindividualsubjectsrepresented

andtheirinteractionswithglobalculture.Secondly,andofequalimportance,itneeds

toscrutinisethemagazine’sownrepresentationalagenda,andconsiderhowthe

magazinemayhaveuseddresstofashionanideaofthedifferentpeoplesandplaces

represented.

ThisthesiscontributestowideningacademicresearchonNationalGeographic,

conductedsofarbysociologists,anthropologists,feministsandpostcolonialtheorists.

ThesescholarshaveequatedthegazeofNationalGeographicwithmasculine,

imperialistpower,butfailedtoacknowledgethefundamentalsocial,cultural,

economicandpoliticalrolethatdresshasplayedwithinphotographsandtext

publishedwithinthemagazine,whetherasaformofsubmission,orcrucially,of

resistance.Thisthesisusesaninterdisciplinaryframework,developedfrommy

perspectiveasadresshistoriantrainedinarthistory,tointerrogatepreviousacademic

scholarshiponNationalGeographic.Brazilhasbeenchosenasacasestudytofocus2Threenotableexamplesofinterdisciplinaryandcross-culturalexaminationson‘non-Western’dressandfashionthathavebeeninfluentialtothisthesisare:JenniferCraik,TheFaceofFashion:CulturalStudiesinFashion(London:Routledge,1993);MargaretMaynard,DressandGlobalisation(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2004);SusanB.Kaiser,FashionandCulturalStudies(London:Berg,2012).3Iamawareofthepitfallsofemployingthegeneralisedandambiguousterms,Westernandnon-Western,whicharecentreduponadichotomythatimpliestheWestisthestandardbywhicheverythingelseismeasured.TheseconceptsareparticularlyunhelpfulandreductivewithinthecontextofLatinAmericawhich,geographically,iscertainlyaWesternlandmass,butalsogiventhemultipleandinterconnecteddressandfashionsystemsthatco-exist,interactandcompetethroughouttheworld.Nevertheless,intheabsenceofmoreappropriateterminology,forthepurposesofthisthesisIusetheterm‘Western’toreferbroadlytoculturalandsartorialsystemsthathaveemergedfromtheUnitedStatesandWesternEurope.Ihopethatreaderswillunderstandwhatismeantbythisusage,ratherthanenterintoanideologicalandsemanticdebatethatisbeyondtheconfinesofthisthesis.SarahCheangengageswithsimilarissuesinherexaminationofexoticlocationfashionshootsproducedbyPatrickDemarchelier,MarioTestinoandTimWalker,andpublishedinBritishVoguesincethemid-2000s.SarahCheang,‘‘ToTheEndsoftheEarth’:FashionandEthnicityintheVogueFashionShoot’inFashionMedia:PastandPresent,ed.byDjurdjaBartlett,ShaunColeandAgnesRocamora(London:BloomsburyAcademic,2013),pp.35-45.

27

andsharpenacross-culturalanddress-historicalanalysisofNationalGeographicand

Braziliansubjectsrepresentedwithinit.BrazilisoftenportrayedinmainstreamU.S.

fashionmediathroughrecurringstereotypesthatfocusonCarnival,samba,andthong

bikiniswornonCopacabanabeach,buttheseexoticimagesofculturaldifferencefail

toappreciatetheinternalsubtletiesofthecountry’sracial,religious,social,cultural,

geographicalandsartorialdiversity.4ThedevelopmentofBraziliandressandfashion

reflectsalonghistoryofcross-culturalcontact,slaveryandimmigration,inacomplex

andfluidprocessbywhichBrazil,nowthefifthlargestandfifthmostpopulouscountry

intheworld,hassinceitscolonisationbythePortuguesein1500absorbedbutalsore-

interpretedmultipleinfluencesthatstemfromitsindigenouspopulations,aswellas

fromEurope,Africa,AsiaandtheUnitedStates.

ThehistoryofBrazilembodiestheslipperinessofthetensionsbetweenthe

Westernandthenon-Western,andraisesinterestingquestionsabouthowNational

Geographichasarticulatedarecognisableimageofthecountrywithinitspages.5In

geographicalterms,BraziliscertainlyaWesternnation.Moreover,itisaffiliatedwith

theWestintermsofitsdevelopingfree-marketeconomy,itslargeexportsuppliesof

rawmaterialsandmanufacturedgoods,itstransitiontoademocraticconstitution

followingtheendoftheauthoritarianmilitaryregimein1985,itshighcultural

institutions,anditsadoptionofChristianityandthePortugueselanguage.Brazilalso

enjoysaregionalhegemonicinfluenceinLatinAmericathatraisesdoubtabout

4RitaAndradeandReginaRoot,‘Dress,BodyandCultureinBrazil’,<http://www.bergfashionlibrary.com/viewencyclopedia/bewdf/BEWDF-v2/EDch2064.xml>[accessed21May2015]5AlthoughBrazilhasmanyaffinitieswiththeUnitedStates,intermsofitsvastterritoryintheWesternhemisphere,anditsracial,ethnicandculturalmultiplicityasaresultofEuropeancolonialconquest,slaveryandimmigration,makingasustainedcomparisonbetweenthetwoisnottheconcernofthisthesis.

28

simplisticassertionsofU.S.culturalimperialism.6However,Brazilmightstillbe

consideredanon-Westernnationwithregardtoitsincompleteinfrastructure,

socioeconomicdisparities,unequaldistributionofwealthandland,poorstandardsof

publichealth,anditspopularandmaterialculturewhichconstitutes,asDavidHess

andRobertoDaMattahavesuccinctlyarticulated,auniquesiteinwhich‘Western

culturehasmixedandmingledwithnon-Westernculturesforcenturies’.7Brazilcan

thusbeunderstoodasamicrocosmoftheworldasawholeandassuch,justas

NationalGeographichasattemptedtoencapsulatewithinitspages,‘TheWorldandAll

ThatIsInIt’,providesarevealingcasestudythroughwhichtoexaminehowglobal

identitieshavebeenasserted,negotiatedandre-negotiatedinthemagazinethrough

therepresentationofBraziliandressandfashion.8Thesefluidintersectionsand

entanglementshaveparticularrelevanceinthetransitionalpost-1988timeframe

underexamination,andofferthepotentialforthediversitythatisevidentwithin

Brazilianborders,tocastalightuponNationalGeographic’ssearchfordifference

acrossnationalboundaries.9

6In1991JosephD.StraubhaarexaminedtheeffectsofU.S.mediaexpansionandusedtheterm‘asymmetricalinterdependence’todescribethemultiplerelationshipsthatexistbetweenBrazilandtheUnitedStates,whichhavemovedbeyondmediaimperialism,andtowardsdifferentiateddegreesofsharedcultural,economicandpoliticalpower.Hisargumentwascentreduponanunderstandingofmediaaudiencesascriticalandactiveparticipants,ratherthanpassiveanddominated.Theirinterpretationswerenonethelessconditionedbytheirgender,class,age,politicalviewsandinterests.JosephD.Straubhaar,‘BeyondMediaImperialism:AsymmetricalInterdependenceandCulturalProximity’,CriticalStudiesinMassCommunication,8(1991),39-59.7DavidJ.HessandRobertA.DaMatta,‘Introduction’inBrazilianPuzzle:CultureontheBorderlandsoftheWesternWorld,ed.byHessandDaMatta(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1995),p.2.8AlexanderGrahamBellquotedinPauly,'TheWorldandAllThatisInIt’,p.523.9Thistimeframe,andmyuseofBrazilasacasestudy,arebothvastlyunderrepresentedinNationalGeographicscholarship.Theonlycommentmadetodateonthemagazine’srepresentationofBrazilwasprovidedbyCatherineLutzandJaneL.Collinsin1990,whoarguedthat,asinmuchpopularmedia,Brazilisrepresentedas‘akindofsisterstatetotheUnitedStates,completewiththesamevastarea,wealthofresources,frontierwithIndians,andmuchimmigration[…]Brazil’sexperienceisidentifiedwiththatoftheUnitedStatesbutthendistinguishedfromit.Aswithmanyothercountriesinthepopularimagination,theirpresentisourpast.’ThecomparisonsbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazilinNationalGeographichavenotbeensosystematicasLutzandCollinsimplybut,rather,havebeenusedatkeymomentstohighlightthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwocountries,inattitudes,interests,dressand

29

Thisintroductionwilloutlinethetheoreticalframeworkandresearch

methodologiesthatwillbeusedtoknitthefabricofthisthesistogether.Itbeginswith

anexaminationofFrenchartistCyprienGaillard’spop-upartwork,‘L’Origamidu

Monde’,whichwaspublishedin032cinOctober2013tocoincidewithNational

Geographic’s125thanniversary.10Gaillard’sartworkwillbeusedtocasta

contemporarylightonNationalGeographicandprovideabriefhistoryofthe

developmentofthemagazinesinceitwasestablishedin1888.NationalGeographic

willbeconceptualisedasa‘contactzone’,atermcoinedbyMaryLouisePratt,an

AmericanscholarofSpanishandPortugueseLanguagesandLiterature,todescribea

spaceinwhichdifferentculturescomeintocontactwithoneanotherandestablishon-

goinginteractions.11Acriticalassessmentwillbemadeoftheimportantprevious

scholarshipconductedonNationalGeographicwhichthisthesisexpandsupon.My

modusoperandi,however,istooutlinetheoriginalavenuesofcritiqueanddiscussion

providedbyaphenomenologicalapproachtowardsdressanditsvisual,textualand

materialrepresentation.Iwillunpickwhythetransitionalpost-1988timeframe,which

coincideswithNationalGeographic’scentennial,hasbeenselectedasthefocusforan

examinationofthemagazine.Iexplainthe‘snapshot’approachthatwillbeused

throughouttozoominandfocusonmycentralcasestudies,whichre-enacteleven

particularlychargedandcomplexcross-culturalencountersinthefabricofNational

GeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil’srepresentationofBraziliandress.Iwill

deportment,aspartofaspecificrepresentationalagendathathasdrawnparallelswithcontemporarygovernmentpolicy.LutzandCollins,ReadingNationalGeographic,p.125.Theonlycommentmadetodateonthemagazine’srepresentationofglobalculturehasbeenbyRadhikaParameswaran,whomadeacasestudyoftheAugust1999millenniumissue.Sheusedasemiotic,feministframeworktomakeacritiqueof‘theGeographic’sdiscursivestrategies,whichfocusesattentionontheintricate,hierarchicalstructuresofgender,race,andclassthatbecameentangledwiththemagazine’sneocolonialrenderingofglobalculture’.Parameswaran,‘LocalCultureinGlobalMedia’,p.288.10CyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,O32c,Autumn/Winter2013,pp.160-67.11MaryLouisePratt,ImperialEyes:TravelWritingandTransculturation,2ndedn(NewYork:Routledge,2008),p.8.

30

define‘auto-ethnographicexpression’,abroadtermusedtodescribehow

ethnographicsubjectsuseculturalexpressionstoconstructadialogueinresponseto

theirethnographicrepresentationbyadominantculture.12Themultifariousand

contradictorynatureofdressdemandsaninterdisciplinarymethodologicalapproach

thatcanreviseacceptedandone-dimensionalhistoriesofNationalGeographic,

providedbyboththemagazineandpreviousscholarship.Inthisvein,Ioutlinethe

theoriesofthefivemultidisciplinaryscholarswhoseconcernwithauto-ethnography

andtheconstructionofBrazilianidentityinformsthefivechaptersofthisthesis.I

moveontoacknowledgemyownauto-ethnographyastheauthorofthisthesis,and

commentupontheself-reflexivemethodologythatisusedthroughout.Iconcludeby

summarisingthekeyresearchquestionsthisthesissetsouttoanswer.

‘L’OrigamiduMonde’:MakingContactwithNationalGeographic

Tocommemoratethe125thanniversaryofNationalGeographic,apop-up

artworkbyCyprienGaillard(1980-),entitled‘L’OrigamiduMonde’(Figs.1.0–1.7),was

publishedintheAutumn/Winter201325theditionof032c.13Itaddressedthemixed

readershipoftheBerlin-basedbi-annualcontemporaryart,fashionandculture

magazine,whichisrecognisableforitsdistinctiveredglossycoverandthickbinding,its

innovativefashionimageryandthought-provokingcontent.Spreadoversevenfull-

bleedpagesinO32c,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’reproducedfivephotographsselectedfrom

Gaillard’sextensivecollectionofNationalGeographicmagazines,whichspanthe

12NationalGeographicisunderstoodthroughoutthisthesistobeaformofpopularethnographyinthesensethatithassystematicallystudieddifferentpeoplesandculturessince1888.13CyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,O32c.

31

period1888to1995.14Therichlycolouredsequencecomprisedmaskedfigures,

abstractlandscapes,undulatingseacreatures,andexpressivehandsclutchingU.S.

dollarnotes.Therewasnoacknowledgementofwherethesephotographshadbeen

taken,norwhentheyhadoriginallybeenpublishedinNationalGeographic.However,

ina2012interviewwithSvenSchumannforPurplemagazine,GaillardpraisedNational

Geographic’soutstandingphotojournalism,particularlyduringthe1960sand1970s:

‘Thequalityofthereportagethattheyweredoingatthetimewassoamazing.It’sthe

kindofmagazineyourfatherhad.Itwasthisprismthatyoulookedattheworld

through.There’ssomethingverycolonialaboutit.’15HeequatedNationalGeographic

withapatriarchal,masculinegaze:onethatwasconcernednotjustwithseeingthe

surroundingworld,butthatconstitutedaparticularwayoflookingatitthat,by

extension,soughttoacquirecontroloverit.

Printedonbrightyellowpages,acontextualaccompanimenttoGaillard’s

artwork,writtenbyDieterRoelstraete,SeniorCuratorattheMuseumof

ContemporaryArt,acknowledgedtheevolutionofthe‘paperempire’overone

hundredandtwenty-fiveyears.16TheNationalGeographicMagazinewasfirst

publishedin1888asaslimterracotta-colouredtechnicaljournalproducedbythe

NationalGeographicSociety,whichwasbasedinWashingtonD.C.andcomprisedtwo

hundredmembers,‘toincreaseanddiffusegeographicknowledge’.17Underitsfirst

full-timeeditor,GilbertH.Grosvenor(1903–1954),itincreaseditsoutreachand

developedintothepopularglossy‘scientific’andeducationalmagazine,withits

14InaninterviewwithSvenSchumann,Gaillardexplainedhehas‘theentireNationalGeographicstockuntilaround1995,basicallywhenitstartedtobecomeabitugly’.Hedidnotelaborateonthelatterpoint.SvenSchumann,‘CyprienGaillard:ArchitecturalHangover’,Purple,Autumn/Winter2012,pp.224-30.15Schumann,‘CyprienGaillard:ArchitecturalHangover’.16DieterRoelstraete,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013,p.162.17Anon.,'Announcement',NationalGeographic,October1988,p.1.

32

distinctiveyellowborderandcolourphotography,whichisfamiliartoday.18Withinthe

contemporaryglobalmediascape,NationalGeographicstillcastsaquasi-ethnographic

gazeontothepurportedlyexoticfloraandfaunaintheworldeachmonthtoits

4,125,152U.S.and6,855,235internationalreaders.19AlthoughNationalGeographic’s

mainstreamculturalproductionisaddressedatapredominantlyheterosexualmale,

middle-classandmiddle-agedaudience,demonstratedbytheadvertisements

publishedwithinit,theexactbreakdownofreadershipstatisticsisdifficultto

ascertain,sinceamixed,maleandfemalereadership,constitutingabroadrangeof

agesandsocialclasses,hasunquestionablycomeintocontactwiththemagazine.

ReneeBraden,SeniorArchivistattheNationalGeographicSociety,hasexplained:

Itishardtogiveexactfiguresbecauseonepersonmaysubscribe,buttherestofthefamilyreads.It’sevenhardertotrackviewerstoday.There’snoneedtosubscribeeven–youcannowlookonlineorbuyitatanewsstand.Bothmenandwomenreadit.Oramansubscribes,buthisgirlfriend,wifeorkidsborrowthemagazineandreadit.Youcantellfromtheadvertsthough(forthingslikeBMWs),thetypeofaudiencethatwebelievetoreadthemagazine–mainlymiddle-classmen,butalsowomen.Webelievethatthisaudienceisintheover50scategory.Ourhousestyleis‘readableandinteresting’andsoyoucanseethatwearestilltryingtoappealtoamassaudience.20

ThisinabilitytopinpointNationalGeographic’sreadershipislargelyduetoitsubiquity,

memorablydramatisedinElizabethBishop’s1971poem,‘TheWaitingRoom’,inwhich

sherecalledacrudememoryofhersix-year-oldself,readingtheFebruary1918edition

ofthemagazinewhilstwaitingforherauntinadentist’ssurgeryinWorcester,

Massachusetts.21Todate,NationalGeographicproducesfortyeditionsinlocal

18C.D.Bryan,'TheLanguageofthePhotograph',inTheNationalGeographicSociety:100YearsofAdventureandDiscovery(NewYork:Abrams,1987),pp.118-35.19ReneeBraden,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor,(NationalGeographicHeadquarters,WashingtonDC,17July2013).RefertoAppendix5:Interviews.20Braden,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.21ElizabethBishop,‘TheWaitingRoom’,inTheCompletePoems:1927-1979(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,1983),n.p.

33

languages,inadditiontoitsEnglish-languageversion,andisaglobalbrandthat

encompassestelevision,radio,films,music,books,DVDs,maps,exhibitionsand

merchandise.

DespitesuchdevelopmentsatNationalGeographictoexpandproductlines

anddistributionoutlets,Roelstraetecapturedthemagazinefromanobservational

perspectivethatrendereditacast-offculturalartifactfromabygone,pre-Internet

age:

Throughtheiconicyellowframeofacoverdesignthathasn’tchangedforoveracentury,wecatchaglimpseofasteadilyrecedingpast–whoneedsNationalGeographicintheageofhigh-speed,hand-heldimagesearching,memes,tumblrs,andvariousothertypesof‘viral’visuals?ThecomingoftheInternetarguablyusheredintheendofthisparticularchapterinthehistoryofpublishingculture,andthisispreciselythemoment–sometimeinthenineties,whenGaillardwasstillateenager–whenNationalGeographicasabrand‘lostit’.22

HestressedthatNationalGeographic’sauthoritarianvoiceinmainstreamAmerican

printmediahadbeensurrenderedtodigitalreconfigurationsofmassmedia,butalso

to‘theriseofpoliticalcorrectness…emergenceofpostcolonialtheoryandassorted

critiquesofempire’.23WhereasGaillardassociatedNationalGeographicwitha

patriarchal,colonialgaze,Roelstraeteadvancedonestepfurtherandremovedany

humanisingaspectfromthisparticularmanneroflookingattheworld.Instead,

NationalGeographic’s‘allseeingeye’,heasserted,hasanalysed,monitoredand

collectedsubjects,whohavebeenexposedtoanunmediatedapplicationof

autonomouspowerthatis‘notsoverydifferent,andgeographicallynotsofar

removed,fromthatoftheFBIorCIA–or,whynot,theNSA’.24

22Roelstraete,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,p.164.23Ibid.24Ibid.,p.166.

34

In‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,Gaillardinvertedthatauthoritariangazebyplacingit

onthemagazine,whichheobjectifiedandtransformed,withtheassistanceofthe

O32cviewer,intoasculpturalformthatconstitutedacriticalpointofentryinto

NationalGeographic’scomplexhistory.Theinstructionsthataccompaniedhisartwork

inO32cread:

Assembledfromimagesthatspanmorethan40yearsofNationalGeographicmagazine,CyprienGaillard’sarteditionforO32ccanbeassembledbymakingthreesimplefoldsfromlefttorightintotheinsidehingeofthemagazine.Noglueisrequired.Thisanachronisticmonumentisheldtogetherbytension.25

Themeaningof‘L’OrigamiduMonde’wasthereforedependentuponthe032cviewer,

whohadtoassembleitwithherhands,andtherebyacquiredanactiveasopposedto

passiveparticipatoryroleinitsconstructionasimageandobject.Themagazinehadto

beplacedonaflatsurfaceanditstactile,mattepages,distinctfromthehigh-gloss

sheenofNationalGeographic,manipulatedasthreefoldsweregentlycurledin

towardsitsspine,andcarefullybalanced.Theresultwasasubjectiveandsculptedre-

constructionofNationalGeographic,whichemphasisedalevelofartificeand

mutabilityinthemagazine’spurportedlyobjectiveandlinearhistoricalaccountofthe

world.Timeandspacecollapsedandmergedintoasingular,imaginativeand

contingent(inthesensethattheartworkhadtobedisassembledinorderforthe

viewertoreadtheremainderofthemagazine)structurethroughaconstructive

processthatwasinstigatedbyGaillard,andfulfilledbytheO32cviewer,whowas

directlyimplicatedintheartisticpractice.Thiscollaborativeactbetweenperforming

individualsinresponsetoagoverningpower,NationalGeographic,correspondedwith

ArielaAzoulay’suseoftherhetoricaldeviceshehastermed‘thecivilcontractof

25MatthewEvans,‘HAPPYBIRTHDAYNATIONALGEOGRAPHIC’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013,p.159.

35

photography’.26Azoulaycomplicatedtheone-directionalityofpowerthatSusan

Sontagattributedtomass-mediaimagesandassertedthat,ratherthanfatiguedand

image-saturated,viewersareglobalcitizens:active,awareand,byextension,

politicallyinformedandcapableofalternativeinterpretation.27Gaillard’ssculpture

wasnotamereaestheticisationofNationalGeographic,butacriticalre-presentation

ofthemagazineduringthebuild-upto,andcelebrationsof,its125thanniversary.He

used032cassiteandvehicleforacriticalandtactilere-engagementwiththe

ethnographicgazenowwidelyequatedinacademicscholarshipwiththeyellow-

borderedframeofNationalGeographic,andencouraged032cviewerstodothesame.

Ratherthananalysethemagazineatarm’slength,asmanyofitsharshercriticshave,

Gaillardintervenedatclosequarters,andindoingsoblurredtheboundarybetween

two-dimensional,detachedviewingandthree-dimensionalmultisensoryexperience,

highlightinghowNationalGeographic’smodeofdocumentingtheworldmightbe

reclaimedthroughimaginativestorytellingandnarrativeconstruction.

NationalGeographicasaContactZone

‘L’OrigamiduMonde’sculptedacriticalperspectiveonNationalGeographicby

creativelyinterveninginthewaysthatthemagazinehassynthesisedandcompressed

diversepeoplesandplaces,previouslyseparatedbygeographical,temporal,cultural

andethnicdisjuncture,intoasinglecompactentity.Indoingso,theartwork

encapsulatedwhatMaryLouisePrattconceptualisedasthe‘contactzone’.28Pratt

coinedthetermtodescriberealorimagined‘spaceswheredisparateculturesmeet,26AriellaAzoulay,TheCivilContractofPhotography(Cambridge,MA:TheMITPress,2008).27SusanSontag,OnPhotography(London:Penguin,1979);SusanSontag,RegardingthePainofOthers(London:Penguin,2004).28Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.7.

36

clash,andgrapplewitheachother,ofteninhighlyasymmetricalrelationsof

dominationandsubordination’.29Inherentwithinthisspaceofencounterarenotions

offrictionandconflictplayedoutinamilitantarea,oramorphouszone,inwhichthe

spatialandtemporalpresenceofdisparategroupscanbeseentointersectand

establishongoinginteractions.WhereasGaillardusedtheremovedspaceof032cto

putforwardhiscritique,toslideopentheglossycoverofNationalGeographicistobe

confrontedwithanintrinsiccritiquethatismobilisedthroughthemagazine’sown

visualandtextualeclecticism,whichpresentsarecurrentrepertoireofdiverse

expressions,gestures,poses,clothingandcolours.Apertinentexamplecanbeseenin

the125thanniversaryeditionofNationalGeographic,publishedinOctober2013,

whichdocumentedencounterswiththeDemocraticRepublicofCongo,Kuwait,

Nigeria,Afghanistan,India,Peru,Iraq,ChinaandNorthKorea(Figs.1.8–1.13).30

Viewedinitsentirety,itpresentedacomplexportraitoftheworldthatoscillated

precariouslybetweenhomogenousidentificationof,andheterogeneousidentification

with,therepresentedsubjects.Theinterpretativeemphasisshiftedbetweentwo

opposingpoles:ontheonehand,adistancedpleasurederivedfromthestereotypical

exoticismmanifestwhenprivilegedviewersobservegeographicallydistantandoften

impoverishedsubjects,butsimultaneously,acriticalawarenessofthosediverse

subjectsasasiteforpotential,asknowingagentscapableofconstructingtheirown

subjectivitiesthroughdress,poseanddeportment.

Thetextcatalysedthispalpabletensionandcontrasted,tociteoneexample,

‘witness’,anounsuggestiveofthedistancedspectator,with‘relate’,anempathetic

verbindicativeofidentification.Inasimilarlogic,conflictingstatementsposited

29Ibid.30NationalGeographic,October2013.

37

‘Photographyisaweaponagainstwhat’swrongoutthere.It’sbearingwitnesstothe

truth’against‘IfallinlovewithalmosteverypersonIphotograph.Iwanttoheareach

story.Iwanttogetclose.Thisispersonalforme.’31Thiscomplexdisjunctionbetween

thestandardisationanddifferentiationofpeoplesandplacesthatmaterialisedfrom

withinthepagesofNationalGeographicpresentedcross-culturalcontactasan

intricateand,crucially,continuallyshiftingprocessofculturalexchange,asopposedto

astatic,deterministicstate.Representationemergedasacomplexculturalprocess,

comprisedofnumerousspatialandtemporalcontinuitiesanddiscontinuities,inwhich

meaningwasnotinherentonlyintheclothingchoicesmadebysubjects,buthasalso

beenfashionedbyNationalGeographicinresponsetomodulationsinthebalanceof

globalpower.TorecogniseNationalGeographicasacontactzoneenablesthemultiple

subjectsrepresentedwithinittobeunderstoodasbothinteractingagentswhoself-

fashioned,andsubordinatesubjectswhowerefashionedbyNationalGeographic’s

quasi-anthropologicalgaze.Thismethodologicalframeworkthusenablesthe

ambivalentandasymmetricalrelationsofpowerpresentedinNationalGeographicto

serveasapointofdeparture,butnotthestraightforwardconclusion,ofthe

magazine’srepresentationalagenda.

Re-addressingPreviousAcademicContactwithNationalGeographic

Thisthesiswillreviseacceptedandstandardisedviews,concerningNational

Geographic’sunchangingparticipationinanimperialistrepresentationalregime,which

haveemergedinasustainedcriticalcommentarysincetheearly1990s.CatherineLutz31BrentStirton,NationalGeographic,October2013,p.37;StephanieSinclair,NationalGeographic,October2013,p.79.

38

andJaneL.Collins,LindaSteet,TamarRothenbergandStephanieHawkinshaveall

condemnedtheprimitivisingandexoticisinggazethatthemagazinehasroutinely

placedonnon-Westernsubjects.32Itisimportanttoacknowledgethepotential

reductivenessofsuchcritiques,whichassertthatNationalGeographichasfixed

subjectsasdehumanisedandessentialisedobjectswithinanimposedethnographic

present,aspectacleoftheunknownandexoticOther.33Thistantalisingcommentary

hasdisregardedthepossibilitythatdress,withallofitsalliedambiguities,might

operateinunexpectedorstrategicways,sometimesevenagainstthevery

representationalcontextsthathaveframedit.

WhilstnoneofthesefemaleNorthAmericanscholarshasexplicitlyfocusedon

dress,itssymbolicandsemioticfunctionhasbeenthreadedthroughoutalmostallof

theirarguments.AnthropologistLutzandsociologistCollinsconductedan

ethnographicstudyofNationalGeographicfrom1950to1986andoutlinedits

encyclopaedicandoppressivearrangementsofrace,gender,sexualityandidentity.

TheycomparedthemagazinetoEdwardSteichen’sFamilyofManexhibitionatMOMA

(1955),whichfeaturedfivehundredandthreephotographsfromsixty-eightcountries

andwasextensivelycriticisedforitspromotionofanundifferentiatedformof

universalhumanismembeddedinU.S.ColdWarpropaganda.LutzandCollins

acknowledgedthatNationalGeographichasmadeadistinctionbetweensubjects

wearingbrightlycoloured‘indigenousdress,tribalfashion,and/orritualcostume’,

indicativeof‘anentirealienlife-style,localeormind-set’,andthosewearing‘Western

dress’,whichimpliedadesirefor‘socialchange,materialprogress,and…aforward-

32LutzandCollins,ReadingNationalGeographic;Steet,VeilsandDaggers;Rothenberg,PresentingAmerica’sWorld;Hawkins,AmericanIconographic.33IdrawhereonEdwardSaid’swidelyacknowledgeddiscussionoftheWesternEuropeanideologicalcreationofaninferiorOther.EdwardSaid,Orientalism(London:Penguin,2003).

39

lookingWesternorientation’.34SimilarconclusionsabouttheOrientalistroleofdress

weredrawnbyArab-AmericanfeministscholarSteetinherexaminationofthe

magazine’ssystematiccoverageofArabpeoplesandculturesfrom1888to1988.She

arguedthatNationalGeographichasexplicitlyusednon-Westerndresstosymbolise

Arabwomen’salleged‘dominationandbackwardness’,asopposedtoWestern-style

dress,whichhassignifiedtheir‘emancipationandmodernity’.35Rothenberg,

meanwhile,useddressmoreimplicitlyinherexaminationofthemagazinefrom1888

to1945.Shecriticisedthe‘strategiesofinnocence’usedbyNationalGeographicto

presentautopianandaltruisticvisionofNorthAmericanmoralandtechnological

supremacyabroad,andbrieflyoutlinedtheexploitationofnon-Westernclothingto

highlightdistanceanddifference.36NationalGeographicphotographer,Maynard

OwenWilliams,forexample,posedindividualsin‘full-costume’forthe‘benefitofhis

camera’.37Rothenberg’sown,limiteduseoftheterm‘full-costume’constructeda

binaryoppositionbetweenfashionable,moderndressandfixed,traditionalcostume,

anddemonstratedthatherunderstandingofdresswithinthecontextofa

transnationalworldwasratherlimited.Mostrecently,literaryscholarStephanieL.

Hawkins’revisionistaccountofNationalGeographicfrom1896to1954hasprovided

animportantcritiqueofpreviousscholarship,namelyforitsassumptionsthat‘readers

arenotreadingthemagazinesomuchastreatingitasapicturebook,mindlessly

flippingthroughthephotographswithoutpauseforcriticalreflection’.38National

Geographicviewers,sheasserted,werenotpassivereceptaclesofcultural

stereotypes,butactiveandcriticalparticipantswho,ratherthanendorsethe

34LutzandCollins,ReadingNationalGeographic,pp.91-93.35Steet,VeilsandDaggers,p.109.36Rothenberg,PresentingAmerica’sWorld,p.6.37Ibid.,p.112.38Hawkins,AmericanIconographic,p.10.

40

magazine’simperialistagenda,negotiatedtheirownunderstandingofthemultifarious

identitiesintheworldthroughthelensofthisAmerican‘icon’.39However,Hawkins

failedtoextendheranalysistounderstandactiveandcriticalNationalGeographic

viewersasalsoembodiedandclothed,whoformedsensoryandemotional

connectionswithsubjectsrepresentedinthemagazinethroughtheinterconnected

activitiesoflooking,seeing,being,feelingand,crucially,wearing.

Althoughtheimportantworkcontributedbythesescholarscannotbe

discounted,theyhaveneglectedtoconsiderthedressedbodyinthebroadercultural

senseasatangible,three-dimensionalsitewherecomplexforcesmeet.Ratherthan

considerthesubversivepossibilitiesthatareinherentindress,andwhichdemanda

correspondinglymultisensoryresponsefromviewers,LutzandCollins,Steetand

Rothenbergconcentratedonthewaysthemagazinehasuseddressasatoolto

oppressnon-Westernsubjectsandconstructstereotypicalnarrativesofexotic

difference.Theyinterpreteddressasameresurfacedecoration,asecondary

constructiontothebody,whereasthisthesisisconcernedwiththedressedbodyasa

unifiedwhole:howitfeelstobedressed,theexperienceofdress,howBrazilian

subjectshavebeendressedbyNationalGeographic,butalsotheirown,embodied

practicesofdress.40

39Ibid.,p.13.40MistyL.Bastianmakesthisdistinctionbetweenunderstandingclothingassecondarytothebody,andacknowledgingthewaythatidentity‘exist[s]intheveryseamsandfoldsofclothing:howclothingshapesbodiesandeven,insomecases,givesformtoamorphousbodies’.MistyL.Bastian,‘Female“Alhajis”andEntrepreneurialFashions:FlexibleIdentitiesinSoutheasternNigerianClothingPractice’inClothingandDifference:EmbodiedIdentitiesinColonialandPost-ColonialAfrica,ed.byHildiHendrickson(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1996),pp.97-132(p.102).

41

APhenomenologyofContactthroughDressandthePhotographicObject

Thisthesisextendspreviousscholarshipbyapproachingdressnotsimplyas

cloth,butasasystemofcommunication,whosemanymeaningsarenotfixedbut

continuallyinformedandtoanextent,evenperformed,byitsvisual,textual,and

materialrepresentation.IdrawhereuponanthropologistsJoanneB.EicherandMary

EllenRoach-Higgins’understandingofdressas‘anassemblageofbodymodifications

and/orsupplements’,whichtakesintoaccountbothitsmaterialpropertiesand

expressivecapabilities.41Thisencompassingdefinitionextendsbeyondclothingalone,

butinvolvesthenumerousactsandproductsusedtofashionthebody,suchas

makeup,hairstyle,piercing,scarification,bodypaintandtattoos,whichactasanon-

verbalsystemofcross-culturalcommunication.Itisusefultoclarifyherethe

distinctionthatImakebetween‘dress’and‘fashion’.Ialsodefinefashionwithinan

expansiveframework,asaconceptthatindicateschangeandpermeatesnotsolely

dress,butmanyareasoflife,includinginteriordesign,architecture,food,andeven

trendsinacademicthought.Iexaminefashionthroughoutthisthesisasanambiguous

andadditionalvaluethatisattachedtodress,aswellasitsvisualrepresentation,

whichcanbefastandthrowawaystreetstyle,orrarefiedandelitehautecouture,but

frequentlycapitalisesuponitscontradictorynaturetonegotiatethelocalandthe

global.42

41JoanneB.EicherandMaryEllenRoach-Higgins,'DressandIdentity',inDressandIdentity,ed.byMaryEllenRoach-Higgins,JoanneB.EicherandKimK.P.Johnson(NewYork:FairchildPublications,1995),p.7.42RebeccaArnoldandYuniyaKawamurahavebothexpressedsimilaropinionsandmyunderstandingthatfashionanddress,althoughcloselyrelated,cannotbeusedinterchangeably,isinformedbytheirthinking.RebeccaArnold,Fashion:AVeryShortIntroduction(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2009);YuniyaKawamura,DoingResearchinFashionandDress:AnIntroductiontoQualitativeMethods(Oxford:Berg,2011).

42

Ifdressisthetactilelayerthatclothesthebody,anexteriorsurfaceturned

outwardtowardsthegazeoftheviewer,thenitissimultaneouslyproximatetothe

wearer,whohasaninnateawarenessofhowclothingfeelsonherbody,howit

touchesherbody.Thiscontradictorydynamiccanbeextendedfurthertotheviewerof

adressedbody,sincetheviewerisalsoawearer,whoencounterstheworldthrough

herownexperienceofdress,thatdoublelayerthatbothhasamaterialsurfacebut

alsoisanexteriorsurface.MauriceMerleau-Pontyclearlyindicatedthisentwiningof

bodyandclothingwhenheusedadressmetaphortoforegroundhis

phenomenologicalunderstandingofsensoryperception:‘Mybodyisthefabricinto

whichallobjectsarewoven,anditis,atleastinrelationtotheperceivedworld,the

generalinstrumentofmy‘comprehension’[myitalics].43Heassertedthatan

individual’sexperienceofherbody,andthisisnotjustabody,butourown,dressed

bodies,isthemediatorforeverythingthatsheexperiencesintheoutsideworld.

Furthermore,everylivedexperienceisaunityofourbodiesandtheworld,thetwoof

whichareintertwinedandcannotexistseparately:‘Ourownbodyisintheworldas

theheartisintheorganism:itkeepsthevisiblespectacleconstantlyalive,itbreathes

lifeintoitandsustainsitinwardly,andwithitformsasystem.’44Merleau-Ponty

rejectedadetachedscientificandobjectivemodeofviewingtheworld,andinstead

foregroundedtheroleofthedressedbodyintheactofmakingsenseofour

surroundings,accountingforthethoughts,emotionsandmemoriesevokedbytouch.

Tomakeaphenomenologicalregisterofperceptionistounderstandthatcontact

betweendressedNationalGeographicviewersanddressedBraziliansubjectswasnot

disembodiedanddistanced,butatactileandintimateencounter,whether

43MauriceMerleau-Ponty,PhenomenologyofPerception,trans.byColinSmith(LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2002),p.273.44Ibid.,p.235.

43

acknowledgedorunacknowledgedbytheviewer,whichwaswovenintothesensory

fabricofthemagazine.45

NotonlyhasclothingprovidedatactilesurfacethroughwhichtheNational

GeographicviewerhasperceiveddressedBraziliansubjects,butthemagazineitselfis

alsoacorporealobjectthathasclothedoriginalphotographsofdressedBrazilian

subjectswithinasecond,glossyskin.46TocomeintocontactwithNationalGeographic,

whetherithasbeenpickedup,exchanged,sold,glancedthrough,readfromcoverto

cover,collected,eventhrownaway,istoexperienceitasasensoryobject,tofeelits

weightasitisheldinthehands,toexplorethetextureofitspages.Contactis

necessarilybodily,asMerleau-Pontymadepalpablyclearwhenheacknowledgedthat

totouchisalsotobetouched.47Itisthroughhandlingofitselfthatthemagazinehas

communicatedtoviewers,notsolelybymeansoflinguisticsignificationofthetwo-

dimensionalimage,butalsoviathesensations,memories,emotions,oraffectevoked

bythethree-dimensionalobject.LauraU.Markshasinsistedthatthehapticandoptic

arenotadichotomy,butrather‘slideintooneanother’;sheuseshapticcriticismasa

meansto‘“warmup”ourculturaltendencytotakeadistance’.48Thisthesisargues

thatthedirectphysicalcontactNationalGeographicviewershavehadwiththe

magazinehasdemanded,howeverunwittingly,aninstinctivelyvisceralresponse,

whichhascounteractedanoverdeterministicawarenessofgeographicaldistance,in45Iusetheterm‘dressed’here,asopposedto‘clothed’,inanattempttoacknowledgethat,whereasaNationalGeographicviewerislikelytohaveexperiencedtheworldthroughWestern-styleclothesandaccessories,theBraziliansubjectrepresentedinthemagazinecanbeseentohavedressedinavarietyofchoicesthatrangefromWestern-styledresstobodilyadornment.46Strictlyspeaking,NationalGeographichasnotalwaysconstituteda‘second,glossyskin’.Untilthehigh-glosscentennialeditioninDecember1988,whichhadahologramcover,themagazinetendedtousethickermattepaper,whichhadaslightlyroughtexture.Occasionallythiswasinterspersedwithglossierpages;oneexampleistheSeptember1971editionofNationalGeographic.The125thcentennialeditioninOctober2013wasremarkablyglossiereventhantheDecember1988edition,andthecovereasilyslidopensothatthepagesinsidecouldbeeffortlesslyflickedthrough.47Merleau-Ponty,PhenomenologyofPerception,pp.368-69.48LauraU.Marks,Touch:SensuousTheoryandMultisensoryMedia,(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2002),pp.xii-xiii.

44

favourofaffectiveidentificationwithmultivalentBraziliansubjects.Thisapproach

marksarevisionistshiftthatdepartsfromareliancesolelyondistancedsemiotic

analysesofimagesofclothinginNationalGeographicassignifiedandtextualised,and

movestowardsamoredynamicengagementwithdressandfashionasimage,object,

textandideaintertwined.49

TheGlobalContactZonesince1988

ThehypothesisofthisthesisisthatNationalGeographic’scentennial,in

September1988,markedaparadigmshiftatthemagazine,fromanunderstandingof

itselfasanexemplarofobjectivescience,towardsamoreself-reflexiveand

performativesubjectivitythathasbeendrivenby,andpresumablyhasalsodriven,the

forcesofcontemporaryglobalisation.Crucialtothisshiftisthatthemagazine

consciouslyencourageditsreaderstoexperiencediverselydressedBraziliansubjects

inaheightened,multisensoryway,centredonthefactthattheactofwearingdress,

andthefeelofitonourskin,isintimatelylinkedtoourtactilesensesofinterpretative

looking.ThisthesishypothesisesthatphotographssinceNationalGeographic’s

centenaryeditioninSeptember1988havetracedthebeginningsofadifferentviewof

encounterswithintheUnitedStates-Brazilcontactzone,whichhaveresistedthe

processesofobjectification,appropriationandstereotypingfrequentlyassociatedwith

therectangularyellowborder.Thisisbecausetheyhaveprovidedevidenceofafluid

andvariouspopulation,whichhasselectedandexperimentedwithpreferredelements

ofAmericanandEuropeandress,andusedittofashiontheirown,distinctlyBrazilian

identities.Theperiodunderexaminationhasbeenselectedbecauseitcoincidedwith49MartinLister,‘Introduction’,inThePhotographicImageinDigitalCulture,ed.byLister,2ndedn,(NewYork:Routledge,2013),pp.1-21.

45

theendoftheColdWar,andtheunravellingofthefabricofabipolarworld,which

gaverisetoafragmentedbutincreasinglyinterconnectedandfluidone.Globalisation

isacomplexandmultidimensionalprocess,whichinvitesconfusionunlessitisgivena

recognisableandreal-lifeform,andtherebyinvestedwithshape,colour,patternand

texture.Itisinthisrespectthatdress,asamultifacetedformofculturalexpression,is

wellequippedasabasistoanalysethewidespreadeconomicandculturalexchanges

thathavetransformedcontemporarysociallife,andresultedintheinterwoven

processesoffragmentationandcross-fertilisation.Theadoptionofmass-produced

Western-styleclothingthroughouttheworldmightsuggestthatwearewitnesstoa

pervasiveandhomogenisedglobalculture.Thiswouldequateglobalisation,which

unequivocallytakesplaceonunevenandasymmetricalterms,withaone-directional

forceofculturalimperialismthathasstandardised,homogenised,Westernisedand

Americanisedmorevulnerablecultures.50Yetthisoversimplifiedperspectivedoesnot

accountforthenumerousculturalandstylisticparticularitiesthathavebeenmobilised

whenWestern-styledressisworninambiguousways,oftenreconfiguredforlocal

tastes,oradoptedfordifferentreasons,possiblyevenasaformofresistancetothe

West.51ArjunAppaduraihaspointedoutthatobjectsincross-culturalnetworkshave

nointrinsicmeaningbutacquirenewvaluesthroughtheirexchange;indressterms,

thedifferentcontextsinwhichWestern-styleclothinghasbeenwornreveal

50Thesecritiqueshavebeenputforwardbyscholarssuchas:BenjaminBarber,JihadVersusMcWorld(NewYork:BallantineBooks,1996);SamuelHuntington,TheClashofCivilizationsandtheRemakingofWorldOrder(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1996);ThomasFriedman,TheLexusandtheOliveTree(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,1998).51Anexamplethatspringstomindistheappropriationandre-presentationofWesterndesignerlabelsbytheCongoleseSapeursinKinshasa(DemocraticRepublicofCongo)andBrazzaville(RepublicofCongo).SeeElizabethKutesko,‘ProblemsandTensionsintheRepresentationoftheSapeurs,asDemonstratedintheWorkofTwoTwenty-firstCenturyItalianPhotographers’,Immediations:TheCourtauldInstituteofArtJournalofPostgraduateResearch,3:2(2013),61-78.

46

articulationsandre-articulationsthatarevariableanddialectical,basedupontheir

newusesandrequirements.52

Appaduraihastheorisedthecomplexinteractionsandexchangesof

informationandideassincethelate1980sasaseriesofconceptualframeworks,

comprisedofconstantlyshiftingandoverlappingflowsandinterconnectionsbetween

economic,politicalandculturalconstructs.Hecoinedthetermsideoscapes,

technoscapes,mediascapes,ethnoscapesandfinanscapestodescribethesemultiple

realities,whichshiftinaccordancewithoneanotherandestablishtensionsbetween

thewarpofculturalhomogeneityandtheweftofculturalheterogeneity.53Itiswithin

thishybridspace,wheretheweftisdrawnthroughthewarp,thatnewsartorial

expressionsaregeneratedastwohithertorelativelydistinctforms,types,patternsor

stylesofdressmixandmatch.Certainly,allcultureshavebeenhybridforalongtime,

asaresultoftrade,slavery,warfare,travelandmigration,butthedevelopmentof

mediaandinformationtechnologiesthroughoutthe1990sandbeyondhave

substantiallyexpandedthecontactthatdifferentcultureshavehadwithoneanother,

andacceleratedthespeedatwhichtheseglobalinteractionshaveoccurred.54Jan

NederveenPietersehaseloquentlydescribedhybridisation,andtheheightened

connectivityofcontemporaryglobalculture,asaprocessbywhichmultifarious

identitiesare‘braidedandinterlaced,layeruponlayer’.55Hisuseofadressmetaphor

isacrucialreminderthatglobalisation,initseconomic,political,culturaland

technologicaldimensions,isintricatelywovenintoeverydaylife;itshapes,encloses,52TheSocialLifeofThings:CommoditiesinCulturalPerspective,ed.byArjunAppadurai(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986).53ArjunAppadurai,ModernityatLarge:CulturalDimensionsofGlobalization(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1996),p.33.54MarwinM.Kraidy,Hybridity,ortheCulturalLogicofGlobalization(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2005),p.21.55JanNederveenPieterse,GlobalizationandCulture:GlobalMelange,2ndedn(NewYork:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,2009).

47

exposesandinteractswithdifferentbodies,definingandexpressingpersonaland

collectiveidentities,bothofNationalGeographicviewersandofBraziliansubjects

representedwithinitspages.

SnapshotsoftheContactZone

Itisimportanttogroundananalysisofhybridityinuniqueandindividual

examples,toensurethatthetermdoesnotdenoteanovergeneralisedand

undifferentiatedformoffusion.Inordertodoso,Iutiliseasnapshotapproachinmy

examinationoftherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographic.Thisis

alsoinaccordancewithPratt’sacknowledgementthat‘thecomplexitiesoflifeinthe

contactzone…showuponlyinglimpses’.56Idonotintendtoprovidean

encyclopaedicaccountoftherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographic

butrather,inthewordsofAlexanderNemerov,toexamine‘apatchworkofglimpses’

thatprovideameansofcomingintocontactwiththepastthroughthe

‘photojournalisticprecisionofaninstantintime’.57Thisthesisunpickseleven

snapshotsfromthefabricofNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil,

whichareunderstoodasaseriesofuniquebutinterconnectedcasestudies,threaded

intotheculturalandvisuallandscapeofaparticulartimeandplace.Asdisplaced

fragments,snapshotsshouldbeaddressedwithprecisionanddepthsincetheyreflect

agazethatmustbeunderstoodinanthropologicaltermsasunequivocallyconditioned

bythesocial,cultural,political,economicandtechnologicalcontextthatproducedit.

HansBeltingcriticallyrecognisedthiswhenheinsistedthatphotographydoesnot

simplymirrortheworldbut,rather,synchronisesourshiftinggazewiththatworld;itis

56Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.52.57AlexanderNemerov,WartimeKiss:VisionsoftheMomentinthe1940s(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2013),p.2.

48

‘ourchanginggazeupontheworld–andsometimesagazeuponourowngaze’.58Not

solelyarecordofsomethingthatexistedintheworld,asnapshotopensup

interpretativepossibilitiesfortheviewer,whoinvestsherownmemories,imaginings,

epistemologicalknowledge,experiences,emotionsandpreconceptionsontoit,

therebyforminginterconnectionswithbroaderverbal,visual,textualandtangible

systemsofcommunication.Asnapshotisadiscerniblemarkerembeddedinthepast,

whichembodiesthefluxandflowoftheinstantinwhichitwascaptured.Yetitalso

existsinthepresent,andisthereforemobile,withanemancipatorynaturethat

investsitwiththepotentialtodistortthelinearityofthehistoricalpastand,indoing

so,destabilisethecertaintyofthecontemporarypresent.TociteNemerov,toviewthe

snapshotistobearwitnesstoacomplexinterplay(ofparticularrelevancetothe

discourseofdress,whichcontinuallyinterweavespast,presentandfuture)as‘what

wasandwhatiscoalesceineeriecombination’.59

Myuseofthetermsnapshotextendsbeyonditscommonusagein

photography,whereitisusedtodescribeaspontaneousmodeofamateurpicture-

makingthatoftenemploystypicalvisual‘mistakes’suchasoff-kilterframing,double

exposureandout-of-focussubjects,torefertothecomplexcombinationoftextand

imagewithinaNationalGeographicarticle.60Clearly,noneofthephotographs

publishedinNationalGeographicweretakenassnapshots:theydonotsharethe

technicalinaccuraciesofthegenre,nor,forthemostpart,dotheyemploythe

ordinarysubjectmatterofamateurphotography,whichhastendedtofocusonkey

momentsormilestonesachievedinlife,suchasbirth,birthdays,weddings,

58HansBelting,AnAnthropologyofImages:Picture,Medium,Body,trans.byThomasDunlap(PrincetonandOxford:PrincetonUniversityPress,2011),p.146.59Nemerov,WartimeKiss,p.2.60SarahGreenough,‘Introduction’,inTheArtoftheAmericanSnapshot,1888-1978,ed.bySarahGreenoughandothers(Washington:NationalGalleryofArt,2007),pp.1-6(p.1).

49

graduationsandfamilyholidays.61Nevertheless,acrucialpartoftheinterpretationof

thesnapshotliesinitsselectiveeditingandarrangementinthephotographalbum,

anditisinthisrespectthatanunmistakableparallelcanbedrawnwithNational

Geographic.Althoughnoglue,tearsorinkscribblesaretangiblyevidentinNational

Geographic,themagazinehasre-contextualisedthefamilyphotographalbumtoserve

asbothadocumentaryrecordoftheworldandasatriggerformemoryand

recollection.Ithasconstitutedaspacetoorderandcontroltheinterpretationof

snapshots,aswellastoalteroraddtotheirmeaningthroughtheuseoftext,design,

aesthetics,juxtapositionsandlayout,fabricatingcontradictorynarrativesthatpromote

identificationandfamiliaritywithsubjects,butalsoexoticismandOtherness.Patrizia

diBello,inheranalysisofwomen’spopularcultureinthenineteenthcentury,points

totheintersensorialityofphotographalbumsandmagazines,whichwerepartofa

complexprocessthroughwhich‘visionwasmodernized…intoafragmented,

subjectiveexperiencebynewtechnologiesandvisualentertainmentmachineswhich

wereoperatedbyandoperatedonthebodyoftheobserver.’62DiBelloacknowledges

thesubjectivevisionoftheembodiedobserver,whobecomesanactiveproducerin

theexperienceandperceptionofmeaninginthemagazine,anotionthatisextendable

toacontemporaryanalysisofNationalGeographicanditsvaried,individualviewers.

61RichardChalfen,SnapshotVersionsofLife(BowlingGreen,OH:BowlingGreenStateUniversityPopularPress),p.11.62PatriziadiBello,‘VisionandTouch:PhotographyandWomen’sPopularCultureintheNineteenthCentury’,inVisualDelights:ExhibitionandReception,ed.byVanessaTomalinandSimonPopple(Eastleigh:JohnLibbeyPublishing,2005),pp.3-16(p.14).

50

BrazilianAuto-EthnographyandStructureofChapters

Aspartofitsanalysisofindividualsnapshots,thisthesiswillidentifyinstances

of‘auto-ethnographicexpression’,whichPrattemphasisedisahybridphenomenonof

thecontactzone.Auto-ethnographicexpressionisanautobiographicalmodeof

writing,performingandreflectinguponthesubjectivityofone’sownculture;itis

engagingandemotional,asopposedtoputatively‘objective’,andtherebydiffersfrom

ethnographicaccountsofaparticularculturemadebyanostensiblyneutraland

distancedobserver,suchasNationalGeographic.Theprocessencompassesan

appropriationoftheidiomsofthedominantculture,butalsoaninfiltrationby

indigenousmodes,whichenabletheauto-ethnographicsubjecttocreativelyand

activelyself-fashionandself-present.Pratt’sformulationofauto-ethnographic

expressionisclearlyinformedbyandexpandsuponthepoststructuralistthinkingof

BrazilianscholarSilvianoSantiago.Santiagocoinedtheterm‘writingback’in1978to

refertothepalimpsesticprocesswherebyWesternliterarypracticesaremodified,re-

presentedorevenresistedinpartbyLatinAmericanwriters,inordertoprovidespace

withinLatinAmericanliteratureforthereinscriptionofdifferentandalternative

modesofnon-Westerncreativeexpression.63Braziliandressisaformofauto-

ethnographicexpression,asartorialmanifestationof‘writingback’,whichhasenabled

Braziliansubjectstore-presentthemselvesastheywishedandtohighlightsomeofthe

tensions,contradictionsandnuancesoftheirethnographicrepresentationbyNational

63SilvianoSantiago,TheSpaceIn-Between:EssaysonLatinAmericanCulture,ed.byAnnaLuciaGazzola,trans.byTomBurns,AnaLuciaGazzola,andGarethWilliams(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2001),p.31.Morerecently,PratthasreferreddirectlytoSantiago’sworkanddrawnuponhisconceptualisationofthe‘spacein-between’,definedbyPrattas‘asitefromwhichsheorhe[theLatinAmericansubject]canreflectbacktothecenterimagesofitselfthatthecentercouldnevergeneratebutfromwhichitstandstolearn’.See‘ModernityandPeriphery:TowardsaGlobalandRelationalAnalysis’,inBeyondDichotomies:Histories,Identities,CulturesandtheChallengeofGlobalization,ed.byElizabethMudimbe-Boyi(NewYork:SUNIPress,2012),pp.21-48(p.32).

51

Geographic.Prattacknowledgedthat‘whilstsubjugatedpeoplecannotcontrolwhat

thedominantculturevisitsuponthem,theydodeterminetovaryingextentswhat

theyabsorbintotheirown,howtheyuseit,andwhattheymakeitmean’.64Although

auto-ethnographicexpressionsarepredeterminedtobeunderstooddifferentlyby

diversereaderships,thisisnotofprimaryconcern,sincetheynevertheless‘constitute

agroup’spointofentryintothedominantculture’.65

Todeveloptheanalysisofdressasamultifacetedformofauto-ethnographic

expression,thisthesisutilisesamulti-disciplinaryanalyticalmethod.Ithasahybrid

structurewherebythefirstpart,constitutedbyChaptersOne,TwoandThree,

examinestherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographic,whilethe

secondpart,comprisedofChaptersFourandFive,examineshowtherepresentation

ofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasil,itselfanexemplaryauto-ethnographic

expression,castslightuponthesedominantrepresentationsofBrazil.Organisedover

thesefiveinterconnectedchapters,thethesismediatesthreadsofthoughtfromfive

theorists,eachofwhomhavegrappledwiththeauto-ethnographicconstructionof

Brazilianidentityindiverseandsingularways.ItisnotsurprisingthatOswaldde

Andrade,RobertStam,SilvianoSantiago,RobertoSchwarzandRenatoOrtizhaveall

engagedwith,andtheorised,formsofauto-ethnographygiventheirownmixed

culturalidentitiesandexperiencesoflivingandwritingwithindifferentcontact

64Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.7.65Ibid.,p.9.InherinvestigationoftheEuropeanreceptionofJapanesefashiondesignersinthe1980s,DorinneKondohasusedtheterm‘auto-exoticgaze’todescribetheWesterngazethatnon-Westernculturesplaceupontheirowncultures,whichtheytranslateintoanexoticproductthattheythenofferbacktotheWest.Kondo’sexpressiondrawsaparallelwithPratt’sunderstandingofauto-ethnographicexpression,sincetheprocessofauto-exoticismis,asKondopointedout,‘nevermerelyareinscriptionofthedominant’butrathercontains‘adis-easethatalwayscontainsanimplicitthreattothecolonizer’shegemony’.DorinneKondo,AboutFace(London:Routledge,1997),p.10.

52

zones.66Notonlyhavethesescholarswovendressmetaphorsintotheirwriting,but

theirdifferentdisciplineshaveencompassedpoetry,filmstudies,poststructuralist

theory,literarycriticismandanthropology.

ThefirstchapterusestheworkofBrazilianmodernistauthorOswaldde

Andrade(1890-1954)toexaminetherepresentationofBraziliandressinNational

Geographicinthefirsthundredyearssincethemagazinewasestablished.67Itopens

upacriticaldiscoursewiththemagazine’srepresentationalpoliticsandanalysesto

whatextentitcanbeseentohavefulfilledaformofU.S.-drivenculturalimperialismin

itsrepresentationofBrazil.Throughaclosereadingofthreesnapshots,whichreflect

threethemesthatareroughlychronologicalandreflectiveofthreedifferentgazesthat

NationalGeographichasplacedonBrazil,myanalysisbringstotheforetheadditional

layersofcomplexityprovidedbyarevisionistre-readingofNationalGeographic

throughdress.Thispavesthewayformysecondchapter,whichusestheworkof

NorthAmericanscholarofBrazilianfilmRobertStam(1947-)todevelopacomplexand

criticalanalysisofdressinthemagazine’srepresentationofBrazilintheperiodpost-

1988.68ItexaminestheshiftinNationalGeographic’srepresentationalpolicy,toa

66Andrade,forinstance,wasborninSaoPauloin1890andlivedthereforthedurationofhislife,butwasofmixedEuropeanandindigenousancestry.Stam,alsoofmixedparentage,wasbornintheUnitedStatesin1941andcompletedhisPhDinComparativeLiteratureattheUniversityofBerkeleyin1977.Hehasdescribedhisthree-decade‘intense,palimpsesticcohabitationwithallthingsBrazilian’as‘thefruitofalongpersonalconnectiontoLatinAmericaduetoanimportantpartof[his]familylivingthere’.Santiago,ontheotherhand,wasborninBrazilin1936,receivedhisPhDincomparativeliteratureattheSorbonnein1961,andhastaughtintheUnitedStatesandBrazil.HispersonalexperienceoflivingbetweendifferentcultureshassurelysparkedhisconcernwithLatinAmericanhybridity.RobertoSchwarzwasborninViennain1938butgrewupinSaoPaulo,receivedhisPhDattheSorbonneinLatinAmericanStudiesin1976,andcurrentlylivesandteachesinBrazil.Hisformulationof‘misplacedideas’canbeunderstoodasareflectionofhispersonalexperiencesoffeeling‘outofplace’betweenthesedifferentcultures.Finally,Ortiz’sconceptionoftheneologism‘mundialization’isareflectionofhishybrididentity,asaBrazilian(b.1947)whowaseducatedinFranceandreceivedhisPhDatl’UniversitédeParisVIIIin1975,butnowlivesandworksinBrazil.RobertStam,‘Acknowledgements’inTropicalMulticulturalism:AComparativeHistoryofRaceinBrazilianCinemaandCulture(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1997),p.xi.67OswalddeAndrade,'ManifestoAntropofago',RevistadeAntropofagia,1.1(1928),6-7.68RobertStam,‘HybridityandtheAestheticsofGarbage’,CulturaVisualenAmericáLatina,9:11(1998),<http://www.tau.ac.il/eial/IX_1/stam.html>[accessed11February2015]

53

moreperformativeandsubjectiveapproach,whichwasencapsulatedbythe

September1988centennialedition.Themagazine’sincreasedconcernwithimagery

overtextisanalysed,withinwhichBraziliandresscanbeseentohaveinsistently

disturbedthespatialandtemporallogicofrepresentation.Itcontextualisesthetwo

snapshotsexamined,reflectiveoftwothemesthatemergedwithinthistimeframe,

withinabroaderframeworkdrivenbytheforcesofcontemporaryglobalisation.How

fashionedsubjectsmightbreakoutofaparticulargazeimposeduponthembythe

camerawillbeaddressedinmoredetailinthethirdchapter,whichusesthe

poststructuralistthinkingofBraziliantheoristSilvianoSantiago(1936-)toexamine

NationalGeographic’sengagementswith(Brazilian)fashionsince2001.69Overa

timeframeoftenyears,Ipresenttwosnapshotsthatconstitutetheexceptionthat

proves(inthesenseoftests)myhypothesis–thatsince1988NationalGeographichas

movedfromcool,distancedviewing,andtowardsanintimateandmultisensory

engagementwithimagesasobjects.Althoughtheprimaryconcernofthisthesisisthe

printedmagazine,theeffectsofenlargedandpervasivedigitalmedianetworkscannot

beignored.NationalGeographichasmetamorphosedsince1995toincorporatethese

changes,constructingawebsite,andaniPadandiPhoneeditionofthemagazine.Inan

efforttoacknowledgethesechanges,thischapterextendstheanalysistoconsider

brieflytherepresentationofBrazilianfashionontheNationalGeographicwebsite.The

fourthchapterusestheworkofBrazilianliteraryscholarRobertoSchwarz(1938-)to

extendtheanalysesmadeinthefirstthreechapterstoNationalGeographicBrasil,

whichwasestablishedinMay2000.70ItexaminesthreesnapshotsofBraziliandress,

whichareorganisedchronologically.Theanalysisisattentivetotherepresentational

69Santiago,TheSpaceIn-Between.70RobertoSchwarz,MisplacedIdeas:EssaysonBrazilianCulture,ed.byJohnGledson,trans.byPeterAnti(London:Verso,1992).

54

agendaofNationalGeographicBrasil:howithasconfrontedandre-presentedearlier

representationalparadigmsproducedbyNationalGeographic,butalsohowithas

producedoriginalmodesofrepresentation.Thefifthchapterdrawstogetherthe

differentstrandsexaminedinthepreviousfour,usingtheworkofBraziliancultural

criticandsociologistRenatoOrtiz(1947-).71Itfocusesonanarticlepublishedin

NationalGeographicBrasilin2012,andbrieflyconsiderstherepresentationof

BraziliandressinthedigitaliPadedition,makingalinkwiththethirdchapterandits

discussionoftheNationalGeographicwebsite.Eachofthesefivechaptersaimstobe

sensitivetothecommunicativepossibilitiesandtactileintimationsofdress,aswellas,

wherenecessary,itscriticallimitations.

EnteringtheContactZone:ACommentonMethodologyandMyAuto-Ethnography

Itisimportanttocommentuponmyownauto-ethnographyandwhereI

situatemysubjectivityasresearcherinrelationtothemethodologicalframeworkof

thecontactzonethatisusedthroughoutthisthesis.Inconductingthisexaminationof

NationalGeographic,Inecessarilyenterthecontactzone,andsituatemyselfin

dialogue,discussionanddebatewitharangeofdifferentsubjectsthatIhavecome

intocontactwith:predominantlythoserepresentedinthepagesofNational

GeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil,butalsothoseinferredfromthe

principally(butbynomeansexclusively)whiteorEuropean-descendedmale

readership,inadditiontoNationalGeographicstaffinWashingtonDCandtheir

BraziliancounterpartsinSaoPaulo,aswellasthenumerousBrazilian,NorthAmerican,

71RenatoOrtiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge–GenealogiesoftheGlobal/Globalizations’,Theory,Culture&Society,23(2006),401-03.

55

andEuropeanartists,photographers,fashiondesigners,writersandresearchersthatI

havemetthroughouttheprocess.Mygender,age,sexuality,ethnicity,nationality,

culturalbackgroundandreligionhasnecessarilyaffectedthesubjectivepositionthatI

haveadopted,howeversubconsciously,throughoutthisproject,andhadabearingon

bothmyreadingsofrace,andmyunderstandingoftheself-reflexiveexperienceofthe

clothedbodyoftheNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasilviewerin

relationtothedressedBraziliansubject.Itisusefultointroducemyselfattheoutset:I

amatwenty-sevenyearoldheterosexualwhiteBritishwomaneducatedintheUnited

Kingdom.MymothertongueisEnglish,butIhavelearntandpracticedvaryingdegrees

ofcomprehension,writtenandoralproficiencyinItalianandBrazilianPortuguese.Asa

dresshistoriantrainedinanarthistorytradition,withanunderstandingofthe

practicaltechniquesofdressmakingandakeeninterestinfashionablemodesof

clothing,Ihaveanimage-centredandmaterialnotionofwhatdressandfashion

constitute,andhowthisisencapsulatedthroughrepresentation.Iunderstandthatnot

onlyisthereaconsciousnessinthewaythatactivesubjectschoosetodressand

presentthemselvestotheoutsideworld,butthattheimagesthatsurroundusinprint

anddigitalmediaprovideanadditionallayerofmeaningthatinfluencesmyown

awareness,asaviewerandawearer,ofhowidentitiesarefashioned.Iuseart

historicalmethodsasacriticalstrategytoanalyseimagesofdressheuristically;

althoughfocusingonelevenselectcasestudies,Imakearichervisualandmaterial

analysis,byallowingcloseexaminationofthephotographicobjecttoopenouta

broaderdiscussionthatdrawsontheoryandcontext.

WhilstmyuseofLatinAmericanscholarsisintendedtosituatemyown

argumentsderivedfromvisualanalysisinrelationtocontemporarywritingonBrazilian

56

nationalidentity,Iamawarethatmysubjectivepositionprovidesanadditional,self-

reflexivegazeontoNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil.72I

understandthisgazetobeafundamentalandintegralpartoftheresearchprocess;it

isameansofcloselyexamining,witharevisionistimperative,imagesofBraziliandress

publishedinthemagazinesince1888.Idonotmerelytakeintoaccountthespecific

contextofthetimeandplaceinwhichtheseimageswerefirstpresentedand

perceived,butIalsoconsiderhowmycontemporarygazemightre-presentthemin

thecurrentday.Aself-reflexivere-engagementwiththeseimagesholdsthepotential

foracontestedhistoryofNationalGeographictoberevealedwhereby,asElizabeth

Edwardshasarticulated,thephotographitselfacts‘bothasaconfrontationwiththe

pastandasanactiveandconstituentpartofthepresent’.73Theimages,orsnapshots,

thatIdiscussofferasiteofpotentiality,toidentifypointsoffractureanddistinction

fromtheoverdeterminedargumentsofpreviousscholarship.Whilstitcannotbe

deniedthatanasymmetricaldynamicofpowerhasoftenbeeninoperationbetween

NationalGeographicphotographersandtheirBraziliansubjects,inallowingtheimages

themselvestoperformonabroaderstageacrossspaceandtime,mymethodof

analysisprovidestheopportunityforacounternarrativetoberevealed,fromwithin

therepresentationofdressandfashion.Inpeelingbacktheselayersofmeaning,I

hopethatasIenter,andbyextension,research,writeandformevaluationsfrom

withinthecontactzone,newideas,conversations,debates,andevenhistorieswillbe

produced.Thesediscussionshavethepotentialforthetotalisingandreductiveviewof

NationalGeographic,astheultimatearchetypeofthepopularethnographicgaze,to

72Myuseofthepronoun‘her’forthereader,inadditiontothephotographsofmyselfholdingNationalGeographicthatareincludedthroughoutthisthesis,isameansofforegroundingthisautobiographicalmodeofwritingandresearchingthatsituatesmyselfself-reflexivelyinrelationtheprimarymaterialthatIexamine.73ElizabethEdwards,RawHistories:Photographs,AnthropologyandMuseums(London:BloomsburyAcademic,2001),p.7.

57

bere-engagedwithinawaythatmightmovebeyondpreviousscholarship.This

scholarshiphasundeniablyconstitutedanimportantstageinthediscussionofthe

magazine,butIsuspectisbynomeansthedefinitiveone.74Thisthesiscanbe

understoodinitselfthenasamomentof‘writingback’,wherebyIpositionmyselfself-

reflexivelyastheauto-ethnographicwriter,whoundertakestheprocessofmodifying,

re-evaluatingandre-presentingthehistoriographyofNationalGeographic.Myintent

indoingthisistosculptoutaspacewithinexistingacademicdiscourseforalternative

historiesofthemagazine,whichallowforthecreativesartorialexpressionsofBrazilian

subjectstobeforegrounded,asopposedtosilenced.

Intakingintoaccountmyauto-ethnography,itisimportanttooutlinewhatwas

atstakeinmyselectionofindividualsnapshots.Ratherthanimposeanyassumptions

ontotheprimarymaterial,Iallowedthestartingpointtobetheimagesthemselves.In

ordertoremainsensitivetothematerialityofthemagazine(andthedigitalscreenof

myiPadandcomputerscreen),aswellastothereader/viewer’sspecificexperienceof

interactingwithit,thiscarefulandclose-upanalysiscouldonlyhavebeenconducted

byme,sincetheexperiencewasnecessarilyoneofunequivocalsubjectivity.During

thenumeroushoursspentinLondon,WashingtonDCandSaoPauloexaminingevery

singlecopyofNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasiltodate,butalso

duringthetimespentthinkingaboutanddiscussingtheimageswitharchivists,editors

andcontributors,Iwasconcernedfirstandforemostwiththoseparticularimagesthat

74Itiscertainthatno-onecanknowexactlywhatNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasilviewersthoughtandfeltattheexactmomentintimeandspacethattheyengagedwiththemagazine.Suchinformationonthemagazines’readershipisnotthefocusofthethesisbutadifferentprojectthatwouldconstituteaculturalhistoryoftheNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasilreadertodate.ThisprojecthasalreadybeeninitiatedinpartbyHawkins,whoengagedwiththeNationalGeographicSocietyArchive’svastcollectionoflettersinordertodeterminehowreadersdirectlyrespondedtoimagespublishedinNationalGeographic,throughhowtheyvoicedtheirresponsestothemagazineinwriting.Hawkins,AmericanIconographic.

58

revealedthenuancesandcomplexitiesofBraziliandress.75Whilstthecomplete

archiveofeachissueofNationalGeographicproducedtodateispublishedand

availabletopurchaseinexpensivelyasadigitalcollectiononDVD,theNational

GeographicSocietyArchiveinWashingtonDCisfarlesswillingtoallowscholarsand

journalistsaccesstoitsricharchivalmaterial,whichincludescorrespondencesent

betweeneditors,contributorsandreaders,workingdraftsofarticles,andunpublished

photographs.76Thatmyrequestforaccesswasreceivedfavourablyislikelyduetothe

natureofmytopic,whichstaffgenerallyseemedmoreintriguedbythananxiousofits

potentialtodamagethereputationofthemagazine.Nevertheless,oncegranted

accesstothearchive,Iwasnotallowedfreereign,butcouldonlyaccessinformation

withintheRecordsLibrarybyrequestingmicroficheanddigitalfilesrelatedto

particulararticles.Iwasfrequentlyinformedthatfileswereunavailabletoview,andit

wasonlythroughdeterminationandinsistencethatIwasabletoexamineallofthe

materialrelatedtotheparticularsnapshotsthatIhadselectedpreviously,through

closevisualanalysisofeveryeditionofthemagazinepublishedtodateintheBritish

Library,London.ThenatureofmyexperienceatNationalGeographicBrasilinSao

PaulowasmarkedlydifferenttothatinWashingtonDC,sinceaccesstoarchival

material,althoughbynomeansasextensive,wasfluidandopen,andstaffwentoutof

theirwaytolocaterelevantfiles,whichincludedunpublishedphotographs,readership

statistics,andeveryeditionofthemagazinepublishedtodate.Itwasveryeasytofind

outinformationverballyontheeditorialprocessesofNationalGeographicBrasil,

75Thisclose-upview,however,concernedasitwaswiththemoresubtleandperformativequalitiesofdressasamaterialobject,couldnotalwaysadhererigidlytoitsmethodology,andoccasionally,thetermsnapshotdenotesnotjustoneimage,butanumberofimages.Totrytolevelthedatasothatitcouldfittoarigidmethodology(ofonesnapshotconstitutingonephotograph)wouldbetoimposeafalsenarrativeontotheprimarymaterial,sincethefluidityofthechosensnapshotsalsoreflectshowthemeaningsoftheimagesthemselveshaveshifted,andcontinuetoshift.76Thisreluctanceisnotsurprisingduetothehighlycriticalnatureofpreviousscholarship.

59

whichhadnotpreviouslybeenpossibleatNationalGeographic,butIwasunableto

viewcorrespondenceexchangedbetweencontributors,editorsandreaderssincethis

waslargelyconductedinconversationorviaemail.IwasinformedbystaffatNational

GeographicBrasilthatitwasveryinterestingtorespondtothequestionsthatIasked

asanoutsider,sinceitpromptedthemtoreflectupontheirownidentityandculturein

awaythattheyhadnotpreviouslyconsidered.Thiswasagoodexampleofhow

enteringthecontactzoneasaresearchercanbeapositiveexperience,sinceitenabled

metoaskquestionsthatmightnothaveseemedimportantorinterestingtoaBrazilian

researcher,andthereforehighlightstheimportanceofhavinganawarenessofone’s

positionalityasaresearcher.WhilstatNationalGeographicandNationalGeographic

Brasil,Ialsoconducted15semi-structuredinterviewsinperson,onSkypeandvia

emailthatIrecordedandlatertranscribed.AlthoughIplannedaseriesofquestionsin

advance,thesewerereasonablyopen-endedtogivetheintervieweestheopportunity

toanswerfreely,andforthecourseoftheinterviewtotakeamorenaturaldirection

intheformofanextendedconversation.77

IconductedalloftheseinterviewsinEnglish,whichleadsmeontomakea

briefcommentonmytranslationofPortugueselanguagematerialsthroughoutthis

thesis.IstudiedBrazilianPortuguesewhilstresearchingmythesis,whichenabledme

totravelwitheasearoundBrazilwhilstonmystudytripandtoconducttranslationsof

writtenmaterialsforbasiccomprehension.IworkedcloselywithAmandaCalazansto

77Ifoundface-to-faceinterviewstobeamoreeffectivemethodofgatheringinformationaboutthemagazine,sincetheyenabledmetoclarifytheinterviewee’sresponsesandtoprobetheinformationthattheysuppliedalittlemoredeeply.AlthoughIstillmanagedtocollectveryinterestingresults,Ifoundemailalesseffectivemethodofinterviewing,sincetheintervieweestendedsimplytorespondtomyquestionsandIwasunable,withoutsendinganotheremail,toadjusttheinterviewaccordingly,whethertomakeclarificationsortoprobearesponsemoredeeply.Intervieweesalsodifferedinthelengthanddepthofresponsestomyquestions.

60

makearichertranslationoftheNationalGeographicBrasilarticlesthatIhadselected

tofocusoningreaterdetail.Thiscross-culturalandbilingualexperienceenabledmeto

graspthemeaningofBrazilianPortuguesewordssuchassaudade,whichhasnodirect

EnglishtranslationbutiscommonlyusedthroughoutBraziltodescribeafeelingof

nostalgiaorlonging.Collaboratingwithanativespeakerwasagoodexampleofhow

productiveitistoresearchandwritefromwithinthecontactzone;thisprocess

prompteddiscussionanddebateastheperspectiveofatwenty-fiveyearoldwhite

BrazilianwomanfromthenortheasternstateofPernambucomergedwithmyown

interpretations.InmyuseofkeytextswritteninPortuguese,suchasAndrade’s

‘ManifestoAntropófago’,IrelieduponthemostcomprehensivetranslationthatI

couldfind.IwasnotafraidtousemyownknowledgeofBrazilianPortugueseto

questionaspectsoftranslationsthatIfeltwereambiguous,andthisisclearly

highlightedinmyfootnotes.ThiswasveryimportantsinceIamwellawarethatthe

meaningofanytextisoftenheterogeneous,bothonitsproductionandreception,and

willreaddifferentlytosubjectslocatedincontrastingpositionsofpowerwithinthe

contactzone.Crucially,notbeingfluentinBrazilianPortuguesedidnothaveanegative

impactonmyresearch,butwasaproductivedynamicthatrequiredcollaborationwith

anativespeaker,inaprocessthatwasfittingtotheprocessesofreading,writing,

researchingandtranslatingfromwithinthecontactzone.Itmeansthatthisthesis,in

itsvisualandwrittencomponents,istrulytheproductofatleastthreecontactzones,

inexistencebetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil,theUnitedKingdomandBrazil,and

Brazilanditself.

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ResearchQuestions

ThestructureofthisthesisdrawsaparallelwithGaillard’screativeconstruction

of‘L’OrigamiduMonde’andcanbeunderstoodasacontactzonethroughtheway

thatitcompressesspaceandtime,andformscommonalitiesandconflicts,acrossthe

elevensnapshotsexamined.Itseekstounpick,investigateandanalyseseveralkey

questions,andsummarisetheconclusionsprovidedbyanexaminationofthesepulled

threadsinthefabricofNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil.Howhas

NationalGeographicfashionedandnarratedanimageofBrazilthroughits

representationofBraziliandressandfashion?Howdotheserepresentational

strategiesrelatetothoseofthebroaderglobalmediascape?Howdothemagazine’s

differentgazesontoBraziliandressandfashionreflectglobal,political,social,cultural

andeconomicattitudesandagendasbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil?Howmight

photographicsnapshotsofdressbreakoutofthesedifferentgazes,whether

ethnographic,documentaryorfashionable,byenablingactiveBraziliansubjectsto

self-consciouslyfashion,throughpose,performance,expression,gestureandthe

mobilisationoftheirownmultiplegazes?HowdoestherepresentationofBrazilian

dressinNationalGeographicBrasilcastalightuponNationalGeographic’s

representationalstrategies?

62

PartOne.

Chapter1.

Anthropophagy:theFirstHundredYearsofBrazilianDressinNationalGeographic

• Snapshot1:TheMakuWoman’s‘OldPieceofCloth’,April1926• Snapshot2:PaulistaWomen’sWhiteSportswear,October1942• Snapshot3:TheCintaLargaWomen’sBlackBodyPaint,September1971

Prattemphasisedthatthecontactzonedelineatedachargedsiteof

entanglementbetweentwounequalandseparateculturalgroups.Sheasked:‘What

dopeopleonthereceivingendofempiredowithmetropolitanmodesof

representation?Howdotheyappropriatethem?Howdotheytalkback?’78Brazilian

modernistauthorOswalddeAndradeengagedwithasimilarsetofquestionswhenhe

publishedthe‘ManifestoAntropófago’(May1928,hereafterreferredtoastheMA)in

thefirsteditionofSaoPauloculturalreviewRevistadeAntropofagia.79Asoneofthe

foundersoftheRevistadeAntropofagia,Andradecreatedthemetaphorof

‘antropofagia’,translatedfromPortugueseintoEnglishas‘anthropophagy’,atthe

heightofmodernisationinBrazil,whenEuropeanmodernistavant-gardemovements

werebecomingincreasinglyinfluentialtoBrazilianartistsandintellectuals.80Heused

78Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.7.79OswalddeAndrade,'ManifestoAntropófago',RevistadeAntropofagia,1.1(1928),6-7.ThroughoutthisthesisIwillusetheannotatedEnglishtranslationofAndrade’sworkbyLeslieBary.OswalddeAndrade,‘CannibalistManifesto’,trans.byLeslieBary,LatinAmericanLiteraryReview,19.38(1991),38-47.80ItisimportanttonotethatBarytranslatedthe‘ManifestoAntropófago’asthe‘CannibalistManifesto’.Throughoutthisthesis,however,Iprefertousethetranslation‘AnthropophagicManifesto’.Thisisbecausethereisadifferenceintheetymologyandhistoryofthetwonouns:‘cannibalism’,definedas‘thepracticeofeatingthefleshofone’sownspecies’,and‘anthropophagy’,definedas‘theeatingofhumanfleshbyhumanbeings’.OxfordDictionary<http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/>[accessed29May2015]MelePestidiscussedthisdistinctionatlengthinChapter2ofherdoctoralthesis.Shepointedoutthatbothterms,antropofagiaandcannibalismo,existedinBrazilianPortuguesewhenAndradewaswritingand,whilsttheyhavesimilarconnotations(asindeedtheydoinEnglish),cannibalismoisafarmorecommonwordwith‘acargoofpejorativeconnotations’.Andrade’schoiceofthewordantropofagiawasthereforenotaccidental,butanintentionalmeansofreversingthenegativeassociationsofcannibalismo,andplacingtheconceptualactofconsuminghumanfleshinanovelandpositivelight.MelePesti,‘FromanIntuitiveMetaphorTowardsaWorkingCulturalModel:“Anthropophagy”inOswalddeAndrade’s“AnthropophagicManifesto”anditsDevelopmentin20thCenturyBrazil’(unpublisheddoctoralthesis,TallinnUniversity,2014),pp.74-75.

63

themetaphorofdigestiontoconceptualisehowthesubordinateBraziliansubject

consumedelementsofadominantEuropeanorNorthAmericanculture,swallowed

whatwasnecessary,anddefecatedwhatwasnolongerofanyuse.Thiscriticaland

creativeprocess,whichoperatedpreciselyinthisunevenspaceofrelationality

betweenformercoloniserandcolonised,enabledtheBraziliansubjecttocannibalise

thecolonialculturalidentity,inordertoregurgitateanentirelynewanddistinctive

oneinpostcolonialBrazil.Andradedeconstructedthenegativeconnotationsof

cannibalismpervasiveinpopularWesterndiscoursesthatcondemnedthebarbaricand

uncivilisedflesh-eatingOther.81Instead,heofferedacrucialantidotetosuch

carnivalesquefictionsofgrotesquerie,andcreatedapositiveself-presentationofa

Brazilianculturethatcreativelydevoureddominanttrendsfromabroad,addressing

thespecificthemesofmodernism,nationalism,primitivismandanti-colonialismin

Brazil.

AndradewasamajorrepresentativeofBrazilianModernismo,aninfluential

intellectualandartisticmovementthatemergedinSaoPauloaftertheFirstWorldWar

andsoughtacriticalresponsetoEuropeanmodernitywhichcouldre-positionBrazil

withoutneglectingnationalrealities.Thisinterdisciplinarymovementincluded

BrazilianartistsEmilianodiCavalcantiandTarsiladoAmaral,composerHeitorVilla-

Lobos,sculptorVictorBrecheretandpoetMáriodeAndrade(norelationtoOswald).It

washeraldedbytheModernArtWeek,heldinSaoPauloinFebruary1922,which

celebratedthecentennialofBrazilianindependencefromPortuguesecolonialrule.82

81ThecollectionofessayspublishedinCannibalismandtheColonialWorldaddressedtheWesternfascinationwiththenegativeimageofthesavageandnon-WesterncannibalsinceChristopherColumbus’‘discovery’oftheNewWorld.CannibalismandtheColonialWorld,ed.byFrancisBarker,PeterHulme,andMargaretIverson(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998).82BeatrizResende,‘BrazilianModernism:TheCanonisedRevolution’inThroughTheKaleidoscope:TheExperienceofModernityinLatinAmerica,ed.byVivianSchelling(LondonandNewYork:Verso,2000),pp.199-218.

64

ModernismosoughtaestheticindependencefromEuropeandtheUnitedStates,and

conceptualisedadistinctivelymodernBrazilianartisticandculturalidentitythatdid

notmerelyimitatevanguardart,literaryandarchitecturalmovements,but

refashionedthemtoaddressBrazilianconcerns.ItbeganwithOswalddeAndrade’s

‘ManifestodaPoesiaPau-Brasil’(March1924)publishedintheCorreiodaManha,

whereinhearguedthatBrazilianidentitywassituatedinbetweenthemodernandthe

tropical.83Thiswasfollowedbyhistourdeforce,theMA,whichresonatedwith

Modernismo’sdesireforamodernBrazilianculturalidentitythatcouldengagewith

thePrimitivistartaestheticcurrentlyinvogueinEurope.Andradefoundinspirationin

pre-colonialBraziliancultureandusedthemetaphorofanthropophagytodescribethe

processbywhichtheBraziliansubjectfashionedhermodernnationalidentityas

autonomousandoriginal,asopposedtodependentandderivative.Thispositive

identificationofgivingaqualitytosomethingthroughtheprocessofanthropophagy

hasbeenexpandeduponbyBeatrizResende,whohaspointedoutthat‘enemies

deservetobeeatenonlyiftheydemonstratespecialqualities[…]suchascouragein

battleandindefeat’.84Andradecelebratedanthropophagyasacriticalstrategy

throughwhichtheBraziliansubject,ratherthanstraightforwardlyimitatingor

rejectingaforeignEuropeanorNorthAmericanculture,swalloweditspositive

strengths,defecatedwhatwasofnouse,andincorporatedforeignthoughtintothe

nativeself.

Thefirstsevennon-linkedshortsectionsoftheMAhighlightitsinterrupted

form,contradictorysentences,varietyofallusions,fragmentedvisualspacing,anduse

ofparodyandpuns:

83OswalddeAndrade,‘ManifestoofPau-BrasilPoetry’,trans.byStellaM.deSáRego,LatinAmericanLiteraryReview,14.27(1986),184-87.84Resende,‘BrazilianModernism:TheCanonisedRevolution’,p.207.

65

Cannibalismaloneunitesus.Socially.Economically.Philosophically[…]

* * *

Tupiornottupi,thatisthequestion[…]

* * *

Iamconcernedonlywithwhatisnotmine.LawofMan.Lawofthecannibal[…]

* * *

Whatclashedwiththetruthwasclothing,thatraincoatplacedbetweentheinnerandouterworlds.Thereactionagainstthedressedman.American

movieswillinformus.85

Withnocoherentnarrativeandnumerousunfinishedstatements,theMAisdifficultto

interpretandmustbeunderstood,asCarlosJaureguihasemphasised,as‘acollection

ofsurrealistphrases’asopposedto‘asystematicproposal’.86Ambiguityisabundant

throughoutAndrade’swritingstyle,whichintentionallyinterweavesnumerous

ambiguousmeaningsandinterpretativepossibilitiesinfragmentedform.Thiscritical

strategymayhavebeenintentionallydeployedbyAndradetorelievethewriterof

completeandoverdeterminedcontroloverhistext,whichisinsteadoffereduptothe

readertoextrapolatefurthermeaning.Dress,byitsveryambiguityasacontradictory

formofculturalexpressionsubjecttocontinuousrepositioning,isafittingmedium

throughwhichtoteaseoutandanalyseanumberofpossibleinterpretativethreads

fromtheMA.87

TheMApresentsaninnovativeformofBrazilianartisticexpression,which

rejectsEuropeanstylesofwriting.Thisisexplicitinthecannibalisationofthemostwell

85Andrade‘CannibalistManifesto’,p.38.86CarlosJauregui,‘Antropófagia’,inDictionaryofLatinAmericanCulturalStudies(Gainesville:TheUniversityPressofFlorida,2012),p.25.87Whetherintendedbythewearerormerelyimputedbytheviewer,dress,asFredDavishasasserted,‘”merelysuggests”morethanitcan(orintendsto)stateprecisely’.FredDavis,Fashion,CultureandIdentity(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1992),p.3.

66

knownphrasefromHamlet,astheprotagonistcontemplatedhisownsuicideand

weighedupwhetherornottoexist:‘TupiornotTupi,thatisthequestion’.88Thisline

waswritteninEnglishintheoriginalBrazilianPortugueseversionoftheMA.Tupiisthe

common,generalisednameforthevariousdifferentindigenousgroupslivinginBrazil.

Inthefifthsection,Andradeusedthemetaphorofdigestiontore-interpretthe

traditionalunderstandingofcannibalisminWesterndiscourseinawidersenseto

relatetothatwhichisnothis.Hetherebymovedawayfromthenegativitythatthe

WesthasconstructedaroundtheoppressivefigureofthesavagecannibalOtherwho

devouredhisenemies,andtowardsanunderstandingoftheprocessofanthropophagy

asacreativeactofappropriation:‘Iamconcernedonlywithwhatisnotmine.Lawof

Man.Lawofthecannibal.’89

Andradereferredtodressdirectlyonlyintheseventhsection,whenhe

expressed:‘Whatclashedwiththetruthwasclothing,thatraincoatplacedbetween

theinnerandouterworlds.Thereactionagainstthedressedman.Americanmovies

willinformus.’90Hedrewanimportantconnectionherewiththebroaderhistorical

trajectoryoftravelandwrittenaccountsofit,bothofteninextricablylinkedto

Westerncolonialism,withinwhichtheunclothed‘primitive’non-Westernbodywas

frequentlyusedtoconstructandarticulatefundamentalsocial,cultural,politicaland

moraldifferencesfromtheclothedand‘civilised’Westernbody.Inthisregard,

Andrademayhaveequatedcolonialismwithanoppressiveattempttodressand

oppressthenaturalBrazilian‘body’.Yethisuseoftheterm‘raincoat’isinteresting,

sincethisitemofdressisbothanimpermeablebarrierworntoprotectthebodyfrom

undesirable,outsideelements,andamediator,asecondskinthatenablesthewearer

88Andrade,‘CannibalistManifesto’,p.38.89Ibid.90Ibid.

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tocomeintocontactwiththeoutsideworld,regardlessofweatherconditions.Inthis

respect,araincoatcanbothcreateboundaries,separatingandcontainingthe‘inner’

worldoftheprivateSelffromthe‘outer’worldofthepublicOther,andde-construct

them,constitutingavehiclethroughwhichtheother(theunknownandoutsideworld)

istangiblyexperiencedandbroughtintocontactwiththeself(ourknown,inside

world).AparallelcanbedrawnherewithMarks’assertionthatwe‘allliveonthesame

surface,thesameskin.Ifothersareunfathomable,itisbecauseittakesaninfinite

numberoffoldstoreallyreachthem.’91Toapplythisstatementwithspecificreference

tothischapterwouldbetosuggestthatitisnotthatBraziliansubjectsareultimately

unknowabletotheNationalGeographicviewerbecauseoftheirostensibledifferences

indress,butthatitrequirestheunfoldingofinfinitenumbersoflayersbeforethe

meaningoftheirsartorialpracticescanbeunderstood,andthereforebeforeBrazilcan

becomeknowable.Fromhisdisjointedphrases,onecannotbeentirelysureofwhat

Andradewasdescribing,exceptthatthereisa‘reactionagainstthedressedman’.92He

alsoassertedthat‘Americanmovieswillinformus’andacknowledgedthepopularity

ofHollywoodfilmsinBrazilthroughoutthe1920s,whichreflectedadeepfascination

withU.S.culture.93IfwereflectonNationalGeographic’sgazethroughtheprismof

anthropophagy,wemaydetectthenowactiveandclothedanthropophagicBrazilian

subject,whobecomesamultivalentsiteofpotentialtobreakdownthebarrier

betweenSelfandOther,bypresentinganimportantsubjectivitythroughwhichtore-

thinkthemagazine’srepresentationalpolitics.

ByhighlightingtherepresentationalambiguityofBraziliandressthathasbeen

wovenintothefabricofNationalGeographic,thischapterwillexaminethe

91Marks,Touch:SensuousTheoryandMultisensoryMedia,p.xii.92Andrade,‘CannibalistManifesto’,p.38.93Ibid.

68

complexitiesofclothingasbothbarrierandmediator.Thethreesnapshotsorcase

studiesthatthischapterexaminesspanaperiodofforty-fiveyearsandwillbe

contextualisedwithcontemporaryexamplesfrommainstreamprintmedia,todraw

pointsofcomparisonanddistinction.94Thefirstsnapshotwaswrittenand

photographedbyU.S.ArmyAirCorpsofficerAlbertW.Stevensandpublishedinthe

magazineinApril1926,twoyearspriortothepublicationofAndrade’sMA.95The

secondwaswrittenbytheAmericanauthorHenryAlbertPhillipsandpublishedin

NationalGeographicinOctober1942.96Thethirdwaswrittenandphotographedby

theBrazilianphotographeranddocumentaryfilmmakerofGermandescent,W.Jesco

vonPuttkamer,andpublishedinNationalGeographicinSeptember1971.97This

chapterusesanthropophagyasacriticallensthroughwhichtoquestion,firstly,what

visualandtextualstrategiesNationalGeographichasusedtofashionanideaofBrazil

overthecourseofthetwentiethcenturyand,secondly,towhatextentBrazilian

subjectscanbeseentohaveself-fashioned,throughtheirabilitytoselectively

appropriateideas,stylesandmotifsderivedfromcontemporaryNorthAmericanand

Europeanculture.98Doesanthropophagyprovideapotentialmeansofresistance,

94AlbertW.Stevens,‘ExploringthevalleyoftheAmazoninahydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.353-420;HenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,pp.503-36;W.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,pp.420-44.95Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’.96Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’.97Puttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’.98AlthoughtheMAwaspublishedin1928,itisrelevanttoadiscussionofallthreesnapshotsbecausetheideasdiscussedwithinitwerebeingarticulatedandnegotiatedinBrazilthroughoutthetwentiethcentury.Forexample,OswalddeAndrade’s‘ManifestodaPoesiaPau-Brasil’waspublishedinMarch1924,onemonthbeforethefirstsnapshotexaminedwaspublishedinNationalGeographic.ThesecondsnapshotwaspublishedinOctober1942,thesameyear(inFebruary)thatMáriodeAndradepublishedanessayentitled‘OMovimentoModernista’,inwhichheretrospectivelyacknowledgedhowBrazilwascreatedanewthroughthemetaphorofcannibalism,butalsopointedoutsomeofthelimitationsofOswalddeAndrade’sargument.ThethirdsnapshotwaspublishedinSeptember1971andcoincidedwiththeleft-wingculturalandartisticmovementinBrazilknownasTropicàlia,whichrecycledthethemeofanthropophagyinthelate1960sasareactiontotheearlyyearsoftheright-wingBrazilianmilitarydictatorship.Inordertomaintainitsfocus,thisthesiswillusetheManifestoAntropófagoasitsstartingpointforananalysisoftherepresentationofBraziliandressinallthreesnapshots.

69

whichhasenabledBraziliansubjectstopreservetheirownculturalagencywhilst

sartorially‘talkingback’todominantrepresentationsofBrazilinNationalGeographic?

Arethereanyproblemsinherenttotheprocessofanthropophagy?

TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicOverOneHundredYears

ItisimportanttoincludeabriefcommentontherepresentationofBrazilin

NationalGeographicoverthefirsthundredyearsaftertheestablishmentofthe

magazineinSeptember1888.NationalGeographicfirstmadecontactwithBrazilin

April1906,thesameyearthatthePan-AmericanConferencewasheldinRiode

Janeiro.99Pan-AmericanismemergedatthecloseofthenineteenthcenturyasAmerica

activelysoughttoexpanditscommercial,social,political,economicandmilitary

contactwiththenationsofCentralandSouthAmerica.100Fromthispointonand

continuinguntilMarch1987,NationalGeographicpublishedthirty-sevenarticleson

Brazil.101Althoughtheyappearedtofollownoregularpattern,threekeytrendscanbe

notedoverthecourseofthetwentiethcentury.Thefirsttrendemergedbetween1909

and1933,whenNationalGeographicfocuseduponthevastandunexploredAmazon

regionanditsindigenouspopulations.AnarrativeofAmericanexpansionismwas

mythologisedbyarticlesthatstressedactive,masculinepursuitsintheAmazonregion;

see,forexample:‘FishingandHuntingTalesfromBrazil’(October1909),‘TheAmazon,

FatherofWaters’(April1926),‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’

99Anon.,‘WhattheLatinAmericanRepublicsthinkofthePanAmericanConferences’,NationalGeographic,August1906,pp.474-79;Anon.,‘BrazilandPeru’,NationalGeographic,April1906,pp.203-04.100JosephSmith,TheUnitedStatesandBrazil:ConvergencesandDivergences(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,2010),p.4.101RefertoAppendix1foratimelinetracingthese37articlesontokeyeventsinthehistoryofBrazilandBrazilianinteractionswiththeUnitedStatesfrom1888to1988.

70

(April1926),‘ThroughBraziltotheSummitofMountRoraima’(November1930),‘In

Humboldt’sWake’(November1931),whichreferencedtheGermannaturalist

AlexandervonHumboldt,renownedforhislate-eighteenth-centuryromantic

descriptionsoflushvegetationcurvingandswellinginthetropics,and‘AJourneyby

JungleRivers’(November1933).102Thesecondtrendappearedbetween1939and

1945,aperiodofworldwidefragmentationandanxietyasaresultoftheevents

leadingupto,andfollowing,theoutbreakofwarinEuropeinSeptember1939.Four

articlesonBrazilwerepublishedinNationalGeographicduringthisperiod.Each

focusedonRiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo,andoutlinedthesimilaritiesbetweenBrazil

andtheUnitedStatesintermsofmagnitude,modernityandcapitalism,emphasised

throughdynamicarchitectureandbusystreetspopulatedbyworkersandshoppersof

predominantlyEuropeandescentdressedinWestern-stylefashions.Thearticles

emphasisedthemodernisationandindustrialisationofBrazil,asisclearfromtheir

titles:‘AsSaoPauloGrows’(May1939),‘RioPanorama’(September1939),‘Air

CruisingThroughNewBrazil’(October1942),and‘Brazil’sPotentWeapons’(January

1944).103ThisnarrativecanbeunderstoodasamanifestationofPresidentTheodore

Roosevelt’sGoodNeighborPolicy,whichwasadvancedduringwartimeandappeared

toemphasisealessinterventionistapproachtointeractionswithintheWestern

102DeweyAustinCobb,‘FishingandHuntingTalesfromBrazil’,NationalGeographic,October1909,pp.917-20;W.L.Schurtz,‘TheAmazon,FatherofWaters’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.444-63;Stevens,‘ExploringthevalleyoftheAmazoninahydroplane’;G.H.H.Tate,‘ThroughBraziltotheSummitofMountRoraima’,NationalGeographic,November1930,pp.584-605;ErnestG.Holt,‘InHumboldt’sWake:NarrativeofaNationalGeographicSocietyExpeditionuptheOrinocoandthroughthestrangeCasiquiareCanaltoAmazonianWaters’,NationalGeographic,November1931,pp.620-44;ErnestG.Holt,‘AJourneybyJungleRiverstotheHomeoftheCock-of-the-Rock’,NationalGeographic,November1933,pp.585-630.103RobertW.Moore,‘AsSaoPauloGrows:HalftheWorld’sCoffeeBeansFlavourtheLifeandSpeedtheGrowthofanInlandBrazilCity’,NationalGeographic,May1939,pp.657-88;Moore,‘RioPanorama:BreathtakingisthisFantasticcityamidpeaks,palmsandsea,andincarnivaltimeitmovestotheRhythmofMusic’,NationalGeographic,September1939,pp.283-324;Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’;Moore,‘Brazil’sPotentWeapons:BrazilsuppliestheAllieswithmanyvaluableproducts,includingiron,manganese,quartz,rubber,vegetableoils,andinsecticides’,NationalGeographic,January1944,pp.41-78.

71

Hemisphere.104Thethirdtrendappearedbetween1964and1984,duringthethroesof

theright-wingmilitarydictatorshipinBrazil,whichwaspoliticallyalignedtotheUnited

States.Articlespublishedduringthisperiodfocusedontheindigenouspeoplesof

Brazil;see,forexample:‘IndiansoftheAmazonDarkness’(May1964),‘TheWaura:

BrazilianIndiansoftheHiddenXingu’(January1966),‘SavingBrazil’sStoneAgeTribes

fromExtinction’(September1968),‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLarga’(September1971),

‘Brazil’sKreen-Akores:RequiemforaTribe?’(February1975),‘Brazil’sTxukahameis:

GoodbyetotheStoneAge’(February1975),‘ManintheAmazon:StoneAgePresent

meetsStoneAgePast’(January1979)and‘Brazil’sKayapoIndians:BesetbyaGolden

Curse’(May1984).105Thesetitlesstressedasenseofloss,whichpresumedthatthe

interactionsofindigenouspeopleswith‘civilisation’wereleadingtotheireventual

demise.ItwasthereforeapparentlylefttoNationalGeographictorepresentthem

beforetheydisappeared,andindoingso,ensurethattheydidnotvanishirretrievably.

ThefinalobservationtonoteisthatfromApril1906toMarch1987therewasno

representationinNationalGeographicofAfro-Brazilians,norofthenortheasternstate

ofBahiawhich,aftertheabolitionofslaveryinBrazilin1888,establishedits

reputation,stillapplicabletoday,astheregionmostpopulatedbyAfro-Brazilians.106

104AntônioPedroTota,TheSeductionofBrazil:theAmericanizationofBrazilduringWorldWarII(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2009).105HaroldSchultz,‘IndiansoftheAmazonDarkness’,NationalGeographic,May1964,pp.736-58;Schultz,‘TheWaura:BrazilianIndiansoftheHiddenXingu’,NationalGeographic,January1966,pp.130-52;OrlandoandClaudioVillasBoas,,‘SavingBrazil’sStoneAgeTribesfromExtinction’,NationalGeographic,September1968,pp.424-44;Puttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’;Puttkamer,‘Brazil’sTxukahameis:GoodbyetotheStoneAge’,NationalGeographic,February1975,pp.270-83;Puttkamer,‘ManintheAmazon:StoneAgePresentmeetsStoneAgePast’,NationalGeographic,January1979,pp.60-83;VanessaLea,‘Brazil’sKayapoIndians:BesetbyaGoldenCurse’,NationalGeographic,May1984,pp.674-94.106RefertoAppendix1foramapdetailingthegeographicallocationofthe37articlesonBrazilthatwerepublishedinNationalGeographicduringthisperiod.

72

AnEthnographicGazeonBrazilinanAgeofPan-Americanism

ThefirstsnapshotwaspublishedinNationalGeographicinApril1926,inan

articleentitled‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane:twelvethousand

milesofflyingovertheworld’sgreatestriverandgreatestforesttocharttheunknown

Parimariverfromthesky’.107ThearticlewaswrittenandphotographedbyStevens,

‘observerandaerialphotographer’,anddocumentedtheAlexanderHamiltonRice

ScientificExpedition(1924-25)totheupperAmazonRiverbasin.108Thiswasthe

seventhexpeditiontotheAmazonthattheAmericanexplorerAlexanderHamilton

Ricehaddirectedanditwassupportedbythelatestsurveyingtechnology,which

includedabespokehydroplanespeciallyequippedtoundertakeaerialphotography.109

Theaimoftheexpeditionwasto‘surveyandmaptheRioBrancoanditswestern

tributary,theRioUraricoera,followingthelattertoitssourceintheSerraParimaand

toascertainwhetheranypassageexistedbetweentheheadwatersofthisriverand

thoseoftheOrinoco,thustyingthissurveytotheonecarriedoutontheleader’s

1919-1920expedition’.110Italsosought‘togatheranthropologicalandethnographical

data’and‘tomakeamedicalsurvey’oftheindigenouspeoplesencountered.111Amap

oftheexpeditionwaspublishedinNationalGeographicandcanbeseeninFig.2.0.112

Theroutepursuedbythepartycanbetracedonthismapalongthe‘RioNegroto

107Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’.108Ibid.,p.393.109LucianaMartins,‘FilmingTerraIncognita:theExplorationoftheAmazon’,inPhotographyandDocumentaryFilmintheMakingofModernBrazil(ManchesterandNewYork:ManchesterUniversityPress,2013),pp.40-70.ThepartyconsistedofAlexanderHamiltonRice(director),AlbertW.Stevens(observerandaerialphotographer),WeldArnold(cartographer),DrKoch-Grunberg(ethnologist),DrGeorgeShattuck(physician),CharlesC.Bull(assistant),WalterHinton(hydroplanepilot),JohnC.Couzens(engineer),JohnE.Wilshusen(airplanemechanic),JohnW.Swanson(radiotelegraphist),ThomasS.MacCaleb(radiotelegraphist),HermannDengler(draftsman),SilvianoSantos(filmoperator)andRamundoCamara(assistant).110Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.353.111Ibid.,p.357.112Ibid.,p.354.

73

Carvoeiro,thenfollowingtheRioBrancotothetownofBoaVista,beforeheadingto

BoaEsperançaalongtheRioUraricoera.Fromheretheexpeditioncontinuedtothe

confluenceoftheRioAracasaandtheRioParima,followingtheUraricoertoitsSerra

Parimasource’.113Despiteconditionsthatmadeexplorationphysicallyand

psychologicallygruelling,suchexpeditionswerecommonintheearlydecadesofthe

twentiethcentury.114Ex-presidentTheodoreRoosevelthadparticipatedinascientific

expeditiontotheregionin1913-14,andenthusiasticallyreported:‘Thiscountryand

theadjacentregions,formingthehighinteriorofWesternBrazilwillsurelysomeday

supportalargeindustrialpopulationandwillbeahealthyhomeforaconsiderable

agriculturalandpastoralpopulation.’115InanageofincreasedPan-Americanism,North

Americanscientists,geographersandexplorersweremotivatedbyadesireto

documentandmapunchartedterraininSouthAmerica,nottomentionthepossibility

ofcommercialexploitationandeconomicexpansion.116

Asaresultofitsveneerofobjectivityandperceivedindexicality,thecamera

wasinvariablyusedonsuchexpeditionsasanobservationalandrecordingtool,to

documentnotonlytheterrainbutalsotheindigenouspeoplesandplantspecimens

encountered.Aclearexamplecanbeseeninatopographicalphotographincludedin

NationalGeographic(Fig.2.1)thatwasentitled‘Thefliersdiscoverthecampofan

113Ibid.,p.354.114Twowell-knownexamplesofNorthAmericanswhotravelledtoBrazilduringthisperiodaretheex-presidentTheodoreRoosevelt,whoaccompaniedBrazilianColonelCandidoRondontothe1,000metre-long‘RiverofDoubt’(laterrenamedRiverRoosevelt)inaremoteregionoftheAmazonbasinfrom1913-14,andtheAmericanindustrialistHenryFord,whosoughtareliablesourceofcultivatedrubberforthemanufacturingprocessesofhisFordMotorCompanyintheAmazon.Ford’scapitalistventuresculminatedintheill-fatedindustrialcityofFordlandia,locatedinthenorthernAmazoncityofSantaram,whichwasestablishedin1928andsoldatalossof$20millionin1945.TheodoreRoosevelt,ThroughtheBrazilianWilderness(NewYork:Scribner,1914);GregGrandin,Fordlandia:TheRiseandFallofHenryFord’sForgottenJungleCity(NewYork:HenryHolt&Company,2010).115TheodoreRoosevelt,ThroughtheBrazilianWilderness(NewYork:Scribner,1914),p.217.116Smith,TheUnitedStatesandBrazil,p.56.

74

unknownIndiantribe,skillfullyconcealedfromallexcepttheairmen’.117Thisprovided

avisualreinforcementofdominancethroughitspanopticandprivilegedaerial

perspective,whichcapturedahugeswathofriveramongstablanketofrainforest,

brokenupbyasmallclearingtothetop-leftoftheframe.Thecaptioninformedthe

viewerthatthehydroplane,itselfanexemplarysymbolofWesternengineering,had

enabledNationalGeographicto‘discover’thepreviouslyhiddenhabitationofthis

unknownindigenousgroup.118Sincetheintroductionoftheuseofaerialphotography

formilitarypurposes,notablyduringWorldWarOne,thisformofphotographic

mappinghasbeenequatedwithanideologicalimpulsetomasterandconqueran

unpeopledlandscape.119Pratthasconflatedthissingular,summarisingbirds-eyeview,

elevatedaboveotherdocumentarymodesofrepresentation,withpowerandtermed

it‘themonarch-of-all-I-survey’trope,whereby‘theestheticqualitiesofthelandscape

constitutethesocialandmaterialvalueofthediscoverytotheexplorer’shome

culture,atthesametimeasitsestheticdeficienciessuggestaneedforsocialand

materialinterventionbythehomeculture’.120Thisunevenbalanceofpowerbetween

theseerandtheseenwasreinforcedwithinthetextoftheNationalGeographicarticle

throughcontinuedreferencetothehydroplaneas‘theeyesoftheexpedition’,along

with‘wewereprivilegedtoviewthejunglefromtheair’and‘wheretheuntrodden

junglepresentedamattedandalmostimpenetrablewalltomenonfoot,it

surrendereditssecretsreadilytomeninthesky’.121Theuseofthecamera,andits

117Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.370.118Ibid.119ForfurtherinformationonaerialphotographytakenfromthehydroplanerefertoStevens,‘TheHydroplaneoftheHamiltonRiceExpedition,1924-25,’TheGeographicalJournal,68.1(1926),27-43.120Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.201.MichelFoucaultandAllanSekulahavebothassociatedthisunifyingandtotalisinggazewiththeauthoritarianeyeofthestateandtheindividualvoyeur.MichelFoucault,DisciplineandPunish:TheBirthofthePrison(NewYork:PantheonBooks,1977);AllanSekula,‘TheTrafficinPhotographs’,ArtJournal,41.1(1981),15-25.121Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.353.

75

associationswithscientificrationality,demonstratedcompetingimpulsesinNational

Geographic:todiscoverandlearn,butalsotomasterandorder.

Snapshot1:TheMakuWoman’s‘OldPieceofCloth’

IntandemwiththescientificreorderingoftheAmazonianlandscapefrom

above,photographstakenonthegroundrenderedBraziliansubjectsequally

transparenttoNationalGeographic’squasi-anthropologicalgaze.Thefirstsnapshot

thatthisthesisdiscusseswasprintedontheright-handsideofadouble-pageviewof

themagazine(Fig2.2).Twofull-lengthmonochromestudiespublishedonthesame

page,itcapturedananonymousmanandwomanoftheMakupopulationinanatural

forestsettingnexttoariver.122Inthephotographontheright,themanstandstalland

stillwithhisshoulderspulledback,hisarmshangingathissidesandhisleftlegplaced

atanangleinfrontofhisrightleg.Thereisanawkwardnessinthewaythatthetoes

onhisleftfootseemtocurlinwardsintotheground,whichcouldbeexpressiveof

resentmentatbeingscrutinised,orsimplyareflectionofhisinexperiencebeforethe

camera.Hegazesdirectlyintothelenswithaneutral,evenseriousexpression.Hehas

bobbeddarkhairandwearsacottonloinclothpassedbetweenthelegsandaround

thewaist.Inthephotographontheleft,apregnantwomanstandswithhershoulders

heldback,armsbyhersideandlegsapart.Sheisplacedatanangle,somewhere

betweenafullfrontalandprofileview,andgazesintentlyoutsideoftheframe

towardstheriver.Thisgivestheimpressionthatherprioritiesliebeyondthe

photographicframethatencasesher.Shealsohasbobbeddarkhairandwearsa

122Ibid.,pp.396-97.Thatthissnapshotisinblackandwhitereflectsthenormintheearlytwentiethcentury,whencolourphotographywasstillinitsinfancy.AnycolourphotographsreproducedinNationalGeographicduringthisperiodwerehand-paintedAutochromeimages.

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patternedcottonaprontiedaroundherhips,wornwithacapemadefromaflimsy

materialdrapedoverhershoulders.Organisedasapair,eachwiththesubject

positionedseparatelyintheframe,isolatedinabrightandshallowspace,these

photographsweretypicalofthewell-establishednineteenth-centuryethnographic

practiceofphotographing‘types’basedupontheirgeographicallocationandphysical

appearance.Thetitle,‘AMakuSquawandHerHusband:ParimaRiver’,anchoredsuch

areductivereadingandattemptedtofixtheindividualswithinthecorrectethnic

identificationofthespecifictypesthattheyweresupposedtorepresent.123Thiswas

reinforcedwithinthebodyofthearticle,throughStevens’detailedaccountofthe

appearanceandcharacteristicsoftheMaku,whichconflatedcleanlinesswithorder

andrationality:

InfacialcontourtheyresembledMongoliantypes,andtheirstraightblackhairwascutina‘soup-bowl’bob[…]Eachindividualwasscrupulouslyclean,andweobservedthattheybathedregularly.Wefoundthemtobekeenmentally,sturdy,contented,helpfulandkindlytoeachother,buteachmanthoroughlyindependentandself-sufficing.Thiswasthefirsttime,apparently,thattheyhadhadanycontactwithcivilization.124

Thetwophotographsprintedontheleft-handsideofthedouble-pageview

mirroredthistypologicaltemplate.Inthecentreoftheframe,theycapturedthehead

andpartialtorsoofananonymousyoungboyandmanoftheMayongongpopulation

(Fig.2.3).125Ontheright,themanwasphotographedsquarelyinfrontofthecamera

andplacedagainstalightbackdrop.Hegazesslightlyupwards,withhisbrowfurrowed

ashesquintsintothebrightsunlightthatcastsashadowoverhisface,andhighlights

thecreasesaroundhiseyes.Tohisleft,ayoungboyisalsoplacedagainstabackdrop

123Ibid.,p.397.124Ibid.,p.400.125ElizabethEdwardshasoutlinedthesekeycharacteristicsinherexaminationofthescientificapplicationofphotographyinthenineteenthcenturyin‘OrderingOthers:Photography,AnthropologiesandTaxonomies’inInVisibleLight:PhotographyandClassificationinArt,ScienceandtheEveryday,ed.byChrissyIllesandRussellRoberts(Oxford:MuseumofModernArt,1997),pp.54-68.

77

devoidofanydistractingfeatures,andphotographedatananglewithintheframe.He

neithersmilesnorfrowns,butgazestohisright,ratherliketheindigenouswomanon

theoppositepage,atsomethingbeyondthephotographicframe.Theseimagesdrewa

parallelwiththeuseofthecamerainscienceandcriminologyintheirexposureofthe

subjects’facestocloseviewing.Withtheirblankbackdrops,thesubjectsbecame

displacedfromtimeandspace,encouragingtheviewertoinspectthemasseparate

racialentities.Thiswaseditoriallyreinforcedbytheclassificatorywhitegrid,consistent

withthegridlinesmarkedonthemapoftheexpedition(Fig.2.0),whichframedall

fourphotographsonthedouble-pagemagazinespread,andencouragedthemtobe

understoodbytheNationalGeographicviewerintermsoftheirimplicitorexplicit

relationtooneanother.Compositionaleffortonthepartofthephotographeris

reduced,andvariabilityintheresultingphotographrestsontheparticularitiesand

peculiaritiesofthesubjectandherimmediateenvironment.

However,acertainamountoftactilitywasrequiredtoviewthismagazine

spread,whichplacedthesecompleximagesbeyond,andincontradictionto,the

photographicgazethatostensiblyscrutinisedthem.TheNationalGeographicviewer

wasrequiredtorotatethemagazineninetydegreesclockwise,andgentlypullitapart

atitsseamsinordertoviewthefourphotographsintheircorrectandentireportrait

dimensions(Figs.2.4and2.5).Thistactilegesturebroughttheviewerintocloser

contactwiththerepresentedsubjects,throughtheinterconnectionspromptedby

simultaneouslytouchingandlooking.DiBellohasarticulatedthat‘forthetouching

subject,theobjecttouchedreciprocatesthetouching’,encouragingamoreembodied

andsensualencounterwiththephotographicobjectand‘blurringtheborderbetween

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selfandother’.126InApril1926,NationalGeographicwasnotthethin,glossymagazine

recognisabletoday,butfarheavierandthickerwithtextured,mattepages.Ithad

certainsimilaritiestoascientificjournalsettingouttopresentadistancedand

detachedethnographicrecordoftheMaku.Yetitalsohadmanyaffinitieswiththe

familyphotographalbum,asoutlinedintheintroductiontothisthesis,sincethe

proximityofviewarguablyencouragedanintimacywiththesubjects,stirring

memoriesintheviewerandpromptingamorepersonalresponse.Dressenabledthis

dynamictobeextendedtothephysicalsensationofwearing,sothattouchlikewise

triggeredassociationsintheviewer,andrespondedtotheirownheightened

awarenessofhowclothingfeltandmovedontheirownbodies.Thevisualconnections

tobemadebetweenthehapticandthevisualencouragedNationalGeographic

viewers,notsimplytoseerepresenteddressedsubjectsasscientificspecimens,butto

‘feel’andfullycomprehendthemasliving,breathing,digesting,cannibalisingandself-

fashioninghumanbeings.

Thetactilesensationsevokedbythemagazineconstructedamorecomplete

andsingularexperienceofBraziliansubjectsinNationalGeographic,andprovidean

opportunitytore-readthefirstsnapshotinmoreintimatetermsthroughthe

frameworkofanthropophagy.Althoughvisuallythesnapshot(Fig.2.2)depictedthe

anthropometricbody,thecaptionthataccompanieditemphasisedthe

anthropophagicsubject,sinceithighlightedthesingularityofthesubject’sreception

andassimilationofoutsidesartorialinfluencesindicatedthroughtheprocessofself-

presentation.Itread:‘Thereislittleintheircostumetodistinguishthemenfromthe

womeninthistribe;theyevenaffectthesamestyleofhair“bob”.Thewomanhas

decoratedhershoulderswithanoldpieceofclothfortheoccasionofhavingher126diBello,‘VisionandTouch’,p.9.

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photographtaken.’[myitalics]127Despiteitsinitialnaïveassertionthattherearefew

distinguishingfeaturesbetweenmaleandfemaledress,thecaptionproceededto

contradictitselfbydrawingattentiontothefemalesubject’sdeliberateandself-

consciousfashioningofherself‘withanoldpieceofcloth’forthephotographer.This

actsuggestednotsimplyanawarenessofbeingondisplay,butaknowingand

consensualperformancethatunderminedadeterministicreadingoftheimage.It

presentedashiftofthehegemonicgazetotheindigenoussubject,thehabitualobject

ofanthropology,whoceasestorepresentafixedandunchangingessence,butnow

demonstratesherabilitytodigestforeignculturalreferencesfromtheleftover

materialsthatshehastohand.

Thecaptionintentionallydirectedtheviewer’sattentiontowardsdressasa

meanstocontextualiseandproducenarrativemeaningwithintheimage,employing

whatRolandBarthestermed‘anchorage’–usingtexttodirecttheintendedmeaning

ofanimageanddefinetheprimarypointofreferenceforunderstandinga

photograph.128Thesubject’slow-tech,‘make-do’clothingsolutionhighlightedthe

inventivenessandresourcefulnessoftheMaku,whoareneitherfragilenorstaticin

thefaceoftheNationalGeographicgaze,butabletoconsumeoutsideinfluencesand

re-fashionthemtotheirownends.Itisinthissensethatthephotographcanbeseen

toencapsulatethesymbolicandculturalmeaningofthePortuguesewordgambiarra,

whichcanbeunderstoodasonemanifestationofanthropophagy.Gambiarrahasno

EnglishtranslationbutisusedcolloquiallythroughoutBraziltorefertoamakeshift

127Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.397.128RolandBarthes,Image-Music-Text(London:Fontana,1977),p.38.

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contraptionorimprovisedsolution.129Thisisexemplifiedbythewoman’singestion

andrecyclingofan‘oldpieceofcloth’toassembleanoutfitdeemedsuitableforthe

photographer’sgaze.130Thisfragmentary,readymadecreationhasbeenmodifiedto

fulfiladifferentuse,anddemonstratesthesustainabilityofthesubject’spracticaland

creativeendeavour.

Thewoman’sclothingrenderedherasactiveratherthanpassiveandinturn

encouragedtheNationalGeographicviewertounderstandtheethnographic-style

photographintermsofaself-awareandindividuallystyledportrait.Withinthebodyof

thearticle,Stevensacknowledged:‘Itwasnotdifficulttogetthenativestopose.Our

problemwasrathertogetthemtounpose.Oncetheystruckanattitudewhichthe

photographerdesired,theyhelditindefinitely.NoHollywooddirectoreverhadmore

patientsubjects.’131EventhoughStevensadmittedthathehaddirectedeach

photographicsubject,wecanseeevidencethatthesubjectalsocontributedherown

preferencestothemakingofthephotograph,sinceevenjustholdingthepose

indefinitelycouldbereadasachallengeorformofresistancetotherepressive

measuresofethnographicphotography.TamarGarbhasdelineatedthisparallel

betweenthetraditionofportraitureandracialisedethnography:‘Wherethe

ethnographicdealsintypes,groupsandcollectivecharacteristics,portraiturepurports

toportraytheuniqueanddistinctivefeaturesofnamedsubjectswhosesocial

identitiesprovideabackdropforindividualagencyandassertion.’132Garbhighlighted

thenoticeableparallelbetweenthecharacteristicsthatindicatetheauthoritarian

129RicardoRosas,‘TheGambiarra:ConsiderationsonaRecombinatoryTechnology’inDigitalMediaandDemocracy:TacticsinHardTimes,ed.byMeganBoler(Cambridge:TheMITPress,2008),pp.343-54(pp.343-44).130Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.397.131Ibid.,p.412.132TamarGarb,FiguresandFictions:ContemporarySouthAfricanPhotography(London:V&APublishing,2011),p.12.

81

measuresofethnography,suchasfullfrontalexposure,visualuniformity,andthe

minimisationoflightandshadow,withtheindividualisingtendenciesofportraiture.In

NationalGeographic,thisphotographcanbeviewedasacollaborativeportraitthat

reflectedthechoicesoftheindividual,whowasclearlyawillingparticipantinthe

image-makingprocess,choosingherownprops,pose,expressionandstyleof

presentation.Thiswillingandcollaborativeaspect,highlightedthroughthesubject’s

self-fashioning,displacedtheinstitutionallyimposedobjectivitycharacteristicof

ethnographicimagesofothers,andcomplicatedastraightforwardreadingofthe

image.Asaresult,thephotographstressedaheterogeneousresistancetothe

homogeneityimposedbyNationalGeographic’sdisembodiedimperialistgaze,

exemplifiedbythelandscapephotographstakenbythehydroplane(Fig.2.1),and

insteaddrewattentiontothefluctuatingnatureofanthropologicalphotographs.Dress

mobilisedamorecomplexvisualplayonhowtheethnographicphotographcould

simultaneouslypresentbothvisualspectacleandindividuallivedexperience.

ApointofcomparisoncanbemadewitharatherdifferentimageoftheMaku

thatwaspresentedoneyearearlierinanarticlewrittenbyA.H.Bruno,entitled

‘AirplanesAidExplorersinBrazil’,whichdocumentedthesametripthatAlexander

HamiltonRicedirectedtotheAmazon.Publishedonasingle-pagespreadinPopular

MechanicsinNovember1925(Fig.2.6),thecaptionread:‘Dr.Ricemeasuringafive

foottwoinchMakuIndian’.133ItaccompaniedaphotographofDrHamiltonRicewitha

measuringdeviceashesizedupananonymousMakuman,whostandsinprofilewith

hisarmsfoldedacrosshischestandaboredexpressiononhisface.ChristopherPinney

hasreferredtothemeasuringstickasthe‘anthropometrist’stalisman’;ostensibly

133H.A.Bruno,‘AirplanesAidExplorersinBrazil’,PopularMechanics,November1925,pp.786-90(p.788).

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usedtomeasureheight,itisfrequentlyemployedasa‘merestudioprop’.134In

contrasttotheindigenousman’slackofWestern-styleclothing,HamiltonRiceisfully

coveredinkhakitrousersandabuttoned-upshirt,reinforcingadynamicrhetoricof

differencebetweenfullyclothed‘civilised’Americanmalesandpartiallyclothed

‘uncivilised’Brazilianmen.Anearliertypescript(Fig.2.7)readbyHamiltonRiceata

meetingoftheRoyalGeographicSocietyon21February1921,inwhichhedescribed

his1919expeditiontotheAmazon,demonstratedthatheequatedtheadoptionof

Western-styledresswithanevolutionaryandlinearnarrativeofprogressfromastate

ofprimitivismtooneofso-calledcivilisation.Heforciblypropoundedthisdominant

viewpointwhenhedescribedtheimpositionofWestern-styledressontheindigenous

populationofSaoGabriel(amunicipalitylocatedonthenorthernshoreoftheRio

NegroRiver,inAmazonasstate)aspartofacivilisingmissionsetupin1916by

Christianmissionaries:‘SaoGabrieltodaywithitsclean,nicelydressed,courteous

schoolchildren,neatlyfencedgardens,clearedspacesandatmosphereoforderand

industryisinstrikingcontrasttothesqualidvillageofnakedlittlesavagesand

unkempthoydens,neglectedpurlieus,andlackofmunicipalcontrolandmission

influencethatprevaileduptothreeyearsago.’135Whilstnoattemptatenforced

sartorialappropriationwasmadeinthisparticularsnapshotfromNationalGeographic,

inPopularMechanicstherewasanunmistakablepowerdynamicbetweenthedressed

figureofAlexanderHamiltonRice,armedwithameasuringstick,andthe‘naked’

photographoftheindigenousMakuman,whichwascrudelycensoredsothatonlythe

verytopoftheman’sloinclothcouldbeseen.ContrarytoPopularMechanics,National

GeographicpointedouttheBraziliansubjects’creativeandsymbolicappropriationof134ChristopherPinney,CameraIndica:TheSocialLifeofIndianPhotographs(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1997),p.50.135London,RoyalGeographicalSociety,HamiltonRiceExpedition1919-1920Papers,AlexanderHamiltonRice,21February1921.

83

selectedaspectsofWestern-styledressthroughtheuseofthecaption,which

disruptedtherepresentationalstabilityofthephotographandnudgedtheviewer’s

attentiontowardsamorepersonalnarrative.

DespitethewaysinwhichdresssculptedasubjectivegazeontoBrazilinApril

1926,itisclearthatNationalGeographicstillsoughttopresentaBraziliansubject

sufficientlydistancedfromitsNorthAmericanreadership.Thisreadershipcanbe

inferredfromtheadvertisementsthatappearedwithinthemagazine.Oneexample

canbeseeninanadvertisementfortheAmericanmotorcompanyCadillacpublished

inthesameeditionofNationalGeographic(Fig.2.8).136Afair-hairedslimwhite

woman,notsodissimilar,perhaps,fromthefemaleNationalGeographicviewer,

wearsaclochehatandadressmadeofaflowinglight-colouredfabricwithadropped

waistandfrilledcuffs.WithherArtDeco-stylescarfdrapedoverherleftshoulder,she

symbolisesthe‘transcendentluxury’oftheCadillac,asdescribedinthetextatthe

bottomoftheadvertisement.HadNationalGeographicwantedtopresentasimilarly

fashionablydressedBraziliansubjecttoitsfemaleviewers,itcouldhaveeasilyfound

one,asananonymousphotographtakeninRiodeJaneiro(Fig.2.9)in1926attests.

Duringthisperiod,urbanreformssawRiodeJaneiroremodelledonEuropean

architecturalideasandtheincreasingadoptionofEuro-Americanfashionsbywealthy

Brazilianwomen.Inthisphotograph,twosmartandmodernBrazilianwomenwith

carefullyconstructedandcoordinatedensemblesareframedbeforeapalmtreeina

leafyenvironmentthatmightbealandscapedEuropeangarden.Theywearneat

clochehats,contemporarytailoredfashionswithdroppedwaists,stockingsandhigh

heels,andhaveacollectionofaccessories,whichincludeaclutchbagandanumbrella.

Photographedside-by-sideinthecentreoftheframe,thesewomenfacethecamera136Anon.,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.3.

84

directlyandappearreadyforitsgaze.Thewomanontheleftisofindigenousdescent,

wearsanornatelyembroidereddressandsmilesconfidently.Thewomanontheright

hasmoreEuropeanfeatures,wearsabroochonherrightlapel,andenactsamore

controlled,fashionablepout.LiketheindigenousfemalesubjectinNational

Geographic,bothofthesewomenperforma‘look’,butitisonethatmayhavebeen

moreeasilyrecognisableasfashionablebytheNationalGeographicviewer.That

NationalGeographicchosenottodocumentthischoiceofsubjectreinforcesthatit

eitherbelieved,orwantedtodisseminatetheideathat,Brazilwasgeographicallyand

temporallylocatedoutsidethesphereofWesternmodernisation.

RatherthanutilisetheconspicuousnessoftheEuropeanfashionspresentedin

thisanonymousphotograph,NationalGeographicchosetopresentamoremystifying

andinconspicuousexampleofsartorialanthropophagyperformedbytheindigenous

femalesubject,whichrequiredtheviewertounfoldindependentlythesupplementary

layersofambiguitywovenintotheimage.Withnocontextualinformationor

explanatorycommentwithinthebodyofthearticleabouttheprocessofself-

fashioningenactedbythewoman,themeaningofthisNationalGeographicsnapshot,

althoughbreakingoutofatendencyfordistancedanddetachedviewing,nonetheless

remainedasprecariousanduncertainasAndrade’sMA.Thatambiguitywasnotso

pervasiveinthesecondsnapshotthatthischapterdiscusses,whichdrewmoreofa

comparisonwiththisanonymousphotograph.Itpresentedaformofanthropophagy

thatNationalGeographicviewerswouldhavebeenmoreeasilyabletoidentifywith,

althoughtheambivalentmeaningsofdresscanstillbeseentohavefluctuated

betweendistanceandidentification:clothingasabarrierandasamediator.

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ADocumentaryGazeonBrazilduringWorldWarTwo

ThesecondsnapshotwaspublishedinNationalGeographicinOctober1942,in

anarticleentitled‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporter

spotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnited

Nations’.137ThearticlewaspublishedtwomonthsafterBrazilhadbrokenoff

diplomaticrelationswiththeAxispowersandofficiallydeclaredwaronGermanyand

Italyon22August1942.BrazilwasofparticularimportancetotheUnitedStatesin

1942ontwoaccounts:herrichdepositsofnaturalresources,whichincludedrubber,

manganese,uranium,nickelandironore,andthemilitaryandstrategicsignificanceof

herprotrudingnortheasterncoastline,whichwasconsideredvulnerabletoNazi

militaryattack.138NationalGeographicdocumentedanairbornetriptakenbythe

author,HenryAlbertPhillips,toproduceageographicalsurveyofthecountry’s

‘struggletoimproveitscitiesandcreateaNewBrazil’.139Therelationshipbetweenthe

twocountrieshadshiftedfromanearly-twentieth-centuryNorthAmericanperception

ofBrazilasatropicalsiteripeforexploitationandexpansion,toawartime

intensificationofRoosevelt’sGoodNeighborpolicy,whichperceivedthecountrytobe

anecessaryallyandvitaltotheprotectionoftheWesternhemisphere.140One

exampleoftheconciliatoryattitudetakentowardsBrazilcanbeseenintheU.S.

propagandafilm,BrazilatWar,producedbytheOfficeofInter-AmericanAffairsin

137Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’.138Smith,TheUnitedStatesandBrazil,pp.114-15.139Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’,p.503.ForfurtherinformationonthehistoryofdiplomaticrelationsbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil,withparticularattentionpaidtotheSecondWorldWar,referto:RobertW.Fontaine,BrazilandtheUnitedStates:TowardsaMaturingRelationship(WashingtonDC:AmericanEnterpriseInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch,1974);MonicaHirst,TheUnitedStatesandBrazil:ALongRoadofUnmetExpectations(NewYork:Routledge,2005);RiordanRoett,TheNewBrazil(WashingtonDC:BrookingsInstitutionPress,2011);Smith,BrazilandtheUnitedStates;Tota,TheSeductionofBrazil.140Mutualrespectandunderstandingformedtheideologicalcoreofthecooperativewar-timerelationshipbetweenBrazilandtheUnitedStates,bothofwhichusedpopularmediaasaforeignpolicytooltoengendergoodwillandaiddiplomacy.

86

1943.ItcelebratedBrazilas‘apowerfulnewfriend’anddrewacomparisonwiththe

UnitedStatesintermsofsize,population,industryandresources:‘Brazilbringsmuch

totheAlliedCause,notonlytheweightofherresourcesandmanpower,butthe

militantspiritofherpeopleandthereaffirmationofherfriendshipforthepeopleof

theUnitedStates.’141Correspondingly,therewasashiftinNationalGeographicwhich,

ratherthanplacingaquasi-ethnographicgazeontheAmazonregionasithaddone

previously,begantoutilisemorefamiliardocumentarymodesofexposure,andfocus

onindustrialisedurbancentressuchasRiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo.

Aclearexamplecanbeseeninthethirty-twophotographsselectedto

accompanyPhillips’article,whichwerereproducedentirelyinblackandwhite,and

madedramaticuseoflightandshade,formandvoid,nearandfartoanimatethe

staticscenesofurbanBrazilwithamodernist,optimisticvisionoftransformationand

progress.Thecrispnessandclarityofthereportagepannedarangeofindustrial,

architecturalandecologicalsites,renderedonamonumentalscaleandinminute

detail,whichincludedthetwenty-six-storeyMarinellibuildinginSaoPaulo(see,for

example,Fig.2.10),theLacerdaelevatorinSalvador,thegrandoperahousein

Manaus,andCopacabanaseafront.Thesewereoccasionallyinterspersedwithimages

oftheBrazilianpopulation,inwhichthemise-en-scènevisuallysupportedanarrative

thatimpliedthesocialfabricofBrazilwascomprisedentirelyofself-motivatedand

determinedindividuals.InalettertoNationalGeographiceditor,J.R.Hildebrand,

dated18June1942,Phillipsexplainedhisrevisionistintentincompilingthearticle(Fig.

2.11):

141BrazilatWar(OfficeoftheCoordinatorofInter-AmericanAffairs,UnitedStatesOfficeofWarInformation,1943).

87

IamgladweshallavoidthesappyGoodNeighborvein.Likewiseweshallsidestepalltouchypoliticalinferences.NoSArepubliccouldhavebeenbetterchosenforacompleteturn-overasBrazil.Perhapsweshouldcallthepiece‘NOVOBRASIL’andfollowthegenerallinesofinnovations,whichofcoursewillcoverthegreaterpartofthegreatcountry.Inthisrespect,Vargasistheoutstandingfigureinthewholeofthecontinent.142

Phillipswantedtomoveawayfromanovertlysentimentalisedrepresentationofthe

GoodNeighbor,personifiedin1942bythecreationoftheWaltDisneycharacterJose

‘Ze’Carioca,ananthropomorphisedparrotfromRiodeJaneirowhoappearedbeside

DonaldDuckinthecartoonSaludosAmigos.143Instead,heemphasisedthecrucialrole

BrazilianPresidentGetulioVargas(inofficefrom1930to1945andagainfrom1951to

1954)hadplayedinthemodernisationandindustrialisationofBrazil.Hepraised

Vargas’popularity,whichresultedfromthefactthat‘thepeoplerecognizedhimas

oneofthemselves–ademocratic,fearlessGaucho’,andpresentedhimasthe

charismaticandpaternalisticleaderofthe‘NewBrazil’.144InaccordancewithPhillips’

intentto‘sidestepalltouchypoliticalinferences’,thatVargas’authoritarianEstado

Novo(NewState)dictatorship(1937-45)hadmanycommonalitieswithfascism,and

thathisallegiancewiththeAlliedForcesinOctober1942hadtakenmanybysurprise,

wentcompletelyundocumentedbyNationalGeographic.

InsteadNationalGeographicwasattentivetoVargas’outstandingand

Westernisedqualities,asacarefullyorchestratedgroupphotograph,takenatNorth

AmericanentrepreneurHenryFord’srubberplantationinSantarem,attested.

Publishedonasingle-pagespread,itcapturedVargasdirectlyintheframe,surrounded

bymembersofhiscabinet,allofwhomappeartobeofwhiteEuropeandescent(Figs.

142WashingtonDC,NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.116948,HenryAlbertPhillipstoJ.R.Hildebrand,18June1942.143SaludosAmigos,dir.byWilfredJackson(WaltDisney,1942).144Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’,p.536

88

2.12and2.13).Thephotographisshotagainstablankbackdrop,whichilluminates

Vargas,whoisdressedinadouble-breastedwhitesuit,shirt,stripedtieandtwo-tone

leatherbrogues.Hestandsinaconfidentpose,withhisarmsbyhissides,directly

facingthecameraandyetavertinghisgazefromit.Hisadoptionofwhitetropicalwear

ismatchedbythreeofhiscompanions.Theirsuitsareallmadefromalightweight

linenfabricappropriatefortheBrazilianclimateand,exceptforafewcrumples,retain

theirWestern-styletailoringintheheat.Whitenessisanimportanttropeusedin

NationalGeographicasthevisualmanifestationofthecompleteerasureofimpurities.

ItreferencedtherigorouscleanlinesscentraltocontemporaryNorthAmerican

ideology,inwhichmass-producedwhiteproductswereperceivedassmoothand

sterile,rationalandordered.145Aclearexamplecanbeseeninanadvertisementfor

thedenture-cleaningproductPolident,publishedinNationalGeographicinMay1941

(Fig.2.14).146Itfeaturedthefixedbright,whitesmileofapale-skinned,blonde-haired

woman,whogazeddirectlyattheviewer,thepurewhiteofhereyesmatchingthatof

herteeth.Theinsistentrhetoricofthetextquestioned:‘Areyoulettingdingyteeth

destroyyoursmile…perhapsyourwholecharm?’Theanswertothisproblemcouldbe

quicklysolvedbyusing‘Polident–aproductthatmagicallydissolvesalltarnish[…]

purifiesyourplate–leavesitodorless,clean–attractive–asnaturallookingastheday

yougotit’.147Theadverthighlightedthevirtuesofwhitenessasanattainableidealand

itspared-downorganisation,likethesimplelinesofVargas’whitesuit,visuallyalluded

toMaryDouglas’assertionthatthehumandesireforcleanlinessmustbeunderstood

asaprocessofenvironmentalorganisation,andtheestablishmentofasocialorder

145SuellenHoy,ChasingDirt:TheAmericanPursuitofCleanliness(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1995).146Anon.,NationalGeographic,May1941,p.16.147Ibid.

89

throughthesystematicprocessofbodilypurification.148Ratherthancapturethe

complex,hybridsocialrealityofcontemporaryBrazil,composedofmultipleethnic,

racialandindigenousgroups,themagazinechosetostageavisionofBraziliannessthat

smoothedoveranderasedanyevidenceofethnicityorindigeneitythatdeviatedfrom

a‘civilised’whitenorm.NationalGeographicsoughttocollapsethedifferences

betweenwhiteskinandwhitecloth,smoothingover‘touchypoliticalinferences’,and

portrayingtheNewBrazilasare-bornwhitenationthatNationalGeographicviewers

wouldbeabletorecognisestraightforwardlyaspartoftheirownworld.149

Yetthisimagealsoprovidedarevealingopportunitytoseehowrace

functionedvisuallywithinBrazilatthisparticularmoment,andhowthisconnectedto

thepreoccupationsoftheVargasregimeinfashioningaunifiednationalidentity

throughthetropeofwhiteness.150Vargas’adoptionofwhiteEuropeanimperialist

dressdemonstratedthathesawhimselfaspartofthewhiteEuropeanelite,andwas

self-consciouslyawareofhisownappearanceasaliteralandfigurativereinforcement

ofnationalistdiscourse.Thepithhelmetthatheholdsinhisrighthand,albeitpartially

obscuredbythesmallboywhostandsinfrontofhim,wasthequintessentialsymbolof

WesternimperialismandanintrinsicpartoftheuniformofWesternoverseasmilitary

campaigns.HereitisadoptedbyVargas,notsimplyasaformofprotectionfromthe

148Thiswaspremisedupontheassumptionthat,asDouglasexplained,‘Dirtoffendsagainstorder.Eliminatingisnotanegativemovement,butapositiveefforttoorganizetheenvironment.’MaryDouglas,PurityandDanger:AnAnalysisoftheConceptsofPollutionandTaboo(London:Routledge,2004),p.2.149NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.116948,HenryAlbertPhillipstoJ.R.Hildebrand,18June1942.LucianaMartinsmakesthislatterpointinherdiscussionofAmericanphotographerGenevieveNaylor’sphotographicexhibitionFacesandPlacesinBrazil(1943).Shecommented:‘ThefiftyphotographsmakinguptheexhibitionseemtohavebeencarefullyselectedtoprovideapictureofthecountrythatwouldenabletheAmericanpublictorecognizeBrazil,acountrytheyknewverylittleaboutbeyondbeinga“GreatCoffeeNation”,aspartoftheirworld’.Martins,‘Epilogue’inPhotographyandDocumentaryFilmintheMakingofModernBrazil,pp.209-16(p.212).150PriscillaPeñaOvalle,DanceandtheHollywoodLatina:Race,Sex,andStardom(NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,2011),p.56.

90

sun,butinorderforhimtoaffiliatehimselfwiththeWestthroughtherecognisable

figureofthewhiteEuropeantravellerdressedinwhiteEuropeantravelwear.It

demonstratedhisdesirefortherestoftheworldtoperceiveofBrazilasawhite,

Europeannationundergoingthenecessaryprocessesofmodernisationand

industrialisation.WhilsttheVargasGovernmentdidnotdenytheexistenceof

indigenousandAfricanpeopleswithinBrazil’scomplexmultiracialsociety,official

discoursesmoothedoverthesediverseidentitiesandfashionedanimageofthe

countrythatwasunequivocallywhite,orintheprocessofbecomingwhite.151Thisis

framedwithinthemise-en-scèneofthisimage,asVargassmilesandgazesdownata

smallboy,dressedinauniformofkhakishortsandjacket,whosalutesandwavesthe

Brazilianflagwithitspositivistmottoof‘OrderandProgress’.Vargas’gazedirectly

linkshimselftotheboy,whoissilhouettedagainsthiswhitesuit;theimplication,it

seems,isthattheorderandprogressofBrazilrestuponitsyoung,white,European-

descendedmalepopulace.Ratherthanmerelyaself-consciousattempttoalign

himselfwiththeUnitedStatesastheamicableGoodNeighbor,Vargas’whiteclothing

encapsulatedhowtheBrazilianeliteprizedEuropeanfashions.Thisimagemustalsobe

readthenasapervasivereinforcementoftheEstadoNovo’sracistideology,which

reflectedcomplexpowerrelationsinoperationwithinBrazilthatsoughttovisually

consume,andtherebymarginalise,ethnicitiesthatdeviatedfromawhiteEuropean

norm.

151Racialandcultural‘branqueamento’,‘whitening’,hadconstitutedanecessaryprocessinthemodernisationofBrazilfollowingtheabolitionofslaveryin1888.Theeugenics-influencedpolicyofvariousBraziliangovernmentssincethelatenineteenthcenturyencouragedwhiteEuropeanimmigrationfrom‘desirable’countriesinthehopethatitwouldultimately‘whiten’thefaceofBrazilanditsculture.JeffreyLesser,NegotiatingNationalIdentity:Immigrants,MinoritiesandtheStruggleforEthnicityinBrazil(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1999),p.4.

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Snapshot2:PaulistaWomen’sWhiteSportswear

Thecross-culturaltensionsandlayersofmeaningevokedbywhiteclothingcan

alsobeseeninthesnapshotwhichiscentraltothissection,printedontheright-hand

sideofadouble-pageviewaspartofPhillips’article(seeFig.2.15).152Afull-pageblack

andwhitephotograph,itcapturedagroupofathleticyoungwhitewomen,who

appeartobeofEuropeandescent,astheystandtoattentionbeforethecamera.The

upward-lookinggazeofthecameraelevatesandprojectsthewomenagainstanopen,

unobstructedsky.Tallanderect,theirfeetplacedtogether,armsstraightbytheir

sides,shouldersback,andstomachstuckedin,theygaze,forthemostpart,straight

ahead.Theyareorganisedintopairswithmilitaryprecision,andformauniformline

thatstretchesseeminglywithoutlimitintothedistance.Theirsupplelimbsandpale

skinareilluminatedbyanaturalsunlightthatradiatesfromtheright-handsideofthe

frameandstretchesacrosstheimage.TheconstructionofBrazilianfemininitybased

uponglowingwhiteidealswasnotunknownintheNorthAmericanpress,asa

photograph(Fig.2.16)publishedinAmericanVogueinJuly1941attested.153Entitled

‘SouthAmericanVisitors:FiveBeautifulNeighborsfromBrazil,PeruandtheArgentine

…recentvisitorstotheU.S.’,itfeaturedVargas’daughter,SenhoraAlziraVargasdo

AmaralPeixoto,capturedside-on,theflashofHorstP.Horst’scamerailluminatingher

paleskinandwhitecottondress.RichardDyerhasexaminedhowcameralightingand

filmtechnologyarespecificallycalibratedtoassumeandprivilegewhiteskin.Hehas

conflatedtherepresentationofwhitebodieswiththephotographicqualityof

‘lightness’,inwhichbodiesare‘literallybutalsofigurativelyenlightened’,reinforcing

152Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’,pp.518-19.DespitethefactthatbytheoutbreakofWorldWarTwocolourfilmwasinincreasinglywideusage,NationalGeographicstillshotmanyofitssubjectsintime-honouredblackandwhite.Thismayhavebeenanattempttodemonstratetheseriousnessofthemagazine’sreportage.153Anon.,‘SouthAmericanVisitors:FiveBeautifulNeighborsfromBrazil,PeruandtheArgentine…recentvisitorstotheU.S.’,AmericanVogue,July1941,p.22.

92

anirreconcilablepolaritybetweenthecolours,blackandwhite,andthebodies,non-

whiteandwhite.154Lookingaheadandcontemplatingtheprospectofabrighterand

byextensionwhiterfuture,thewomeninNationalGeographicappearhealthyand

positive,reflectingthedynamismofanationreadyforwar,amessageofnational

unity,despitetheirindividualfacialfeaturesandbodyshapes,conveyedthroughgroup

activity.Thelightilluminatestheiridenticalcleanandsimplewhitesportswear:white

socks,whiteplimsolls,whitelaced-uppoloshirtsandwhitebelts,allofwhichappear

relief-like,stagedagainsttheirdarkshortsandthedarkflatbackground.The

uniformityoftheirclothingandposesservestotranscendBrazil’sdiverseand

multiracialpopulation,andtherepresentationofmultipledisciplinedglowingwhite

bodies,fusedintoasinglepowerfulentity,canbeunderstoodasametaphorforthe

unifiedglobalbody:apowerfulandcohesiveWesternhemispherecomprisedof

reliableandself-motivatedindividuals,allworkingtogetherinco-operation.

Thecaptionthataccompaniedthisphotographread:‘Freedfromthe

traditionalchaperonofLatinAmericaisthemaidofModernBrazil.Whereformerly

shesatathomewithneedlework,shenowgoesinforsportsinabigway.Thousands

ofsuchsports-cladgirlsdrilledattheinaugurationofSaoPaulo’sstadiumin1940.’155

ThecaptiondescribedBrazilasamodernisedcountryliberatedfromLatinAmerica,

symbolisedbyyoungBrazilianwomenandtheiradoptionofasimpleandpractical

outdoorssportswearaesthetic.NationalGeographicdrewattentiontotheprocesses

ofsartorialanthropophagythroughwhichawell-establishedNorthAmerican

sportswearaesthetichadbeenadoptedandre-presentedinaBraziliancontextto

serveasapotentsymbolofamodern,whiteBrazil.JustasVargasusedwhitecolonial

154RichardDyer,White(NewYork:Routledge,1997),p.101.155Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’,p.519.

93

dresstoreinforcehispoliticalmessageinthepreviousimage,here,whitesportswear

presentedaliteralandfigurativeendorsementofthepoliticalandideologicalagenda

oftheEstadoNovoregime.ThepopularityofNorthAmericansportswear,appropriate

forbothathletesandspectators,hadrisensteeplyby1942,liberatingAmerican

fashiondesignfromadependenceontraditionalParisiancouture.156Anexampleof

Americansportswear,whichembodiedanactive,modernandstreamlinednewrole

forwomenengagedinavarietyofactivepursuitsortakingonabroaderrangeofwork

tasks,canbeseeninanadvertisementforBestandCo.’slineof‘Americana’clothing

(Fig.2.17),publishedinAmericanVogueinFebruary1941.157InNationalGeographic,

NorthAmericansportswearnolongerdenotedAmericannessbutbecameapotent

symbolofBrazilianness,centredontheeffortsofVargas’EstadoNovoregimeto

formaliseandinstitutionaliseracialdifferencewhilstcreatingrigidboundaries

betweenmasculineandfemininegenderroles.ThecaptioninNationalGeographic

sidesteppedanyovertpoliticalreferences,butitdidacknowledgethatthisphotograph

hadoriginallybeentakenattheofficialinaugurationofSaoPaulo’sMunicipalSports

Stadiumon27August1940.ThiseventhadbeenattendedbyVargasandwas,as

ChristinaPeixoto-Mehrtenshaspointedout,‘anexplosivepoliticalsymbolof

modernityandametaphortothewaysurbanworksandpoliticsweretofuseincivic

events’underhisauthoritarianregime.158Anotherphotographfromthesameevent

hadappearedintheBraziliannewspaperOEstadodeSaoPauloon28April1940(Figs.

2.18and2.19),accompaniedwithacaptionthatread:‘Participatingintheparadethat

inauguratestheMunicipalStadium,arenumerousathletesfromnearlyalltheSao

156RebeccaArnold,TheAmericanLook:fashion,sportswearandtheimageofwomenin1930sand1940sNewYork(London:I.B.Tauris,2009).157AmericanVogue,February1941,p.3.158ChristinaPeixoto-Mehrtens,UrbanSpaceandNationalIdentityinEarlyTwentiethCenturySãoPaulo,Brazil:CraftingModernity(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2010),p.159.

94

Pauloassociations.Oneseeshere,thecontingentoftheSchoolofPhysical

Education.’159Thisphotographcapturedthefemalesubjectsinmotion,ablurofblack

andwhitemarchingintandem,thedifferencesbetweentheindividualwomenblurred

intoaunifiedwhole.InNationalGeographic,thewomen’sconsumptionandre-

presentationofAmericansportswearsimultaneouslyre-assertedBrazilianness,and

reassuredNationalGeographicviewers,duringawartimeperiodcharacterisedby

fragmentationandanxiety,thatthesuperficialsimilaritiesinwhitesportswearand

whiteskincouldsmoothoverlargerdifferencesbetweenBrazilandtheUnitedStates.

DresspromotedidentificationbetweenNationalGeographicviewersandBrazilian

subjects;itprovidedevidenceofsharedidealsandvalues,andreiteratedthe

importanceofBrazilasanimportantallytotheUnitedStates,whilstavoiding,as

Phillipscommented,the‘sappyGoodNeighborvein’.160

However,despitethisidentificationpromotedthroughthenarrativeofdress,

thereremainedanunmistakablepowerdynamicinNationalGeographic.Thiswas

centredonthefactthat,inordertoviewthephotographinitscorrectlandscape

dimension(Figs.2.20and2.21),theNationalGeographicviewerhadtoturnthepage

ninetydegreesclockwise.Whereasinthefirstsnapshotdiscussed,thismaterial

engagementwiththeimageasobjectencouragedamoreintimategazefromthe

viewer,hereitreinforcedadistancedanddisinterestedgazeontothewomen.Thisis

becausethistactileactionbroughttheimageintodirectdialoguewithaphotograph

printedontheleft-handsideofthedouble-pageview(Fig.2.22),whichpresentedvast

quantitiesofBrazilianbeeflinedupoutsideinrowsattheWilsonandCo.Inc.packing

159Anon.,‘AVisitadoSr.PresidenteGetulioVargasaSaoPaulo’,OEstadodeSaoPaulo,28April1940,p.7.160NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.116948,HenryAlbertPhillipstoJ.R.Hildebrand,18June1942.

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plantnearSaoPaulo,hunguptodrylikegarmentsonawashingline.Thetitlesofthe

twoimagesencouragedtheviewertoperceivethewomenasobjectsofapowerful

gaze,andposited‘Youcanpickyourown“QueenCoffee”fromthisline-upofathletic

beautiesatSaoPaulo’against‘Sun-driedBrazilianbeeflurestheAmericandollarintoa

venerableBrazilianindustry’.161Directandovert,thecaptionshighlightedtheNorth

AmericanconsumptionofBraziliangoodssuchasbeefandcoffee.Theyadvertisedthe

femaleBraziliansubjectsasmass-producedcommoditiesdisplayedonagrocerystore

shelf,oratitsmostcrude,asaharvestripetobegathered,encouragingtheNational

Geographicviewertoselectherpreferred‘QueenCoffee’:adistilledessenceof

BraziliannessneatlypackagedforAmericanconsumption.AlthoughNational

GeographicostensiblyappearedtodocumentanimageofBrazilthatwasvisuallyakin

totheUnitedStates,thiswastemperedbytheeditorialdecisiontoplacethewomen

onthemagazinepageoppositeanimageofmeat.Itreinforcedthat,althoughthis

snapshotpresentedanostensiblymoreintimateandfamiliargazeonthewomen,

demonstratedthroughtheiradoptionofNorthAmericanwhitesportswear,National

Geographicwasstillengagedinportrayingamoreinsidiousformofdominanceover

Brazil.Thefinalsnapshotdiscussedinthischapterpresentsathirdmanifestationof

thecomplexinteractionsbetweenBrazilandtheUnitedStatesinrelationtothe

conceptofanthropophagy,andanothershiftinthefabricofNationalGeographic’s

representationofBrazil.

161Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’,pp.518-19.

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AnEthnographicGazeonBrazilduringtheMilitaryDictatorship

ThefinalsnapshotwaspublishedalmostthirtyyearslaterintheSeptember

1971editionofNationalGeographic,withinanarticleentitled‘BrazilProtectsher

CintaLarga’.162Thisarticlepresentedastarkcontrasttothemodern,industrialised

visionofBrazilanditsthrivinginfrastructurethatwasimpresseduponNational

GeographicviewersduringtheSecondWorldWar.HereBrazilrevertedtoan

underdevelopednationofvastresources,whichdrewaparallelwiththeimageof

Brazilpresentedinthefirstsnapshot.Thisisperhapsnotsurprisinggiventhatthis

articlewaspublishedduringtheBrazilianmilitarydictatorship(1964-85),whichhad

begunwhenacoupd’étatsupportedbyU.S.ColdWarpoliticsculminatedinthe

overthrowofleft-leaningBrazilianPresident,JoaoGoulart,bytheBrazilianArmed

Forces.163Duringtheearlyyearsofthedictatorship,theU.S.governmentfrequently

overlookedthesystematictortureofBrazilianpoliticaldissidents.Correspondingly,

NationalGeographic’sshiftinggazeduringthisperiodturnedawayfromurbancentres

andpolitics,andtowardsBrazil’sindigenouspopulations.

ThearticlewaswrittenandphotographedbyW.JescovonPuttkamer,

‘semiofficialphotographeranddiarist’,anddocumentedtheattemptsbytheFundação

NacionaldoÍndio(theNationalIndianFoundation,orFUNAI)to‘pacify’theCinta

Largaspopulation,inoneofthe‘longesthardest,mostdangerousjobsever

undertakenbymynativeBrazil’sNationalFoundationfortheIndian’.164In1971the

CintaLargasinhabitedaterritoryinthesouthwestoftheAmazonrainforest,covering,

ascanbeseenonthemapinFig.2.23,theBrazilianstatesofRondoniaandMato

162Puttkamer,‘BrazilProtectsherCintaLarga’,pp.420-44.163Thedictatorshipcontinueduntil1985,duringwhichtime191politicalmurdersand243disappearancestookplace.JamesGreen,WeCannotRemainSilent:OppositiontotheBrazilianMilitaryDictatorshipintheUnitedStates(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2010).164Puttkamer,‘BrazilProtectsHerCintaLarga’,p.420.

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Grosso.Withinthearticle,anexoticisedimageoftheCintaLargaswasfashioned

withinanimposedandtimelessethnographicpresent.Puttkamerdescribedthemas

‘tensewildtribesmen’who‘for400yearshadescapedtheencroachmentof

civilization’.165PuttkamercategorisedandclassifiedtheCintaLargaaccordingtothe

widesashesmadefromblacktreebarkthatmalemembersofthegroupweararound

theirwaists,explaining:‘ForthetimebeingwearecallingtheseIndians“CintaLargas,”

fromthePortuguesewordsforthebroadbeltsoftenwornbymenandboysofthe

region.’166Thereisahomogenisationandsimplificationinherentinthistypological

gesture,whichdrewaveilovertheindividualinteractionsthatmaleandfemale

indigenoussubjectshadwithdress,andsubjectedthemtoalevelofscrutinybased

entirelyupontheirexternalappearance.ThiswasreinforcedwhenPuttkameroutlined

thegoalsofFUNAI,whichappearedmoreproprietorialthanaltruistic,andnurturedan

ideaoftheCintaLargasasaclearlydifferentiatedOther,inneedofpaternal

protection:

FUNAI’smissionisadualone.First,itpacifieshostileIndianssothatBrazil,anunderdevelopednation,mayextracttherichesofitsvastwildernessareaasefficientlyandpainlesslyaspossible.Secondly,itprotectstheIndiansitpacifiesagainsttheharmfulaspectsofourcivilizationwithwhichtheycannotcope[…]Thereisonethingthateventheselfless,dedicatedpeopleofFUNAIcannotprevent.Thatistheerosionofasimpleculturebyastrong,complexone[…]andthatiswhyeachFUNAIsertanista,orIndianexpert,carriesinhisheartsaudade,anostalgicsadness.[myitalics]167

Puttkamer’scommentisrootedinadiscourseofsalvageethnography,arecurring

anthropologicaltropeconcernedwithcapturingtheessenceofapresencebeforeits

anticipatedabsence.HeproducedanidealisedimageofamythicalBrazilianpastand

165Ibid.166Ibid.‘CintaLargas:MaterialCulture’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/cinta-larga/427>[accessed3June2015]167Ibid.,p.421.

98

reducedtheCintaLargastoanineffablenostalgia,‘saudade’(aBrazilianwordfora

nostalgiclonging,whichhasnodirectEnglishtranslation),reinforcingtheideaofthe

disappearanceoftheir‘authentic’culture.Puttkamerwasconcernedwith

simultaneouslydocumentingthe‘lost’indigenouspracticesoftheCintaLargaswhile

carefullyinsertingthemintomainstream‘civilised’Braziliansociety.Heexplainedthat

FUNAIworkers‘livedindailyperiloftheirlives.Atanytime,acivilizadomight

inadvertentlydosomesmallthingthatcouldbemisconstruedbytheprimitivemind

andtriggeramassacre.’168Suchjuxtapositionswereabundantthroughoutthearticle

andclearlydemarcatedthe‘civilised’fromthe‘savage’,justifyingFUNAI’sneocolonial

activitiesthroughanunderstandingofitsculturalandmoralsuperiority.

Yetthetwenty-threefull-colourphotographsoftheCintaLargaspublished

withinthearticledissolved,toanextent,thisdivisionbetweenthe‘civilised’andthe

‘savage’.Thephotographsweredistinctfromthedistancedandnon-participatory

scientificeyeofthehydroplanethatwasseeninthefirstsnapshot,whichemployed

ostensiblymoremeasuredandpreconceivedstrategiestodocumentorganised

typologiesofdifference.Rather,theseimageshadarelaxedqualityandcorresponding

immediacy,whichgavetheimpressionthatthesubjectshadforgottenthepresenceof

Puttkamer’scamera(see,forexample,Fig.2.24).Thiswasamarkofthe

photographer’smoreintimateconnectiontotheCintaLargas,assomeonewhohad

gainedknowledgeotherwiseinaccessibletooutsiders,andwasconsequentlyableto

photographthemfromapresumablyinformed,albeitstilloutsider’s,perspective.The

unselfconscious,day-to-daynatureofthephotographsseemedtoconfirmtheidea

thattheviewerwaslookingataspontaneousmomentinthelifeofthesubjects;they

functionedunderthequasi-ethnographicpretenceoftheauthorasparticipant-168Ibid.

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observer,toemphasisethatthesearerealpeopleandreal-lifesituationsthat

Puttkamerwasdocumenting.Theimageswereprintedclose-upasfull-pagebleeds

(Fig.2.25),asopposedtobeingcontainedwithinawhiteborderastheywereinthe

firstandsecondsnapshotsexamined;thistechniquecollapseddifferenceandinviteda

moredirectresponsefromtheNationalGeographicviewer.Furthermore,asopposed

tothematte,texturedpaperoftheprevioustwosnapshots,thisonewasprintedina

slimmereditionofNationalGeographic,whichhadacombinationofglossyandmatte

paper.Thephotographsweremoreself-reflexiveabouttheencounterbetween

membersofFUNAIandindigenoussubjects,andpresentedthemclosetogether,even

hugging,suggestingthatFUNAIweredirectlyinvolvedinthesociallifeoftheCinta

Largasandhadformedrelationshipswiththem.Thisshiftwasaresultofadvancesin

cameratechnologywhichenabledphotographerstodocumentmovingsubjects,butit

wasalsoareflectionoftheturntowardsNationalGeographic’sdifferentmethodsof

quasi-ethnographicresearch,fromadistancedviewtoamoreinvolvedparticipation.

Itisimportantnottoexaggeratethesingularnoveltyofthismoreintimate,

self-reflexivegazethatNationalGeographicplacedontoCintaLargassubjectsin

September1971.EthnographicandphotographicpracticesinBrazilsincetheearly

1940shadalreadyshiftedtoencompassmoresubjectiveapproachestodocumenting

indigenouspeople,exemplifiedbythephotographsandfilmstillsproducedbytheSPI

(theIndianProtectionservice,thestateagencysetupin1910thatwasresponsiblefor

theprotectionofindigenousgroups,whichin1965becameFUNAI)withinthe

expansivethreeeditedvolumesIndiosdoBrasil[IndiansofBrazil],publishedbetween

1946and1953.169The1,515imagescollatedbytheBrazilianmilitaryengineerand

169C.M.Rondon,IndiosdoBrasil,VolI:Indiosdocentro,donoroesteedosuldeMatoGrosso(RiodeJaneiro:ConselhoNacionaldeProteSaoaosIndios,1946);Rondon,IndiosdoBrasil,VolII:Cabeceirasdo

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explorer,CândidoMarianodaSilvaRondon(1865-1958),thefirstdirectoroftheSPI,

constitutedastateprojecttomoderniseandindustrialisethemoreremoteregionsof

interiorBrazil.170Yetratherthantreatindigenoussubjectsasgenericspecimensof

ethnographic‘difference’,anobstructiongettinginthewayofprogress,thevast

majorityoftheseofficialimagespresented,asStephenNugenthaspointedout,

‘humansubjectsratherthanmaterialcultureobjects[…]apartialyetcompelling

portrait’ofaculturally-diverse,contemporaryBraziliansociety.171

ManyofthephotographsreproducedinRondon’sthreevolumeshaveamore

relaxedandimmediatequality,whichbecameasignificantandestablishedgenrein

theillustratedmagazineOCruzeiro(launchedin1928)throughoutthe1940sand

1950s,andweremarkedlydifferentfromtheimageshithertopublishedinthe

mainstreamBrazilianpress.172Inordertofuelanincreaseddemandforvisual

documentationofaBraziliansocietyintheprocessoftransformation,in1943O

Cruzeirooverhauleditspreviouseditorialvaluesandbegantoaccompany

ethnographicexpeditions,suchasthoseconductedbytheVillasBoasbrothers,to

documenttoawidespreadaudienceforthefirsttimecontactwiththedifferent

indigenoussubjectsthattheyencountered.TheempatheticportraitsofBrazilian

photojournalistJoseMedeiros(seeforexampleFig.2.26,whichcapturesan

anonymousXavanteman,indigenoustotheeasternstateofMatoGrosso,close-upin

theframein1949)andthecandidshotsofFrench-BrazilianphotographerHenriBallot

RioXingu,RiosAraguiaeOiapoque(RiodeJaneiro:ConselhoNacionaldeProteSaoaosIndios,1953);Rondon,IndiosdoBrasil,VolIII:NortedoRioAmazonas(RiodeJaneiro:ConselhoNacionaldeProteSaoaosIndios,1953).170StephenNugent,ScopingtheAmazon:Image,Icon,Ethnography(WalnutCreek,CA.:LeftCoastPress,2007),p.92.ForacomprehensiveintroductiontotrendswithinBrazilianethnographicpractice,andhowthisdiffersfromdevelopmentsin‘Western’anthropologyconductedinBrazil,seeAlcidaRitaRamos,‘EthnologyBrazilianStyle’,CulturalAnthropology5:4(1990),pp.452-472.171Ibid.,pp.92-3.172MariaLuizaMeloCarvalho,ContemporaryBrazilianPhotography(NewYork:Verso,1996),p.14.

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(seeforexampleFig.2.27,whichdocumentsananonymousgroupofTxukarramaes

women,locatedalongtheXinguRiverontheborderbetweenthestatesofParaand

MatoGrosso,whoappearunperturbedbythephotographer’spresencein1953)

encapsulatedthisnewaestheticofanintimateandsubjective‘realism’.AndreSeguin

desHonshasdescribedhowthemagazineusedtheinnovationsofdocumentary

photographytoconstructahumanisedimageofindigenoussubjects,whowereplaced

intheprocessofbecomingintegratedintoBraziliansociety:

Aesthetically,OCruzeiroadoptedtheinnumerableformalmeansusedinmodernphotography:obliquehorizons,unusualangles,theuseofreflectionscausingspatialconfusion,lenseswhichdeformtheimage,tightclose-ups,geometricalcompositions,back-lightingandphotomontage.Withinthepagesofthemagazine,thesemethodshadconsiderableimpact.Theycreatedanauraofdramaandgrandeurabouttheirsubjects.173

Imageswerenolongerpurelyillustrative,butpresentedasubjectivenarrative,in

whichanynotionofobjectivityordistancewasobliteratedbythephotographers’

close-upandintimateengagementwiththeirsubjects.Thisphotographicgenrewas

eclipsednotsimplybytheadventoffilmandtelevision,butmostabruptlybythestart

ofthemilitaryregimein1964,whichheavilycensoredthemainstreampressand

closednumerousmagazinesandnewspapers.Indoingso,itopenedupaspacefor

NationalGeographictotakeoverthesenewaestheticvalues,asthischaptermoveson

toexamineincloserdetail.

173AndreSeguindesHonsquotedinCarvalho,ContemporaryBrazilianPhotography,p.16.

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Snapshot3:TheCintaLargaWomen’sBlackBodyPaint

Theparticularsnapshotthatthischapterfocusesonwaspublishedasafull-

pagebleedandoccupiedtheright-handsideofadouble-pageviewinNational

Geographic(Figs.2.28and2.29).174Itcaughttheviewer’sattentionsinceitwasthe

onlyphotographthatcapturedCintaLargaswomen.Placedoppositeablankpageof

text,threefemalesubjectsstandside-oninaforestclearing,nexttotheremainsofa

smoulderingfire.Theydonotlookatthephotographerbutappeartobeposingfor

anotherphotograph,whichisbeingtakenbysomeonetotheleftofthephotograph

frame.Theyhaveshortdarkbobbedhair,wearnecklacesofdyedtucumnutsandred

string,andhavepaintedgeometriclinesontheirfacesinjenipapdye.175Thesubjectin

thecentreandhercompanionontherighthaveusedblackandredbodypaintto

divideupanddeconstructtheirbodies,fragmentingthemintoseparateparts.This

sophisticatedprocessisolatesarms,chest,hips,legs,andankle,anddepartsfromthe

moreprescriptivemethodsbywhichWestern-styleclothingtendstoperceivethe

clothedbodyasaunifiedwhole.Forthesewomen,paintedandunpaintedbodyparts

becomeinterdependentandhaveequalsignificance:boththepositiveshapesformed

bythepaint,andthenegativespacesinbetweenthoseshapes.Thisprocessof

decontextualisingone’sownbodyparts,andperceivingeachasanobjectinandof

itself,demonstratesaself-reflexivegazebywhichthesewomenaddresstheirown

bodieswithacomparablelevelofscrutinytothatplacedonthembythephotographic

gaze.

174Ibid.,pp.440-41.ThissnapshotreflectsthewidespreaduseofcolourphotographyinNationalGeographicandbroadervisualmediabythe1970s.175‘CintaLargas:MaterialCulture’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/cinta-larga/427>[accessed3June2015]

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Thewomendisplayacreativityandingenuityinadoptingnewdresscodes

whilstretainingtechniquescustomarytotheirownculture.Indoingso,theydevelop

theirownversionof‘Western’clothing,whichre-inventsitthroughtheiruseofbody

paint.176Theirresultingensemblescreateshiftingpointsofreferenceasthewomen

representtheclothestheysee,justasPuttkamerisdocumentingwhathesees.The

creativeactofthewomeniscomparabletoanobservationmadebyClaudeLévi-

StraussinTristesTropiques(1995).Lévi-Straussdescribedhowthesophisticated

SpanishAmericanCaduveoIndians(alsocalledtheMbaya)appropriatedaspectsofthe

uniformwornbySpanishsailorsinthemid-nineteenthcenturythroughtheir

customarypracticeofbodypainting:

AftertheIndianssawaEuropeanwarshipforthefirsttime,whentheMaracanhasaileduptheParaguayin1857,thesailorsnoticedthenextdaythattheirbodieswerecoveredwithanchor-shapedmotifs;oneIndianevenhadanofficer’suniformpaintedingreatdetailalloverhistorso–withbuttonsandstripes,andthesword-beltoverthecoat-tails.177

Lévi-StraussacknowledgedtheMbaya’sappropriationandre-presentationofthe

Spanishsailors’uniforms,whichretainedtheirvisualmotifsanddesigndetailsbut

transformedthemthroughtheuseofbodypaint.ThisprocessenabledtheMbayato

negotiatenewsartorialmeaningsrelevanttothesociopoliticalorganisationoftheir

ownculture.InNationalGeographic,thewomen’spaintedclothingmayhavebeena

comparablyfluiddemonstrationofthesubjects’creativeself-invention,whichrefutes

claimsmadewithinthetextthattheCintaLargashaveastaticand‘simpleculture’176Itisinterestingtonotethatthewomen’sdresshasmoreincommonwithEasterndress,suchasthatproducedbytheJapanesedesignerIsseyMiyakeinthe1970s.Miyakewasinterestedinthespacethatexistedbetweenclothandthebody,andre-fashionedtheprincipletenetsofWesterndress,whoseformisconventionallymodelledcloselytothebodyofthewearer,likeashell.WhileMiyakewasconcernedwiththespacebetweenclothingandthebody,thesewomenareinterestedintheshapesbetweentheirdifferentitemsofpaintedclothingonthesurfaceoftheirskin,andlikewisere-negotiateWesternunderstandingsofdressandthebodyand,indoingso,turntheperformanceofdressintoanartform.177Lévi-Strauss,Claude,TristesTropiques(London:Penguin,2011),p.189.

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abouttobeerodedbya‘strong,complexone’.178Thesubjects’dressedbodies

becomeasiteofheterogeneouspotentiality,which,ratherthanreinforcingthe

disintegrationofCintaLargasculture,suggestsitsongoingcreativerenewalthrough

dressthatisreceptivetocontactwithothercultures.

InNationalGeographic,thecaptionacknowledgedthatthewomen’sbody

paintwasaformofclothingratherthanmeresurfacedecoration,andread:‘Stylishly

cladinpainted“clothing”,afemininecontingentarrives.Expeditionmembersfeltthe

women’spresencemarkedanewlevelofconfidence.Impressedbytheirpoise,the

authornamedthemthe“ThreeGraces”.’179Althoughthisexperimentalformof

sartorialanthropophagywasnotexplicitlypointedout,thecaptionacknowledgedthat

thewomenhaddigestedanexistingdiscourseofWestern-styleclothing,andreapplied

itusingelementsofindigenousmaterialculture.Thecaptionpromptedtheviewerto

pickouttheWestern-styleshapesofT-shirts,shorts,vestsandbodysuitsthatcouldbe

seenwithinthephotograph,whichdemonstratedthewomen’squickgraspofand

adaptabilitytoWesternculture,therebysubvertingtheclaimsinthetextthattheyare

‘StoneAgeIndians’.180Theperformativeaspectofthismodeofdresswasenhanced

bytheposesthatthewomenadopted,suggestinganawarenessoftheconventionsof

posinginWestern-stylephotography.Thereisanevidentattemptatself-presentation,

butalsoaself-consciousexhibitionism,performedbeforethecamera.Thesubjectin

thecentreplacesonehandonherhip,tiltsherfacetowardsthecameraorgaze

locatedtowardstheleftofthephotographframe,andplacesherweightonherleft

leg.Theothertwosubjectsaremid-waytowardsapose.Barthescriticallyrecognised

thatposingwasaself-consciousactofmakingoneselfintoanimageforthe

178Puttkamer,‘BrazilProtectsHerCintaLarga’,p.421.179Ibid.,p.440.180Ibid.,p.421.

105

photographer’sgaze:‘Ipose,IknowIamposing,IwantyoutoknowthatIam

posing.’181Thepresenceofallthreewomenisundeniablyfeltastheyparticipateinthe

constructionoftheirownposesandappearancesbeforethetwocameragazeswhich

provideanambivalentcomplexitytotheimage.Theviewer’sawarenessofthesetwo

gazesthathavebeenplacedontothefemalesubjectsencourageshertoimaginatively

re-constructthewomeninthree-dimensionalterms.Puttkamer’spositionwithinthe

bodyofthearticleisoneofnostalgicmourningforthelossofCintaLargaculture,yet

thisparticularsnapshot,whichappearedattheendoftheNationalGeographicarticle,

offeredaglimmerofhope,sinceitdemonstratedtheCintaLargas’creativeand

sustainablesurvivalthroughdress.TheassociationwiththeThreeGraces,the

mythologicaldaughtersofZeus,saidtorepresentbeauty,charmandjoy,whoare

frequentlyvisuallydepictedinsmooth,whiteartisticrepresentationssuchasAntonio

Canova’sneoclassicalmarblesculpture(1814-17),impliedbothbackwardnessand

evolution,sinceclassicalcultureconstitutedthestartingpointforWesterncivilisation,

butalsothestandardbywhichitwasmeasured.182

ApointofcomparisoncanbedrawnwitharatherdifferentviewofBrazilian

womenthatwaspublishedinLifemagazineon12November1971(Figs.2.30and

2.31),inanarticlewrittenandphotographedbyJohnDominisandentitled‘Tamingthe

GreenHell:BrazilRamsaHighwayThroughTheWildAmazon.’183Thearticle

concernedtheBrazilianGovernment’sbuildingoftheTrans-Amazonianhighway,a

4,000kmroadconceivedoftounifyNorthernBrazil,whichopenedinSeptember1972

andranthroughtheBrazilianstatesofParaiba,Ceara,Piaui,Maranhao,Tocantins,181RolandBarthes,CameraLucida:ReflectionsonPhotography(NewYork:NoondayPress,1981),p.12.182ChristineM.GuthmakesthispointinherdiscussionofhowEuropeantravellersencodedJapaneseculturewithinEurocentricframeworksthatdrewonAncientGreeceandMedievalEurope.Guth,Longfellow’sTattoos:Tourism,CollectingandJapan(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2004),p.31.183JohnDominis,’TamingtheGreenHell’,Life,12November1971,pp.30-31.

106

ParaandAmazonas.Inthetop-left-handcornerofthearticle,animagecapturedfive

Brazilianwomenstraightforwardlyintheframe,againstadullbackgroundofclouded

sky,awoodenfencedisappearingintothedistance,andthegreen-and-whitefaçadeof

abuilding.Thecaptionthataccompanieditread:‘Townsalongtheroadarebooming

withsuchby-productsofcivilizationaselectricityandbargirls.OnSaturday,hundreds

ofworkerscomeintoAltamira,above.Girlsentertainthemenforabout$3each.’184A

closerexaminationofthephotographdemonstratedhowsimplifiedthisdescription

wasinanchoringthemeaningofthephotograph,sinceitunderstoodthewomen

solelyintermsoftheiravailabilityasobjectsofconsumptionandamalegaze,and

refusedtoacknowledgethelayersofmeaningembeddedwithintheirfashionable

ensembles.

Eachsubjectmeetsthephotographer’sgazedirectly,andenactsavarietyof

poses,fromstraightforwardlypresentingthebodytothegazethatscrutinisesthem,to

morestylisedandperformativefashionstancesthatrevealanuncoveredthighand

high-heeledsandal.Theirclothingisacombinationofwhitenylonknee-highsocks

wornwithwhiteshoes,whiteandpinkankle-lengthdresseswiththigh-highslits,and

hotpantsandovercoatsinpsychedelicprintedfabrics,allofwhichstandoutagainst

thegeneraldegradationoftheiraridsurroundings.Theclashingcoloursandswirling

patternsthatadornthreeofthewomen’soutfitsdemonstratetheinfluenceof

contemporaryhippiefashions,popularbothinsideandoutsideofBrazilduringthe

period,withtheirpenchantforexposingthebody,vibranthuesandmismatchedprints

andstyles.Thewomen’sclothingandposeswerenotonlyfashionableinWestern

EuropeandtheUnitedStates,butalsocirculatedinmainstreamBrazilianmagazines,

newspapersandsoapoperas.Thewomenthusdisplayacommonawarenessof184Dominis,’TamingtheGreenHell’,p.30.

107

fashionthatlinksthemtotheoutsideworld,despitetheirremotegeographical

location,andencapsulatestheglobalnatureoffashion,asindividualsnegotiate

differentsubjectpositionsinthecontextofcomplex,transnationaldynamics.Totake

thesesartorialreferencesintoaccountwhich,unlikeNationalGeographic,Lifefailedto

do,enablestheimagetobereadagainstthegrain,andthewomentobeunderstood

asnolongermerelypassiveobjectsofapresumedmalegazebutactivefashion

consumersinthecontextofaglobaleconomywhohavenegotiatedandnavigatedthe

constructionoftheirownidentitiesthroughdress.

ThereceptionandinterpretationoftheNationalGeographicsnapshot,as

exemplifiedbyletterswrittentothemagazine,demonstratedthatitremained

ambiguousandprovocativeinthemindsofviewers,ratherasthe‘Manifesto

Antropófago’hadbeenin1928.OnereaderwrotetothesecretaryofNational

Geographicon3September1971(Fig.2.32)acknowledgingtheeducationalvaluethat

sheattachedtothemagazine,butcriticisingitfordisplayingnudity:

Wehavesubscribedtoyourmagazineforseveralyears.TheSeptember1971issuehaspromptedthisnotetoyou–22picturesorpagesofnear-nudemenandnudewomen!Ihavenoticedanincreasingtrendinyourmagazine–andIamawarethatthisistheactuallivingpatternofthesenativetribes–ofnudity.Myteenagedaughterreferstoyourmagazineandhasreceivedinvaluableassistanceinherstudies.Herfriendsalsoenjoythemagazinewhichoccupiesaprominentplaceonmycoffeetable–butthisSeptemberissuewillbeputaway.I’msurethatintheBrazilianjungleW.JescoandvonPuttkamer[sic]musthavebeenabletofindotherinterestingthings–andbeenabletophotographtheseIndiansmorediscreetly.SimplybecausetheseIndianswearnoclothesatallshouldhavepromptedlimitedexposureoftheirbodies.Idonotconsider22pagesofnakedmensuitableviewingformyteenagedaughter.185

185NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397,JoanG.WallistoTheSecretaryNGS,29August1971.

108

ThisreaderdidnotperceivethethreeCintaLargaswomenasdressedanddescribed

themas‘nude’,disregardingtheircomplexuseofbodypaintasaformofclothing.In

response,althoughnotactuallyoutliningthatbodypaintwasaformofdress,National

Geographicexpressedtheviewthatitwasnotnecessarilyamarkofcivilisationtobe

clothed,andthatitwouldbewrongtoattempttoacculturatethesepeoplesbyforcing

themtoadoptclothing(Fig.2.33):

IfwearegoingtoportraytheCintasLargaofBrazil,ortheStoneAgetribesmenofnewGuinea,ormanyofthenewlyindependentpeoplesofAfrica,wemustacceptthatalargenumberofthemgoaroundwearingverylittleindeed–asdoalsomanya‘civilized’American,EnglishmanorRussiantoday.Toignorethiswould,inouropinion,createjustasfalseapictureoftheworldasifwedidtheopposite,andunnecessarilyemphasizedthisaspect.Honesty,itseemstous,iskeytothiswholequestion.Thisisaverydifferentthingfromthedeliberatelypornographic(andessentiallydishonest)publicationssoreadilyavailablethesedaysinmostdrugstores.186

NationalGeographic’sacknowledgementthat‘wemustacceptthatalargenumberof

themgoaroundwearingverylittleindeed’stillsuggestedaninabilityonthe

magazine’sparttocriticallyrecognisethesignificanceoftheCintaLargas’different

modesofdress.Furthermore,themagazine’sinsistenceon‘honesty’maybe

consideredasanattempttosmoothovertheambiguityinherentinethnographicand

documentarymodesofphotography,whichalwaysreflectaparticulargazeandare

inextricablytiedtotheattitudesofthemaker,whohaschosennotonlythesubject

butalsothecomposition,lightingandframeworkwithinwhichthatsubjectis

captured.

186NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397,JohnScofieldtoJoanG.Wallis,20September1971.

109

Therewerealsolettersthatappearedtoexpressanoppositeviewpoint.

AnotherviewerwrotetoNationalGeographiccriticisingthemagazineforcensoringits

subjects(Fig.2.34):

Iwishtoissueacomplaintregardingthepoortasteinvolved[…]Youwillnotewhenlookingatthepictures,youhavecensoredthesexorgansofthemalesineverycasebringingattentiontothefact.Ipresumethisisbasedonsomepuritanconceptthatwearenotsupposedtoseesuchthings.Ifso,youarewaybehindthetimes.Wearenotaswingingfamily,infact,weareconsideredrathersquare,butwhenthekidssay‘tellitlikeitis’,youshouldsitupandtakenotice.Ifyourreadersareincapableofhandlingsuchvisualinformation,thendon’tputitinthemagazineatall,butpleasedonotdegradeyourmagazineanddegradethereaders’intelligenceinthemannerthatyouhave.187

NationalGeographichadnotinfactcensoredthepictures;theviewerwas

inadvertentlyreferringtotheCintaLargas’techniqueofkeepingtheirscrotumspulled

upandsecuredwithpalm-leafribbons,ascanbeseeninFig.2.24.Inresponse,

NationalGeographicgavethevieweradetailedexplanationoftheprocedure(Fig.

2.35):

CintaLargamalesrepairthatpartoftheanatomywhichyouquestioninawaywhichobscuresitfromview.Thatpartwhichisnormallyextrinsicismadeintrinsic,ortoputitbluntly,tuckedbackin.Ourbestinformationisthisaidsfertilitywhichyoumustconsiderintermsofarelativelynomadictribewhichengagesinhuntinginthejungleforitslivelihood.Thesmallreedisattachedbyinsertingapieceofloosefleshintoaconicalpocketresultingfromanangularoverlapattheendofthereed.188

Thedifferentviewpointsofferedbythesetwoviewersprovideanindicationofthe

inconsistentorcontradictorymessagesthattherepresentationofdressprovokedin

themagazine,demonstratingthatneithersubjectnorphotographer–noreditorfor

187NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397,JohnT.GosstoMelvilleB.Grosvenor,5October1971.188NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397,JonSchneebergertoJohnT.Goss,2November1971.

110

thatmatter–everhascompletecontroloverthemakingofmeaningwithina

photograph.

ThischapterhasusedAndrade’sself-awaremetaphorofanthropophagy,

wherebyBraziliansubjectshaveswallowedforeignelements,selectedaspectsto

consume,andincorporatedthemintotheirownorganisms,toexaminethree

snapshotsthatfeaturedBrazilandwerepublishedinthefirsthundredyearsof

NationalGeographic.Thecontradictoryandambiguousnatureofanthropophagy

madeitaconstructivecriticaltooltore-thinkthesethreeverydifferent,historically

andgeographicallydistanced,butparticularlycharged,cross-culturalinteractions

withintheUnitedStates-Brazilcontactzone.IreturntoAndrade’sassertionthat‘what

clashedwiththetruthwasclothing,thatraincoatplacedbetweentheinnerandouter

world’.189InallthreesnapshotstherehasbeenacuriositylinkedtoNational

Geographic’sobservationofBraziliandress.190Yetthischapterhasalsodemonstrated

thatdresshasprovidedameansforBraziliansubjectstonegotiateandre-negotiate

withcreativitytheirindividualidentities.Myanalysishasattemptedtoassessthe

aestheticsingularitiesandcreativeinnovationsofBraziliansubjects’engagementswith

cross-culturaldress.Arevisionistre-readingofthesethreesnapshotsthroughthelens

ofdresshasarticulatednewframesofreference,potentialitiesandsubjectivities,

whichhaveinterruptedmoredominantnarrativesembeddedwithinthetextofthese

NationalGeographicarticles.Dresshasenabledustore-readtheseimagesagainstthe

189Andrade,‘CannibalistManifesto’,p.38.190Itisinterestingtonotethatdressstudyitselfisgroundedinanencyclopaedicinterestindocumentingdiversetypesofdress,exemplifiedbyItalianscholarCesareVecellio’sexpansivetwovolumes,HabitiAntichi,Modernidituttoilmondo[OldandModernHabitsofDressinAllPartsoftheWorld],whichcatalogueddressindifferentpartsoftheworldasearlyas1598.CesareVecellio,HabitiAntichi,Modernidituttoilmondo(Venice:AppressoiSessa,1598).

111

grainandchallengesomeofthestraightforwardassumptionsthathavebeen

associatedwiththemagazine.Ithasprovidedacounter-narrative,tochallengethe

prevailingscientificideologyofNationalGeographictopursue‘theincreaseand

diffusionofgeographicknowledge’.191ItmustbeacknowledgedthatitwasBrazilian

womenwhoweremoreopenlyscrutinisedbymaleNationalGeographic

correspondents,whichraisesissuesofgenderedauthority,butneverthelessitwas

Brazilianwomen’sdressthatexhibitedmorepotentialtochallengeahegemonicgaze.

Thismaybearesultofthefactthatwomenwereunderstoodaslessimportantduring

thetimeframeunderexamination,whichmeanttheyhadamorefluidsubjectivityto

constructtheiridentitiesinmoreidiosyncraticwaysthanmen.

ItmustalsobeacknowledgedthattherewerelimitationstoAndrade’s

methodology,sincetheinterpretationofthesethreesnapshotswereoften

dependent,tovaryingdegrees,upontheircaptions,which‘anchored’theirmeanings

inaBarthesiansense.Yet,ratherthanfullyacceptingBarthes’argumentthatthis

processfixedthemeaningofimages,Iwouldarguethat,inNationalGeographic,the

captionsfurthercomplicatedtheimages,providingadditionallayersofmeaningto

unfold.IturnheretoGerardoMosqueira,whohasaptlycharacterisedanthropophagy

asbeing‘notsofluidasitseems,sinceitisnotcarriedoninneutralterritorybutrather

[…]issubdued,withapraxisthattacitlyassumesthecontradictionsofadependence.

Intheend,whoeatswhom?’192Mosqueira’scriticismofanthropophagyrevealsa

paradox:althoughwecannotrefuse,denyordisavowthecreativeappropriationsthat

havematerialisedthroughit,theprocesscanonlytakeplacewithinasymmetrical

relationsofpower.Duringthisperiodsartorialanthropophagytookplaceboth

191Anon.,'Announcement',NationalGeographic,October1988,p.1.192GerardoMosqueira,‘GlobalIslands’inCreoliteandCreolization:Documenta11Platform3(Ostfildern-Ruit,Germany:HatjeCantz,2003),p.31.

112

inconspicuouslyandconspicuously,simultaneouslyformingamediatorandabarrier

betweenNationalGeographicandBraziliansubjects.NationalGeographicfulfilleda

U.S.-drivenculturalimperialismineachofthesethreesnapshotstotheextentthatthe

magazine’sagendawasclearlyconnectedtobroaderpoliticalinterestsadvancedby

theUnitedStatesduringthisperiod,ratherthansolelytotheinterestsofBrazil.

DespitebeingabletoseeinstancesinwhichBraziliansubjectsnegotiatedandre-

negotiatedtheirownidentitiesthroughdress,itwasstillNationalGeographicwhoate,

orfashioned,Brazil,asopposedtotheotherwayaround.NationalGeographic’s

imagesweredistinguishedfromthebroaderglobalmediascapeinthesensethatthey

werefarmorecomplexandambiguousthanthoseproducedby,forexample,Popular

Mechanics,AmericanVogueandLife.Thisunequalpowerdynamicshiftedinthepost-

1988periodwhenNationalGeographiccelebrateditscentennial,andsartorial

expressionsbyBraziliansubjectstookonanewformas,tociteatermemployedby

NorthAmericanscholarofBrazilianfilm,RobertStam,an‘aestheticsofgarbage’.193

ThiscoincidedwithashiftatNationalGeographic,asitmovedfromanunderstanding

ofitsphotographsaspurelyillustrativetothetext,towardsamoretactile

understandingofimageryaskeytotheinterpretationofitsarticles.

193Stam,'HybridityandtheAestheticsofGarbage',n.p.

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Chapter2.

AestheticsofGarbage:GlobalisationandtheRepresentationofBrazilianDressinNationalGeographicsince1988

• Snapshot4:Djaui’sRedT-shirtandAdidasShorts,December1988• Snapshot5:TheAfro-BrazilianGirl’sLycraTopandDenimJeans,August2002

WhilstAndradeusedthemetaphorofanthropophagyin1928toconceptualise

BrazilianModernismoasanaestheticsofbricolageanddiscontinuitywiththecountry’s

historicalpast,in1998RobertStamdrewaconnectionwithpostmodernismand

describedBrazilianfilmsincethelate1980sasan‘aestheticsofgarbage’,articulated

throughthecreativeandhybridactofpastiche.194Stam’smetaphoriscomparableto

anthropophagyinthesensethatitprovidesameanstoinvertcross-cultural

expressionsthathavepreviouslybeenseenasnegative,andrevalorisethemasan

anti-colonialtrope,turningapremeditateddisadvantageintoatacticalstrength.

However,whereasanthropophagywasdependentuponthestrongbinaryoppositions

betweenoppressorsandoppressed,theUnitedStatesandBrazil,NationalGeographic

andBraziliansubjects,an‘aestheticsofgarbage’encapsulatedthemorenuanced

subtletiesandcomplexitiesthathavebeenwovenintothefabricofcontemporary

encounterswithintheglobalcontactzone.Certainly,Andrade’sambiguousmetaphor

wasinnovativeinitsattemptstodissolvetheirreconcilabledualitiesofcross-cultural

interactionsand,whenusedasananalyticaltool,itrevealedthreeparticularlycharged

examplesofexchangeanddialogue,whichilluminatedBraziliansubjects’skillsinself-

fashioningandself-presentationbeforeNationalGeographic’sgaze.Yettherewere

limitationstohisargument,whichcouldnotaccountfortheincreasingly

interdependentandfluidnatureofagloballyrestructuredandcontinuallychanging

world,whichhasinfluencedthevariouswaysthatdress,butalsoitsrepresentationin

194Stam,'HybridityandtheAestheticsofGarbage',n.p.

114

massmedia,hasbeenmanufactured,distributed,sold,purchased,worn,discarded

andrecycled.Themetaphorofanaestheticsofgarbageprovidesabroadercritical

approachforaglobalera,whichexpressesadditionaldegreesofuniquenessand,as

Stamarticulated,how‘adiscourseof“mediaimperialism”’hadgivenwayto

‘reciprocityand“indigenization”’.195Itenablesglobalisationnotmerelytobereduced

toanobjectiveeconomicprocess,butalsotonarratethedifferentstories,personal

andcollective,localandglobal,visualandmaterial,whichdefineanddescribeit.

Stamusedgarbageasametaphortorecountthesubversivepotentialand

dynamicindividualismofcontemporaryBrazilianculture,whichnegotiatedandre-

negotiateddiscardedaestheticcodesandconventionswithintheexpanded,

accelerated,andintensifiedglobalcontactzone:

AnotherwaythatBraziliancultureisfiguredasamixedsiteisthroughthemotifofgarbage.Garbage,inthissense,standsatthepointofconvergenceofourthreethemesofhybridity,chronotopicmultiplicity,andtheredemptionofdetritus.Garbageishybrid,firstofall,asthediasporized,heterotopicsiteofthepromiscuousminglingofrichandpoor,centerandperiphery,theindustrialandtheartisanal,thedomesticandthepublic,thedurableandthetransient,theorganicandtheinorganic,thenationalandtheinternational,thelocalandtheglobal.Theidealpostmodernandpostcolonialmetaphor,garbageismixed,syncretic,aradicallydecenteredsocialtext.[myitalics]196

Stamoutlinedthethreestrandswovenintohisconceptualisationofanaestheticsof

garbage:hybridity,chronotopicmultiplicity,andtheredemptionofrefuse.Primarily,

heemphasisedthathybridityisnotaneutralterm,buthasrecurrentlybeenadopted

byLatinAmericangovernmentstoarticulatenationalidentitywithinintegrationist

195Ibid.196Ibid.

115

discoursesthatdismisstheexistenceofcultural,racialandsocialdiscrimination.197

Stamacknowledgedanimportantcritiqueofhybridity–that,asananti-essentialist

discourse,itcanoftencamouflageessentialisms,centreduponitsostensiblefailureto

discriminatebetweendiversemodalities,andinsteadstressoversimplifiednotionsof

blending,assimilation,mimicry,co-option,imposition,exploitation,andsubversion.198

HeusedBrazilianfilmasacasestudytoanalysethisnewhybridformofmultitemporal

andintertextualaesthetics.Themultifariousnatureofdressequallyenablesthe

complexarticulationsandre-articulationsofcross-culturalexchangetobeunravelled

sothathybridity,whichunquestionablyunfoldsinpower-ladencontexts,isableto

drawdistinctionsasopposedtoblurthem,andcrucially,isnotreducedtoanebulous

and‘descriptive,catch-allterm’.199

Inaddition,Stamusedtheterm‘chronotopicmultiplicity’,derivedfromRussian

literarytheoristMikhailBakhtin,todescribethemultipleandintertextualstrandsof

world-timeandworld-spacethatareinterlacedandoverlayeredinBrazilianfilm.200

Bakhtindrewuponthetemporallypalimpsesticnatureofliteraryexpressionsandtheir

inseparablelayeringofspatio-temporalities.Inhis1981collectionoffouressays,The

DialogicImagination,hecoinedtheterm‘chronotope’toreferinafigurative,as

opposedtomathematicalorphysical,senseto‘theintrinsicconnectednessof

197LatinAmericaisoftenperceivedasthehybridregionparexcellencebaseduponthevariousencounters,clashes,contact,interaction,miscegenationandexchangebetweenindigenouspopulations,Europeans,andAfricansbroughttothecontinentasaresultoftheEuropeanslavetrade.OneofthefirstscholarstocriticallyacknowledgehybriditywasBraziliansociologistGilbertoFreyrewhoin1933definedBrazilianidentityintermsofmixing,namelyofEuropeanandAfricancultures.GilbertoFreyre,TheMastersandTheSlaves:AStudyintheDevelopmentofBrazilianCivilization(NewYork:Knopf,1956).198AnoutspokencriticofhybridityisJonathanFriedman,whohasarguedthatthetheoryreproducesthenotionofculturalpuritythatitintendstotranscend.JonathanFriedman,‘GlobalCrises,theStruggleforCulturalIdentityandIntellectualPork-Barrelling:CosmopolitansversusLocals,EthnicsandNationalsinanEraofDe-Hegemonisation’inDebatingCulturalHybridity:Multi-CulturalIdentitiesandthePoliticsofAnti-Racism,ed.byPninaWerbnerandTariqModood(London:ZedBooks,1997),pp.70-89.199Stam,'HybridityandtheAestheticsofGarbage',n.p.200Ibid.

116

temporalandspatialrelationshipsthatareartisticallyexpressedinliterature’.201A

parallelcanbedrawnherewithdress,whichisinterconnectedandintertextual;itis

theproductofamultiplicityofhistoricalperiods,continuallyharkingbacktoafleeting

pastthatitrefabricatesinthepresent.LyndaNeadhasusedthedressmetaphorofa

‘crumpledhandkerchief’toarticulateatopologicalconceptoftimeandspaceas

folded,wherebydistantpointscanbecomecloseinproximity,orsuperimposedover

oneanother.202Thisexperienceoftimeascrumpled,ratherthanflatandlinear,

weavestogetherpast,presentandfutureincontinualandunexpectedconversation.

Whiletimeandspaceconstituteabstractconceptsandcontexts,dressenablesusto

pinpointanddecipherparticularexamplesofwhenindividualshaveexpressedasense

ofwhotheyareinrelationtowhenandwheretheyare.203

Neadusedthemetaphorofthecrumpledhandkerchief,suggestiveofoldand

greyingqualities,asopposedtoaclean,crispandfreshlyironedone.Thisissignificant,

anddrawsacorrelationwiththefinalstrandthatStamwoveintoanaestheticsof

garbage:thestrategicredemptionorrecyclingofmarginalorsecond-handaesthetics.

Aconnectioncanbemadeherewiththeconceptofgambiarra,whichwastouched

uponinthefirstsnapshotinchapteroneandexemplifiedbythefemalesubject’s

inventiverecyclingofan‘oldpieceofcloth’,inordertoself-presentbeforethe

photographer’sethnographicgaze.Stamlocatedtheserecycledaestheticswithinthe

archiveofUdigrudi(underground)Braziliancinemaofthelate1960s,heraldedby

BrazilianfilmmakerRogérioSganzerla,whodevelopedtechniquesthatappropriated

internationalcinemaandre-presenteditinanirreverent,overtlyaffectedbut201MikhailBakhtin,TheDialogicImagination:FourEssays,trans.byMichaelHolquist(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1981).202LyndaNeedquotedinCarolineEvans,FashionAtTheEdge:Spectacle,ModernityandDeathliness(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2003),p.22.203SusanB.KaisermakesthispointinherintroductiontoFashionandCulturalStudies(London:Berg,2012),p.1.

117

innovativemanner.204ThoughundergroundBraziliancinema,whichusedsecond-hand

aestheticstoparodyborrowedideasfromEuropeandtheUnitedStates,was

groundedinthecountercultureofthe1960s,Stamlocatedanewformofthese

techniquesinBrazilianfilmfromthelate1980sand1990s.205Brazilians,heasserted,

wererequiredtosiftthroughtheremnantsofaglobalcapitalistcultureand

incorporateandre-presentleftoverorsalvagedelements‘liketheheterogeneous

scrapsmakingupaquilt’.206Indoingso,hegaveapositiveidentificationand

revalorisationtothetransformativeprocessofmending,alteringandrecyclingdiverse

swatchesoftheWest’sunwantedproducts,andusingthemtoconstructanew,cross-

culturaltextilethatmediatedbetweenthelocalandtheglobal.Stam’suseofasimile

thatdrawsondresshasanincreasedsignificanceinrelationtothetimeframeunder

examination;sincethelate1980s,increasedconsumerismanddecliningclothing

priceshaveresultedinavastsurplusofsecond-handgarmentsnolongerrequiredin

NorthAmericaandWesternEurope.Theseuseditemsofdresshavebeendonatedto

charitableorganisations,sortedandbaled,andsubsequentlyexportedtoLatin

America,AfricaandAsia.207Itisthroughtheirre-useandtransformationindiverse

geographicallocationsthattheircross-culturalmeanings,asKarenTranbergHansen

hasremarked,‘shiftinwaysthathelpredefineusedclothinginto“new”garments’.208

Thischapterwillweavetogetherthethreestrandsthatcompriseanaestheticsof

204Stamdrewononeparticularexample:TheRedLightBandit,dir.byRogérioSganzerla(UranoFilmes,1968).205Hedrewuponthreeexamples:IsladasFlores,dir.byJorgeFurtado(CasadeCinemadePortoAlegre,1989),BocadeLixo,dir.byEduardoCoutinho(CentrodeCriacodeImagemPopular,1992)andOFiodaMemoria,dir.byEduardoCoutinho(Cinefilmes,1991),eachofwhichengagedfigurativelyandliterallywiththetropeofgarbage.206Stam,'HybridityandtheAestheticsofGarbage',n.p.207AlexanderPalmerandHazelClark,OldClothes,NewLooks:SecondHandFashion(NewYork:Berg,2005).208KarenTranbergHansen,‘Youth,GenderandSecondhandClothinginLusaka,Zambia:LocalandGlobalStyles’,inTheFabricofCultures:Fashion,IdentityandGlobalization,ed.byEugeniaPaulicelliandHazelClark(London:Routledge,2009),pp.112-27(p.116).

118

garbage(hybridity,chronotopicmultiplicityandthestrategicredemptionofdetritus)

tounpickanumberofthreadsfromthediverseandmultisensorystoriesof

contemporaryglobalisationthathavebeenfabricatedthroughtherepresentationof

BraziliandressinNationalGeographicsince1988.

Thischapterbeginswithanexaminationofthearticle‘WithintheYellow

Border’,writtenbythetheneditorofNationalGeographic,WilburE.Garrett(1980-

90),whichwaspublishedinthemagazinetocelebrateitscentennialinSeptember

1988.209Thisarticleencapsulatedashiftthatdepartedfromanobjective,scientific

approachtothedocumentationofpeoplesandplacesintheworld,andmoved

towardsaheightenedmultisensoryandsubjectiveengagementwithdressedsubjects.

ItwillbeusedtooutlinethechangesthathavetakenplaceatNationalGeographic

since1988,whichhavebeendrivenby,butincreasinglyhavealsodriven,theforcesof

globalisation.Imoveontoanalysethelayersofmeaningwovenintothetwokey

snapshotsorcasestudiesofBraziliandressthatthischapterexamines,whichwere

publishedinthemagazineinDecember1988andAugust2002.210Thefirstarticlewas

writtenbytheAmericanauthorandphotojournalist,LorenMcIntyre,and

accompaniedwithphotographstakenbytheBrazilianphotographeranddocumentary

filmmaker,W.JescovonPuttkamer,whoseworkwasexaminedintheprevious

chapter.211ThesecondwaswrittenbyAfrican-Americanjournalist,CharlesE.CobbJr.,

andaccompaniedwithphotographsbyAmericanphotographer,DavidAlanHarvey.212

Thischapterdrawsconclusionstothefollowingquestions:whatvisualandtextual

strategieshavebeenusedbyNationalGeographictofashionanideaofBraziliandress209WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,NationalGeographic,September1988,pp.270-86.210LorenMcIntyre,‘“LastDaysofEden”:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,pp.800-87;CharlesE.CobbJr.,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,NationalGeographic,August2002,pp.62-81.211LorenMcIntyre,‘LastDaysofEden’.212CobbJr.,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’.

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since1988?AndtowhatextenthaveBraziliansubjectsself-fashionedthroughthe

tropeofgarbage,demonstratedbytheirabilitytoengageinsartorial

accommodations,appropriationsandnegotiationsofsecond-handaestheticsofglobal

culture?

TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicsince1988

ItisusefulheretoincludeabriefcommentontherepresentationofBrazilin

NationalGeographicsincethemagazinecelebrateditscentennialinSeptember1988.

Todate,seventeenarticlesonBrazilhavebeenpublishedduringthisperiod.213

Althoughtheyhaveappearedtofollownoregularpattern,threekeythemeshave

emergedbut,unlikethedevelopmenttrackedinChapterOne,thesethemesdonot

runchronologically.Thepredominantthemehasbeenindigenouspeoplesandplaces

intheAmazonorecologicalsitesinBrazil,reflectedinthetitlesofarticlessuchas‘Last

DaysofEden:Rondonia’sUrueu-Wau-Wau’(December1988),‘TheAmazon:South

America’sRiverRoad’(February1995),‘IntotheAmazon’(August,2003),‘The

RainforestinRio’sBackyard’(March,2004),‘TheWildWet’(August2005),‘Lastofthe

Amazon’(January2007),‘DazzlingBrazilianJunes’(July2010)and‘KayapoCourage:

therichandpowerfulBraziliantribeisbattlingadamprojectthatwillnotdie’(January

2014).214ThesecondthemehasbeenRiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo,reflectedinthe

titlesofarticlessuchas‘Brazil:FlighttotheCities’(December1988),‘Cities:SaoPaulo’213RefertoAppendix2:TherepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographic(1988-December2014).214McIntyre,‘LastDaysofEden’;ScottWallace,‘TheAmazon:SouthAmerica’sRiverRoad’,NationalGeographic,February1995,pp.2-39;ScottWallace,‘IntotheAmazon’,NationalGeographic,August2003,pp.2-27;VirginiaMorrell,‘TheRainForestinRio’sBackyard’,NationalGeographic,March2004,pp.2-27;SusanMcGrath,‘TheWildWet’,NationalGeographic,August2005,pp.46-71;ScottWallace,‘LastoftheAmazon’,NationalGeographic,January2007,pp.41-71;RonaldoRibeiro,‘DazzlingBrazilianDunes’,NationalGeographic,July2010,pp.108-17;ChipBrown,‘KayapoCourage:therichandpowerfulBraziliantribeisbattlingadamprojectthatwillnotdie’,NationalGeographic,January2014,pp.30-55.

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(November2002),‘VisionsoftheEarth:RiodeJaneiro’(April2006),‘Visionsofthe

Earth:Brazil’(January2007),and‘ANewFaceforRio’(October2012).215Thethird

theme,alsotheleastrepresentedintheperiodcoveredbythepreviouschapter,was

Afro-Brazilians,reflectedinthetitlesoftwoarticles,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’

(August2002)and,mostrecently,‘WhereSlavesRuled’(April2012).216Thischapter

drawsontwoofthesethemes–indigenouspeoplesintheAmazonandAfro-Brazilians

–whilstchapterthreedelvesintotheremainingtheme,RiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo.

BeyondtheYellowBorder:AHeightenedPhenomenologyofContact

Tocommemoratethe100thanniversaryofNationalGeographic,afoldout

articlewrittenbyWilburE.Garrett,entitled‘WithintheYellowBorder…’(Figs.3.0-

3.4),waspublishedintheSeptember1988editionofthemagazine.217Thiswasthe

firstofthreecentennialeditionspublishedconsecutivelyanddistributedtothe

magazine’s10.5millionmembersworldwide,eightypercentofwhomlivedinthe

UnitedStates,andtwelvepercentintheEnglish-speakingcountriesofCanada,Great

Britain,AustraliaandNewZealand.218Spreadovereightinterconnectedpagesthat

foldedoutofthemagazine,totheleftandright,backandfront,thearticlereproduced

threehundredandsixtyNationalGeographiccovers:everysinglecoverpublished

sinceSeptember1959,andeachdifferentcoverdesignsinceOctober1888.This

215PaulR.EhrlichandAnneH.Ehrlich,‘Brazil:FlighttotheCities’,NationalGeographic,December1988,pp.934-37;ErlaZwingle,‘Cities:SaoPaulo’,NationalGeographic,November2002,pp.70-99;IzanPetterle,‘VisionsoftheEarth:RiodeJaneiro’,NationalGeographic,April2006,p.14;JorgeSaenz,‘VisionsoftheEarth:Brazil’,NationalGeographic,August2007,p.18;AntonioRegalado,‘ANewFaceforRio’,NationalGeographic,October2012,pp.72-91.216CobbJr.,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’;CharlesC.MannandSusannaHecht,‘WhereSlavesRuled’,NationalGeographic,April2012,pp.122-39.217WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’.218C.D.Bryan,TheNationalGeographicSociety:100YearsofAdventureandDiscovery(NewYork:Abrams,1987).

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foldoutsectionwasaccompaniedwithapageoftext,framedintheboldyellow

rectanglethathascharacterisedNationalGeographic’sgazeontheworldsince

February1910.219Viewedwithcontemporaryhindsightoftheunprecedentedand

acceleratedgeographicalandpoliticalchangethattheendoftheColdWarwould

engender,thetitle‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,whichattemptedtolimitandconfine

theNationalGeographicviewer’sgazeontotheworld,appearedeerilyportentous.

Constraintandfixitywereencouragedbytheformulaicandsystematicplacementof

thecovers,whichwerereproducedinanidenticalsizeandformat,andorderedwith

precisioninalinearchronology.NationalGeographicpresentedavisualtypologyof

itselfonits100thanniversary,withaneutralandobjectifyinggazecomparabletothat

placeduponitbyCyprianGaillardinhispop-upartwork‘L’OrigamiduMonde’for032c

onthemagazine’s125thanniversary.220

Yetthefoldoutsectionof‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,correspondingwiththe

formatofGaillard’sartwork,requiredatactile,three-dimensionalengagementwith

themagazineasamaterialobject,whichsurpassedasolelyempirical,two-

dimensionaldetachedandobjectivegaze.Thetangiblequalitiesofthearticleoperated

inoppositiontothetitle’srhetoricofcontainmentandconstraint,andurgedviewers

219In2004,ConniePhelps,senioreditoranddesigndirectorforNationalGeographic,explainedtheevolutionandsymbolismoftheyellowborderedcover,whichhasgracedthemagazinesinceFebruary1910:‘Aborderofoakleavesandacorns,emergingfromthebottomcenterandrisinguponeitherside,representstheoriginsandsturdygrowthoftheSociety.Atthetop,itmeetsagarlandoflaurelleavesandberries,atraditionalsymbolofachievementandhonorintheartsofcivilization.Insetatthecardinalpointsaretheearth’sfourhemispheres,representingtheall-embracingnatureofthesociety’sworkandsuggestingthatthecontentsareboundonlyby“theworldandallthatisinit”.Aframeborderedinabuffcolourresemblesakindofwindowontheworld.’ConniePhelpsquotedinWilliamE.RyanandTheodoreE.Conover,GraphicsCommunicationsToday(CliftonPark,NY:Thomson/DelmarLearning,2004),p.504.Iwouldaddtothisthatthecolouryellowhasbeenassociatedwithwisdomandknowledge,therebyreinforcingtheideathatNationalGeographicisanauthoritativesourceofinformationabouttheworld,butitisalsorepresentativeofthesun,thelifesourceoftheearth,thusresonatingwithNationalGeographic’smottotocareabouttheplanet.Itiscertainthatyellow,whichhasbecomeincreasinglyvibrantovertheyearsandatthetimeofwriting,hasvisuallydistinguishedNationalGeographicfromotherNorthAmericanprintmedia.220CyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,O32c,Autumn/Winter2013,pp.160-67.

122

toventureonamultisensoryexcursionbeyondtherectangularyellowborder–

somethingthatmayhavebeenhintedatwiththeinsertionofanellipsisintothetitle,

suggestiveofanunfinishedthought.Thearticleunfoldedasfarasthearmscould

stretchandplayedwiththeaffectivecapacitiesoftheviewer.Toscrutinisethecovers

intheirentirety,theviewerwasrequiredtoholdthemagazineinherhandsand

realignherbodyinrelationtoit:topressherchestforwards,tomoveherfacecloser

toinspectthesmallprinteddetails,toachieveasensoryrelationwiththetextured

surfaceandsmelloftherecentlyprinted,thinglossypages.‘WithintheYellowBorder

…’wasdesignednotjusttoberead,buttobeheldandtobefelt.ArtcriticAndy

Grundberg,writingintheNewYorkTimeson18September1988,recalledhismemory

ofNationalGeographiconitscentennial:‘Fromtheperspectiveofsmall-townU.S.A.,

thewildanimals,tribalculturesandmountainvistaspicturedonitspagesseemed

utterlyforeignandcompletelyforeign.Theywerefaroffbut,withthemagazine

nestledinmylap,theywerealsotantalizinglynear.’[myitalics]221Indeed,the

centennialeditionofNationalGeographicventuredonestepfurtherthanGrundberg’s

observation,andattemptedtofoldtheviewerintothemagazine,akintoMerleau-

Ponty’sobservationthatperceptionisafoldintothefleshoftheworld,andestablisha

visualexcitationthatwasinextricablylinkedtotouchbutalsotothebodyofthe

subjectflattenedinreproduction.222FilmhistorianLauraU.Markshaseloquently

writtenofhow‘visionitselfcanbetactile,asthoughoneweretouchingafilmwith

one’seyes’.223Shehasacknowledgedtheimportanceofsurfacetextureinevokinga

rangeofexperimentalbodilyresponses,whichstretchbeyondcool,rational

221AndyGrunberg,‘AQuintessentiallyAmericanViewoftheWorld’,NewYorkTimes,18September1988,pp.11-12.222Merleau-Ponty,PhenomenologyofPerception,p.368.223LauraU.Marks,TheSkinoftheFilm:InterculturalCinema,EmbodimentandtheSenses(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2007),p.vi.

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observation,andtowardsamoredynamicsubjectivityandbodilyinterconnection

betweenviewerandimage.Withitssmooth,glossypages,‘WithintheYellowBorder

…’consciouslypromptedamultisensoryresponsefromitsviewers,whohadthe

potentialtore-constructcriticallyandsinglehandedlythemagazine’slinearhistory.

Thearticlehadsimilarconventionstoafoldedpapermapinthesensethat,

althoughthefoldingandunfoldinggesturesthatitrequiredoftheviewerhada

predetermined(inthesenseofbeingpre-folded)structure,theyweredestinedto

generateinconsistencies,andpotentiallycauseconfusion,throughthedistinctive

mannerthatindividualsengagedwithit.‘WithintheYellowBorder…’becamean

imaginativeandambiguousspace,inwhichnosinglehistoricalviewpointwas

privileged,butratherafragmentednetworkofpossibleandoverlappinghistories.

Thesere-constructedversionsofthepastwereentirelydependentupontheNational

Geographicviewer,whounfoldedandre-folded,arrangedandre-presented,the

articleinaccordancewiththeirindividuallyspecificdesiresandwhims,whether

intentionaloraccidental.TheviewerhadtheauthoritytodeconstructNational

Geographic’sveryprecisehistoriographyofitsdocumentationof‘theworldandall

thatisinit’,exemplifiedbytheneatlypresentedcoversinagridformation,andre-

imagineitthroughaseriesoffoldinggestures,whichenableddisjointedtimeperiods

anddiversegeographicallocationstoconnectintimatelywithoneanother,and

therebyprovideapatchworkquiltmadeupofscrapsandfragmentsfrompossible

pasts.Theresultwasaninnovativeandfictionalre-stagingofthemagazine’sone-

hundred-yearhistory,whichdirectlyimplicatedtheactiveviewerintheprocessof

simultaneouslylookingandtouching,foldingandunfolding,fashioningandre-

fashioning.‘WithintheYellowBorder…’reinforcedtheimpossibilityofasingle

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definitivehistoryandresonatedwithGarrett’stellingcomment,printedinthetextual

accompanimenttothearticle,thatinthiscentennialedition‘welooknotjustatwhat’s

old,butalsoatwhat’snewaboutourpast’.[myitalics]224

‘WithintheYellowBorder…’fashionedaslipperinessbetweenobjectivityand

subjectivity,factualandimaginary,pastandpresent,whichwasreinforcedbythe

ambiguoustextwrittenbyGarrettthataccompaniedit.Hecommented:‘ThoughI

can’trelatetoallofthem,thesecoversmarkacenturyofholdinguptotheworldour

uniquelyobjectivepublishingmirror’[myitalics].225GarrettprivilegedNational

Geographic’sdefinitiveviewpoint,whichhadsetouttodisseminateanunmediated

andfaithfulreflectionoftheworld,actingasdetachedwitnesstothepeoplesand

placesobservedforonehundredyears.Yet‘mirror’isaninterestingchoiceofword;an

idealmirrorwouldduplicateexactlywhatisseeninitsvisualessence,butarealmirror

canonlyeverbeanapproximationofthatideal,sinceitis‘necessarilyreducedtotwo

dimensions’and,asWolfgangCoyhasrecognised,‘moreorlessdistortedin

accordancewiththelawsofoptics’.226Whenweviewourownimageinamirror,we

areoftenaware,evenifnotatanentirelyconsciouslevel,thatitisamutableand

distortedrepresentation,whichhasblurredtheboundarybetweenrealityandfiction.

Interestingly,Garrettappearedtoself-reflexivelyacknowledgethiscontradiction,

whenheproceededtoassertapointofdeparturefromthemagazine’sprevious

224WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,p.270.225Ibid.GarrettindirectlyengagedherewithanarticlewrittenbypreviouseditorGilbertH.Grosvenor(1899-1954)inMarch1915,whentheNationalGeographicSocietyboastedamembershipof337,000subscribers,inwhichhelaidoutthe‘GuidingPrinciples’ofthemagazine:‘TheFirstprincipleisabsoluteaccuracy.Nothingmustbeprintedwhichisnotstrictlyaccordingtofact.TheMagazinecanpointtomanyyearsinwhichnotasinglearticlehasappearedwhichwasnotabsolutelyaccurate.’GilbertH.Grosvenor,‘ReportoftheDirectorandEditoroftheNationalGeographicSocietyfortheYear1914’,NationalGeographic,March1915,p.319.226WolfgangCoy,‘InPhotographicMemory’,inPhotographyAfterPhotography:MemoryandRepresentationintheDigitalAge,ed.byHubertusv.Amelunxen,StefanIglhautandFlorianRotzer(Amsterdam:G&BArts,1996),p.66.

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editorialobjectives,andurgentlycalledfor‘aonce-in-a-centurybitofintrospection–

holdingupthemirrortoourselvesforachange…we’relookingaheadtothenext100

years’[myitalics].227Garrettdeconstructedthenotionofasingular,objective

geographicalorhistorical‘truth’,andacknowledgedthatitcannotexistbeyondthe

author’ssubjectivepointofview,northeviewer’sinterpretativeunderstanding.He

announcedare-constructionofthemagazine’smodeofreportageinwhich,fromthis

pointforth,NationalGeographic’sownsubjectivity,itsmirrorimage,wouldbe

discerniblewithinthemagazine.228Garrettself-consciouslylaidbaretheartifice

prevalentinanyformofrepresentationthatseekstomarginalisetheotherso-called

proximatesenses–inparticular,touch–asameanstoforegroundanobjectifiedand

essentialisedvisionoftheworldinformedbyscienceandtechnology.229Indoingso,he

highlightedtherepresentationalinstabilityofNationalGeographic,whichhasnot

simplymirrored,butactivelyfashioneditssubjects,manufacturingtheobjectsofits

gaze,insofarasithasregisteredthem.

Theperformativeandself-reflexivenatureof‘WithintheYellowBorder…’had

aninherentawarenessofthepluralityofself-narrativeswovenintothemagazine,

whichwerefractured,overlappingandmulti-layered.Coupledwithitsfocuson

creativelyre-presentingitsownreportagehistory,withtheassistanceoftheactive

NationalGeographicviewer,itencapsulatedaparadigmshift,wherebythemagazine

nolongervieweditselfasanexemplarofobjectivescience,butasacreativesite

wherethedirectdocumentationanddramatisationofdifferentindividualand

collectivesubjectsintertwined.ThiswasreinforcedbyJaneLivingston’s

acknowledgement,withinthesameissueofthemagazine,thattoday‘weareviewing

227WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,p.270.228Ibid.229Ibid.

126

NationalGeographicphotographyinaspecialway:holdingitupbyitself,full-frame,

outofcontext,andawayfromwords’.230Shecelebratedtheintrinsicandself-

expressivevalueofNationalGeographicphotography,whichhadbeenliberatedfrom

apriorunderstandingofitasdirectlyillustrativeoftheaccompanyingtext,tobe

praisedforitsownartisticimperative.231ConsideringLivingston’scommentin

conjunctionwithGarrett’sarticle,thecentennialeditionofNationalGeographic,

althoughaU.S.culturalexpressionratherthanaBrazilianone,alsoencapsulated

aspectscomparabletoanaestheticsofgarbage,inthesensethatitwasahybrid,

whichdissolvedtheborderbetweentextandphotography,imageandobject,two

dimensionsandthreedimensions,factandfiction,pastandpresent,objectivityand

subjectivity,touchandvision.Itcreatednewandimaginativeconstellationsfroman

oldhistoricaltrajectory,inwhichworld-spaceandworld-timewereintrinsically

interconnectedandintricatelylayeredoverthetopofoneanothertoformnew

palimpsestic,chronotopicmultiplicities.ItrecycledoldNationalGeographiccoversto

produceaninnovativegaze,whichwas‘lookingaheadtothenext100years’,and

foretoldastorythatconcernedaworldonthebrinkofmassivegeographical,political

andeconomicchange.232Whenviewedwiththeluxuryofcontemporaryhindsight,

‘WithintheYellowBorder…’wasunnervinglyprescientoftheintensificationand

expansionofimagesthatwouldbeproducedbytheglobalmediascape,andwith

whichNationalGeographicwouldberequiredtocontend.233Thearticledrewmany

230JaneLivingston,‘TheArtofPhotographyatNationalGeographic’,NationalGeographic,September1988,p.324.231JaneLivingston,‘TheBestPhotosfromNationalGeographic’inOdyssey:TheBestPhotosfromNationalGeographic(WashingtonDC:CorcoranGalleryofArt,1988),pp.19-38.232WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,p.270.233AnarticlebyGilbertM.Grosvenor,full-timeeditorofNationalGeographic(1980-90),demonstratedthatthemagazinewasclearlylookingaheadtothedigitalchangesofthefuturein1988.InMarch1988,withinanarticlepublishedinTheGeographicalJournal,Grosvenorquestioned:‘Whatwillitbelike,Iwonder,bytheendoftheNationalGeographicSociety’ssecondcentury?[…]willtheindextoallthevolumesofourmagazine–theentirecompendiumofourpast–becontainedinamicrochipthesizeof

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connectionsto‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,discussedintheintroductiontothisthesis,234

butwhereasGaillardwaslookingbackoverthemagazine’scomplexhistoryonits125th

anniversary,andsuggestinghowitmightbere-consideredthroughimaginative

storytellingandnarrativereconstruction,Garrettlookedforward,andprovidedthe

analyticaltoolsthatwouldenablethemagazinetometamorphosetoincorporate,and

competewith,theseunprecedentedandacceleratedglobalchanges.National

Geographic’sincreasedfocusontheimportanceoftactileimageryoverdetachedtext

encouragedviewerstoengagewithimagesofpeoplesandplacesthroughoutthe

worldinanincreasinglymultisensoryway,andindoingso,toventurebeyondthe

rectangularyellowborder.

AnEthnographicGazeontheUrueu-Wau-Wauin1988

Thisparadigmshifttowardsamoremultisensoryandsubjectiveengagement

withBraziliansubjectswillbeexaminedincloserdetailinthefirstcasestudythatthis

chapterdiscusses,whichwaspublishedinthethirdcentennialeditionofthemagazine

inDecember1988,andentitled'LastDaysofEden':Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-Wau

Indians’.235Thearticledocumented‘thepredicamentofonetribe’astheyfoughtto

protecttheir7,000squaremilesoflandfromencroachmentbyBrazilianpioneersin

theformofloggers,rubbertappers,miners,cattlemen,andtheirfamilies,ofwhom

166,000hadsettledin1986alone.236Onlythreehundredandfiftymembersofthe

Urueu-Wau-Wau(whichisspelledinanumberofways,includingUru-Eu-Wau-Wau)

myfingernail?Willwebedisseminatinggeographicknowledgebylaserbeamsthroughmachinesnotyetinvented,insteadofprintingmagazines,booksandmaps?’Grosvenor,‘AHundredYearsoftheNationalGeographicSociety’,TheGeographicalJournal154.1(1988):87-92(p.92).234CyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,O32c.235McIntyre,‘LastDaysofEden’.236LorenMcIntyre,ExploringSouthAmerica(NewYork:C.N.Potter,1990),p.138.

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remainedin1988.237Ashunter-gathererswhospeakTupi-Kawahib(priortoofficial

contactin1981byFUNAI,thefederalagencyresponsibleforthepreparationof

indigenousgroupsinBrazilforincreasedcontactwiththerestofworld),theUrueu-

Wau-Wauwereknownasthe‘BlackMouths’;thiswasduetothegroup’stechniqueof

usingblackgenipapdyetotattootheirfacesandtheskinaroundtheirmouths.238Asa

NationalGeographicmemorandumwrittenbytheseniorassociateeditor,JosephR.

Judge,on12August1987articulated(Fig.3.5),themagazinewasparticularlykeento

document‘theIndiantribes,whoaresequesterednowonalargeislandofforestpaid

forbyWorldBankFundsasconsciencemoneyforhavingpavedaninfamousroadthat

openedtheregiontologgersandtruckers’.239JudgereferredtothenewlybuiltBR-

364,whichhadbeencompletedin1984withaloanfromtheWorldBanktocoverone

thirdofthecostsandpavedamainroadthroughtheentirestateofRondonia,from

PortoVelhointhenorthtoCuiaba,400kmtothesoutheast.Theroadhadresultedin

vastdeforestationofaonceremotepartoftheAmazonrainforest,andmass

settlementonpreviouslyUrueu-Wau-Wauterritory.240

Judgewasconcernedwiththe‘salvage’oftheUrueu-Wau-Wauandinthe

samememorandumcautionedagainst‘theheadlongdevelopmentoftropicalforested

regionsandtheconsequencesforindigenouspeoplesandirreplaceablefloraand

fauna’.241ThispreparedthestageforNationalGeographic,whoappearedtooperate

237JohnHemming,DieifYouMust:BrazilianIndiansintheTwentiethCentury(London:MacMillan,2003),pp.296-97.238‘Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau:MaterialCulture’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/uru-eu-wau-wau/1131>[accessed3June2015]239NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.115517,JosephR.JudgetoJohnMcPhee,12August1987.240RobertH.Wade,‘BoulevardofBrokenDreams:TheInsideStoryofTheWorldBank’sPolonoroesteRoadProjectinBrazil’sAmazon’,WorkingPaperNo.55forGranthamResearchInstituteonClimateChangeandtheEnvironment(2011),<http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WP55_world-bank-road-project-brazil.pdf>[accessed3June2015]241NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.115517,JosephR.JudgetoJohnMcPhee,12August1987.

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onbehalfofabroaderanthropologicalconcerntorescueafragileanddisappearing

culture,andrenderedtheUrueu-Wau-Wauinapreserved,evenmemorialised,state

forpublicscrutinybythemagazine’sconcernedreadership.The‘salvageparadigm’,to

referenceatermusedbyJamesCliffordanddiscussedinthefirstchapterofthis

thesis,findsaparallelinPratt’sobservationthatcolonialtravelnarrativesfrequently

severed‘contemporarynon-Europeanpeoplesofffromtheirpre-colonial,andeven

colonial,pasts’.242Prattcharacterisedthisasaformofarchaeology,inwhichactual

livingpeoplewererecognisednotaspartofthepresent,butofaseparatepre-

Europeanera.TheimplicationofJudge’smemorandumwasthatUrueu-Wau-Wau

culturerepresentedanauthenticprimitivenessinneedofbeingsalvagedfrom

extinction.However,NationalGeographichadalsomadeitsownarchaeologicalfind

andrescued,fromthis‘near-extinct-specimen-due-to-disappear’,animportantsample

oftike-uba,ananticoagulantthatisextractedfromtreebarkinUrueu-Wau-Wau

territoryandcontainsanimportantcompoundthatcaninhibitthegrowthofenzymes

thatcauseblood-clotting.243Thiswasclearlydetailedinamemorandumcontaininga

samplecollectedbythephotographer,exchangedbetweenJonSchneeberger,the

IllustrationseditoratNationalGeographic,andJeffreyLawson,abiochemistatthe

UniversityofVermont,on22June1989(Fig.3.6).244Thisgreatpharmaceuticalfind

waslatercommercialisedbytheU.S.pharmaceuticalcompanyMerck,who

appropriatedtheknowledgeoftheUrueu-Wau-Wauwithoutanyobligationto

242Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.132.243ClóvisdeVasconcelosCavalcanti,TheEnvironment,SustainableDevelopmentandPublicPolicies:BuildingSustainabilityinBrazil(CheltenhamandNorthampton:EdwardElgar,2000),p.193.244NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.115517,JonSchneebergertoJeffreyLawson,22June1989.

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compensatethem,duringaperiodofinsecurityanduncertaintyforthegroup,when

compensationwouldhaveprovedsignificantlybeneficial.245

ItisclearfromthiscontextualanalysisthatNationalGeographichaditsownset

ofconcernsindocumentingtheUrueu-Wau-Wau;itwasawareoftheproblemsthat

theyfacedasaresultoflarge-scaledevelopmentsinBrazil,yetitalsowantedto

extractandcapitaliseupontheirsophisticatedscientificknowledge,aswellasto

documentthembeforetheiranticipateddemise.Despitethishierarchicalpower-

basedrelationshipbetweenNationalGeographicandtheUrueu-Wau-Wauthat

promptedthecommissioningofthearticle,thefifteenglossyphotographsthat

accompanieditactuallyworkedtoresistthathierarchy,sincetheyhighlightedthe

Urueu-Wau-Wau’ssophisticatedabilitytonegotiateandnavigatetheirownsubjective

positionsinaglobalisingworldasfluidandchangeable,asopposedtostaticandfixed.

Thephotographswereacombinationofcandidreportageandposedportraits,taking

precedenceovertextastheywereprintedinlarge-scale,glossycolourwithminimal

captions,andaccompaniedbyonlytwoshortpagesoftextpublishedattheveryend

ofthearticle.

Aninterestingexampleofhowviewerswereencouragedthroughdressto

literallyfeeltheimageofthesubject,intermsofthephysicalsenses,butalsoto

emotionallyfeel,canbeseeninaphotographthatdocumentedayoungUrueu-Wau-

Waugirl(Figs.3.7and3.8).Sheiscrouchedintheforeground,transfixedbyher

reflectioninthesmooth,shinysurfaceofagreenandsilverballoonthatsheholdsin

herrighthand,whilsttracingthecontoursofherfacewithherlefthand.Sheusesher

physicalandintellectualsensesoftouchandvisiontoevaluateandfeelherselfwithin

245VasconcelosCavalcanti,TheEnvironment,SustainableDevelopmentandPublicPolicies,p.193.

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theworld.Herclothingcannotbeseenapartfromared,yellowandbluebeaded

braceletwrappedaroundhershin.Herreflectionintheballoonalsoproducesafuzzy-

edgedpatterned‘aura’aroundherreflectedhead,aliteralbutalsosymbolicreference

thatmightalludetothesubject’silluminationassheseesherselfasimage,potentially

forthefirsttime.Behindherayounggirl,whowearsanoversizedbrownvestasa

dress,presumablyanitemofsecond-handadultclothing,withnecklacesofteeth,

boneandawhistle,anappropriateditemthatdidnotoriginateinUrueu-Wau-Wau

culture,observesherownreflectioninthesideoftheballoonwithintrigue.246Bothof

thesesubjectsappearoblivioustoPuttkamer’sgaze,yetawomanwearingbluesports

shortsandholdingachild,bothsoftlyrenderedintheblurredbackgroundofthe

image,smilesbroadlyinthedirectionofthecamera.Thephotographisframedin

whiteandprintedinthecentreofapaleorangebackground,ontheleft-handsideofa

double-pageview.Theseconventionsdrawonportraiture,andencouragetheviewer

toobserveeverythingthatlieswithintheframe,highlightingtheactoflookingbeing

performedbyallthreeofthesubjects,whetherattheirownreflectionsinthesurface

oftheballoon,ordirectlyreturningthegazeofthephotographer,likethewomanin

thebackground,andbyextension,thatoftheNationalGeographicviewer.

EugenieShinklehasacknowledgedthatimagesthataddressthebodybringinto

sharpfocustheviewer’sownexperienceofembodiednesssince‘so-called“mirror

neurons”inthebrainfirenotonlywhenweperformaparticularactionourselves,but

whenwewitnesssomeoneelseperformingit’.247Whenweviewarepresentationof

anotherbodyperformingposturesandgestures,weareunabletoobserveinapassive

246McIntyre,‘LastDaysofEden’.247EugenieShinkle,‘TheLineBetweentheWallandtheFloor:RealityandAffectinContemporaryFashionPhotography’,inFashionasPhotograph:ViewingandReviewingImagesofFashion,ed.byE.Shinkle(London:I.B.Tauris,2008),pp.214-26(p.220).

132

anddetachedmanner,butinvoluntarily‘maptheseposturesandgesturesontoour

body,feelingtheminourskinandbones,musclesandviscera’.248Thelittlegirl

demonstratesanawarenessofherselfasadressedsubjecttobeseen,andanabilityto

seeherdressedselfasimage.Thisself-reflexivedynamicisextendabletothedressed

viewer,whoisencouragedtoperceiveandexperiencetheimagethroughherown

activeexperienceofdressing,whichencompassesanunderstandingoftheselfas

activeintheformationofmeaning.Afeelingofaffectiveidentificationanduncanny

proximityisexchangedbetweentheNationalGeographicviewerandUrueu-Wau-Wau

subjects,despitethedisparitiesingeographicallocationandtemporalseparation,

markedherebythespatialdistancethattheimagehastravelled,butalsothedisparity

betweentheinstantinwhichPuttkamercapturedthisphotographandthemomentin

whichitwasperceivedbytheviewer.Gestureanddressinviteempathywiththe

subjectsonabodilylevel,asthesensationsoflookingareextendedtobeing,thinking,

wearingandfeeling,andsynchronisedwiththoseexperiencedbytheviewer.These

affectivedimensionsofthegazeareamplifiedbytherangeofsurfacetextures

availableinthephotograph,whichencompasstheroughnessofthewoodenstructure

againstwhichthesubjectsintheforegroundlean,theirsmoothskinandglossydark

hair,theshinyreflectivesurfaceoftheballoon,theribbedcottonofthesubject’s

oversizevest,andthemuddyandstonyhardgroundonwhichtheystand.This

plenitudeofdifferenttactilesurfaceswasnotsoabundantlyvisibleintheprevious

threesnapshotsexamined,butheretheyevokeafigurativesenseoftexturethat

promptsafuller,moremultisensoryresponsefromtheNationalGeographicviewer,

enhancedstillfurtherbytheglossysheenofthemagazinepage.Theviewerhasan

intimateawarenessofhowitfeelstobedressedandthedistinctsensationsthatfabric

248Shinkle,‘TheLineBetweentheWallandtheFloor’,p.222.

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evokeswhenittouchestheskin,whethersoftness,roughness,smoothnessoreven

scratchiness,inadditiontoitsabilitytorestrict,orenhance,easeofmovement.Itisin

thisregardthatworld-spaceandworld-timearecollapsedthroughtheeveryday

embodiedexperienceofdress,andthroughtheintersectingandmultisensory

positionsthatclothingmobilisesbetweentheNationalGeographicviewerandthe

Braziliansubject.Thecaptionunderneaththisphotographmerelyreiteratedwhat

couldalreadybededucedbyholdingthemagazine,touchingitspages,andlookingat

andfeelingtheimage.Itsimplyread:‘Captivatedbyherownimage,anUrueu-Wau-

WaugirlstudiesaplaythingfromanotherworldatanoutpostofFUNAI,Brazil’s

NationalFoundationfortheIndian.’249

Snapshot4:Djaui’sRedT-shirtandAdidasShorts

Themultisensorydimensionsofdresshadanincreasedsignificanceinthe

particularsnapshotthischapterfocuseson,whichdocumentedanevenmore

multilayeredformofUrueu-Wau-Waudress.Publishedonadouble-pagespreadin

NationalGeographic,itfeaturedthechiefoftheUrueu-Wau-Wau,Djaui,

photographednexttoanothermemberoftheUrueu-Wau-Wau,Caninde,underneath

anorangeheadingthatdeclaimed:‘TheEndofInnocence’(Figs.3.9and3.10).250Itis

importanttoacknowledgethatthetitlestillbuiltuponthecanonicaltropeofthe

vanishing‘primitive’,andfashioneditsBraziliansubjectswithinanevolutionary

narrativethatcategorisedandtypologisedtheUrueu-Wau-Wauasachildlikesociety

livinginastateofbarbarism,unwillinglybeingelevatedintooneofindustrial

civilization.AcomparableglorificationandmemorialisationoftheUrueu-Wau-Wau

249McIntyre,‘LastDaysofEden’,p.804.250Ibid.,pp.812-13.

134

emergedinMcIntyre’srecollection,printedattheveryendofthearticle,whichstated:

‘Jesco[vonPuttkamer]mournedthepassingoftheIndians’naturalnudity,saying“Oh

Loren,they’renotperfectanymore.”’251Puttkamer’sdisappointmentattheUrueu-

Wau-Wau’sincreasedadoptionofWestern-styleclothing,asareplacementtotheir

customarysparsedress,whichsupposedlyrenderedthem‘notperfectanymore’,

suggestedaromanticisedexpectationthatsuchapeaceful,quietandsupposedly

authenticlifestyle,withastrongsenseofcommunity,wouldbeimmunetothe

superficialattractionsofWesternsportswearbrandsandmassconsumption.It

appearedtoreinforceabeliefthattheWesternworldischaracterisedbyfluidity,in

thewordsofZygmuntBauman,‘forever“becoming”,avoidingcompletion,staying

underdefined’,asopposedtothenon-Westernworld,typifiedherebyBrazil’sUrueu-

Wau-Wau,whichisstable,pure,andfixedwithinatimelessethnographicpresent.252

Yettheactualimageofferedapointofdepartureforadeeperunderstandingof

thelayersofcross-culturalmeaningthatwerewovenintothesnapshot,whichwere

communicatedtotheviewerthroughthetactilequalitiesofdress.Theimagewas

givenprecedenceoverthetextofthearticle,andreproducedveryclose-uponthe

double-pagespread,framedonthreesidesinorange.Thiseditorialdecisionisolated

andelevatedthesubjects,usingmuchthesameconventionsasaframedstudio

portrait.Thephotographer’scloseviewpoint,fromdirectlybesidehissubjects,so

muchsothathecannotcapturethefulllengthoftheirbodieswithintheframe,

engendersaclosenessandintensity,onethatiscapableofcollapsingthegeographical

andtemporaldistancebetweentheUrueu-Wau-WauandtheNationalGeographic

viewer.Thereisnothingcasualorunengagedaboutthisphotograph,whichseemsto

251Ibid.,p.813.252ZygmuntBauman,LiquidModernity(Cambridge:PolityPress,2000),p.viii.

135

stemfromthephotographer’sdeepknowledgeofthesubjects,whoallowhimto

observethemunrestrictedastheycarryoutcommonplaceactivitiesintheirdailylives.

Thereisasenseofmobilityandfluidity,andthephotographappearslessconstructed

andlessfilteredbyPuttkamer’slens.Thetwosubjectsarecontemplative,which

consequentlyslowsdowntheviewertoo,andencouragesamoremeasuredresponse.

Italsopromptstheviewertotakeinthetactilequalitiesoftheimageandtherangeof

texturesthatcanbediscernedonitssurface,fromthesoftnessofDjaui’sredcottonT-

shirt,theroughnessofhisfadedblue-and-whitestripedAdidasshorts,thecoarseness

ofthebluetarpaulinagainstwhichthesubjectsareframed,tothesmoothnessofhis

companionCaninde’sreedgirdle.Thesetexturesaddadepthtotheimage,whichthe

dressedviewerisencouragedtomimeticallyexperiencethroughthisvisceralintimacy

withthesubjects,whichisenhancedbythesmoothglossofthemagazinepage,whose

shineenhancesthecoloursofthedifferentfabricsandrespondstotheviewer’stactile

sensibilities.Thelayoutofthisimageonthedouble-pagespreaddrawstheviewer’s

attentiontowardsDjaui,whoisplacedinbrightsunlightontheleft-handsideofthe

double-pagespreadandcanbeobservedinfullview,asopposedtoCaninde,whois

placedontheright-handside,shadedbythebluetarpaulinandpartiallyobscuredby

thecentralcreaseoftheopenmagazine.Canindeisdressedinabroadgirdle

constructedfromrattanandbrownnuts,anecklacemadeofpeccaryteeth,andblack

genipapbodypaint.Bothofthemen’sfacesaretattooedwithblackgenipap,but

CanindeadoptsnoitemsofWestern-styledressandhasalsodecoratedtheskin

aroundhismouthinblack.Djaui,ontheotherhand,isilluminated,tohighlighthis

lighterskincolour,incipientbaldnessandgreyinghair,allcharacteristicsthatinform

theviewerthatheisofmixedIndianandCaucasianancestry.Djaui’shybrididentityis

clearlyreflectedinhisdress,whichsuggestsanambivalencetowardsglobalisationon

136

thepartoftheUrueu-Wau-Wau,anddemonstratestheirabilitytopickandchoose

preferredelementsofglobalculture,therebysubvertingthenotionoftheircultural

dependencyupontheWest.

Djaui’soutfitisexemplaryofanaestheticsofgarbage,sincetheseunwanted

andubiquitousWestern-styleclothes–redT-shirtandAdidasshorts–havebeen

appropriatedandtransformedtoserveanewfunction,wheretheyareaccompanied

withanecklaceadornedwithjaguarteethandthefacialtattooscustomarytothe

Urueu-Wau-Wau.SimultaneouslyindigenousandWestern,mass-producedand

irreproducible,newandold,mainstreamandalternative,localandglobal,Djaui’s

outfitembodiestheparadoxesofhybridity.Hisclothingchallengestheprescriptive

textualconstructionsofUrueu-Wau-Wauidentitywithinthetitlethataccompanied

thisdouble-pagespread,whichplacedtheso-calledremnantsofadisappearing

Urueu-Wau-Wauwithinawrittensalvagenarrative.ThisisbecauseDjaui’sclothing

confirmednot‘TheEndofInnocence’forapreviouslyuncontactedsociety,butrather

thecontinuationofasustainedrelationshipbetweentheUrueu-Wau-Wauandthe

outsideworld,whichhadalreadyenabledDjauitopickandchoosepreferredelements

ofcast-asideWestern-styleclothing,andusethemtoarticulatehisowncontemporary

identity,whichwasnotfixed,butconstructedandre-constructedinaccordancewith

thefluiddemandsofeverydaylife.Hedemonstratesdiscretionfromwithinthespecific

optionsthatareavailabletotheUrueu-Wau-Wau.Djaui’sclothingblurredthespatial

andtemporaldisjunctureoftenpresumedtoexistbetweenthedevelopedWestand

thepurportedlyunderdevelopednon-West,becauseitusedsomethingoldfromone

geographicalplacetocreatesomethingnewinaverydifferentgeographicalspace,and

therebyencapsulatedthechronotopicmultiplicitiesdescribedbyStam.Asopposedto

137

ahomogenisationoftheworldthroughtheexportationofglobalconsumergoods,

NationalGeographicpresentedinsteadalocalappropriationoftheWest’sunwanted

clothing,whichresonatedwithAppadurai’sassertionthatlocalisedtastechallenges

thepopularnotionoftheUnitedStatesastheall-powerfulcontrollerofobjects,

commoditiesandvalues.253Heredressprovidedacounter-tendencytoasimplistic

equivalenceofglobalisationwithAmericanisationor,even,McDonaldisation,aterm

coinedbysociologistGeorgeRitzertodescribetheprocessbywhich‘theprinciplesof

thefast-foodrestaurantarecomingtodominatemoreandmoresectorsofAmerican

societyaswellasoftherestoftheworld’.254Thislatterviewwasforciblypropounded

byadazzlingadvert(Fig.3.11)printedonthebackoftheverysameeditionofNational

Geographic,whichunnervinglyrepeatedthemantra‘Noneofusisasgoodasallofus’

underneathaholographicimageofthefamiliargoldenarchesimprintedwiththesign

‘over10,000opened’.255Itpresentedagenericandhomogenisedimageofthe

Americanrestaurantandacar,whichcouldplausiblyhavedenotedanytimeorspace

throughoutthelatterhalfofthetwentiethcentury,andsoreinforcedanideaofthe

standardisedandimposedspreadofU.S.popularculture,whichRitzerdeemedready

toeclipseindividualworldwidecreativity.

RatherthanbeingareflectionoftheoverwhelmingforceofAmericannorms

andlifestylessuggesting‘sameness’,there-negotiationofitemsofWestern-style

clothingthatweredocumentedinthissnapshotdemonstratedalocalresponsetothe

homogenisingforcesofglobalisation.Theseitemsofdressdidnotoriginateinthe

sartorialcultureoftheUrueu-Wau-Wau,andwerenodoubtanexchangeitemfrom

253ArjunAppadurai,ModernityatLarge:CulturalDimensionsofGlobalization(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1996).254GeorgeRitzer,TheMcDonaldizationofSociety(ThousandOaks,CA:PineForge,1992),p.1.255NationalGeographic,December1988,backcover.

138

FUNAI;yetwhatwasinitiallyanalienarticlehassincebeenadaptedandre-interpreted

asaversatilevehicleforcontemporaryUrueu-Wau-Wauidentityconstruction.As

ProfessorPauloCésarAguiardeMendonça,seniorresearcherattheJescovon

PuttkamercollectioninGoiana,hasexplained:

Justaswhenwhitepeopletravel,theyadoptelementsofotherdressselectively.They[i.e.theUrueu-Wau-Wau]doitfordiplomaticreasons,tonegotiate,becausewhitepeoplewon’tacceptthemwithout.Whentheyreturn,theygobacktowearingnoclothes.256

AlthoughdeMendonçaacknowledgedthatthereisanasymmetryofpowerprevalent

intherelationshipbetweentheUrueu-Wau-Wauandwhitepeople,hehighlighted

howthegroupintegratesasophisticatedunderstandingofWesternsartorial

expectations,andappropriatesandtransformstheseunwantedWesternclothesto

constructtheirvariedandfluididentitiesindifferentculturalcontexts.Thisprocessis

notdisingenuoussinceitenablessecond-handWesterndresstobeadaptedtoservea

newfunction,whichworksonbehalfofUrueu-Wau-Wauneedstoo.

Aninterestingpointofcomparisoncanbedrawnwithanimagetakenby

BelgianfilmdirectorJean-PierreDutilleux,whichappearedinAmericanVogueinJune

1988anddocumentedtheBritishmusicianStingonhis‘SouthAmericantouracross

Brazil,uptheAmazon,visitingIndiantribeswhowantnothingfromthe20thcentury’

(Fig.3.12).257ThearticlefeaturedtheKayapo,aGê-speakingpeoplewholiveina

numberofcommunitiesalongsidetheXinguRiveranditstributariestheIriri,Bacajá

andFrescoRivers.OccupyingaverylargeterritoryincentralBrazil,theyarerenowned

forhavinghadextensivebutambivalentinteractionswithnon-Indiansand

256PauloCésarAguiardeMendonça,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(JescovonPuttkamercollection,PontificaUniversidadeCatolicadeGoias,InstitutoGoianodePre-HistoriaeAntropologia,Goiana,10April2014).RefertoAppendix5:Interviews.257Sting,‘PrimalSting’,Vogue,June1988,pp.244-307.

139

environmentalists.258Thoughthisisnotmentionedinthearticle,theKayapowere

filmedforaGranadatelevisiondocumentaryin1987and,inreturnfortheir

cooperation,demandedfilmingequipmentfortheirownuse,anotionthatdisrupted

thequaintWesternperceptionthattheKayapoenjoyedaromanticandauthentic

lifestyledivorcedfrom‘civilisation’.259Thisignorantviewwasexplicitlystatedbythe

subheading:‘Forthreedays,Stingwasoneofthem,thentheysenthimbackto

“civilization”withanewlookandanurgentmessage.’260Itaccompaniedaphotograph

ofStingwiththeleaderoftheKayapo,RaoniMetuktire,alreadysomethingofa

celebrityinEurope,havingappearedinDutilleux’sfilm,Raoni:TheFightforthe

Amazon(1978).261Bothofthesubjectsfacethecamerawearingthecustomarybody

paintoftheKayapo,althoughRaonialsowearsbeadedredandbluejewelleryandalip

plate.ThenotionthatStingcanadopta‘newlook’byappropriatingnon-permanent

elementsofKayapodress,asandwhenhefeelslikeit,reinforceshispowerfulposition

asawhitemanwiththemoneyandleisuretimetotravel.WhereasAmericanVogue

fashionedtheKayapoasinferiorandexistinginaprimitive,backwardand

underdevelopedpast,asourceofexoticinspirationtothecivilisedWesterntraveller,

thevisualrepresentationofadifferentindigenousgroup’sdressinNational

Geographicembodiedanaestheticsofgarbagethatdemonstratedthevitalityofthe

Urueu-Wau-Wau,andtheirabilitytore-useitemsofdressthathaveoriginatedinthe

Westtochallengeandresistsuchreductivecolonialandpostcolonialnarratives.This

distinctionmayhavebeendueinparttothedifferentcontextsinwhichNational

GeographicandVoguecirculate,theformerhavingamoreeducationalremitwhereas

258‘Kayapo:Introduction’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/kayapo>[accessed11February2015]259Stam,TropicalMulticulturalism,p.7.260Sting,‘PrimalSting’,p.244.261Raoni:TheFightfortheAmazon,dir.byJean-PierreDutilleux(SND,Paris:1978).

140

thelatterisconcernedwithcommerceand,inthisexample,withcelebrities,butitwas

alsoduetothetactilesensationsofferedbythesnapshotinNationalGeographic,

whichventuredbeyondsightandencompassedtheaffectiveresponsesthatit

promptedintheviewer.InVogue,thephotographwasaveryflatimagethat

employedethnographicconventionsandhadnodepthintermsoflightandshadow.

ThisisparticularlyoddgiventhatVogueisamagazineaccustomedtosellingclothes

andproductsthroughafocusontheirtactilequalities,whichareenhancedthrough

photographiclight;thatthemagazinechosenottoemphasisethetactilesensationsin

thisexamplereinforcesthesuggestionthatitconsideredKayapodresstobedistinctly

outsidetherealmsof‘Western’fashion.InNationalGeographic,thesnapshot

confirmedaliteralaestheticsofgarbagethroughtheUrueu-Wau-Wau’sdistinctive

utilisationofsecond-handclothing.Onceagain,nocaptionwassupplied,butequally

nocaptionwasrequiredinordertounderstanditsmeaning.Thesecondsnapshotthat

thischapterdiscusses,asthefollowinganalysisreveals,embodiedamoreconceptual

aestheticsofgarbage,demonstratedbytheappropriationofcast-asidesartorialideas

asopposedtoactualitemsofdressthathadoriginatedintheWest.

AnAfrican-AmericanGazeonAfro-Braziliansin2002

Thissnapshot(inthewidersense)waspublishedinNationalGeographicin

August2002andentitled‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’.262Thetitlerenderedthe

fourthmostpopulousstateinBrazilasacradleofBraziliantraditionandreinforced,as

AnadeliaA.Romohasacknowledged,thepopulartropeof‘Bahiaasamuseum,asa

262Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’.

141

siteoflivingtradition’.263ItisimportanttounderstandBahia’shistoryinorderto

appreciateRomo’scommentfully.SalvadordaBahiawasestablishedasthe

Portuguesecolonialcapitalin1549,whentheareawasoneofthelargestsugar

producersintheworld.Fromthesixteenthcenturytotheabolitionoftheslavetrade

in1888,anestimatedtwomillionenslavedAfricans,oftheoverallfourmillion

transportedtoBrazil,settledinBahia.BythelatenineteenthcenturyBahiawas

consideredaprovincialbackwaterandtodayitisoneofthepoorestBrazilianstates,

withoneofthehighestnationalratesofunemploymentandincomedisparity.264

Despitethis,areportrevealedthatby2002thedevelopmentofBahia’stourism

industryhadsurpassedthatofanyotherregion.265Thiswasmainlyduetotheefforts

ofBahiatursa,theBahiantourismorganisation,whichemphasisedBahia’sstrongAfro-

Brazilianpresenceandadvertisedthestateasthe‘birthplaceofBrazil’.266Paulo

Guadenzi,thePresidentofBahiatursa,hasaffirmedthattheuniquenessofAfro-

BraziliancultureisapowerfultooltomarketSalvadorashavingastrongand

‘authentic’allegiancetoAfricantradition,asdistinctfromothertouristdestinations

throughoutBrazil.267InseekingtoexaminethecontinuedforceofAfricanheritagein

Salvadorthroughitssubstantialpopulationof‘descendantsofthefirstslavesbrought

totheNewWorld’,NationalGeographiccorrespondentCharlesCobbclearlysetouton

awell-troddenpath.268

263AnadeliaA.Romo,Brazil’sLivingMuseum:Race,ReformandTraditioninBahia(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2010),p.10.264RachelHarding,ARefugeinThunder:CandombléandAlternativeSpacesofBlackness(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,2000).265LuciaAquinodeQueiroz,TurismonaBahia:EstrataégiasparaoDesenvolvimento(Salvador:SecretaradaCulturaeTurismo,2002),n.p.266PatriciadeSantanaPinho,‘AfricanAmericanRootsTourisminBrazil’,LatinAmericanPerspectives,35.3(2008),70-86(p.85).267Queiroz,TurismonaBahia,n.p.268Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,p.63.

142

ItwasaconsideredchoiceofNationalGeographiceditor,WilliamL.Allard

(1995-2005),toappointCobbascorrespondent;thelatterlateracknowledgedthathis

appearanceandAfrican-Americanidentityhadenabledhimtoblendinandbondwith

hispredominantlyblacksubjectsinafashionthatwouldhavebeeninconceivablehad

hebeenwhite.AshedescribedontheNationalGeographicwebsite,inasection

entitled‘OnAssignment:Bahia.FieldNotesfromauthorCharlesE.Cobb,Jr’:‘Icould

meetwhomeverIwantedtomeetandgowhereverIwantedtogo.’269Inethnographic

parlance,fieldnotesaregenerallyalignedwithaparticulartypeofparticipant-

observationfieldwork,whichevadesadetachedanddistancedmodeofviewingin

favourof,asRobertM.Emersonhasarticulated,‘accountsdescribingexperiencesand

observationstheresearcherhasmadewhilstparticipatinginanintenseandinvolved

manner’[myitalics].270Itiswidelyacceptedthatfieldnotesaresubjecttothe

conscious,butalsounconscious,biasoftheauthorwhoactsasparticipant-observer

andpotentiallyinvestsherownnarrativeandmemoriesintoherdescriptionofthe

eventsthattookplace.ThatNationalGeographicchosetoincludethistypeof

informationonitswebsitecanbeunderstoodasanattempttohighlighttheparadigm

shiftatthemagazinesinceitscentennial,awayfromanunderstandingofitselfasan

exemplarofobjectivescientificrecord,andtowardsamoresubjectivesimultaneous

dramatisationanddocumentationofnon-Westernsubjectsasaninvolvedparticipant.

ThisconnectedtothefactthatCobbdescribedhisancestryastheprimarymotivation

forhistriptoSalvador,whichevadedanynotionofobjectivity.CobbselectedBahiafor

269Cobb,‘OnAssignment:Bahia.FieldNotesfromauthorCharlesE.Cobb,Jr’,<http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0208/feature5/assignment1.html>[accessed11February2015]270RobertM.EmersoninWritingEthnographicFieldnotes,ed.byEmersonetal(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1995),pp.4-5.

143

itssupposedpreservationandcarefulmaintenanceoftraditionalAfricanculture,

whereinhemighthopetoreignitea‘lost’affiliationwithhishomeland,Africa:

AsanAfrican-American,IhadcometoseewhathadsproutedinthisplacewhereAfrica’sseedswerefirstplantedcenturiesago.IfoundaculturesteepedintraditionalreligionsbroughtbycolouredpeoplesfromWestAfrica,aplacethatremainskeytotheidentityofthissprawlingstate.271

ThiscommentsuggeststhatCobbisabletoprovidean‘authentic’connectionwith,

andthereforedocumentationof,Bahia,yetitisproblematicsincetheauthor’sdesire

toexchangewhatheconceivesofashisown,U.S.-centric,conceptionofblack

‘African-American’modernityforthestaticpreserveofthe‘traditionalreligions

broughtbycolouredpeoplesfromWestAfrica’,manifestinthelivedexperienceofthe

localblackBahiancommunitieswithwhomheinteracted,exemplifiedthe

asymmetricaldimensionsofpoweroperatingwithintheglobalcontactzone.A

disparityishighlightedbetweenCobb,ablackmanlocatedintheNorthofthe

Americancontinent,withajobthatprovideshimwiththeopportunityandexpenses

totravel,andtheBahiancommunitiessituatedintheSouth,whohavefarlessaccess

toglobalcurrentsofpowerthanCobb.Cobb’stravelstoBahiawerenotanisolated

example,andwithinthearticleheobservedthatBahiantourismhadrecently‘been

boostedbyincreasingnumbersofAfrican-Americanvisitors’,whowereattractedby

thepromiseof‘aNewWorldAfricanculturethatmanyfindtruertoitsoriginsthan

theirown’.272HisobservationcorrespondedwithPatriciadeSantanaPinho’s

examinationofwhatshehastermed‘African-AmericanRootsTourism’,whichhas

witnessedthemovementoflargenumbersofAfrican-AmericantouriststoBahiain

pursuitof‘whattheybelievetobetheirrootsbut[…]incontrasttoothertourists,who

271Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,p.63.272Ibid.,p.77.

144

areusuallyinterestedintheexoticismofthe“other,”theycrisscrosstheAtlantic

hopingtofindthe“same”representedbytheir“blackbrothersandsisters”’.273Pinho

haspointedoutthatthisispartofacomplexidentityprocesswherebyAfrican-

AmericanscultivateaheightenedsenseofAfricannessdeemedessentialforthe

perpetuationoftheirowncontemporarydiasporicblackidentitiesintheUnitedStates.

Whilst‘rootstourism’hasthepotentialtochallengethe‘traditionalNorth-Southflows

ofculturalexchange’,ultimatelyitoften‘confirmstheexistinghierarchywithinthe

blackAtlantic’,sinceitreinforcesthesemi-peripheralpositionofAfricanandLatin

Americanblackcommunitiesinrelationtoblackswhoarepartofadominantcentreof

blackness‘intermsofculturalandacademicproduction’,suchastheUnitedStates.274

Althoughphotographydominatedthisarticle,asitdidinthepreviouscase

study,itisimportantinthiscasetocommentontheAfricanisedimageofBahiathat

Cobbfashionedwithinthetext.Hemadefrequentreferencetotheblackbodiesofthe

baianas,thearchetypalmaturewomenwhodressinvoluminouswhitelacedresses

andadornthemselveswithcolourfulsacredbeadednecklacesandbracelets.An

exampleofabaianadresscanbeseeninFigs3.13-3.17,forsaleonwhitemannequins

attheMercadodoMadureirainRiodeJaneiro.Thischoiceofmannequinissignificant

sincebaianasareassociatedwiththeAfro-BrazilianreligionofCandomble,thegeneric

namethatisgiventoanumberofsyncreticreligionsthatwerecreatedinBrazilinthe

nineteenthcentury,centreduponCatholicismandfacetsofAfricanreligioustraditions.

TheNationalGeographicreaderwasinvitedtoimagineaseasidescenethatCobb

recalledfromhistrip:

WearingthetraditionalwhiteofCandomble,somecarryofferingstoYemanja,themuchbeloveddeityofthesea.Bearingtheirhopesforthefuture,they

273Pinho,‘AfricanAmericanRootsTourisminBrazil’,p.84.274Ibid.

145

movefreelytowardtheoceanthatcarriedtheirforebearstotheseshoresinchains.275

Cobbdescribedtherhythmicmovementsofthebaianapriestesses,andtheeaseand

gracewithwhichtheywalked,movedanddancedtowardstheshoreline,bedeckedin

theirmagnificentwhiteattire,duringanexpressiveformofworshipusedtosummon

theseagoddessYemanja,oneoftheCandombledeitiesnamedorixastowhomeach

worshipperisdedicated,andtoincorporatedivineenergyintothehumanbody.White

clothingisadoptedbythebaianasbecauseitisthecolouroftheCandomblespirit

Oxaláandrepresentsgoodnessandpurity,butfromanoutsider’sperspective,italso

servestoideologicallyemphasisetheblacknessofthewearer’sskin.276Cobbusedthe

contactzonehereasaliterarystrategytobuildahistoricaldisjuncturewithinthetext

betweentheautonomyofthebaianasincontemporarySalvador,whoaremergedas

oneandusedtoformanindivisible,homogenisingnotionofblack‘Bahianness’,and

theirenslavedancestorswhowerebroughttoBahia‘inchains’.Herefrainedfrom

acknowledgingthatthemodeofdresswornbythebaianaisahybridfusionof

sartorialelementsthatoriginatefrombothEuropeandAfrica;whereasthesaia,the

flowingfull-lengthgatheredskirtwornwithpetticoatandcrinoline,andthelace-

trimmedblousecalledthecamizu,stemmedfromnineteenth-centuryEuropeandress,

theintricatelywoundhead-wrapcalledtheoja,andthecontasorilekes,beaded

necklaces,haveWestAfricanantecedents.277Cobbdescribedafreneticimagein

NationalGeographicofthebaianasinvolvedinworship:

Intheembraceoftheirgods,followersofCandomblearepossessedbyAfricandeitiescalledorixasataceremonyinSalvador.Themulti-facetedgodOmolu

275Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,pp.80-81.276MattijsVandePort,‘BahianWhite:TheDispersionofCandombléImageryinthePublicSphereofBahia’,MaterialReligion:TheJournalofObjects,ArtandBelief,3.2(2007),242-72(p.245).277CherylSterling,AfricanRoots,BrazilianRites:culturalandnationalidentityinBrazil,(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2012),p.69.

146

movesingrass-shroudedmystery,hislegendarypowertoinduceorcureillnessgreatlyrespected.Punctuatedbychantingandthepoundingofdrums,theritualresembledthoseI’veseeninWestAfrica[…]whereworshippersareseizedbytheholyspirit.[myitalics]278

Hedescribedthenoisygatheringofbaianasusingpowerfullanguagethatgavean

overridingimpressionofablackandmysteriousBahia,afolkloricspectaclerifewith

primitiverituals,populardevotion,mysteriousforcesandAfricanspirits.Cobbignored

thecontemporaryappropriationofthismodeofAfro-BraziliandressbyBahianwomen

employedstrategicallybythestategovernmentofBahiaasasourceofrevenueto

‘sell’merchandiseandculinarydelicaciestoforeigntourists,whohaveanappetitefor

‘exoticculture’anddeducetheensembletobedistinctivelyAfricanandtraditional.279

AclearexamplecanbeseenontheBahianStateTourismInstagrampage(Fig.3.18);

thebaiana’sabundanceofcolourfuljewellery,voluminouswhitedress,vibranteye-

shadow,andblueojaviefortheviewer’sattention,andrenderhertheembodimentof

exoticdifference,distinctfromthemoreausterelydressedtouristsheconverseswith.

Snapshot5:TheAfro-BrazilianGirl’sLycraTopandDenimJeans

AlthoughCobbcementedBahiatextuallyasastaticculturalpreserve,useful

onlyinconstructinghisowncontemporaryblackU.S.identityincontrasttothenotion

ofaBahianOther,theaccompanyingfourteenphotographscapturedbyNorth

AmericanDavidAlanHarveydemonstratedthatAfro-Braziliansweredistinctly

contemporaryintheirstyle,andemployedglobalsartorialreferences.Thiswas

communicatedtotheviewerthroughthedistinctivelytactilequalitiesoftheseimages.

278Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,p.74.279EricaWilliams,‘SexWorkandExclusionintheTouristDistrictsofSalvador,Bahia’,Gender,PlaceandCulture:AJournalofFeministGeography(2013),n.p.6<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0966369X.2013.786685#.VNtKIcZNMy4>[accessed11June2015]

147

Apertinentexamplecanbeseeninahalf-pagephotograph–thesecondsnapshotthis

chapterfocuseson–thatcapturedaslenderyounganonymousAfro-Brazilianwoman,

whosmilesbroadlyanddancestomusicinacrowdedsetting(Figs.3.19and3.20).She

ispositionedcentrallyintheframeandphotographedfromalowcameralevelthat

lendshergreaterstature.Caughtinthebackgroundoftheimageareabstractout-of-

focusshapesthatdelineateindividualsseatedinwhiteplasticchairsatwhiteplastic

tableslitteredwithdrinkcansandbottles.Weareinformedbythetextthatthe

locationistheNoitedaBelezaNegra(theNightoftheBlackBeauty),anevent

sponsoredbytheAfro-Brazilianmusicalgroup,IlêAiyê(HouseofLife).IlêAiyê

originatedinBahiaintheearly1970sasanaestheticmovementtopromoteprideand

consciousnessinthelocalblackcommunity.280Thewomanhasaconfidentexpression,

whichsuggeststotheviewerthatsheiscomfortablewithherappearanceand

perhaps,pleasedtobeobserved.Theblankwhitespaceabovethephotographasitis

positionedonthepageisfilledwiththewords:‘EverywhereIwent,Iheardthesound

ofsamba,thehigh-spiritedindigenousmusicofBrazilwhoserhythmsareAfrican

throughandthrough.’281AlthoughtheheadingreiteratesthedeepAfricancultural

rootsoftheevent,thewoman’sclothingalignsherwithcosmopolitanmodernityand

contemporaryglobalfashiontrends.Shewearslargesilverhoopearrings,asilver

watchandacollectionofwhitestringbraceletsonherlefthand,andasilverringon

thefourthfingerofherrighthand;thisispossiblyanengagementring,whichinBrazil

istraditionallywornontherighthanduntilthedayofthewedding,whenitis

exchangedtothefourthfingerofthelefthand.Herlongdarkhairispushedbackwith

awideelasticisedpurplehair-bandandneatlybraided,swingingasshemovestothe

280DeborahValoma,‘ClothandAfricanIdentityinBahia,Brazil’,inBergFashionLibrary<http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/BEWDF/EDch2063>[accessed3June2015]281Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,p.79.

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music.Shewearsapairofclose-fitting,low-slungdenimjeanswithasparklyblue

halter-necktopmadefromaclingyLycra-blendedmaterial,whosetactilequalitiesare

emphasisedbythephotographer’suseofabrightflash.Thishighlightsthesparkling

sequinsthatadornhertop,emphasisedfurtherstillbytheglossyveneerofthe

magazinepage,butalsorendersherslightlycut-outfromthebackground,atechnique

thatisoftenusedinfashionphotography.ItissignificantthatHarveymadethese

photographsusingaFujiVelvia50,averyfine-grained,high-coloursaturation

photographicfilmthatisoftenusedbyfashionphotographers,becauseitenhances

theaestheticisationofthesubjectthroughhighpicturequalityandvibrantcolour

reproduction.282Thesetechnicalchoicesdrawourattentiontowardsthesubject’sself-

fashioningandencourageustointerprettheimagewithintheprotocolsofafashion

shoot,ratherthananethnographicstudy,thusblurringthelinebetweenthetwoand

encouragingtheviewertounderstandthesubjectasaself-fashioningindividualas

opposedtoananthropologicalobject.

Theclothingwornbythesubjectembodiesaconceptualaestheticsofgarbage

throughtheleitmotifofthestrategicredemptionorrecyclingofsecond-hand

aesthetics.ItpresentsaninterestinglocaliseduseofLycrathatemergedinBrazilin

1996inMadureira,apoorsuburbintheNorthZoneofRiodeJaneiro,andthatby

2000couldbeseenthroughoutBrazil,inthelessaffluentsuburbsofSaoPaulo,Belo

Horizonte,BelemdoParaandSalvador.LycramanufactureinBrazilhadbeencentred

since1975ataDuPontproductionfacilityinPaulinia,amunicipalityinthestateofSao

Paulo,butin1999a$100millionstate-of-the-artrenovationintroduceddeveloped

processingtechniquesandautomation,whichdoubledtheoutputofLycrainorderto

282DavidAlanHarvey,‘OnAssignment:Bahia.FieldNotesfromphotographerDavidAlanHarvey’,<http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0208/feature5/assignment2.html>[accessed4June2015]

149

meetintensifiedpopulardemandthroughoutLatinAmerica.283Lycra-blendedfabrics

wereusedbylow-endanonymousBrazilianfashiondesignerstocreatetightspandex

trousers,tops,shortsandbodysuits,inavarietyofcolours,shapes,structuresand

sizes,withdifferentpatterns,holes,transparenciesandmeshdetails.284Thedesigners

wereheavilyinfluencedbythetightly-draped,figure-huggingaestheticoftheTunisian-

born,Paris-baseddesignerAzzedineAlaiaandotherinternationaldesigners,suchas

GiorgioArmani,DonnaKarenandKarlLagerfeld,whosedesignstheyhadobservedin

second-handEuropeanfashionmagazines,suchasVogueandElle,fromthe1980s.285

Withlimitedmaterialsandeconomicmeans,theanonymousdesignersre-interpreted

ideasderivedfromAlaia’sdesigns,whichhadlittleinthewayofdecorativedetailor

fuss,withsophisticationtocatertothetastesofcontemporaryBrazilianconsumers.

RatherthananunsuccessfulimitationofAlaia’sdesign,theclothesstoodastestimony

tothedesigners’adaptationandtransformationofideasthatwereinitiallyaliento

them,usingthematerialsandaccessoriesavailabletothem.Alaiaalwayschoseaclean

andsimpleline,andpreferreddarkormutedcolours,suchasblack,brown,beige,

navyandsoftpastels,buttheBraziliandesignersexploitedtheendlesspossibilitiesof

colour,whetheranacidhueofgreen,aflashofsilverwovenintoturquoise,asseenin

NationalGeographic,orluridzebraprint.Thedesignersaddedelementssuchas

chains,flesh-exposingzippers,cut-outsectionsandplasticelementstoshowoff

certainareasofthebody,whichthenbecameapartofthedecorationoftheclothing.

WhereasAlaiausedLycratoskimthebodylikeasecondskin,makingitlookassmooth

andstreamlinedaspossiblethroughtheuseofdiscreetcorsetry,theBrazilian

283‘Dupont1962,Lycra.Paulinia,Brazil’,<http://www2.dupont.com/Phoenix_Heritage/en_US/1962_b_detail.html>[accessed11February2015];Anon.,‘DupontPlansBrazilLycraPlant’,WWD,19October1999,p.17.284MariStockler,MeninasDoBrasil(SaoPaulo:Cosac&Naify,2001),n.p.285MariStockler,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(27-31October2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.

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designersemphasisedthesexualappealandvoluptuousnessofthewearer’sbody,

irrespectiveofsizeorshape.

AstheBrazilianartistMariStockler,thefirsttodocumentthistrend,explained:

‘Braziliansareverysexyandthisisindependentofthesizeoftheirbodies.Fashion

standardsofbeautyinterferelittleinthereallifeofthemajorityofBrazilians.’286The

distinctive‘Braziliansexuality’thatStocklerreferredtoisconveyedmostclearlyinthe

situationsinwhichtheLycra-blendedfashionswereworn,sincethefreedomof

movementpermittedbytheoutfitsenabledBrazilianwomentomoveinan

unrestrictedway.AclearexamplecanbeseeninanimagefromStockler’sphotobook

(Fig.3.21),entitledMeninasdoBrasil[GirlsofBrazil](2001),whichextensively

documentedtheaestheticsofthishybridfashiontrendfromitsinceptionin1996.The

photographcapturesanAfro-BraziliangirlinaLycra-blendedwhitestraptopwitha

built-inbraandadornedwithmetalchains.Shewearsbluedenimjeansandsilver

jewellery,anddanceswithherarmsandhandsspread,anactionthatdrawsattention

tohertorso.TheflashofStockler’scamerareflectsfromthebrightwhiteofher

elasticatedtop,givingatactilesenseofthesensualappealoftheclothing.Thisimage

iscomparabletotheNationalGeographicphotographintherepresentationofhow

dressisanimatedthroughdance,expressionandgesture.WhilstNationalGeographic

attemptedthroughthetexttofashionAfro-Braziliansascementedwithina

generalisedconceptionofAfrica,thevisualrepresentationofdressshowedhowthe

techniquesandmethodsofinternationalfashiondesignhadbeenrecycledand

modifiedbyanonymousBraziliandesignerstoenabletheAfro-Braziliansubjecttoself-

fashionherownidentity.

286Ibid.

151

Arevealingpointofcomparisoncanbedrawnwithaphotographtakenin

SalvadordaBahia,whichwaspublishedinAmericanVogueinMarch2006(Fig.3.22)

withinanarticleentitled‘WhiteHeat’.287PhotographedonlocationinSalvadorbythe

AmericanfashionphotographerArthurElgort,itfeaturedtheEthiopianmodelLiya

Kebede,dressedinacreamRochascolumndressembroideredwithtinyflowerdots,

photographednexttoananonymousbaianawhoisseatedatapianoandwearsan

unnamedwhitelacedcrinolinedress.Vogueomitstoprovideanyinformationabout

thesymbolicvalueofthebaiana’swhitedress,thecolourthatiswornbyadherentsof

Candombletodispeladversityandevil,andreflectthepurityandvirtueofthespirit

Oxalá.288Insteadthebaianaisusedasasymbolofindigeneitytodidacticallyleadthe

eyetowardsKebede,whoisalmosttwofoottallerandstandspoisedwithonehandon

herhip,theotherelegantlydrapedacrossthetopofthepiano.Thecreamofher

dress,whichthecaptioninformstheviewerisavailableatBarneysfor$29,380,isa

subtleyetdistinguishablecontrasttothebaiana’sstarchedwhite,thelatterso

spotlessitisassociatedwithanunremittingstruggleagainstdirtandsweatinthe

warmclimatethroughconstantwashingandbleaching.WhereasNationalGeographic

hadvisuallypresentedBahianwomenfouryearsearlierasyoungandfashionably

dressedinacreativere-interpretationofEuropeanstyles,Vogueprovidedthe

photographiccounterparttotheromanticisedandmythicalnarrativethatCobb

describedinthetext,andinsteaddelineatedarecognisabledichotomybetween

purportedlystatic‘ethnic’dress,andcontinuouslyshiftingEuropeanfashion.

287Anon.,‘WhiteHeat’,AmericanVogue,March2006,pp.518-31.288Sterling,AfricanRoots,BrazilianRites,p.81.

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Thischapterbeganwithanexaminationof‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,

publishedwithinthecentennialeditionofNationalGeographic,whichencapsulateda

shiftfromadetachedscientificmodeofviewingthemagazine,towardsamore

intimate,tactileandsubjectiveengagementwithit.Drawinguponthisparadigmshift

thattookplaceatthemagazine,itusedStam’smetaphorofanaestheticsofgarbage,

manifestliterallyandconceptually,toexaminetwosnapshotsofBraziliandress,

publishedinDecember1988andAugust2002respectively.Stam’stheoryenabled

lineardescriptionsoftimeandspacetogivewaytoanunderstandingofglobalisation

inwhichshredsandpatchesofthelocalandglobalinteractandareinterwoveninto

thepatchworkquiltthatconstitutesthecontemporaryinterconnectedandfluidworld.

TheeffectsofglobalisationhavebeendocumentedbyNationalGeographic,whichhas

demonstratedthemultidirectionalflowsandideasofdressthathavetravelledfarand

wideacrosstheworldandenabledamultifariousBrazilianpopulationtonegotiateand

re-negotiatetheirlocalandglobalidentitiesinresponsetocross-culturalcontact.This

hasbeencommunicatedinaphenomenologicalsensetoNationalGeographicviewers

throughanincreasinglytactilefocusonimageryovertext,incorporatingaself-

reflexiveawarenessofthewaysthatdressbothtouchesthebodyandfacesoutwards

inthedirectionofoutsidegazesontothebody.Ratherthanaone-directionalflowof

globalgoods,Braziliandresshastravelledinnumerousdirectionsandemergedasa

complex,heterogeneousprocessthatincorporatesmixing,borrowing,creatingand

differentiatinglocalandglobalcontextsthroughanaestheticsofgarbage.

Stam’sgarbagemetaphorhasprovidedameanstounderstandcontactasa

seriesofculturalexchangesandsartorialresistancesdemonstratedbytheself-

fashioningandself-presentationofBraziliansubjectsinNationalGeographic.Inthe

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firstexample,thegarbagemetaphorworkedonamoreliteralbasisandenabledDjaui

toadoptchosenaspectsofglobalculture,anduseittoself-fashioninthefaceofa

moredominantcontextthatattemptedtofashiontheUrueu-Wau-Wauwithinafixed

ethnographicpresent.Inthesecondexample,thegarbageprincipleworkedinmore

abstracttermsandwasevidencedbytheadoptionofLycra-blendedclothingbythe

Afro-Braziliansubject,whosesartorialchoiceswereinformedby,yetreinterpreted,

internationalfashiondesigners,suchasAzzedineAlaiaandGiorgioArmani.Rather

thanemphasisingbinarydualisms,garbagehasprovidedamorenuanced

understandingofexchangesandsubtledifferentiationswithintheUnitedStates-

BraziliancontactzoneasdocumentedinNationalGeographic,evenastheyhave

unfoldedwithinasymmetricalrelationsofpower.Appliedtodress,Stam’smetaphor

hasenabledtherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographictobe

reconsideredinawaythatisnotoppositional,linearoressentialist.Nevertheless,a

newtheoreticalandmethodologicalframeworkisrequiredforananalysisof(Brazilian)

fashionaspresentedintworevealingexamplessince2001.Thefollowingtwo

snapshotsinchapterthreearetheexceptionthatprovetherule,applicablesince

1988,thatNationalGeographicmovedfromdistancedanddetachedviewingtowards

anincreasinglytactileandmultisensoryengagementwithimagesinthemagazineas

materialobjects.

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Chapter3.

TheSpaceIn-Between:BrazilianFashioninNationalGeographicsince2001

• Snapshot6:TheYanomamiBoy’sGazeattheNationalGeographicPhotographer’sClothing,September2001

• Snapshot7:BiancaMarque’sBikinisandVictorDenzk’sDresses,September2011

Thesnapshotanalysedinthepreviouschapter,whichwastakeninSalvadordaBahia

andpublishedinNationalGeographicinAugust2002,appropriatedstylistictechniques

commonplaceinfashionphotographyinordertohighlightthefemaleAfro-Brazilian

subject’sperformanceofcontemporaryglobalfashiontrends,inacreativepractice

thatfusedBrazilianstreet-stylewithelementsofEuropeandesignerfashion.The

subject’sinnovativeLycratophadanadditional‘value’thataffiliateditwiththe

seasonallyshiftingstylesoffashion,asopposedtothemoregradualchangesthatare

associatedwithdress,animportantdistinctiontowhichIwillreturn.Although

NationalGeographicdidnotexplicitlyrefertothesubject’sensembleasfashion,the

magazinecommandeeredphotographictechniquesfrequentlyemployedwithina

fashioncontext.Thesetechniques,ofbrightflash,vibrantcolour,andhigh-resolution

reproduction,subconsciouslypromptedtheviewertointerpretthesnapshotwithin

theparametersoffashion,andpotentiallytoperceivethesubjectasanactiveandself-

fashioningindividual,asopposedtoanethnographicobject.

ThistensionatNationalGeographicbetweenthediscoursesoffashionand

ethnography,andtheirassociatedsignifications,canbetracedtoalargecoffee-table

tome,titledNationalGeographicFashion,whichwaspublishedalmostoneyear

earlier,inSeptember2001.289Thiswasthefirstoccasiononwhichthemagazinehad

self-consciouslyusedafashionablegazetore-presentitspublishedandunpublished

289NationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonDC:NationalGeographicSociety,2001).

155

editorialhistory.290Itmarkedanexceptioninthemagazine’shistoriographyofthe

‘worldandallthatisinit’since1988,whenthemagazinehadmovedfromcool,

detachedviewing,andtowardsanincreasinglyintimate,multisensoryengagement

withthemagazineasatactile,materialobject.291ThiswasfollowedupinSeptember

2011,withthepublicationofthearticle‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemale

EmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateand

StokeItsVibrantEconomy’,whichwaswrittenbyCynthiaGorneyandaccompanied

withphotographsbyJohnStanmeyer.292ThisarticledidnotapproachBrazilianfashion

directly,butuseditindirectlyasatooltoconstructmeaningwithinitsvisualand

textualnarrative.Fashion,asamultifacetedandmultidimensionalprocess,which

thrivesoncontradictionandambivalence,providesanopportuneandfittingmedium

forthischaptertoretrospectivelyconsiderhowandwhereNationalGeographic

encourageditsviewerstopositionthemselvesinrelationtorepresentedBrazilian

subjects.

Thischaptermarksanoticeableexceptionfromtheprecedingandfollowing

twochapters,immediatelyevidentfromitstitle,inthatitconsciouslyemploysthe

term‘fashion’,asopposedto‘dress’,astheprimarymediumforitsexaminationof

NationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategies.Intheintroductiontothisthesis,I

defineddressbroadlyusingEicherandRoach-Higgins’importantandoft-cited

290NationalGeographichadneverexplicitlyfocusedonfashionbeforethepublicationofNationalGeographicFashion,withtheexceptionofonearticle,whichwaswrittenbyNinaHydeandaccompaniedwithphotographstakenbyWilliamAlbertAllard.Entitled‘TheBusinessofChic’,andpublishedinthemagazineinJuly1989,thearticlefocusedonhigh-enddesignersSaintLaurent,Chanel,LacroixandDior,whoweredescribedas‘synonymouswithstyle.TheseFrenchdesignershavecollectivelyspunthefabricofhautecouture,markingParisthecentreofthefashionworld.’NationalGeographicpresentedfashionasanelitecouturedesignsystemcenteredexclusivelyinParis,amongstasmallgroupofcreativeindividuals,whichdisregardedthepossibilitythatfashionmightemergeelsewhereinnon-Westernandnon-capitalistcultures.NinaHyde,‘TheBusinessofChic’,NationalGeographic,July1989,pp.146-157(p.148).291WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,p.270.292CynthiaGorney,‘Machisma’,NationalGeographic,September2011,pp.96-121.

156

definition:‘anassemblageofbodilymodificationsand/orsupplementsdisplayedbya

personincommunicatingwithotherhumanbeings’.293Thisinterdisciplinary

characterisationemphasisedtheimportanceofappreciatingandanalysingthe

materialqualities,butalsotheexpressivecapabilities,ofclothing,bodycovering,

adornment,accessories,tattoos,piercings,makeup,hairstylesandscarificationwithin

across-cultural,fluidframework.294AlthoughEicherandRoach-Higgins’overarching

definitionincludesfashion,whichtheyunderstandtobeademonstrationofchange

withinanydresspractices,inmyunderstanding,thischaracterisationdoesnot

adequatelyencapsulatetheheightenedambiguityoffashion.Whilstremainingan

elusiveandmuchdebatedconcept,fashioncannotmerelybethesubtletiesofchange

indress,butissurelyalsoanadditionalandalluringvaluethatisattachedtodifferent

formsofclothing,whetherrarefiedandelite,fastorthrowaway,localorglobal,and

oftenalsotoitsvisualrepresentation,toenticeconsumers.

Adeeperunderstandingofthedifferentconceptsoffashionisrelevanttothis

chapter,andhelpstorecognisethepotentialofthisthesistoaddtocurrent

scholarshipsurrounding‘non-Western’dressandfashion.Theinterdisciplinaryand

cross-culturalexaminationsofJenniferCraik,MargaretMaynardandSusanKaiserhave

allchallengedtheperennialdistinctionsmadebetween‘Western’fashionand

supposedly‘non-Western’dress,andhighlightedthevibrantanddynamicfashion

systems,botheverydayandelite,thatexistthroughouttheworld.295Thesescholars

293EicherandRoach-Higgins,'DressandIdentity',p.7.294AcrucialcomponentofEicherandRoach-Higgins’definition,whichistobecommendedforitsabilitytore-thinkthedistinctionbetween‘fashion’,misleadinglyassumedtobethedominantformofdressin‘civilised’Westernsocieties,and‘otherclothingand/orbodyadornment’,oftennarrowlyperceivedbytheWesttobemore‘primitive’,isthatdressisnotstaticandfixed,butcontinuallyinflux.295Craik,TheFaceofFashion;Maynard,DressandGlobalisation;Kaiser,FashionandCulturalStudies.TheinfluentialwritingsofGeorgSimmelandJohnFlugelarejusttwoexamplesofscholarlyfashionwritingintheearlytwentiethcenturythathavecontributedtoastillwidespreadunderstandingoffashionasaproductonlyof‘civilised’Western,capitalistandindustrialised,societies.SeeG.Simmel,

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haveemphasisedtheneedforamoregloballyinclusivere-evaluationofthedefinition

offashion,whichcansurpassEuropean-andNorthAmerican-centredstereotypesof

therestoftheworld.Craikhashighlightedtheconstantlyshiftingandinterdependent

relationshipbetweenWesternandnon-Westernfashionsystems,andtechnologiesof

thebody,withinwhich‘thereisconsiderableleakagebetweencompetingsystems

offeringachoiceofdresstechniquestoconsumerseverywhere’.296Maynardhas

extendedthediscussioninitiatedbyCraikbut,lessconcernedwiththedualityof

differentfashionsystemsanddresspractices,emphasisedinsteadthetacticalcross-

culturalengagementsthatareencapsulatedintheprocessesofmixing,fragmentation,

syncretism,multiplication,creolisationandhybridity.Shehasdemonstratedthatthe

meaningsofdressshiftasitmovesacrossborders,acquiringnewvaluesinindividual

andcomplexways,whichchallengethepresumedhegemonyofWesternfashionto

produceglobaluniformityindress.Mostrecently,Kaiserhasgonebeyondthe

argumentsofCraikandMaynard,andproposedanewdefinitionoffashionas‘an

ongoingchallengeofnegotiatingandnavigatingthroughmultipleambiguitiesand

contradictions’,thatisintrinsicallyconnectedtobeinganindividualsubjectinaglobal

economy,whosimultaneouslyembodiesmultiplesubjectpositions,whetherofrace,

gender,age,sexuality,ethnicity,classornationality.297Craik,MaynardandKaiserhave

allconstitutedacrucialstageinthediscussionconcerningtheproductionand

consumptionofdressandfashionwithinagloballyinclusiveframework.However,

theyareyettoaccountfullyforthevisualdimensionoffashion,andthekeyrolethat

imagesofdresshaveplayedinconstructinganddisseminatingacross-culturalideaof

whatfashionconstitutesthroughouttheworld.

‘Fashion’,InternationalQuarterly,10(1906):130-55;JC.Flugel,ThePsychologyofClothes(London:Hogarth,1930).296Craik,p.39.297Kaiser,p.7.

158

Suchdiscussionshavebeenmovedintothefieldoffashionphotographyby

SarahCheang,whohascontributedimportantdebatesconcerninghowracialand

ethnicstereotypesmightbechallengedfromwithinfashionimagerypublishedin

BritishVogue.298Thisthesisaddstocurrentscholarshipbysituatingthesedebatesin

thecontextofnon-fashionphotographypublishedinNationalGeographic,albeitwith

afocusonimagesthatutilisestylistictechniquesoftenemployedwithinfashion

photography.Bylookingathowimagesofnon-Westerndress,placedwithina

Westernfashioncontext,mightcomplicateadominantEuropeanandNorthAmerican-

centredunderstandingofwhatfashionis,Ihopetobridgeagapbetweenexisting

scholarshiponNationalGeographic,andacademicdebatesconcerningnon-Western

fashionanddress.Iaimtodemonstratethatagloballyinclusivedefinitionoffashion

mustencompassdressbut,andofequalimportance,imagesofdress,soasto

recognisecriticallythatfashionisnotsimplyaneconomicforce,whetheronamicroor

macrolevel,butaninterconnectedformofvisualandmaterialculturethatsculptsour

ownabilitytoself-present,aswellasawarenessofothers’abilitytodothesame.A

crucialpartoftheWesternunderstandingofwhatfashionconstitutesisencapsulated

byNationalGeographic,andsothischapterusesimagesofdresspublishedwithinthe

magazineasaproductivetooltore-thinkdefinitionsoffashionwithinacross-cultural

andinterdisciplinaryframework,onethatisintricatelyconnectedtothevisual.299

Thischapterdepartsfromsimplisticandone-sidedEurocentricdefinitionsof

fashionthatprivilegeitasaWesternconstruct,infavourofmoreexpansive,

interdisciplinaryandtransculturalmethodologies.ItisinthisveinthatIintroduce

298Cheang,‘‘ToTheEndsoftheEarth’:FashionandEthnicityintheVogueFashionShoot’.299Ihavealreadytoucheduponthelackofappropriateterminologytoconceptualisethe‘Western’andtheso-called‘non-Western’,andhopethatreaderswillunderstandthevalueinusingatermthatisproblematic,inordertoproblematiseitdirectlyfromwithinthroughpertinentexamples.

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Braziliannovelistandpoststructuralisttheorist,SilvianoSantiago,whosecollectionof

essays,TheSpaceIn-Between:EssaysonLatinAmericanCulture,wasfirstpublishedas

anEnglishtranslationintheUnitedStatesin2001.Santiago’sconceptofthespacein-

betweenwillbeusedasananalyticaltooltoenablethecross-culturalstrandsofglobal

fashiontobeseparatedandconsideredinmoreattentiveandisolateddetail.300

Santiagoinitiallydevelopedtheself-consciousconceptofthe‘spacein-between’in

1978,amidstpessimistictheoreticaldiscussionsinBrazil,whichquestionedhow

Braziliansubjectscouldnegotiateandre-negotiatetheirneocolonialentrapmentand

culturaldependencyuponanalienanddominantWesternculture.Santiagodrew

uponAndrade’smetaphorofanthropophagy,usedasacriticaltoolinthefirstchapter

ofthisthesis,todescribehowtheLatinAmericanwriterdevoursWesternliterary

works,consumestheoriginaltext,andregurgitatesasecondtextwithinthesame

space.HeusedanthropophagyinamoredevelopedwaythandidAndrade,

attributabletothefactthathewaswritingduringthelatteryearsofthemilitary

dictatorship.Thisperiodcoincidedwiththeacademicre-evaluationofBrazilianliterary

modernism,inanefforttoexpressthepeculiarityandtransformativepotentialof

contemporaryBrazilianculturalproduction,whichwasunderstoodasahybrid

300SilvianoSantiago,TheSpaceIn-Between.AnameliaFontanaValentimandAlessandraBrandaoarethefirstandonlyscholarstohaveusedSantiago’sconcepttoanalyseBrazilianfashion.InapapergivenattheFourthGlobalFashionConference,heldatMansfieldCollege,OxfordUniversity(16-19September2012),theyarguedthatabetterunderstandingofBrazilianfashionwasrequired,whichwouldventurebeyondsimplisticassertionsthatclaimitislittlemorethananinferiorcopyofEuropeanandNorthAmericanfashion.Rather,Brazilianfashionisacomplexmixtureofforeignandlocalsources,and,althoughSantiago’stheoryemergedasacriticalanalysisofBrazilianliterature,itprovidesafertilestartingpointtogiveapositiveandpostmodernqualitytothecopyinBrazilianfashion.ValentimandBrandao’spaperdrewmyattentiontoSantiago’stheoryand,whilsttheirtwenty-minutepaperwasunabletofullyexhausttheanalyticalpropertiesofthespacein-betweeninrelationtoBrazilianfashion,thischapterseekstoprovideanumberofadditionalexamples.AnameliaFontanaValentimandAlessandraBrandao,‘ThePositionofBrazilianFashioninaBorderlessPlace’,<http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/critical-issues/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/fontanafashpaper.pdf>[accessed13June2015]

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constructionthathasmixedandsynthesisedaspectsofWesternandnon-Western

cultures.301

ThegazeoftheLatinAmericanwriter,Santiagocontended,ischaracterisedby

thishybridorliminalpositionofin-betweenness,whichhepoeticallyarticulatedas:

Betweensacrificeandplay,betweenprisonandtransgression,betweensubmissionandaggressiontothecode,betweenobedienceandrebellion,betweenassimilationandexpression–there,inthisseeminglyemptyplace,itstempleanditssiteofclandestinity,theanthropophagusritualofLatinAmericaisperformed[…]Tospeak,towrite,meanstospeakagainst,towriteagainst.302

Withinthis‘seeminglyempty’andde-territorialisedspace,characterisedby

perpetuallyshiftingmovementbetweenbinaryoppositions,elementsofNorth

AmericanandWesternEuropeanculturalpracticeshavebeenstrategicallyassimilated

byBraziliansubjects,andre-presentedwithreferencetotheirspecificsocial,cultural,

politicalandindividualidentities.303Thisself-consciousstrategyofsubversionhas

copiedthelanguageofthedominantcultureinordertodeconstructitfromwithin,

emphasisedbySantiago’sclaimthat‘tospeak,towrite,meanstospeakagainst,to

writeagainst’.304‘Writingback’isaliterarytermcoinedbySantiago,whichwasfirst

presentedintheintroductiontothisthesis.Itisaformofauto-ethnographic

expressionwherebyWesternliterarypracticesaremodified,re-presentedoreven

resistedinpart,inordertoprovidespacefordifferentcreativenon-Westernmodesof

expressionthatareconstructedinresponse.Santiagodefendedtheneedto

understandthecriticalpotentialofLatinAmericanliteratureandartisticproduction,

whichisnotsimplyaninferiorimitationofWesternliteratureandartisticproduction,

301IdelbarAvelar,TheUntimelyPresent:PostdictatorialLatinAmericanFictionandtheTaskofMourning(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1999),p.138.302SilvianoSantiago,TheSpaceIn-Between,p.31.303Ibid.304Ibid.

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butaninfinitelyricherre-presentationofitsinceit‘containswithinitselfa

representationofthedominanttextandaresponsetothatrepresentationwithinits

veryfabrication’.305Santiago’suseofthenoun‘fabrication’isareminderthat‘writing

back’isintentionallyconstructed,andincludeselementsofinvention,storytellingand

dramatisationwhichcomplicatetheboundariesbetweenrealityandartifice.Fashionis

oftenlinkedtothecreativeconstructionofanindividual’sactualidentity,and

thereforeprovidesafittingmediumtodrawoutsomeofthecross-culturalnarratives

wovenintotherepresentationofBrazilianFashioninNationalGeographicsince2001.

Santiagodirectlyreferredtofashion,albeitinthebroadestsenseofprevailing

trends,whichisapplicabletodress,whenhewrote:

ThemajorcontributionofLatinAmericatoWesterncultureistobefoundinitssystematicdestructionoftheconceptsofunityandpurity:thesetwoconceptslosetheprecisecontoursoftheirmeaning,theylosetheircrushingweight,theirsignofculturalsuperiority[…]LatinAmericanartists’creativeproduction[isnolongerreducedto]aworkwhoselifeislimitedandprecarioussinceitisenclosedintheradianceandprestigeoftheoriginal,ofthetrendsetter.306

SantiagousedthepostmodernistthoughtofDerridaandFoucaultasanideological

tooltodeconstructtheassumedbinaryoppositionbetweenoriginalandcopy,

superiorandinferior,Westernandnon-Western,whichhascharacteristicallyframed

debatesregardingcross-culturaltransactionswithintheglobalcontactzone.He

questionedthenotionthatfashionisaWesternconstruct,renderingeverything

producedinLatinAmericaaninferiorcopyofaWesternoriginal.Rather,Latin

Americanculturalproduction,Santiagoargued,heldthepotentialtodislocateand

rupturetheveryideologicalfoundationsofsourceandinfluencethatWestern

modernityhasbeenconstructedupon.IntheintroductiontotheEnglish-language305Ibid.,p.63.306Ibid.,pp.31-3.

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translationofTheSpaceIn-Between,AnaLuciaGazzolaandWanderMeloMiranda

builtuponSantiago’sfashionmetaphor,andprovidedaneloquentsummaryofhis

concept:‘Theideologicalfallacyinwhichnotionslikesourceandinfluenceareoften

clothedisdismantled,andthevalueofthe(peripheral)copywithrespecttothe

(hegemonic)modelisrecovered.’307ThischapterusesSantiago’smetaphorofthe

spacein-betweenasapointofdeparturetorecoverthevalueofBrazilianself-

consciouslyfashionablerepresentationsthatwereclothedwithinmoredominant

representationsofBrazilianfashionbyNationalGeographic.Santiago’stextisnota

hugeadvanceonStam’s;bothprovideapositivetheorisationandidentificationwith

non-dominantBraziliandiscourse,text,artifactsandculturalexpressionspreviously

seenasdeficient.NeverthelessSantiago’sconcept,althoughfirstusedinacritical

analysisofBrazilianliterature,ismoreabstractthanStam’smetaphorofanaesthetics

ofgarbage,whichwasgroundedinspecificexamplesthatengagedBrazilianfilmas

texts,andthusembodiesthenuances,contradictionsandambiguousnatureof

fashion.

Thetwosnapshotsexaminedinthischapterhavethereforebeenselected

becausetheyexemplifyafashionablegazethatNationalGeographicplacedupon

Brazilintwoparticularandisolatedexceptionsoverthecourseofadecade.Thefirst

sectionseekstounravelsomeoftheinterconnectionsandcomplexitiesbetweenthe

visual,textualandtactilestrategiesthatwereusedinthephotobookNational

GeographicFashiontoconstructafashionablegazeontothemagazine’sowneditorial

historyin2001.Thisgazeoscillatedprecariouslyin-betweencriticalrecognitionof

representedsubjectsasself-fashioningindividuals,incorrespondencewith

307AnaLuciaGazzolaandWanderMeloMiranda,‘Introduction:SilvianoSantiago,aVoiceIn-Between’,inTheSpaceIn-Between:EssaysonLatinAmericanCulture,pp.1-8(p.3).

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contemporaryacademiccritique,andfashioningthemasanexoticspectacle;tocite

Maynard’sacerbicobservation,‘worthyof[aesthetic]appropriation,butbeyond

fashionablechange’.308IuseSantiago’smetaphorofthespacein-betweentoexamine

aparticularsnapshotofBrazil,oneofthreere-presentedinNationalGeographic

Fashion,andunpickhowthemagazine’sfashionablegazemayhavebeen

counteractedthroughthein-betweengazeofself-fashioningBraziliansubjects.

ThesecondsectionexaminestheimplicitlyfashionablegazethatNational

GeographicplacedonBrazilianwomeninthearticle,‘Machisma’inSeptember

2011.309Iusetheterm‘implicit’toacknowledgethat,althoughfashionwasnotthe

focusofthearticle,itplayedacrucialroleinfabricatinganarrativeofBrazilto

NationalGeographicviewers.Iuntanglethevisual,textualandtactilestrategies

employedbyNationalGeographictofashionanideaofBrazilinthemagazinebutalso,

takingintoaccounttheenlargeddigitalnetworksthatNationalGeographicexpanded

toincorporatesince1995,onthewebsite(accessibleat

www.nationalgeographic.com).310IuseSantiago’smetaphortoexaminetwoparticular

snapshotsfromthisarticle,andanalysetowhatextentBraziliansubjectscanbeseen

tohaverespondeddirectlytoNationalGeographic’sfashionablegazebypresenting

newsubjectivitiesthroughtheirownself-fashioning.Thischaptercriticallyaddresses

threedifferentmedia(photobook,magazineandwebsite)tobuilduponthe

phenomenologicalmodeofanalysisintroducedanddevelopedintheprevioustwo

chapters.Itconsidershowthesedifferentmediamayhavepromptedtheviewerto

interpretBraziliansubjectsinaparticularfashion.Idrawconclusionsinresponseto308Maynard,DressandGlobalisation,p.69.309CynthiaGorney,‘Machisma’,pp.96-121.310Gorney,‘Machisma’<http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/09/girl-power/gorney-text>[lastaccessedSeptember2014]Thissnapshotexaminesthepredominanttheme,asnotedinthesecondchapterofthisthesis,ofRiodeJaneiroandSaoPauloinNationalGeographic’srepresentationofBrazilsinceSeptember1988.

164

thefollowingquestions:howhasNationalGeographicfabricatedafashionablegaze

ontoBrazilsince2001?AndtowhatextentdoesSantiago’smetaphorenableustosee

howBraziliansubjectshaveself-fashioned,demonstratedbytheirabilitytosartorially

‘writeback’,throughgaze,poseordress,inresponsetotheirdominantrepresentation

byNationalGeographic?

NationalGeographicFashion:In-BetweenExoticSpectacleandCriticalRecognition

Theofficiallaunchofthelargecoffee-tablebook,NationalGeographicFashion

(Figs.4.0–4.6)on6September2001,washeldattheAmericandepartmentstoreSaks

FifthAvenue,NewYork.ItcoincidedwitheventscoordinatedbytheCouncilofFashion

DesignersofAmerica(CFDA)incelebrationofNewYorkFashionWeekSpring/Summer

2002.Thismarketingdecisionplacedtheluxuriouslarge-scale(31cmx28cmx2.5cm)

photobook,albeitreasonablypricedat$50formass-marketappeal,firmlywithina

highfashionasopposedtoanacademiccontext;arguably,thelatterwouldhavebeen

moreconspicuouslyachievedhadtheofficiallaunchbeenheldatAmericanbook

retailer,BarnesandNoble.311Thisfashionablegaze,whichleanedtowardstheexotic

spectacleofrepresentingNationalGeographicsubjectsforthebenefitofaWestern

high-fashionaudienceratherthanincitingcriticalrecognitionofthemasself-

fashioningindividuals,wasreinforcedbyfashioneditorLamontJones’multisensory

descriptionofthelauncheventforthePittsburghPost-Gazetteon8September2001:

Morethan700guests,wearingBurberrytops,ArmanisuitsandFerragamoscarves,revelledontheSecondFloorofSaksFifthAvenueinManhattan.They

311NationalGeographicFashionwassoldexclusivelyatSaksfor$50throughoutSeptember2001untilitreachedstoresthroughouttheUnitedStatesinOctober.Itcoincidedwiththeopeningoftheexhibit‘WhereFashionComesFrom’,whichdisplayedenlargedphotographsfromNationalGeographicFashioninatentatBryantPark,Manhattan,aspartofaseriesofeventsorganisedbytheCFDAtocoincidewithNewYorkFashionWeek.

165

drankcosmopolitansandnibbledChinesedumplings,filetmignonandmarinatedricerolledingrapeleavesasthesoul-stirringrhythmsofaseven-memberAfricandrumanddanceensemblereverberatedfromanewlyrenovatedareafrontedbytheDonnaKaransalon.TherewerenoremarksorspeechesfromSaksorNationalGeographicofficials,justmusic,foodanddrink.Someguestseventossedtheirdesignerhandbagstoonesideanddancedacrossthefloor.312

NationalGeographicFashiondidnotfeatureanyBurberry,Armani,Ferragamo

orDKNY,butinsteadre-framedandre-contextualisedonehundredandforty-five

NationalGeographicphotographs,ofdiverseandanonymoussubjects,fromvarious

geographicalspacesandplacesthroughoutthetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturies.

Thesubjectsselectedforinclusionwerecomparableonlybytheirstrikingand

symmetricalmodel-likefacesand,generallyspeaking,symmetricalfigures,whether

slender,ample,ormuscular,whichhadunequivocallybeenselectedbyaneyeattuned

toWesternfashionandbeautyconventions.IntheWest,balancedandsymmetrical

bodiesandfaceshavetendedtobeperceivedasmoreattractivethanasymmetrical

ones.313TheimplicationinNationalGeographicFashionmayhavebeenthatitwas

permissibletobedifferent,assumingthatwithinthatnotionofdifferencetherewasa

recognisablebalance,symmetryandcorrespondingWesternidealofbeauty.314This

fashionableWesterngazebelongedtoNationalGeographicphotoeditor,Annie

GriffithsBelt,whoexplainedthat,inchoosingtheimagesforinclusionshelooked‘for

commonalityanddiversity.Mostly,Ilookedforself-expression.’315Amixtureoffull

colour,monochromeandhand-paintedAutochromeprintsreproducedonhighquality312LamontJones,‘FashionableInfluence:NationalGeographicCelebratesBookThatDocumentsFashionHistory’,PittsburghPost-Gazette,8September2001,p.20.313ItisforthisreasonthatReiKawakubo’sboldexperimentswithasymmetricalfashiondesignsthroughoutthe1980sand1990sweresoshockingandthought-provokingtoaWesternfashionaudience,sincetheyre-definedandre-wrotethebasictenetsofWesternfashionandbeautyconventions.LarsSvendsen,Fashion:APhilosophy,trans.byJohnIrons(London:ReaktionBooksLtd,2006),p.89.314SanderL.GilmanmakesasimilarpointinhisdiscussionofEuropean,post-enlightenmentaestheticsinMakingtheBodyBeautiful:aculturalhistoryofaestheticsurgery(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1999),p.150.315AnnieGriffithsBelt,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(6-15September2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.

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satin-finishpaper,thephotographswerere-presentedashighlyaestheticisedfull-page

bleeds,double-pageenlargements,andsingle-pageimagesframedinwhite.

ThesubstantialweightofNationalGeographicFashionrequiredadeskortable

inorderforittobeviewedinitsentirety,whichclearlydistinguisheditfromtheslim,

glossymagazine,whichcouldbeheldinthehandsandeasilytransported,whether

rolledupinthepalmorslippedinsideabag.WhilstNationalGeographicmagazine

clearlycannotbedenotedasephemeral,sinceviewersfrequentlyheldontoand

collectedissues,NationalGeographicFashionhadadistinctlymoreseductiveand

tactilequality,whichtemptedtheviewertopickitup,toleafthroughit,and

potentially,totakeithomeanddisplayitprominentlyonacoffeetableorbookshelfas

thelatestexoticfashionaccessory.Thephotobookincludedintroductoryessaysby

culturalanthropologistJoanneEicher,apointtowhichthisanalysiswillreturn,and

fashionhistorianValerieMendes,inadditiontothreechaptersprovidedbyNational

GeographicwriterandeditorCathyNewman,whoconsultedarangeofdress-

historicalresourcesandconductedinterviewswithanumberoffashionspecialists.316

Nevertheless,thephotographs,whichBeltorganisedincollaborationwithdesigner

BenPhamoveraperiodofthreemonthstocreate‘pairingsandspreads’,remained

theprimaryfocusofthepublication,constructingasopposedtoillustratingthe

narrative;thiswasreinforcedbytheeditorialdecisiontoreferencetheimageswith

onlyashortcaptioninminuteprint,whichprovidedthebarecontextualessentials:

photographer,locationanddate.317Beyondsuperficialformalsimilarities,the

photographsborenorelationtooneanother,whichresonatedwithNewman’s

recollectionthatthelayoutofthebookwas‘anaestheticdecisionrelatedtopacing,

316RefertoAppendix7foralistofpeopleinterviewedandbooksconsultedbyCathyNewmaninpreparationforNationalGeographicFashion.317Belt,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.

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and[had]nothingtodowithscholarship’.318Anexampleisadouble-pageview(Fig.

4.2)whichjuxtaposedasmallSriLankangirlframedbypalmfrondsin1907witha

photographofayoungHawaiiansubjectwearingafeatheredheaddressasshe

competedintheMissUniversePageantin1998.Thephotographswereperiodically

interspersedwithunreferencedquotations,whichlackedhistoricisationand

contextualisation.Acaseinpointisadouble-pagespread(Fig.4.3)depictingaDutch

farmingfamilyontheislandofMarken,dressedinclogsandhandmadeclothing,and

photographedin1914.ItwasaccompaniedbyaquotefromItalianfashiondesigner

ElsaSchiaparelli,whichread:‘Indifficulttimesfashionisalwaysoutrageous.’Taken

fromacompletelydifferenttimeperiodandcontext,thequoteboreanambivalent,

vergingonmeaningless,connectiontotheimage,beyondruminatingononefacetof

theabstractandintangiblenatureof‘fashion’.319

WhilstNationalGeographicFashionwasclearlymarketedtoapredominantly

fashion-orientatedaudience,thatitwaspublishedwithinaperiodwhendressand

fashionacademicscholarshipwasbeginningtoemployincreasinglyinterdisciplinary

andtransculturalmethodologies,whichcriticallyrecogniseddifferentmodesof

dressingfashionablythroughouttheworld,cannotbeignored.320NationalGeographic

waswellawareofthisscholarship,sinceitboldlyincludedanintroductionbyEicher,

whosetthecriticaltoneforthephotobookandcastdoubtuponsimplisticdichotomies318CathyNewman,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,22June2013).RefertoAppendix5:Interviews319NationalGeographicFashion,pp.118-9.320Sincethe1990sthehistoriographyandmethodologicalfocusofdressandfashionstudieshavebeenbroadenedbynewtheoreticalapproachesinfluencedbyanthropology,culturalandmediastudies,designhistoryandmaterialculture.In1993JenniferCraikacknowledgedthenumerousnon-capitalistandindigenoussystemsoffashionthatco-existandcompetewithWesternhighfashion,whichencompassedeverydayaswellasmoreexclusiveandspecialisedpracticesofdressingfashionablyinCraik,TheFaceofFashion.In1995JoanneEicherundertookworkonvariousfacetsofdresswithinaglobalframeworkinDressandEthnicity:ChangeAcrossSpaceandTime(Oxford:Berg,1995).In1997theacademicjournalFashionTheory:TheJournalofDress,BodyandCultureprovidedaforumfortheacademicstudyoffashionastheintersectionofdress,bodyandculture,whichanalysedarangeofphenomenathatincludedfootbindingandfashionphotography.

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thatpresumedthedominanceofso-calledWestern‘fashion’aboveallegedlynon-

Western‘dress’.321SheurgedtheNationalGeographicFashionviewertoridherselfof

an‘ethnocentrismthatencouragesthebeliefthatwewholiveintechnologically

sophisticatedculturesaretheonlyonescapableof,orinterestedin,change’and

instructedhertoconsidertwothemesassheheldandthumbedthroughthe

photobook:‘First,thesubtletiesoffashionaschangeindress,and,second,howwe

interpretchangeindressasfashionable.’322Eicherlaterrecalled:‘Iwasallowedto

writewhateverIwanted.IwrotewhatIsawasmyphilosophyaboutfashionand

dress.’323Eicher’sphilosophywasmostevidentinherinsistencethatNational

GeographicFashionhadthepotentialtoredefineandbroadenourunderstandingof

fashion,asafluidandcontinualamendmentandre-thinkingofdressthat

characteriseseverydaylifeacrosstheglobe.

YetwhenquestionedwhythephotobookwastitledNationalGeographic

Fashion,asopposedtodress,forexample,ratherthaninvokethisphilosophy,

NewmanandEicheransweredrespectivelythatthedecisionwas‘drivenbymarketing

[…since]fashionisamoreinterestingwordthandressorclothing,bothofwhichseem

ratherdullbycomparison’and‘fashionmadethetitleappealing,moresothandress,

andpublishersdomakebookstosell’.324Thisdisjuncturebetweenacademiaand

commercewasimplicitlyreiteratedintheflyleaftothephotobook,whichcelebrated

fashioninverybroadterms:

Fashionisdramatic,demure,colourful,quiet…it’stimeless,it’stransient,shockingorsoothing,surprising,exciting.It’saninstinctasoldasAdamand

321NationalGeographicFashion,p.26.322Ibid.323JoanneEicher,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(29August–3September2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.324Newman,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor;Eicher,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.

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Eve,andallovertheworldit’swhereveryoulook.Fashionisculture.Fashionisart.Fashionisus.325

Ontheonehand,thisexpansivedefinitionencompassedfashionablemodesofdressin

theirvariousmanifestationsacrossworld-timeandworld-space,butontheother,it

reducedfashiontoameaningless,undifferentiatedanduniversallayerthroughwhich

togazeupontheworldatlarge,andre-frameNationalGeographic’seditorialhistory

forcommercialgain.326Thephotographsthatwerere-presented,whichfocused

narrowlyon‘ethnic’dress,asopposedtohighfashionorstreetstyle,encapsulateda

palpabletension,betweenacriticalrecognitionofdiversedresspracticesacrossthe

globeas‘fashion’,inlinewithcontemporaryacademicdebate,andalossofanalytical

awarenessduetotheemphasisontheexotic,multisensoryspectacleofdress,which

drewmorenoticeablyonpopularethnography,aconstantsourceofinspirationtothe

Westernfashionworld.327

Viewedinitsentirety,NationalGeographicFashionwasacomplicated

demonstrationofafashionablegaze,whichfusedadiversecatalogueofexpressions,

gestures,poses,clothingandaccessoriesintoasynaestheticspectacleofsights,

sounds,smells,tastesandtactilesensations.Thephotographsencouragedtheviewer

tolookatdress,butalsosubconsciouslytomakecross-linkagesbetweenthesenses,

andtoimaginehowclothingmightfeel,smell,orsoundasitmoved,andtore-

constructathree-dimensionalandmultisensoryimageoffashionablydressedNational325NationalGeographicFashion,flyleaf.326Inthelate1990sNationalGeographicexpandedtobecomepartofaprofit-seekingcorporationcalledNationalGeographicVentures,whichincludedtelevision,website,bookssuchasNationalGeographicFashionandcollectedissuesofthemagazinereproducedonaCD-ROM.Thesewereseparatefromthenon-profitorganisationthatincludedthemagazine.ConstanceL.Hays,‘SeeingGreeninaYellowBorder’,TheNewYorkTimes,3August1997,pp.12-13.327Toclarifymyuseoftheterm,Maynarddefinesethnicdressas:‘attirecharacteristicofaspecificlanguage,religiousandethnographicsocialgroupandmaybewornbydiasporicpeopleswhoretainallegiancetotheircultureheritage.Theterm“ethnic”ispreferredtotraditional,whichimpliesaformofunchangingattire.’Maynard,DressandGlobalisation,p.12.

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Geographicsubjects.However,whilstthetactilenatureofthetwosnapshots

discussedinthepreviouschapterencouragedamoreintimateengagementwith

Braziliansubjects,whichdepartedfromcold,distancedandrationalscientificviewing,

inNationalGeographicFashiontherewasanoverridingsensationthatthemagazine

hadshiftedonesteptoofar,andproducedadizzyinghyper-synaestheticoverload,

whichthreatenedtoovershadowtheviewer’scriticalfaculties.DavidHoweshasused

theterm‘hyperesthesia’todescribethecommodificationofmulti-sensoryvaluesin

latecapitalistculture,whichfocuseson‘seducingthesensesoftheconsumerinthe

interestsofvalorizingcapital’.328Asimilarformof‘multisensorymarketing’canbe

seeninNationalGeographicFashion,whichattemptedtoseducethe

viewer/consumerbyengagingasmanyofhersensesaspossible.329Indoingso,as

Howeshasarticulated,NationalGeographicmayhavesought‘tocreateastateof

hyperesthesiaintheshopper’,whobecamedistractedbythepleasurable,tactile

qualitiesofthephotographicrepresentationofdress,andlessconcernedbyitsdeeper

significanceforindividualwearers.330

Onemightarguethattherewasanintrinsiccritiqueembeddedwithinthis

haphazardandeclecticarrangementofcolourful,tactileimagery,whichjostledand

competedfortheviewer’sattention.Asimilarlineofreasoningwasemployedinthe

introductiontothisthesis,whichacknowledgedthatthediversearrangementof

NationalGeographic,exemplifiedbythe125thcentennialedition,couldbe

328DavidHowes,‘HYPERESTHESIA,or,TheSensualLogicofLateCapitalism’,inEmpireoftheSenses:thesensualculturereader,ed.byHowes,(NewYork:Berg,2005),pp.281-303(pp.287-8).HowesdrewonVirginiaPostrel’sunderstanding,inTheSubstanceofStyle:howtheriseofaestheticvalueisremakingcommerce,cultureandconsciousness(NewYork:HarperCollins,2003),ofhowthetactilequalitiesoffashionitemsaffectaconsumer’sfeelingandevaluationofthem.Postrelwrote:‘PeoplepetArmaniclothesbecausethefabricsfeelsogood.Theseclothesattractusasvisual,tactilecreature,notbecausetheyare“richinmeaning”butbecausetheyarerichinpleasure.’PostrelquotedinHowes,‘HYPERESTHESIA,p.287.329Ibid.,p.286.330Ibid.

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conceptualisedasacontactzone.InNationalGeographicFashion,however,therewas

moreevidentlyastandardisation,flatteningandlevellingofindividuals,whichwas

promptedbytheexoticspectacleofdiverselydressednon-Westernsubjects,allof

whomwereaestheticisedinaccordancewithWesternbeautyconventions,but

nonethelessrenderedunequivocallypeculiarthroughthegazeoffashion.Ultimately,

themismatchprocessbywhichdifferentphotographswerearrangedandre-presented

inNationalGeographicFashionwasmorelikelytotantaliseandexcitethecuriosity,

thanengagethecriticalfaculties,ofthegeographicallyremovedviewer.The

photobookthereforeresonatedmorecloselywithSantiago’sdismissaloftheexotic

representationoftheOtheras‘animageofasmilingcarnivalandfiesta-filledholiday

havenforculturaltourism’thanwiththecautionarytonesetbyEicherinher

introduction,whichurgedviewersnottoacceptstraightforwardlytherepresentation

ofnon-Westerndressandfashionasaneverydaycontemporaryreality,since‘itmay

notevenbeanexampleofwhatmostpeopleworeatthetime’and‘photographers

mayhaveaspecificpurposefordocumentingacertaintypeofdress’.331

Santiago’scritiquewasabundantlyclearinthecommentaryprovidedbyone

viewer,whodescribedthecomfortshefoundinNationalGeographicFashionwhen

shereceiveditbyFederalExpress,‘approximatelyfiveminutesbeforetoweroneof

theWorldTradeCenterwashit’.332Assheexplained,‘inthepostWTCAmerican

experience’,thephotobookprovided‘apowerfulvisualandcontextualtoolfor

understandingthevalueofclothesandadornment.Filledwithtimelessimagesof

peoplefromacrosstheglobe,it[offered]acompellingremindertothosebothinand

outsidetherealmoffashiontoconsidertherestoftheworld’sjoysandsorrowsaswe

331Santiago,TheSpaceIn-Between,p.38;Ibid.,p.20.332TobinLevy,‘TobinLevy’sFashionBookReviews:NationalGeographicFashion’,<http://www.lookonline.com/newbookreview-4.html>[21May2013](para.1of5)

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reflectuponourown.’333ViewerslocatedwithintheWest,anddirectlyafflictedbythe

fragmentationandanxietycausedby9/11,wereinvitedtoseekcomfortinthestability

providedbynon-Westernsubjects,whowereplacedwithinatimelessethnographic

present.ThisviewpointencapsulatedthecontradictionsofNationalGeographic

Fashion,whichequateditselfwithcontemporaryscholarshipthatsoughttodefine

fashionwithinanexpansiveandcross-culturalframework,butalsohadanundeniable

commercialremit,whichsuggestedthatacademicdebatehadnotquitefiltered

throughintopopularparlance,stillcaptivatedasitwasbytheexoticflairofa

presumedOther.Thephotobookself-consciouslyfashioneditselfasanopen

sourcebookofpopularethnographythatre-presentedandre-framednon-Western

subjectsthroughafashionablegazethatenabledtheWesternviewertodistinguish

herselfandtheUnitedStatesfromapresumedstableopposite.Ratherthanengage

withactualfashionsystems,pastorpresent,Westernornon-Western,norwithhigh-

endoreverydayfashion,NationalGeographicFashionfocusedonstereotypesofthe

exoticthatreiterateddistinctionsbetweentheSelfandtheOther.Itfailedtoreporton

themultidimensionalnatureoffashion,asithasnegotiatedandnavigatedvarious

differentsubjectpositions,whetherofrace,gender,sexuality,ethnicity,class,age,or

nationalidentity,withinthecontextofcontemporaryglobalisation.

ThisnarrowviewpointwasnotconfinedtoNationalGeographic,but

widespreadacrosstheU.S.media,exemplifiedbyanarticlepublishedinWomen’s

WearDailyon24July2001,entitled‘Fashion’sSecondCircuit:Plaguedbyfashion

ennuiandtryingtofindsomethinguniquetocaptureconsumer’sattention,buyersare

combingallcornersoftheearthfornew,interestingresources.Herearereportsfrom

333Levy,‘TobinLevy’sFashionBookReviews’(para.2of5)

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recentfashionweeksinBrazilandAustralia.’(Fig.4.7)334Thetitleacknowledgedthat

BrazilandAustraliaconstitutedasecondfashioncircuit,andbyimplication,secondary

toParis,NewYork,LondonandMilan.Italsounashamedlypointedouttheintentto

plunderexoticlooksfromthesecountriesinordertore-invigorateWesternfashion.

Theoverridingimpressionprovidedwasthat,ratherthannumerousdifferentfashion

systemsinexistencethroughouttheworld,therewasstillonlyone,Western-

dominatedfashionsystem,whichwasdistinguishedfromthenon-West,andcontained

thepowertoincorporatearangeofnewanddifferentethnicitiesandexoticdelights

intoitsownframeofreference,asandwhenitpleased.Thisasymmetricalbalanceof

powerrifeinWWDresonatedwithJones’uncriticalrecognition,intheclosingremarks

tohisarticleinthePittsburghPost-Gazette,thatNationalGeographicFashion

provided‘agreatholidaybookforthatfashionistaonyourlist’.335

Nevertheless,theconceptofthespacein-betweencanbeusedtoanalyse,and

potentiallydeconstruct,individualimagesofBrazilthatwerere-framedandre-

contextualisedinNationalGeographicFashion.RatherthanreduceBraziltoan

ineffablenostalgicandhistoricalpast,Santiagoopensupasiteofpotentialtore-

interpretNationalGeographic’sfashionablegazeontoBrazil,byunderstandingcontact

fromtheperspectiveofself-fashioningBraziliansubjects.Brazilappearedthreetimes

inNationalGeographicFashion:ontheleft-handsideofadouble-pageview(Fig.4.4),

andonbothsidesofadouble-pageview(Fig.4.5).Ineachinstance,National

Geographicfocusedonindigenouspeoples,drawingaparallelwiththethirdsnapshot

examinedinthefirstchapterofthisthesis.However,asopposedtofocusingon

334MichaelKemp,‘Global:Fashion’sSecondCircuit,Brazil’sBigDraw’,Women’sWearDaily,24July2001,pp.16-17.335MichaelMarkoquotedinLaMontJones,‘FashionableInfluence:NationalGeographiccelebratesbookthatdocumentsfashionhistory’,PittsburghPost-Gazette,8September2001,p.20.

174

Brazilianwomen,whoprovidedaninterestingexampleoftheappropriationandre-

presentationofWesterndresspracticesinthemagazinepriorto1988,National

GeographicFashionintheseinstancessolelydocumentedmen.

Thefirstimage(Fig.4.8)wastakenbyAmericanphotojournalistLoren

McIntyrein1972,andcapturedaWaurawrestler(indigenoustotheXinguNational

ParkintheWesternstateofMatoGrosso)coveredinlargeredandblackdesigns

paintedonhischestandlegs.336Itwasoriginallypublishedontheleft-handsideofa

double-pageview,oppositeablankwalloftext,intheOctober1972issueofthe

magazine(Fig.4.9),withinanarticleentitled‘Amazon–TheRiverSea’.337Re-

presentedinthephotobook,ontheright-handsideofadouble-pageview,itwas

cropped,enlargedandstretchedtofitthe30cm-squaredpagesofNationalGeographic

Fashion.Theimagewaslightened,whichrenderedthesubject’sskinpaler,sothatthe

lightbouncedoffhismuscularphysique,butitalsosoftenedandsubduedhisredand

blackbodypaint.Thisaestheticisationmadethesubjectappearlessfierce,and

possiblymorepalatabletoWesterntastes.Yetratherthangazingintoablankwallof

text,whichconstrainedandconfinedhimtothemagazinepage,hispensivegazenow

extendsbeyondthephotobook,situatingthesubjectastheperformerofhisown

actions.Hisself-possessedgazeismatchedbythatoftheBraziliansubjectinthe

secondphotograph,whichwascapturedbyRobertW.Maddenin1976andpublished

ontheleft-handsideofadouble-pageviewinNationalGeographicFashion(Fig.

4.10).338TheYanomamosubject(indigenoustotheAmazonrainforestontheborder

betweenVenezuelaandBrazil)gazesdirectlyattheviewerwithwide-openeyes,

requestingaclose-upresponsefromher.Thereisanintimateandquiettheatricalityto

336NationalGeographicFashion,p.178.337LorenMcIntyre,‘Amazon–TheRiverSea’,NationalGeographic,October1972,pp.456-99.338Ibid.

175

thisphotograph,anintensityofmomentbetweentheviewerandsubjectrendered

throughtheimmediacyandsimultaneousstillnessoftherepresentation.339Although

thisparticularphotographwaspreviouslyunpublished,acomparablephotographof

thesamesubjectappearedintheAugust1976editionofthemagazine,inanarticle

entitled‘Yanomamo:TheTruePeople’(Fig.4.11).340Bothofthesubjectshavea

presenceandassertiveness,reinforcedbytheirsingularandcentralpositioningwithin

theframe,whichdemonstratestheirabilitytoassertindividualsubjectivitiesfrom

withintheconfinesofNationalGeographic’sfashionablegaze.

Snapshot6:TheYanomamiBoy’sGazeattheNationalGeographicPhotographer’sClothing

ThefinalimageofBrazilre-presentedinNationalGeographicFashion,andthe

snapshotthischapterfocuseson,mobilisedamoredynamicformofresistanceto

NationalGeographic’sfashionablegaze.Publishedonasingle-pagespread(Fig.4.12),

itre-presentedandre-framedaphotographofaYanomamomanposedwithhisyoung

son,originallydocumentedbyMichaelNicholsin1990,andpreviouslyarchivedina

gridformationontheonlinephotographicarchive,NationalGeographicCreative(Fig.

4.13).341Re-contextualisedwithinNationalGeographicFashion,thephotographwas

stretchedandcroppedalongthebottomedge;thismayhavebeenanintentional

censoringoftheyoungboy’sexposedprivateparts,butitalsoincreasedthefocus

ontothetwosubjects,andframedtheminthemoreintimateprotocolsofportraiture,

asopposedtoethnography.Theportraitwasintensifiedincolour,sothatamore

339NationalGeographicFashion,p.12.340NapoleonA.Chagnon,‘Yanomamo:TheTruePeople’,NationalGeographic,August1976,pp.211-23(p.211).341NationalGeographicFashion,p.13;‘ApaintedYanomamoposeswithhisson’,inNationalGeographicCreative,<http://www.natgeocreative.com/ngs/photography/search/comp-view/index.jsf>[accessed13June2015]

176

dynamicdialecticwasmobilisedbetweenthetwofigures,whoaredressedinredbody

paintandredloincloth,andthefertile,leafygreensurroundingsthatframethem.This

editorialdecisiondrewattentiontotheredofthedressandtheirpainted,tannedskin,

whichstandsoutclearlyintheforeground,contrastingwiththerecessivegreenofthe

background.

Bothsubjectsarecapturedstraightforwardlyintheframe;themanstares

confidentlyanddirectlyintothecameralens,whilsttheyoungboyaddressesthe

photographerwithanarrestingandinquisitivegaze.Theman’sconfidentand

composedgazedenotescomplicitybetweenthesubjectandthephotographer,

subvertingtheone-directionalpowerrelationsfrequentlyattributedtothe

relationshipbetweenobserversandobserved.ItisusefulheretodrawonMerleau-

Ponty’sobservationthat,inviewingafacethatgazesdirectlyattheviewer,wearenot

simplyawarethatitisaface,butwetakeintoaccountthepositionoftheface;not

onlydowefacethatface,butthisrelationshipisreciprocal,sincewearealsofaced.342

Themanhasadignityandstandsasanactiveagentofhisownappearance,rather

thanasaforlornandpassiveobjectofadistancedvoyeuristicgaze.Hisrightarm

envelopshisyoungson,whosepresenceisalsoundeniablyfeltwithintheimageasa

knowingagent.Theyoungboyisasiteofpotentiality,anin-betweenfigure,who

obscuresthedivisionsbetweenselfandother,presentandpast,youngandold,

observerandobserved.Heappearstobeascaptivatedbythecurioussightofthe

clothedphotographer,andperhapshisdifferentmodeofdress,asthephotographeris

byhim.Thisself-reflexivedynamiccanbeextendedtotheviewer,whoisequally

awareoftheyoungboy’sgaze,whichstaresoutbeyondtheconfinesofthephotobook

342Merleau-Ponty,PhenomenologyofPerception,p.294.

177

ontotheirowndressedbodyandevokesaself-consciousnessintheviewer’sgazeonto

theyoungboyandhisfatherassubjects-to-be-looked-at.

Thisparticularsnapshotisanindeterminateandambivalentimage,which

mobilisesacomplexinterplaybetweenthedominantgazethathasbeenplacedupon

theYanomamomanandhisson,centreduponthephysicalappearanceoftheir

dressedbodies,andadefianceofthatexotictouristgaze,whichiscounteractedbythe

inquisitivenessoftheyoungboy’sgaze.Althoughhisclothingbearsnoobvioustraceof

cross-culturalcontactandexchange,hisself-possessedgazesuggestsaninstanceof

reflexivity,whichcharacterisesSantiago’snotionofwritingback,wherebytheactions

ofthedominantculture,herelookingandobserving,aremimicked.HomiBhabhahas

observedthatmimicryis‘thesignofadoublearticulation;acomplexstrategyof

reform,regulationanddiscipline,whichappropriatestheOtherasitvisualizes

power’.343Thelittleboy’sgazehintsatanalternativeandcriticalre-readingofthis

image,whichopensupasiteofpotentialforNationalGeographicFashiontobe

understoodinitsentiretynotmerelyasafashionablegazethatblurredpeoplesand

placesfromacrossworld-timeandworld-spacebutasaproductivespacefornew

subjectivepossibilitiesandrealitiestobecreatedandcontested.Itisapotent

reminderthatjustastheYanomamomanandhissonprovideanexoticspectacleto

theNationalGeographicphotographer,thisdynamicworksinplayfulirony,sincethe

photographerisanequallyexoticspecimentotheYanomamisubjects.

However,thiscriticalrecognitionwasentirelydependentupontheNational

GeographicFashionviewer,toslowdownandcontemplatetheimagesre-framed

withinthelavishphotobook.Thismayhavebeenencouragedbythelargesizeofthe

343HomiBhabha,‘OfMimicryandMan:TheAmbivalenceofColonialDiscourse’inTheLocationofCulture(London:Routledge,1990),pp.85-92(p.85).

178

photobook,whichrequiredadesktobeviewed,asopposedtothemagazine,which

wasanintimateobjectthatcouldbecarriedaround.Consideredinthecontextofthe

fragmentationandchaosgeneratedby9/11,itisperhapslesslikelythatfeelingsof

identificationandintimacyweremobilisedbetweenviewerandsubject,andmore

likelythatNationalGeographicFashionfuelledadesireforculturalsuperiorityonthe

partoftheU.S.viewer,toreinforceNorthAmericandominancebyassertingtheexotic

differenceoftherestoftheworld.344ItwasnotuntiltenyearslaterthatNational

GeographicdocumentedBrazilagainthroughafashionablegaze,onlyonthisoccasion,

ratherthanfocusingonethnicdresswornbyindigenousBrazilianmen,itconcentrated

onWestern-stylehighfashionadoptedbyBrazilianwomenlivinginRiodeJaneiro.

AFashionableGazeonBrazilianWomenin2011

NationalGeographicFashionconstitutedanexceptioninhistoriographyofthe

magazine’sdocumentationoftheworldin2001,oscillatingprecariouslybetween

exoticspectacle,particularlywhentheluxuriouslarge-scalephotobookwasviewedas

344ThiswouldprovideanexplanationastowhyNationalGeographicchosetoleaveoutparticularimagesfromthephotobook,suchasonetakenbyRobertW.MooreandpublishedinthemagazineinMay1939,whichdocumentedagroupofmenandwomenofEuropeandescentdressedinelegantEuropean-stylefashionsastheyqueueforataxioutsidetheluxuryEnglishdepartmentstore,Mappin’,inSaoPaulo.Mappin’openedinSaoPauloin1913andenabledtheaspiringmiddleclassesofanewlyindustrialisedandcapitalistSaoPaulotoconsumeluxurygoodssuchasclothing,accessories,furniture,fabricsandhouseholdapplianceswhichdenoted‘Englishness’.ItdisseminatedfashionableforecaststotheBrazilianeliteand,itspopularityinthe1940s,reflectedaboominSaoPaulo’scommercialandindustrialinfrastructure.ThischoiceofomissiondemonstratedthatNationalGeographicFashionhadanagenda(justasNationalGeographichadanagendaduringWorldWarTwo,whenitchosetodocumentwhiteEuropean-descended,ratherthanindigenous,Brazilians)sincethefashionablegazeitplacedontheworldwasherepalpablyinformedbyanethnographicdesiretocodifydifference,ratherthantopresentviewerswithamoreeasilyrecognisableimageoffashionasaglobaleconomicforcethatpermeatessocialandculturallife.Moore,‘AsSaoPauloGrows’,p.659.FormoreinformationonMappin’seeRitaAndrade,‘MappinStores:AddinganEnglishTouchtotheSãoPauloFashionScene’,inTheLatinAmericanFashionReader,ed.byReginaRoot(NewYork:Berg,2005),pp.176-187.

179

awhole,andcriticalrecognition,potentiallyencouragedwhenindividualimagesof

Brazilwereviewedincontemplativeisolation.Ultimately,itprobablyservedto

establish,ratherthantoerode,alterity.Thisdialecticcanbeexaminedinmoredetail

inanarticlepublishedinNationalGeographicinSeptember2011,entitled‘Machisma:

HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDown

Brazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,whichmarkedanotherexception

inhistoriographyofNationalGeographic’sdocumentationofBrazil.

Unlikethesnapshotsdiscussedinthepreviouschapter,whereimagerytook

precedenceovertext,andencouragedidentificationwithBraziliansubjects,thisarticle

gaveequalprecedencetotextandimage,justasdidthepre-1988snapshotsexamined

inthefirstchapter.Thetitleofthearticlemadeuseoftheneologism‘Machisma’,

whichNationalGeographicresearcherHeidiSchultzexplainedwasafabricationbythe

author,AmericanjournalistCynthiaGorney:

ItisaplayonthewordMachismousedinBrazilandmanyotherLatinAmericancountries.Machismohasbeenlinkedtoviolenceandphysicalassaultsonwomen.Thiswasaninversionofthatdefinition.Wewereshowingempoweredwomenwhowerefightingback,bytakingtheirfertilityintotheirownhands.345

Gorneyexplainedthatthearticlewaswrittenas‘partofayear-longseriescalled7

Billion’,whichaddressedthe‘world’spopulationreachingthatnumber’.346Asaresult

ofits‘vastlandmass,withenormousregionaldifferencesingeography,raceand

culture’,Brazilwasselectedasanexemplarycasestudy‘toillustratethedropin

fertilitythathadbeennotedinmanydevelopingcountries’,includingRussia,India,

345HeidiSchultz,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,22June2013).RefertoAppendix5:Interviews.346CynthiaGorney,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(18-19July2013).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.

180

ChinaandSouthAfrica.347Withinthearticle,shecomparedBrazil’sfallinfertilitywith

thatoftheUnitedStates:

[The]newBrazilianfertilityrateisbelowthelevelatwhichapopulationreplacesitself.Itislowerthanthetwo-children-per-womanfertilityrateintheUnitedStates.ItisthelargestnationinLatinAmerica–a191-million-personcountrywheretheRomanCatholicChurchdominates,abortionisillegal(exceptinrarecases),andnoofficialgovernmentpolicyhaseverpromotedbirthcontrol–familysizehasdroppedsosharplyandsoinsistentlyoverthepastfivedecadesthatthefertilityrategraphlookslikeaplaygroundslide.348

Gorneyacknowledgedthatthistrenddidnotapplyonlyto‘wealthyandprofessional

women’buttoalllevelsofsociety,including‘schoolteachers,trashsorters,architects,

newspaperreporters,shopclerks,cleaningladies,professionalathletes,highschool

girls,andwomenwhohadspenttheiradolescencehomeless’.349Thearticleputthis

trenddowntorapidindustrialisationfollowingtheendofthemilitaryregimein1984,

whichrequiredwomentoworklongerhoursratherthanstayathomewithchildren;

theabilitytoobtainmeansofbirthcontroloverthepharmacycounterwithout

prescription;theintroductionofanationalpension,reducingdependencyinoldage

onalargerfamily;theriseincaesareansectionsasaresultoffinancialincentivesfor

doctors;theincreaseinwomen’sequalityrightsthatstemmedfromtheBrazilian

Women’sMovementofthe1970sand1980s;and,finally,thewidespreadinfluenceof

Braziliantelenovelas,Portuguese-languageeveningsoapoperas,andtheir

propagandisticdisseminationof‘asingular,vivid,aspirationalimageofthemodern

Brazilianfamily:affluent,lightskinned,andsmall’.350Gorney’sfinalcommentwasnot

flippant,butreferredtothecontemporaryrealitythat,whilstBrazilisculturallyand

347Gorney,‘Machisma’,p.102.348Ibid.,p.101.349Ibid.350Ibid.,p.108.

181

raciallydiverse,thishasnot,untilveryrecently,beenreflectedinnationalmedia,

whereAfro-Brazilianshavefrequentlybeenrelegatedtoinvisibleorsecondaryroles.351

Gorneydescribedtheconsequencesofthisdropinfertility:‘multi-class

consumerism’andanexplosioninconsumercredit,‘reachingmiddle-andworking-

classfamiliesthattwodecadesagohadnoaccesstothesekindsofdiscretionary

purchasespaidoffovertime’.352Whilstsheacknowledgedthatitwas‘agross

simplification’todeducethatBrazilianwomenarechoosingtohavefewerchildrenin

ordertospendmoremoney,sheexplainedthat‘questionsaboutmaterialacquisition

–howmucheverythingnowcosts,andhowmucheveryonenowdesires–both

interestedandtroublednearlyeveryBrazilianwomanImet’.353Gorneycautionedthat

economicgrowthandadropinfertilitydidnotstraightforwardlyensurenationwide

familywellbeingunlessaffluencewascarefullymanagedandinvested,theimplication

being,perhaps,thatBrazilianwomenmighthaveatendencytoberatherfrivolous

withtheirnewfoundwealth.So-calledfrivolitywasnotcharacteristic,however,ofall

ofthewomenthatGorneymet.Herarticleconcludedwithadescriptionofhaving

coffeewithagroupofprofessionalwomeninSaoPaulo,wheretheystudied‘eight

differentglossyparentingmagazines’:

Westudiedthefashionphotographsofbeautifultoddlersinknitsandaviatorsunglassesandfakefurs.‘Lookatthesekids,’saidMileneChaves,a33-year-oldjournalist,hervoicehoveringbetweenadmirationanddespair.Sheturnedthepage.‘Anditseemsyouhavetohaveadecoratedroomtoo.Idon’tneedadecoratedroomlikethis.’[…]Thehalfdozenfriendsaroundheragreed,themagazinesstillopenonthetablebeforeus:attractiveobjects,theysaid,butsoexcessive,sodisturbinglytoomuch.354

351SamanthaNogueiraJoyce,BrazilianTelenovelasandtheMythofRacialDemocracy(Lanham:LexingtonBooks,2012).352Gorney,‘Machisma’,p.116.353Ibid.,p.118.354Ibid.,p.119.

182

WhilsttheBrazilianwomenquotedappearedcriticaloftheirpeers’materialisticdesire

for(inthisparticularinstance,children’s)fashionitems,suchas‘knits,aviator

sunglasses,andfakefurs’,whichwereoftenpaidforoncredit,thebackcoverofthe

sameeditionofNationalGeographicfeaturedLeonardoDiCaprio(Fig.4.14),dressedin

anopen-collareddarkgreyshirtandblackjacket,inthelatestTagHeuerwatch

advertisement;thisluxuryfashionitemtemptedtheNationalGeographicviewer,if

nottopurchaseoutright,thensurelytobuyoncredit.355DiCapriomodelledaman’s

watchfromthemid-rangeCarreraseries;theimplicationdeducedbytheNational

GeographicviewerwouldsurelyhavebeenthatitwaspermissibleforU.S.mento

participateinfashionasactiveconsumers,butnotforBrazilianwomen,evenifitwas

inaidoftheirchildrenratherthanalavishpurchaseforthemselves,reinforcinga

powerimbalancebetweenthetwogroups.

Itisimportanttopointoutthatwhilstthearticledidnotfocusonfashion,it

playedakeyroleinconstructingthenewidentityofthe‘empowered’Brazilianwomen

representedbyNationalGeographic.Gorney’sopinionoffashioninBrazil,whichshe

cleverlyworkedintoherreportsothatitappearedactuallytobetheopinionofthe

Brazilianwomenshehadinterviewed,wasretrogressive,andconnectedtotheviewof

fashionpropoundedbytheWomen’sLiberationMovement(WLM)intheUnited

Statesduringthelate1960sand1970s.TheWLMunderstoodfashiontobetrivial,

sincethemovementdeemeditmoreliberatingforwomentobreakoutof

preconceivedideasofcontrolledfemininitywhichconstructedfalseidealsof

women.356YetbyputtingforwardthispointofviewviatheBraziliansubjectsthatshe

interviewed,GorneyconveyedtheoverridingimpressionthatitwasglossyBrazilian

355NationalGeographic,September2011,backcover.356CarolineEvansandMinnaThornton,WomenandFashion:ANewLook(London:Quartet,1989),p.3.

183

magazines,ratherthan,infact,NationalGeographic,whichperpetuatedanout-of-

dateandartificialideologyofBrazilianfemininitythroughitsrepresentationof

contemporaryBrazilianfashion,withitsattemptstotellBrazilianwomenhowthey

should,orrathercould,livetheirlives.RatherthandepictingBrazilianfashionasa

highlyprofitableindustry,whichwouldhavedirectlylinkedittoBrazil’svibrant

economy(towhichby2011itwascontributing3.5percent),asreferredtointhetitle

ofthearticle,NationalGeographicpresentedfashionasamechanismusedina

purportedlysexistmale-dominatedBraziliansocietytocontrolwomenandkeepthem

intheirplace.357Theimplicationwasthat,althoughBrazilmayhavehadalower

fertilityratein2011thantheUnitedStates,itwasfarbehindintermsofattitudesto

genderequality,despiteNationalGeographic’sapparentlycommendableattemptsto

unearthevidenceofitsowninvention,‘Machisma’.

Despitethis,thephotographsofBrazilianfashionthataccompaniedthearticle,

whichwerefarmorecomplexandintermedialimages,communicatedaslightly

differentnarrativetotheviewer.Itisimportanttopointoutthatthetwentyfull-

colourphotographsselectedbyStanmeyertoaccompanythearticleasawholewere

predominantlyacombinationofportraitphotographyanddocumentaryimages.An

exampleoftheformercanbeseeninFig.4.15,adouble-pageviewthatcontrasted

twofamilyportraits:ontheleft,thedarker-skinned,seven-childfamilyofMariado

LivramentoBraz,whoisseatedinthemiddle,andusedasanexemplarycasetoreflect

‘Brazil’soncehighfertilityrate’,andontheright,thelighter-skinnedtwo-childfamily

ofMariaCorrêadeOliviera,alsoseated,whoisareflectionofhow‘thenumberofkids

357Anon.,‘InBrazil,BoomingEconomyBoostsApparelBusiness’,inApparel<http://apparel.edgl.com/news/in-brazil,-booming-economy-boosts-apparel-business75616>[accessed13June2015]

184

perwomanhasplummetedsincethe1960s’.358Anexampleofthedocumentaryimage

isexemplifiedbyFig.4.16,adouble-pagespreadthatcapturedLilianeMineiradaSilva

withherchildren,BeatrizandVitoria,assheproducescrochetfortheCoopa-Rocaarts

cooperative,situatedinRio’slargestfavela,Rocinha.359Yetinterveningwithinthis

overridingvisualnarrativeweretwoambiguousimages,whichhadthepotentialto

dissolvebinarydivisionsandsculptoutaspacein-betweentheconventionsof

documentationanddramatisation.

Snapshot7a:BiancaMarque’sBikinisintheMagazine

Thesecondsnapshotthischapterexamineswaspublishedonadouble-page

spreadattheveryendofthearticleasprintedinthemagazine(Figs.4.17and4.18).It

capturedfashionablydressedwomentalking,eatingandlaughingwithintheplush

interiorofBrazilianfashiondesignerBiancaMarques’boutique.Thecaptioninformed

theviewerthatthiswas‘anupscaleIpanemaboutique’,intheaffluentSouthZoneof

RiodeJaneiro.360Theheightenedsurfaceappearanceoftheimageimmediately

associateditwithfashion:theglintofglasschandeliers,theshineofthesilvermaterial

ofthebikinidisplayed,thelustrousdarkhairofthecentralfemalesubject,the

polishedglasswindows,thesmoothmirrortotherightoftheimageand,lastbutnot

least,thesilkysheenofthemagazinepage.Thisendorsedthedisdainfulimplication

propoundedwithinGorney’stext,thatfashionmagazinesaresuperficial,‘soexcessive,

358Gorney,‘Machisma’,pp.98-99.359Coopa-RocastandsforRochinaSeamstressandCraftworkCooperativeLtd,andwassetupintheearly1980sto‘[train],manageandcoordinatetheworkoffemaleresidentsofRochina,whoproduceartisanalpiecesforfashionanddesignmarkets’.‘AboutUs’,<http://www.coopa-roca.org.br/quem_somosI.asp>[accessed13June2015]360Gorney,‘Machisma’,p.119.

185

sodisturbinglytoomuch’.361Ithadtheappearanceofsocialreportage;itcouldhave

beenasocietypagesinceitdocumented,ratherthanfashionexplicitly,morean

anthropologyofsociallife,andtheanticsofwealthywomeninBrazil,whichcouldbe

interpretedasrathervulgar,andonfirstglancemightbereadasproviding

entertainmentfortheNationalGeographicviewer.Indeed,toconsiderthe

photographasawhole,thefemalesubjectsarepresentedaspassive,unawareofthe

active,observinggazeofStanmeyerandhiscameraastheychat,eatandlaugh

amongstthemselves.

Nevertheless,withintheimagewecandiscernaspectsofSantiago’sspacein-

between.Thegazeofthewomantotheleftofcentreintheimage,whoisalso

reflectedinthemirrorontheright-handsideofthepage,doesnotsuggestpassivity,

butaspecificallyfemininegazethatmatchesStanmeyer’smasculinegazeontothe

women.Itisagazecomparabletothatofthesmallboyexaminedintheprevious

snapshot,but,ratherthancurious,itisconfidentandself-assured.TheBrazilian

subjectisnolongertheobjectofagaze,buttheinstigatorofagaze;sheinhabitsa

spacein-betweenthephotographerandhisfemalesubjects,whereshematches

NationalGeographic’sdominantvisualgazeandplacesitbackontothephotographer

and,throughthemagazine’sdissemination,alsoontotheNationalGeographicviewer.

Thatthereisacameraplacedonthesofanexttoher,directlypointingattheviewer,

reinforcesherpositionasanactiveself-fashioningsubject,butalsoherownawareness

ofherselfasafashionimage.ThefemaleprotagonistencapsulateswhatMerleau-

Pontytermedthe‘splitgaze’,whereby‘externalperceptionandtheperceptionof

one’sownbodyvaryinconjunctionbecausetheyarethetwofacetsofoneandthe

361Ibid.

186

sameact’.362Thewoman’sactivegazeoperatesasapowerfulinversionofNational

Geographic’sfashionablegazeontothewomen,whichrenderstheirprivatesphereof

ashoppingboutiquepublicwithinthepagesofthemagazine.Sheturnsthatgazeback

ontotheviewer,lookingbackwithasteelystare,whichencouragesaheightened

senseoflooking,seeing,being,feelingandwearingwithintheviewerandinvites,

perhaps,criticalself-reflectionandcontemplation,astheviewerbecomesawareof

herownpositionasavoyeur.Thisself-reflexivedynamicisreinforcedbytheeditorial

decisiontosplittheimageintwobytheuseofamirror,whichreflectstheimageback

ontoitself.Thecreaseofthemagazinedouble-pagespreademphasisesthismirroring,

butalsoobscuresthesubject’sreflection,drawingattentiontothefactthatmirrorsdo

notsimplyreflect,butactivelyconstruct,resonatingwithGarrett’simplicit

acknowledgementofthisinthecentennialeditionofNationalGeographic,withinthe

article‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,examinedinthesecondchapter.Thewoman’s

gazeindicatesthatsheisconfidentwithherappearance,whichshehassubjectively

constructedthroughheradoptionoffashionableitemsofclothing.Herfashionedbody

doesnotrenderherapassiveobjectbutisactivelyproducedasasiteforthe

articulationofherownfeminineandsocialidentity.Fashiongiveshertheconfidence

todefineherselfagainstanobjectifyingNationalGeographicgaze,bymimickingthat

gazeinaprocessthatresistsandre-fashionsit.

Aninterestingpointofcomparisoncanbedrawnwithaswimwearshoot

documentedintheNewYorkTimesStyleMagazine(Fig.4.19)fivemonthsearlierin

April2011,entitled‘TheFullBrazilian:frolickingonhernativebeachesinresort’sflirty

newsilhouetteofrompersandshortsisthatnationaltreasure,thegorgeousRaquel

362Merleau-Ponty,PhenomenologyofPerception,p.237.

187

Zimmermann’.363JustasinNationalGeographic,thefashionshootcelebrateda

desirablewhiteBrazilianfemininity,buthereitcapturedthegloballysuccessful

fashionmodelZimmermanonatriptoFernandodeNoronha,anarchipelagointhe

AtlanticOcean,354kmoffshorefromthenortheastcoastofBrazil.Thereisarelative

lackofexoticismandplayingupofasensualBrazilianfemininitythatmightbe

expectedfromaswimwearshootonlocationinBrazil,notleastwithaBrazilianmodel.

InoneofthephotographsapalpableawkwardnesspermeatesZimmerman’spose.

Somewhatdwarfedbyherenvironment,sheisplacedjusttotherightofcentreinthe

frameandgazesdirectlyatthecamera.ShemodelsaMissonibikiniandDianevon

Furstenbergsunglasses–oneexampleoftheAmericanfashionpress’refusalto

acknowledgeBrazilianfashiondesignersproperlyasequalcompetitorsontheglobal

fashionstage.YetitisZimmermann’sbodylanguagethatstandsoutinthisimage:she

sticksoutherstomach,pullsbackhershoulders,allowsherarmstohangstifflybyher

sides,andturnsherfeetslightlyinwards,withonefootcurlingawkwardlyintothe

sandonwhichshestands.Shehastheappearanceofanawkward,passivechildrather

thanagloballysuccessful,activesupermodel.Zimmermanhasafarlessdynamicgaze

thanthecentralsubjectdocumentedinNationalGeographic.Hereyesarecovered

withsunglasses,sothateventhoughtheviewerwatchesher,sheremains

inaccessible;thismightdenoteresistancetothephotographer’sgazebut,duetoher

childlikestancethatrendersherbodyreadilyavailabletotheviewer,seemstosuggest

moreapassivecomplicitytoherdocumentation.

InadditiontoZimmermann’sunorthodoxpose,whatisparticularlyrevealing

aboutthisfashionshootintheNewYorkTimesStyleMagazineisthat,ratherthan

363KevinRaub,‘TheFullBrazilian’,NewYorkTimesTStyleHolidayMagazine,4December2011,pp.160-69.

188

presentanexoticisedBrazilianbeachscene,itistakeninareasonablyhomogenous

environment,whichcouldbeanynumberofisolatednaturespotsthroughoutthe

world.Itthereforehasalackofexoticism,andlessofafocusonsurface,glitzand

glamour,whichmightbeexpectedfromatropicalfashionshootsetinBrazilforaU.S.

readership.364ItisinthisrespectthattheNationalGeographicsnapshot,despite

Stanmeyer’sinsistencethatitwasanexampleofstraightforwardandobjective

reportage,wasambiguous,sincetheemphasisonsuperficialsurface,andthe

multisensoryexperiencetheviewerwasencouragedtohavewiththeimage,mayhave

underminedhercriticalre-readingofitthroughthesubject’sdress,gesture,gazeand

pose.365Thesurfacequalitiesoftheimagesituatedthesubjectwithinafashionas

opposedtodocumentarycontext,buttherewasanambivalentsenseinwhich,even

thoughthesubject’sreturngazesituatedherasactive,andcomplicatedthe

photographer’sstraightforwardcontroloverher,thephotographappeareddirected

andcultivatedbyStanmeyer’sdiscriminatingeye.Thetactilequalitiesoftheimage,

fromtheglisteningchandeliers,glitteringbikini,softvelvetsofa,totheshinyglass

windowandmirror,threatenedtoseducethesensesoftheviewerandpotentially,

encourageastateofhyperesthesiainher,whichenhancedthelikelihoodthather

criticalawarenessofthesubject’sself-fashioningwouldbecomeovershadowed.

364OneexampleofaU.S.fashionshootthatcapitalisedonastereotypicaltropicalBrazilianidentityofsamba,sunandcarnivalis‘VivaBrazil!!StaringGiseleandNewGirls(AndBoys!)FromIpanema’,writtenbyA.A.Gill,andaccompaniedwithphotographsbyMarioTestino,whichappearedinVanityFairinSeptember2007.ItincludedBrazilianmodels,artists,actorsandmusicians,includingGiseleBundchen,AdrianaLimaandBebelGilberto,butonlyeverwearingWesternfashionlabels,asopposedtothoseofsuccessfulBraziliandesigners,whichreinforcedanideaofBrazilasasourceofexoticismtoinvigoratetheWesternfashionsystem,butnotcriticallyacknowledgedasapotentialcompetitortoit.A.A.Gill,‘VivaBrazil!!StaringGiseleandNewGirls(AndBoys!)FromIpanema’,VanityFair,September2007,pp.316-334.365JohnStanmeyer,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(27-30March2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.

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IfNationalGeographichadtrulywantedtodocumentBrazilianfashionitmight

havepointedout,withinthetextofthearticleorinthecaptiontothissnapshot,the

successoftheBrazilianswimwearindustry,whichhasbeenlinkedtotheoriginalityof

theproduct,representativeofboththeBrazilianlifestyleandtheBrazilianclimatethat

hasnecessitateditsproduction.366ItmayhavementionedthatBrazilianswimwearis

distinctfromothersegmentsoftheBrazilianfashionindustrybecauseithasmoved

beyond,asSilvanoMendesandNickRees-Robertshavearticulated,‘thetraditional

imitationofEuropeanandNorthAmericanlabels’,formerlywidespreadamongst

Brazilianfashiondesignupuntilthelate1990s,‘toapositionofstylisticinfluence’,

whichcanbechartedthroughthecollectionsofwesternfashionbrandssuchasGucci

andLouisVuitton.367NationalGeographicfailedtoacknowledgethesecrucialcross-

culturalaspectsofBrazilianswimwear,thathavepositioneditonthecuspofBraziland

theWest,increativedialoguewiththeWestbutalsoculturallyandstylisticallydistinct

fromtheWest.Byfactoringtheseimportantissuesintotheconstructionofthearticle,

NationalGeographicwouldhavedirectlylinkedthedocumentationofBrazilianfashion

totheBrazilianeconomy,andhighlightedtheparticularlystrategicnatureofthe

Brazilianswimwearindustry,whichnegotiateslocalandglobalsensibilitiesfor

commercialgain.Instead,themagazinepresentedaverynarrowviewofBrazilian

fashionastheelitedomainofwealthy,white,European-descendedwomen,oscillating

precariouslybetweenacknowledgingtheself-fashioningofBraziliansubjects,and

over-emphasisingthetactilestimulationsthatitsrepresentationprovided,which

contributedtoanideaoffashionasasuperficial,femininepreoccupation.Thesecond

366MalcolmNewbery,‘TheBrazilianSwimwearIndustry’,inGlobalMarketReviewofSwimwearandBeachwear–Forecaststo2013(Bromsgrove,UK:Aroq,2007),pp.71-80.367SilvanoMendesandNickRees-Roberts,‘BrandingBrazilianFashion:GlobalVisibilityandInterculturalPerspectives’,inFashionCulturesRevisited:Theories,ExplorationsandAnalysis,ed.byStellaBruzziandPamelaChurchGibson(London:Routledge,2013),pp.31-42(p.31).

190

partofthissnapshotextendstheseargumentstoconsiderhowasimilarfashion-

focused,andequallyambiguous,imagefromthesamearticlewasre-framedandre-

contextualisedonlineforthedigitaleditionofNationalGeographic,andhowthismay

haveencouragedviewerstore-interpretself-fashioningBraziliansubjects.

Snapshot7bVictorDzenk’sDressesontheWebsite

ThelayoutofimagesontheNationalGeographicwebsiterequiredtheviewer

toadoptamoreactiveanddecisiverolethanpreviouslyencouragedbythemagazine.

Thisisbecauseimagesre-framedonthewebsitewerepresentedasaseriesof

cropped,close-upthumbnailphotographs,whichneededtobeselectedbytheviewer,

usingthemouseortouch-pad,inordertoviewthefull-scaleimagesinenlarged

isolation(Figs.4.20and4.21).Theenlargedimageswerealwayspresentedonaplain

whitebackground,divorcedfromthetext,withtheexceptionofacaption,andfrom

theremainingphotographsoftheaccompanyingarticle.Thiseditorialdecision

constructedeachimageasafinishedcompositioninandofitself,fixedinmotionlikea

filmstill,butitalsogavetheviewerachoiceastowhichimagestoview,andinwhich

ordertoviewthem.Itispossiblethattheperceptiveviewerwasencouragedtofillin

thenarrativein-betweenimagesre-framedonthedigitalscreen,andtoconstructtheir

ownstorylinethatwaslessdictatedbyNationalGeographic,asthelinearnatureof

readingthemagazinemayhaveencouraged,andmoresubjecttotheirown,individual

whims.368

368ThiscorrespondedwithNationalGeographic’sacknowledgementina2013pressreleasethatwithitsexpansionintodigitalmediathemagazineiscontinuingtoexpand‘thescopeofitsvisualstorytelling,experimentingwithdigitalexperiencestofindnewwaysofdocumentingtheworldandofallowing

191

LucasD.IntronaandFernandoM.Ilharco’shaveacknowledgedthatdigital

screens

presentanalreadyscreenedworldtouswhichisalreadyconsistentwithourongoinginvolvementinthatworld.Hence,foremostandprimarilywhatscreensshowisnotthecontentthatappearsonthescreen,butsimultaneously,andperhapsmorefundamentally,awayofbeinginthatworld.Asscreenswelookatthembutalsosimultaneously,immediately,andmorefundamentally,welookthroughthemtoencounterourwayofbeingintheworld.369

IntronaandIlharcoattributeaheightenedsenseofembodimenttotheviewer’s

experienceofthescreen,whichmobilisesadynamicinterplaybetweenviewerand

subject,andcanbeextendedtothelevelofself-projectiononthepartoftheNational

Geographicviewerthatthesmooth,reflectivesurfaceofthedigitalscreen

engendered.Inherdiscussionofself-reflexivityandfashionblogs,AgnesRocamora

haspointedoutthatthedigitalscreen,comparabletoamirror,‘allow[s]onetolookat

oneself’,aswellastolookatwhatispresentedonthescreen.370Myownanalysisof

thisparticularimage,asitwasre-framedonthewebsite,wasconductedona

MacBookpro,whoseflatscreenthinlyborderedinsilverandplacedperpendicularto

thekeyboard,hastheappearanceofadressingtablemirror,particularlywhenplaced

onmydesk,notleastwhenIcatchsightofmyownreflectionprojectedontothe

screen,whichbecomesapalimpsestplacedoverthetopoftherepresented

subjects.371Thissimultaneoussensationoflooking,butalsobeinglookedbackat,

counteractsclaimsthatallphotographsviewedonscreens,whetheroncomputers,

readerstointeractwithcontent’.Anon.,‘NationalGeographicMagazine’,<http://press.nationalgeographic.com/files/2014/05/NGM-overview-5-14.pdf>[accessed15April2013]369LucasD.IntronaandFernandoM.Ilharco,‘OntheMeaningofScreens:TowardsaPhenomenologicalAccountofScreenness’,HumanStudies,29(2006),57-76(p.66).370AgnesRocamora,‘PersonalFashionBlogs:ScreensandMirrorsinDigitalSelf-Portraits’inFashionCulturesRevisited,ed.byStellaBruzziandPamelaChurchGibson(London:Routledge,2013),pp.112-127(p.119).371Rocamoramakesasimilarpointbutsheassertsthatherreflectioncanbeseenonlywhenthescreenisturnedoff.Iwouldextendthistosuggestthatthescreenactsasareflectivemirrorwhenturnedonaswell.Rocamora,‘PersonalFashionBlogs’,p.121.

192

mobilephonesoriPads,havedisembodiedtheviewerandrenderedhereffectively

immobilewhilstthescreenmoves.372Onceselected,aphotographontheNational

Geographicwebsitecouldnotbezoomedinandoutofviathemouseortouchpad;for

theviewertoobservetheimageincloserdetail,shehadtophysicallymoveherbody

intowardsthescreen.Thescreenthushadthepotentialtopromptanintensely

chargedencounterbetweentheNationalGeographicviewerandBraziliansubjects,

capableoferodingthephysicaland,byextension,emotionaldistancebetweenthe

observerandtheimage.Thisencounterwasgivenaheightenedimportanceinthe

finalimagethischapteranalyses,asaresultofthecomplexgazesactedoutbythe

threesubjectsrepresentedonthescreen.

Theimage(Fig.4.20)wasphotographedinBrazilianfashiondesignerVictor

Dzenk’sboutiqueinRiodeJaneiro.Apairofhigh-heeledshoescanbeseenonthefeet

ofthecentralfemalesubjectinStanmeyer’sphotograph,asshesashaysdowna

corridoradornedwithmirrors,inside,asthecaptiongenericallyinformedtheviewer,

‘afashionboutiqueinIpanema’.373Intheimage,Stanmeyercapturedthecentral

subject’swholebodywithinthecentreoftheframe,whichencouragedtheviewer’s

gazetomoveupwards,ordownwards,takinginhernude-colouredhighheels,her

slim,tannedlegs,turquoisemini-dresswithasheercut-outsectionandpuffsleeves,

goldnecklace,made-upfaceandblow-driedhair.Althoughthismasculinegaze

subjectedthefemalesubjecttoscrutinyfromtheNationalGeographicviewer,there

areanumberoffemininegazeswithintheimagewhichcounteractthevisualmastery

372TheseclaimshavebeenmadebyLevManovichandJoannaSassoon.RefertoManovich,‘TheParadoxesofDigitalPhotography’,inPhotographyAfterPhotography:MemoryandRepresentationintheDigitalAge,pp.57-66;JoannaSassoon,‘PhotographicMaterialityintheAgeofDigitalReproduction’,inPhotographs,Objects,Histories:OntheMaterialityofImages,ed.byElizabethEdwards(London:Routledge,2004),pp.186-202.373Gorney,‘Machisma’,<http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/09/girl-power/stanmeyer-photography#/08-fashion-boutique-670.jpg>[accessed15April2013]

193

ofStanmeyer’sgaze,andinsteaddirecttheviewer’seyetomoveconstantlyaround

theframeinatriangularshapeandgraspitschargednarrative,ratherthanbecentred

onthefetishisationofthisonesubject.Eachofthewomen’sidentitiesisconstructed

throughthisin-betweenmovement,whichcontributestoanideaofthemasactorsin

atelenovela,albeitoneinwhichthereisanunmistakableimbalanceoffeminine

powerdramatised.Throughthesegazes,thereisansensethatBrazilianidentityisan

interconnectedprocessoffluid‘becoming’,ratherthanafixed‘being’.Thefirstgaze

belongstothecentrallight-skinnedsubject,whoglancesatawomanwithlongdark

hair,whoiscapturedtoherleftbuttotherightofthephotographframe.Thesecond

gazebelongstothislight-skinnedsubject,whowearsawhitelacedressandglancesto

herright,leadingtheviewer’seyetoadarker-skinnedshopassistant.Pushedintothe

left-handcornerofthephotographagainstaclothesrailladenwithcolourfuldresses,

andframedagainstaheavilypatternedpsychedelicbackground,thethirdgazebelongs

tothissubject,whoappearstobeofindigenousdescentandisdressedinaplainblack

uniform.Sheclutchesacollectionofwoodencoathangersthatsupportbrightly

colouredandpatterneddresses,whichcontrastdramaticallywithheraustere

ensemble.Herdowncastgazeasshefocusesuponthetaskinhandismatchedbythat

ofthemotherworkingfromhomeforCoopaRoca,whowasdocumentedby

StanmeyerandseeninFig.4.16.Thereisanunmistakeablevisualconflict,notonly

withinthisimage,butalsowithinthephotographspublishedelsewhereinthearticle,

betweenwomenwhoareemployeesoftheBrazilianfashionindustryandplacedin

correspondinglystaticrolesandthewealthierwomenwhomtheyserveandwho

consumefashion,whoarepresentedinequivalentactiveroles.Thedistinction

betweenpassivityandactivityisemphasisedherethroughthecontrastingskintones

ofthedarker-skinned,uniformedemployeeandthelighter-skinned,dressed-up

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consumers.Thecaptionguidedtheviewer’sattentiontofocusonthisimbalanceof

powerintheabilityforfeminineself-fashioning:‘ConsumerCulture:Despitethe

boomingeconomy,noteveryBraziliancanindulgeinexpensivefashionslikethese.’374

Thisisovertlyconveyedtotheviewerthroughthepose,gesture,dressandgazeofthe

white-skinnedBrazilianwomen,who‘writeback’atavoyeuristicmalegazebytaking

theirrepresentationintotheirownhands.TheimplicationwasthatfashioninBrazil

enabledwealthylight-skinnedwomentoconstructtheirownsubjectiveidentitiesin-

betweenBrazilandtheWestasactiveconsumers,andtherebyparticipateintheir

visualrepresentationbyNationalGeographic,butthatitdidnotsoenablelesswealthy

dark-skinnedwomen,whoarecondemnedtoplaythepartofpassiveoperatorswithin

theBrazilianfashionindustry.

Thisimage,ratherlikethepreviousone,isnotafashionphotographbutrather

adramatisedanthropologyofBraziliansociallife.Itusesfashionabledetails,suchas

theemphasisontactilesensations,fromthesoftcarpet,crispcottonlaceofthewhite

dress,shinyglassmirror,tothewomen’sglitteringjewellery,notleastthesmooth,

tactilesurfaceofthedigitalscreen,nowoftenthefirstpointofcontactfor

experiencinghigh-endfashioncultureintheWest,todrawtheNationalGeographic

viewerin,soastonarratethepresumedrealityofracerelationswithinBrazil,through

thewaysinwhichfashionisproducedandconsumedbyEuropean-descendedwhite

Brazilianwomen.Yettheemphasisonsurfacetextureandtactilitymayhaveresulted

inadiminishedcriticalawarenessonthepartoftheviewer,whoseintellectual

interpretationofthephotographwasunderminedbyitsdependenceuponthesensory

hapticandopticexperiencesproducedbyfashion,whichoperatedasasubstitutefor

touchbutalso,potentially,fordepth.374Ibid.

195

Thetwoimagesexaminedinthissnapshotwereambiguousandoscillated

betweenfashioningBrazilianwomenasapassivespectacle,emphasisedbythe

aestheticisedsensoryoverloadoftactilesurfacetextureswithinthephotographto

exciteandtantalisetheviewer,andcriticallyacknowledgingtheirindividualpractices

ofself-fashioning,highlightedthroughthevariousdynamicgazestheyperform.This

visualambiguityresonatedwithStanmeyer’sown,contradictorydescriptionsofhis

photographicpractice,whicherodedthecleardivisionbetweenobjective

documentationandsubjectivedramatisation.Ontheonehand,heasserted:‘Idonot

directthesubjectsinmyphotographsorcollaborateinanyway.Thisisreportage

photography.Itisnaturallyhappening–noposesorstylingdone.’375Yethealso

acknowledged:‘Isimplyseewhathasafeeling,purposeoremotiontothestory.Not

everyphotographworks.Other[s]do.It’slikeworkingapotterywheel,constantly

moldingtheclayuntilthenarrativetakesshapeandform.’376Ifthesephotographsare

understoodasanequalcollaborationbetweensubjectsandphotographer,then

narrativeconstructioncouldbeatoolusedtocommunicateindividualsubjects’self-

fashioningandself-presentationthroughaheightenedsenseofdrama,emotionand

suspense.Inthisscenario,Stanmeyer’srolewouldbetosimplydocumenttheir

performance,allowingthesubjectstoperformtheirownfashionableidentities.

Indeed,thereisanoverridingsensethat,evenwhentheimageswerere-presented

onlineandviewersweregivenamoreactivecriticalinterpretativerole,that

Stanmeyerunderstoodhispositionasanorchestrator,inwhichheisthecreative

artisanshapingandgivingformtothenarrative,choreographinghisactorslikea

director.

375Stanmeyer,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.376Ibid.

196

ThischapterhasidentifiedtwoinstancesinthehistoryofNational

Geographic’srepresentationofBrazilsince2001whenthemagazinehasengagedwith

fashion.Inthefirstsnapshot,NationalGeographicclearlystatedthisandfashionwas

representedwithinaverybroadethnographicframework,informedbycontemporary

scholarshipbutwithanexplicitcommercialimperative,whichpresentedBrazilian

fashionasethnic,indigenousandmasculine.Fashionprovidedagenericlensthrough

whichtoviewtheworldatlarge,anddiversesubjectswererenderedunequivocally

peculiarwhenviewedthroughit.Inthesecondsnapshot,fashionwasasubtextwithin

anarticlethatconcernedBrazilianwomen,anditwasusedtodemonstratehow

wealthy,white-skinnedwomenconsumeandconstructtheiridentitiesthrough

Brazilianfashion.Fashionwaspresentedwithinananthropologicalframework,but

dismissedassuperficialanddistinctivelyfeminine.Overthecourseoftenyears,

NationalGeographicdepartedfromamasculine,ethnicunderstandingofBrazilian

fashion,whichassertedthatdifferencewaspermissibleassumingthatwithinthat

notionofdifferencetherewasarecognisableWesternidealofbeauty,andmoved

towardspresentinganovertlywhite,WesternisedimageofBrazilianfashion.Inboth

ofthesesnapshots,NationalGeographicignoredthemultidimensionalnatureof

Brazilianfashion,andpresentedtwoverynarrowideasofwhatfashioninBrazil

constituted,neitherofwhichencapsulatedtheexperienceoffashionasasiteof

articulationandidentityformationwithinthecontextofaglobaleconomy.

Inboth2001and2011,thegazesofself-fashioningBraziliansubjectshave

characterisedanin-betweennessthathasconstitutedaresistancetoNational

Geographic’sfashionablegaze.Itisinterestingtonotethat‘writingback’hasnotbeen

communicatedthroughdress,somuchasviatheactivegazesthatsubjectshave

197

displayedinresponsetoNationalGeographic.Inthefirstsnapshot,thelittleboy’s

curiousgazeatthephotographerwasanintriguedreactiontothepresenceofthe

camera,butalsotothephotographer’speculiarmodeofdress.Inthesecond

snapshot,theBrazilianwoman’sactiveandself-possessedgaze,intheformofa

sustainedlookatthecameraandthephotographer,seemedtoaffirmashared

recognitionofherselfasfashionableimage,drawingattentiontothefactthatthe

photographwasjustthat–arepresentation.Inthefinalimageanalysed,thewomen’s

gazesatoneanotherwithintheboutiquecounteractedthevisualmasteryof

Stanmeyer’sgaze,andhighlightedthecomplexityofthesnapshot,andthehierarchies

thatexistinBrazilamongstdifferentsocial,ethnicandracialgroups.

WhilstthesereturngazeshavecomplicatedNationalGeographic’s

straightforwardcontroloveritssubjects,themagazine’sfashionableattentiontothe

hapticvisualqualitiesoftheimageshasthreatenedtooverridetheinteractivenature

oftheexchangebetweenviewerandsubject.Inthefirstsnapshot,thiswasaresultof

theluxuriousqualitiesofthephotobookasamaterialobject,itshaphazard

arrangementofimages,andthetactilesheenofitspages.Inthesecondsnapshot,this

waslesstodowiththematerialobjectofthemagazineordigitalscreen,beyondits

glossysheen,somuchastherangeofsurfacetextureswithintheimage,which

encouragedtheviewer’sgazetorestontheexteriorofthephotograph,ratherthanto

exploreitsdepthandmeaning.Thesynaestheticoverloadofthesetwosnapshots,

whichhasbeenevidentinallthreemediaexaminedbythischapter–book,magazine,

andscreen–demonstratesNationalGeographic’scommodificationofthesetactile

sensations,whichincreasinglycametoovershadowviewers’criticalawarenessofself-

fashioningBraziliansubjects.ItispossiblethatthiswasaresultofNational

198

Geographic’sreluctancetoengageinasustainedwaywithfashiononanintellectual

level,sinceitunderstooditselftobeaneducationalandscientificjournal,anddidnot

includefashionwithinthatdefinition.Thesetwosnapshotsprovetheexceptiontothe

hypothesisthat,since1988,NationalGeographichasencouragedreaderstohavean

increasinglymultisensoryandmoreintimateengagementwithBraziliansubjects.

199

PartTwo:HoldingupaMirrortoNationalGeographic

ThefirstpartofthisthesisexaminedtherepresentationofBraziliandressandfashion

inNationalGeographicsince1906,whenthemagazinefirstmadecontactwithBrazil.

Itunderstoodcontactasanembodied,emotionalandmultisensoryexperience,which

extendedbeyonddistanced,disembodiedviewing,andwasintricatelyconnectedto

thedressedbodiesofboththeBraziliansubjectandtheNationalGeographicviewer.

Inallsevensnapshotsexamined,thephotographicrepresentationofdressandfashion

drewvariouslyontheconventionsofethnography,portraiture,documentary,fashion

andcinematography,whichmobilisedanambivalentfrictionbetweenviewerand

subjectthatoscillatedbetweenidentificationanddifference.Intheperiodpriorto

1988,thisdynamictendedtowardsencouragingthedifferenceofBraziliansubjects,

eventhoughdresscomplicatedastraightforwardreadingofimagespublishedwithin

themagazine.Intheperiodsubsequentto1988,dressencouragedidentificationwith

Braziliansubjects,throughthehapticvisualqualitiesoftheimages,whichtook

precedenceoverthetextualnarrativeofarticles.TherepresentationofBrazilian

fashionprovidedtheexceptiontothisparadigmshiftsince1988;itshiftedonestep

toofar,andencouragedviewerstoappreciatethehapticvisualqualitiesofimagesto

theextentthatsuperficialsurfacetookprecedenceoveranalyticaldepth,distracting

viewers’criticalfacultiesinahyper-synaestheticoverload.Asopposedtoencouraging

thecriticalrecognitionofself-fashioningBraziliansubjects,themediumoffashion

promptedviewerstotreatthemasexoticorfetishisedfemininespecimens.

200

Thesecondpartofthisthesisprovidesacrucialcounterpointtothefirstpart,

andexaminestherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasil.377It

coversashortertimeperiodthanthefirstthreechapters,butexamineshowthere-

presentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasilholdsupamirrorto,and

therebycastsalightupon,therepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographic.This

thesisisstructuredasacontactzone,sinceitbringsNationalGeographicintodirect

dialogueandcritiquewithNationalGeographicBrasil.Thatthefirstpartislargerand

comprisedofthreechapters,whereasthesecondpartissmallerandencompasses

onlytwochapters,isanintentionaltooldeployedtohighlightstructurallythe

asymmetricalrelationsofpowerprevalentwithintheUnitedStates-Brazilcontact

zone.NationalGeographicBrasilneedstobetheorisedasanexemplaryformofauto-

ethnographicexpression,aphenomenonthatwasexaminedinthepreviousthree

chaptersthroughtheconceptsofanthropophagy,anaestheticsofgarbageandthe

spacein-between.Torecapitulate,whereasPrattdefinedethnographictextsas‘those

inwhichEuropeanmetropolitansubjectsrepresenttothemselvestheirothers’,auto-

ethnographicexpressionsare‘representationsthatso-definedothersconstructin

responsetoorindialoguewiththosetexts’.378Sheusedthetermtodescribehow

subordinatesubjects,apositionembodiedherebyNationalGeographicBrasil,

undertaketore-presenttheirowncultureinwaysthatengagewiththeir

representationbyadominantculture,exemplifiedinthisinstancebyNational

Geographic.NationalGeographicBrasilarrivedinBrazilinMay2000,whenBrazilian

377NationalGeographicBrasilwasthetentheditionofNationalGeographicreproducedinalocallanguage,followingtheJapaneseedition(April1995),EuropeanSpanishedition(October1997),LatinAmericanSpanishedition(November1997),Italianedition(February1998),Hebrewedition(June1998),Greekedition(October1998),Polishedition(October1999),Germanedition(October1999)andFrenchedition(October1999).378Pratt,‘ArtsoftheContactZone’inWaysofReading:AnAnthologyforWriters,5thedn,ed.byDavidBartholomaeandAnthonyPetroksky(NewYork:Bedford/StMartins,1999),pp.582-96(p.589).

201

mediaconglomerate,EditoraAbril,thelargestpublishingandprintingcompanyin

LatinAmerica,distributed20,000copiesofthePortuguese-languageeditionto

newsstandsnationwide.ThiswasaccompaniedwiththelaunchoftheNational

GeographicBrasilwebsite(www.ngbrasil.com.br),whichadvertisedsubscription

servicestothemagazine.379PermissionwasonlygrantedtoEditoraAbriltoreproduce

NationalGeographicBrasilforprofitafterWilliamL.Allen,thetheneditor-in-chiefof

NationalGeographic(1999-2005),hadsatisfiedhimselfthatthemagazine’shigh-

qualityprintingandpublishingtechniquescouldbemaintainedinBrazil,

demonstratingtheimportancetoAllenofthematerialityoftheglobaloutreachofthe

magazine.380Thesecondpartofthisthesistakesthismaterialityintoequalaccountas

thefirstpart,consideringhowtheBrazilianviewerwasencouragedtoengagewith

foursnapshotsofBraziliandressre-presentedinthemagazine.Thesesnapshotsare

organisedchronologicallytohighlightthedevelopmentofNationalGeographicBrasil

fromMay2000to2015.

379Foundedin1950,EditoraAbrilwasthefirstpublisherofWaltDisneycomicsinBrazil.Ithassincegrownexponentiallyandnowpublishesbooks,videos,travelguides,textbooks,music,maps,andmagazines.Througharangeoftitles,whichincludeBrazilianweeklynewsmagazineVeja,Playboy(Brazilianedition),Men’sHealth(Brazilianedition),Nova(BrazilianeditionofCosmopolitan),EstilodeVida(BrazilianeditionofInStyle)andRunner’sWorld(Brazilianedition),EditoraAbrilhassoughttocapitalisefrompotentialreadersfromadiverserangeofagesandsocialclasses.380NationalGeographicBrasil,aspartofthefor-profitmediaconglomerateEditoraAbril,hadanexplicitcommercialimperative,unlikeNationalGeographic,whichsinceitsestablishmenthasformedpartofthetax-exemptnot-for-profitNationalGeographicSociety.Thelatterwascomplicatedin1994withtheestablishmentofthefor-profit,tax-payingdivisionoftheNationalGeographicSociety,NationalGeographicVentures,whichincludedthewebsite,televisionprogrammes,booksandcompletedigitalisededitionsofthemagazinepublishedonCD-ROM.ConstanceL.Hays,‘SeeingGreeninaYellowBorder:QuestsforProfitsisShakingaQuietRealm’,NewYorkTimes,3August1997,pp.12-13.

202

Chapter4.MisplacedIdeas:BraziliandressasreflectedinthefirsttenyearsofNationalGeographicBrasil

• Snapshot8:TheMayongongMan’sRawhideBagandCottonLoincloth,July2000• Snapshot9:LourençoLoy’sRedandWhiteBandanaandGoldMedallion,

February2001• Snapshot10:TheJapanese-BrazilianWomen’sCottonYucataandWoodenGeta,

June2008

Inhis1986essay,‘BrazilianCulture:NationalismbyElimination’,Austrian-born

BrazilianliteraryandculturalcriticRobertoSchwarzexaminedtheexistential

circumstancesofbeingthesubordinateandperipheralsubjectoftheasymmetrical

relationsofpowerprevalentwithintheUnitedStates-LatinAmericancontactzone:

WeBraziliansandotherLatinAmericansconstantlyexperiencetheartificial,inauthenticandimitativenatureofourculturallife.Anessentialelementinourcriticalthoughtsinceindependence,ithasbeenvariouslyinterpretedfromromantic,naturalist,modernist,right-wing,left-wing,cosmopolitanandnationalistpointsofview,sowemaysupposethattheproblemisenduringanddeeplyrooted.Beforeattemptinganotherexplanation,letusassumethatthismalaiseisafact.Itseverydaymanifestationsrangefromtheinoffensivetothehorrifying.ExamplesofinappropriatenessincludeFatherChristmassportinganEskimooutfitinatropicalclimateand,fortraditionalists,theelectricguitarinthelandofsamba.381

SchwarzidentifiedaperpetualproblemfacedbyBrazilians,whohaverepeatedly

appropriatedintellectualparadigms,culturalformsandfashionabletrendsfromthe

UnitedStatesandEurope,regardlessoftheirrelevancetolocalcircumstancesand

nationalneeds.Thistendencytoimportforeignideologiesandinstitutionshas

ultimatelydefinedBrazilintermsoffragmentationandlackoffulfilment,reflectedin

thedevelopmentandcurrentstateofBrazilianculture.Thesearethekeythemesof

Schwarz’smorepessimisticview,certainlyincomparisonwiththepositivestancesof

381Thisessaywasfirstpublishedas‘Nacionalporsubtração’intheBraziliannewspaperFolhadeSaoPaulo,7June1986.ThefirstEnglishtranslationbyLindaBriggswaspublishedinNewLeftReview,167(1988),77-90.IreferthroughoutthischaptertotheEnglishtranslationofSchwarz’scollectionofessays,MisplacedIdeas:EssaysonBrazilianCulture,trans.byJohnGledson(London:Verso,1992).

203

thethreescholarsexaminedinthefirstpartofthisthesis,ofLatinAmerican

dependencyuponderivativeintellectualthoughtandculturalformsfromEuropean

andNorthAmericancapitalistsystems.Schwarzcriticisedthefactthatideasfromthe

so-calledcentrehavearrivedinBrazilinquicksuccession,leavinglittletimeforthem

toberefashionedandre-interpretedforadomesticaudience,beforethenext

innovationarrives.Heunderstoodthispacingtobeadynamicofpowerthathas

deprivedBrazilofthechancetocreateformsofself-understandingrelatedtoitsown

realityandhistory;rather,ideasprojectedfromthecentrehavearrivedontheso-

calledperipheryanddemandedanimposedreceptivityfromaBrazilianaudience.

Schwarztracedthehistoricalandculturalcomplexitiesoftheseinadequaciestopost-

independencein1822,whenBrazilremainedaslave-holdingsocietybutemployedthe

dominantliberalideologiesoffreedomandmodernindividualitythatwereprojected

fromEurope.382Theadoptionofmoderndemocraticidealsofautonomyandpersonal

agency,developedinresponsetoanaliensocio-culturalsetofcircumstances,could

notbeimplementedauthenticallyinBrazil,acountrywhoseeconomicinfrastructure

wasdependentuponslavery,butneithercouldtheyberefused.Thesartorialexample

ofafur-trimmedFatherChristmassuitwornintropicalBrazilisonlyamorerecentand

trivialexampleofthesamephenomenon(seeFig.5.0.,aphotographpostedon

Facebookon14December2014,byBrazilianFashionBuyerDeborahReis,dressedin

shortsandsandals).383

In2001FrancineMasielloprovidedaproductivemetaphor,andonewhich

wasappropriategiventheincreasedglobalexportationsincetheearly1990s,

382Schwarz,MisplacedIdeas,p.14.383Anevenmoreinappropriateexamplemightbetheadoptionoffoxandminxfurs,influencedbyHollywoodmovies,byupper-classBrazilianwomenthroughoutthe1930s,whowererequiredtopayacostlymonthlyfeetokeepthegarmentsrefrigeratedinthetropicalclimate.ValentimandBrandao,‘ThePositionofBrazilianFashioninaBorderlessPlace’,(para3of5).

204

facilitatedbyeconomicliberalisation,ofsurplus,secondhandclothingfromthe

NorthernhemispheretoLatinAmerica,AfricaandAsia,toreassesstheproblematic

developmentofideasinBrazilianhistorythatismanifestedinSchwarz’s‘misplaced

ideas’:

DespitethefactthatLatinAmericanintellectualsinsistontheruleofthecopyinrelationtoaEuropean‘original,’thefitisalwaysinadequate;likeasetofborrowedclothing,theoriginalisoftenseveralsizestoolarge.384

Masiellopessimisticallyoverruledthesubversiveandpositivequalitiesofthe‘copy’

thathavebeencelebratedinmuchLatinAmericanacademicdiscourse.Instead,she

conflatedmisplacedideaswithinappropriateandill-fitting,cast-offclothingand

ignoreditspotentialtobetransformedorcustomisedonarrivalinLatinAmerica.In

agreementwithSchwarz,Masiellorejectedthepostmodernnotionthatthecopy

mightconstituteapositivemeansofcreativere-presentation,whichheldthepotential

toundermineanduprootthesupposeddominanceoftheEuropeanorNorth

Americanoriginal.FromtheperspectiveofferedbySchwarzandMasiello,the

importationofforeignthoughtandculturalproductsasmisplacedideas,orasetofill-

fittingborrowedclothing,iscentraltounderstandingthecultural,social,political,

economicandsartorialhistoryofBrazil.385

Onfirstassessment,thearrivalinBrazilinMay2000ofNationalGeographic

Brasilmightbemisunderstoodasastrikingcontemporaryexampleofmisplacedideas,

ademonstrationoftheprocessofculturalglobalisationbywhichapopularmagazine

establishedanddevelopedwithintheUnitedStateshasbeenmadeappealingand

accessibletonewaudiencesinso-calledperipheralcountriessuchasBrazil.Unlike

384FrancineMasiello,TheArtofTransition:LatinAmericanCultureandNeoliberalCrisis(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2001),p.60;B.LynneMilgram,‘RefashioningCommodities:WomenandtheSourcingofSecondhandClothinginthePhilippines’,Anthropologica46.2(2006),189-202(p.193).385Schwarz,MisplacedIdeas,p.30;Masiello,TheArtofTransition,p.60.

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Andrade,StamandSantiago,Schwarzoutlinedthepainfulexistentialconditionsthata

diffusionistconceptionofmodernity,asaone-directionalflowthattravelsfromthe

centretotheperiphery,orintheinstanceofNationalGeographic,fromWashington

DCtoSaoPaulo,hascreatedforBrazilians.Thispessimisticstanceignoredthefactthat

nocultureisstatic,sinceideasarealwaysdepartingfromonecontext,andbeing

appropriatedandapplieddifferently,ofteninalternativeandunpredictabledirections,

ontheirarrivalinanewone.AcloserlookatNationalGeographicBrasilrevealsthat

themagazine’swide-rangingandsophisticatedproductionoflocalmaterialhasoften

complemented,andsometimesevenchallenged,ideasaboutBrazilproducedby

NationalGeographic.

AstatementmadebyMatthewShirts,thetheneditor-in-chiefofNational

GeographicBrasil(May2000-May2013),aUS-bornjournalistwhohaslivedand

workedinBrazilforoverthirty-fiveyears,enablesthedevelopmentofthemagazineto

beunderstoodnotmerelyasaprocessofgrowingintoaborrowedsetofclothescast

offbyNationalGeographic,butasapotentialmeansoffashioninganew,distinctively

Brazilianensemble.Shirtsarticulatedthenegotiationsandre-negotiationsthattook

placewithNationalGeographicduringthenewmagazine’sfirstthirteenyearsof

publication:

Ourrelationshipchangeddramaticallybetween1999,whenIwasfirst‘trained’byNGM-USA[NationalGeographic]and2013,whenIleftthepositionofEditor-in-chiefofNGM-B[NationalGeographicBrasil].Inthebeginningtheytriedtohaveasmuchcontrolaspossibleoftheeditorialprocess.Itwaslikenightandday.By2005orsowewerefriendsworkingtogetherasateam.Theychangeddramatically,looseningup,butbythenwehadabsorbedtheirmethodsandgottenbetterthanthematdoingwhatNationalGeographicdoes(andonaBrazilianbudget)[myitalics].386

386MatthewShirts,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(8May–2June2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.

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AsShirtsoutlined,priorto2005localmaterialproducedindependentlybyNational

GeographicBrasilwasrigorouslycheckedbeforepublicationbyAmyKolczak,Headof

InternationalMaterialatNationalGeographic,inWashingtonDC.387Hisdescriptionof

thisrelationshipas‘likenightandday’canbeunderstoodasametaphorforthe

contactzone,inwhichtheoppositepolesoftheUnitedStatesandBrazilareposited

againstoneanother,andbattleitoutinadynamiccharacterisedbyasymmetrical

relationsofpower.388However,afterfiveyearsofpublication,thisrelationship

progressedtobecomemorecollaborative,‘friendsworkingtogetherasateam’.389

ShirtsdescribedtheprocessbywhichNationalGeographicBrasilestablisheditself

duringitsfirstdecadeofpublicationasoneinwhichNationalGeographic’smethods

wereabsorbedandrealised,throughavarietyofcreativeappropriations,totheextent

thatitemerged‘betterthanthematdoingwhatNationalGeographicdoes’.390The

implicationhereisthatNationalGeographicBrasil’slackoffinancialadvantagesforced

ittobecreativeandtoimprovise,whichanimatedlocalmodesofre-presentation,and

complicatedone-dimensionalunderstandingsofthemagazineasheavilyindebtedto

NationalGeographic.

ShirtsexplainedhowNationalGeographicBrasilselectivelyadoptedaspects

ofNationalGeographicthatwereofmostinteresttoBrazilianviewers,transforming

themagazinetomeetlocalrequirements:

Thenextstepwastheproductionofeditorialmaterialofourown:journalisminthestyleofNGM…It’salwaysnecessarytoadaptamagazinetolocaltaste.ButthiswasharderforusthanitwasfortheAmericans.Firstly,theyhadtakenaveryuniversalthemetointerpretgeographyas‘theworldandallthereisinit’[sic].Secondly,becausetheyareabletoinvesthundredsofthousandsofdollarsintotheproductionofasinglearticle…Wedecidedweneededtobring

387Ibid.388Ibid.389Ibid.390Ibid.

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NGBclosertoitsBrazilianreaders,essentiallyprovidethenationaltothe‘nationalgeographic’.SomeofthereportsfromtheAmericaneditionareofmoreinteresttosomereaders,lessinterestingtootherreaders.WewantedtoconnecttotheBrazilianreader[myitalics].391

Shirts’statementcontainedanacceptancethattherearedifferentworld-views.It

correspondedwithAppadurai’sassertionthattheworldisnotasingularlydominated

andhomogenousstructurecontrolledbytheUnitedStates,butanintertwinedand

interactiveglobalsystemfabricatedfrom‘multipleworlds’,eachofwhichis

‘constitutedbyhistoricallysituatedimaginationsofpersonsandgroupsspreadaround

theglobe’.392WhereasNationalGeographicwasconcernedwithencapsulating‘the

worldandallthatisinit’,toquoteAlexanderGrahamBell’soft-repeatedcatchphrase,

NationalGeographicBrasilsoughttodocumentwhatlaywithin,ratherthanbeyond,

nationalborders.393ThiswasopenlyacknowledgedbyNationalGeographicBrasil

Editor(May2000-)RonaldoRibeiro,whoexplainedthemagazine’sethos:‘Weare

tryingtokeepthediversityofsubjectsthatfeatureinNGAmerican,byfindingthat

diversityinBraziliansubjectsthatfeatureinNGBrasil’.394Thischapterusesthe

analysisdevelopedinthepreviousthreechapterstobuilduponSchwarz’suseful

metaphor,sothatitcanbeusedtoencapsulatemoreadequatelytheshifting

perceptionsandincreasedsignificanceofglobalisationinthepost-ColdWarera,asit

hasunfoldedacrossworld-timeandworld-space,andestablishednewhierarchiesand

inequalities.

Schwarz’sargumentwillbere-fashionedinamorepositivelight,to

demonstratehowforeignculturalideashavebeenselectivelyreworkedand

391Ibid.392Appadurai,ModernityatLarge,p.33.393AlexanderGrahamBellquotedinPauly,'TheWorldandAllThatisInIt’,p.523.394RonaldoRibeiroandRobertoSakai,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(AbrilHeadquarters,SaoPaulo,Brazil,8May2014).RefertoAppendix5:Interviews.

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refashionedinatransformativeprocessthatissensitivetotheparticularitiesand

peculiaritiesofBrazilianculture.Thisenablestheintricaciesandnuancesofthe

processesofculturalexchangethathaveexistedbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil,

andBrazilanddifferentculturesthatrestwithinitsborders,tobeunpickedand

analysed.ItisusefulheretodrawonCubananthropologistFernandoOrtiz’s

understandingthatforeignculturalideasarenotautomaticallyandinevitably

misplacedonarrivalinLatinAmerica,butmustservesomepurposeiftheycan

circulatewithinagivenenvironment,howeverdifferent.395Ortizengagedwiththe

issueoftheperipheralnatureofBrazilianculturebydrawingattentiontothe

particularandcomplexprocessesofculturaltransferencebywhichsubordinated

groupsselectedandinventedfrommaterialsimposeduponthembyadominant

culture.Ratherthanreverttobinaryandessentialistviewsof‘centres’and

‘peripheries’,Ortizcoinedtheneologism‘transculturation’torefertothehighlyvaried

phenomenathathewitnessedinmanyaspectsofLatinAmericanlife,economic,

institutional,artistic,ethicalandreligious,whichhademergedasaresultofintricate

culturaltransmutationsthroughoutthehistoryofLatinAmerica.396Heselected

‘transculturation’toreplacesuchtermsas‘acculturation’and‘deculturation’,which

replicatedthelogicofcolonialismsincetheyexplainedculturalcontactfromthe

perspectiveoftheNorthAmericanandEuropeancentre,andhedefineditasthat

which

betterexpressesthedifferentphasesofthetransitionfromoneculturetoanotherbecausethisdoesnotconsistmerelyinacquiringanotherculture[…]buttheprocessalsonecessarilyinvolvesthelossoruprootingofaprevious

395FernandoOrtiz,CubanCounterpoint:TobaccoandSugar(DurhamandLondon:DukeUniversityPress,1995),pp.102-03.396Ibid.

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culture[…]inadditionitcarriestheideaoftheconsequentcreationofnewculturalphenomena.397

Ortizusedthetermtodenominatethetransformativeprocessesundergonebya

societyintheacquisitionofforeignculturalmaterial.Thisentailedboththe

diminishingofasociety’snativecultureduetotheimpositionofforeignmaterial,and

thesynthesisoftheindigenousandtheforeigntocreateanew,originalcultural

product.ReformulatedthroughthelensofOrtiz,foreignculturalproductshavethe

potentialtobedefinednotsolelyintermsofloss,asmisplacedideas,butalsointerms

ofmovementandrelocation,asdisplacedideas,ripewiththepotentialtosupersede

oroverridethoseideasthatexistedpreviously.Myuseofthetermdisplacedideas

revisesSchwarz’soriginalconceptandredefinesforeignideasintermsoftheir

movementthroughouttimeandspace,inwhichtheyarenotstableandfixed

homogenousentities,buthistoricallychangeableandrelativeatanygivenmoment.

Beforeaddressingthefirstsnapshotthischapterexamines,itisusefulto

outlinewhocameintocontactwithNationalGeographicBrasil.WhereasNational

Geographichadaverybroadreadership,NationalGeographicBrasilhadafar

narrowercirculation.Althoughitisdifficulttoascertainexactfigures,sincereaders

mayhavesharedthemagazinewithfamilyandfriends,theaveragereaderwas

presumedtobemale,agedbetweentwenty-fourandthirty-four,andtoliveinthe

Southeast,theeconomicheartlandofthecountrythatencompassesRiodeJaneiro

andSaoPaulo.398TheywereclassifiedassocialclassB,usuallycomprisedofindividuals

whohavecompletedhighereducationandareprofessionallyqualified.399Theimplicit

normofthisaudienceisthattheywereEuropean-descendedandpredominantly397Ibid.398RibeiroandSakai,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.399Ibid.

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white-skinned.Thiswasreinforcedbytheadvertisementsthatfeaturedwithinthe

magazine.AnexamplecanbeseenintheJuly2000edition,whichpromotedthe

importationofWesternEuropeanandNorthAmericanlifestylesandgoodstoBrazil,

throughproductssuchascars(Fig.5.1),Timberlandboots(Fig.5.2)andNescafecoffee

(Fig.5.3).400Theseadvertisementstendedtofeaturewhite-skinnedmaleBrazilians,as

opposedtothoseofpredominantlyindigenousorAfricandescent.Theyprovidea

tangiblereminderthat,justastherewasaconsiderablegeographicaldistance

betweentheNationalGeographicviewerandBraziliansubjectsrepresentedinthe

magazine,sotherewasalsooftenasignificantgulfbetweentheNationalGeographic

BrasilviewerandrepresentedBraziliansubjects.

TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicBrasilOverADecade

FromMay2000toApril2010,NationalGeographicBrasilpublishedone

hundredandtwelvearticlesonBrazil,initiatedandexecutedbyasmallteaminSao

Paulowiththeassistanceofaselectnumberofcontractedfreelancejournalists,

editors,designers,photographersandwriters.401Oftheonehundredandtwelve

articles,sevenwereshortenedandparaphrasedversionsofmaterialthathad

originallyappearedinNationalGeographicduringitsfirsthundredyearsof

publication,synthesisedandre-presentedindifferentconfigurationsandsizesonthe

NationalGeographicBrasilpage.Eightweredirecttranslationsofmaterialthat

focusedonBrazilandwaspublishedsimultaneouslyinNationalGeographic.This

chapterpredominantlyfocusesontheninety-sevenarticlesproducedindependently

400NationalGeographicBrasil,June2000.401RefertoAppendix3:TherepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicBrasil(May2000-April2010).

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byNationalGeographicBrasil,whichcommencedinDecember2000andcontinued

(almost)everymonthuntilMay2010,whenthemagazinecelebrateditstenth

birthday.Viewedintheirentirety,thesearticlesemphasisedthevastsizeofBraziland

itsheterogeneoussocial,racialandethniccomposition,spanningabroadrangeof

spacesandplacesthroughoutthecountry.402

ThischapterextendsSchwarz’sconceptofmisplacedideastoexaminethe

intricaciesofglobalculturalexchange,betweenboththeUnitedStatesandBrazil,and

betweenBrazilanditself,whichwerevisibleintherepresentationofBraziliandressin

NationalGeographicBrasilfromMay2000toApril2010.Itexaminesthreesnapshots

organisedoveraperiodofsevenyears,usingthemtodrawpointsofcomparisonand

distinctionwithNationalGeographic.ThefirstsnapshotwaswrittenbyBrazilian

journalistMarinaMoraesandpublishedinNationalGeographicBrasilinJuly2000.403It

re-presentedanarticleexaminedinthefirstchapterofthisthesis,whichwaswritten

andphotographedbyAlbertW.StevensandpublishedinNationalGeographicinApril

1926,andconsidersthenewinterpretativepotentialprovidedbyitsdiscursivere-

framingseventy-sixyearslater.404ThesecondsnapshotconcernedAngolanimmigrants

livinginRiodeJaneiroandwaswrittenandphotographedbyBrazilianphotojournalist

RicardoBelielandpublishedinNationalGeographicBrasilinFebruary2003.405The

402RefertoAppendix3foramapdetailinggeographicallocationsof112articlesthatfeaturedBrazilandwerepublishedinNationalGeographicBrasil,May2000-April2010.403MarinaMoraes,‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde.Formigasgigantes,onçasàespreita,piranhas,corredeiras,mosquitos,malaria.AsdescobertaseossustosdeumaexoediçãodehidroaviãoàAmazônicaem1924’,NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,pp.154-61.404AlbertW.Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.353-420.405RicardoBeliel,‘MaisBrasil:AngolanosnoRio.FugitivosdaGuerraemseupais,imigrantesdeAngolavivemhojeemcounidadenocentrovelhodoRiodeJaneiro–onde,háumsécolo,influênciasafricanasgerminaramosambacarioca’,NationalGeographicBrasil,February2003,pp.114-23.BelielisProfessorattheEscolaSuperiordePropagandaeMarketinginSaoPaulo,andacontributortonumerousBraziliannewspapersandmagazinessuchasOGlobo,JornaldoBrasil,OEstadodeSaoPaulo,Manchete,PlacarandVeja,inadditiontotheEuropeanandNorthAmericanpublicationsTime,ChristianScienceMonitor,BildZeitung,MarieClaireandDiscoveryMagazine.

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thirdsnapshotexaminedJapaneseimmigrantslivinginSaoPauloandwaswrittenand

photographedbyBrazilianportraitphotographerMarcioScavoneandpublishedin

June2008.406Thischapterusesdisplacedideasasacriticallensthroughwhichto

examinehowculturalideasfromNationalGeographichavebeenre-framedandre-

contextualisedinNationalGeographicBrasilsinceMay2000.Itknitstogetheraseries

ofconclusionstothefollowingquestions:howhasNationalGeographicBrasilused

dresstofashionanideaofBrazilthroughtherepresentationofBraziliandress?Hasthe

magazinesubmissivelyrepeatedideasaboutBrazilthatwereoriginallydisseminated

byNationalGeographic,orhasitadaptedandre-presentedtheseideastoaddress

localconcerns?TowhatextentcanBraziliansubjectsbeseentohaveself-fashioned,

andtowhatextenthavetheybeenfashionedbyNationalGeographicBrasil?Hasa

dynamicreconfigurationofrelationsandconsciousnessbetweentheUnitedStates

andBrazil,andBrazilanditself,beenmobilisedbyNationalGeographicBrasil?

ABrazilianGazeonNationalGeographicin2000

ThefirstsnapshotthischapterdiscusseswaspublishedinNational

GeographicBrasilinJuly2000,withinaneight-pagearticleproducedbyMoraes,

entitled‘MajorReports:theearthisgreen.Giantants,lurkingjaguars,piranhas,

rapids,mosquitoes,malaria.Thefindingsandscaresofanexpeditionbyhydroplaneto

theAmazonin1924’.407Thearticlere-contextualisedelevenblack-and-white

406MarcioScavone,‘OrientePróximo:NoBairrodaLiberdadeemSãoPaulo,resideoespiritodes100anosdaimigraçãojaponesanoBrasil’NationalGeographicBrasil,June2008,pp.32-47.ScavonestudiedProfessionalPhotographyatEalingCollegeinLondon(1974-6)andistheauthorofanumberofphotobooks,whichincludeEentreasombraealuz(SaoPaulo:DBA,1997),aseriesofphotographstakeninSaoPaulo,RiodeJaneiro,Paris,LondonandLisbon,andLuzInvisivel(SaoPaulo:DBA,2002),acollectionofphotographstakenofBraziliancelebrities,includingfootballerPeleandarchitectOscarNiemeyer,inadditiontoordinaryBrazilians.407Moraes,‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde’.

213

photographs,carefullyselectedfromtheeight-sixoriginalsthathadbeentakenby

AlbertW.Stevensandpublishedinthesixty-eight-pageinitialversionofthearticle,

whichappearedinNationalGeographicinApril1926.Iexaminedthisarticleto

contextualisethefirstsnapshotanalysedinChapterOneofthisthesis.408Animage

thatwasinitiallypublishedinNationalGeographic(Fig.5.4),butsubsequentlyre-used

seventy-fouryearslaterbyNationalGeographicBrasil(Fig.5.5),enablesSchwarz’s

pessimisticviewoftherelationbetweenthecopyandtheoriginaltobere-

conceptualisedasdisplacedratherthanmisplacedideas.

PrintedinNationalGeographicinApril1926,theimagewasoriginally

publishedontheleft-handsideofasingle-pagespread(Fig.5.6).Itdocumenteda

malememberoftheMayongongpopulation(indigenoustothestateofRoraimain

NorthernBrazil,closetotheVenezuelanborder).409Thebackgroundisagreyand

whiteblurthatfocusestheviewers’attentionontheman’sclothedbody,whichis

placedasanobjectofcuriosity.Thesubjecthasbobbeddarkhairandwearsacotton

genitalcoveringarrangedunderthecrotchandaroundthehipsintheshapeofaT.He

carriesaleatherbagacrosshisshoulder,andthetopsofhisarmsaretiedtightlywith

scrapsofcolouredmaterial.Positionedjustoff-centreintheframe,andgazingdirectly

tohisright,engrossedinsomethingorsomeonebeyondthephotographicframe,his

armsarecrosseddefensivelyagainsthisbarechest.Thisself-possessedgesturemight

bereadasoneofsubtlesubversiontotheethnographicgazethatsurveyshim.This

imagehadtobeturnedclockwisebytheviewer,inordertobeperceivedinitscorrect

408AlbertW.Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.353-420.409JamesStuartOlson,TheIndiansofCentralandSouthAmerica:AnEthnohistoricalDictionary(Westport,Greenwood,1991),p.236.

214

portraitdimension(Fig.5.7).410Thisembodiedactionbroughtthephotographinto

uninterrupteddialoguewithanimageofawoman,printedinexactlythesameportrait

dimensionsontheleft-handsideofthepage,andafull-pagelandscapephotographof

awomanandchildsleepinginahammockthatwaspublishedontheoppositepage.It

renderedtheimageanactiveasopposedtopassiveobject,whichgainedmeaning

specificallywhennavigatedbyaphysicalmovementoftheviewer’shands,whohadto

simultaneouslypullthetextured,mattepagesofthemagazineapartattheseamsin

ordertoviewthemaninhisentirety,andtoreadtheaccompanyingcaption.

Thecaptiontotheimageread:‘YOUNGMEDICINEMANOFTHE

MAYONGONGTRIBE:Hisrawhidebagcontainspebbles,rootsandamiscellaneous

collectionofrubbishwithwhichheworkshishealingmagicuponthecredulous[my

italics].’411Thecontradictorycaptionwasbothapervasivereinforcementofthe

subject’stitillatingobjectificationforthebenefitofthedistancedNationalGeographic

viewer,whichrefusedtounderstandthepracticesandlivedexperiencesofthe

MayongongpopulationwithintheboundariesofWesterncivilisation,andasubversive

illuminationofthesymbolicmeaningofthePortuguesewordgambiarra.Thisterm

carriesastrongculturalandconceptualweightinBrazil,andwasintroducedinthe

analysisofthefirstsnapshot(Fig.5.8)thisthesisexamined.Torecapitulate,whilst

gambiarrahasnoEnglishtranslation,asRicardoRosashassuccinctlyarticulated,itis

‘akintotheEnglishtermmakeshift,referringtoanyimprovisationofanexpedient

substitutewhenothermeansfailorarenotavailable.Inotherwords,“makingdo.”’412

WithinthecontextofNationalGeographic,gambiarrawasexemplifiedbythe

subject’smakeshiftadaptationandimprovisedrecyclingof‘amiscellaneouscollection

410Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,pp.398-99.411Ibid.,p.398.412Rosas,‘TheGambiarra’,pp.343-44.

215

ofrubbish’inordertoassembleasetoftoolsfromwhateverisathand,which

ultimatelyservedadifferentpurposethroughtheirmodification,andenabledhimto

work‘hishealingmagicuponthecredulous’.413Thecaptionbothrepresentedthe

subjectasfarcicalandde-constructedhisreductiveobjectificationbyhighlightingthe

sustainabilityandinventivenessofhiscreativeandpracticalendeavour.Itisinthis

respectthatgambiarracanbelikenedtoLévi-Strauss’conceptof‘bricolage’,wherein

the‘bricoleur’performshistaskswithfragmentary,ready-madematerialsandtools

thatarecloseathand,anddespitetheabsenceofapreconceivedplan,through

instrumentalassemblageexceedstheboundariesimposeduponhim,inthisparticular

example,byNationalGeographic’sethnographicgaze.414

Snapshot8:TheMayongongMan’sRawhideBagandCottonLoincloth

Theredemptivequalityinherentinthere-framingofthisimageseventy-four

yearslaterbyNationalGeographicBrasilinJuly2000mustbeunderstoodinitselfas

anactofbricolage,whichbuiltupon,butalsocamouflaged,thecharacteristicsof

assemblageevidentwithintheconfinesoftheimage.Brazil’shistoricalpast,previously

buriedinNationalGeographic’sphotographicarchiveandNationalGeographic

viewers’personalmagazinecollections,wasre-inscribedinthecontemporaryBrazilian

present,whereitwasretrospectivelyinvestedwithprospectivenewmeanings.The

imagewasenlarged,croppedalongitsleft-handside,andre-framedtoplacethe

subjectinthecentreoftheimage,surroundedbyathinblackborderandpositionedin

thecentreofthewhitemagazinepage.415Thisre-presentationfocusedtheattention

413Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.398.414ClaudeLévi-Strauss,TheSavageMind(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1962).415Moraes,‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde’,p.157.

216

ofthevieweronthesubject,andencouragedhertoexperiencetheimage

meditativelywithintheconventionsofportraiture,whichincapturingalikeness

probestheinneressenceofanindividual,asopposedtoethnography.Thesoftly

layeredtexturesandvaryingtonesoflightanddarkwithintheimagefurther

encouragedtheviewertotakeintoconsiderationthesubject’spointofview,his

expressions,feelings,sensationsandgesturesbeinggivenaheightenedimportance

thatworkedtostrikeanemotionalchord.Thecolourtoneoftheimagewasadjusted

togiveitasepiatint,whichconsciouslyinvestedromanticisingovertonesandgavethe

subjectanairofwisdom.Thiseditorialdecisionenhancedthearchivalqualitiesofthe

imageasareflectionofatimethathadpassed;italsoreiterated,totheastuteviewer,

thatthiswasacolonialdocumentdiscursivelyre-framedwithinthepostcolonial

present.ThereisanoverridingsensethatNationalGeographicBrasilsoughttoreclaim

NationalGeographic’sdistanced,ethnographicgazeandreplaceitwithamore

intimateBraziliangaze,whichcatalysedremembrancebyre-claimingBrazilianhistory

onitsowntermsandmemorialisedthesubjectasanidealisedNobleSavage.

However,asthephotographwasplacedonthepageinportraitdimensions,

theNationalGeographicBrasilviewerdidnotneedtoturnthemagazinepage

clockwise,butcouldstraightforwardlyobservetheimageasitwas.Theimageasre-

presentedintheglossypagesofNationalGeographicBrasilthereforedemandedaless

bodilyengagedmodeofviewingthanithaddoneinNationalGeographicand,

potentially,encouragedamoredistancedrelationtothesubject.Distancewas

reinforcedbythecaptionthataccompaniedthisimageinNationalGeographicBrasil

which,ratherthanemphasisingandbuildinguponthesubject’screative

demonstrationofgambiarra,blindlyquestioned:‘Whydoeshetiehisarmssotight?

217

Manyquestionsremainunanswered.ResearchersdescribedtheIndiansassurprisingly

clean,andcarefreeindifferentiatingmenandwomenindressorhaircut.’416The

captionscrutinisedthesubjectwithacomparablecuriositytothatofNational

Geographic’svisualethnographicgaze,andhighlightedtheBrazilianviewer’s

estrangementfromthesubject’slivedexperience.Dressherebecamethefocusof

difference,whichsmoothedoverthesubtletiesthatdistinguishedmaleandfemale

dresspracticesamongsttheMayongong.Thecaptioncamouflagedthecomplexitiesof

Mayongongsocietyand,ratherthanattemptingtoprovidearicherunderstandingof

theirmaterialcultureusingcontemporaryethnographicresearch,emphasisedinstead

whatwasstillnotknownaboutthem.Inthisrespect,thetextualaccompanimentto

theimagecorrespondedwithcontemporarygovernmentpolicy,implementedin1997

byBrazilianpresidentFernandoHenriqueCardoso(1January1995–1January2003),

whichignoredindigenousconcernsandenabledtheprivateinterestsofland

developers,minersandloggerstostakeaclaimtooverfiftypercentofallindigenous

landinBrazil,frequentlywithdestructiveconsequencesfortheecologyandlivelihood

ofindigenouspeoples.417

WhilstNationalGeographicBrasilre-framedthisimageinostensiblymore

intimatevisualtermsthanNationalGeographic,itscaptionignoredacrucialaspectof

theinterpretationoftheman’screativeandpracticalpracticeofgambiarra,whichis

likelytohavebeenrecognisabletotheBrazilianviewer.Indoingso,itwasexemplary

ofdisplacedasopposedtomisplacedideas,sinceitintentionally,asopposedto

inevitably,asSchwarzmayhavepessimisticallyconcluded,relinquishedtheimage’s

416Moraes,‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde’,p.157;SeeAppendix8forafullEnglishtranslationofthisarticle.417IntroductiontoPoliticsoftheDevelopingWorld,ed.byMarkKesselman(Boston,MA:HoughtonMifflin,2004),p.247.

218

ostensiblydistancedvisualethnographicsignifications,butusedtexttoreplacethem.

Thisactionestablishedanewasymmetricaldynamicofpower,nolongerbetweenthe

UnitedStatesandBrazil,butbetweenBrazilanditself,whichworkedtocamouflage

thesubject’sperformanceofgambiarra,andaccentuatedinsteadthedifferences

betweenthe‘civilised’Brazilianviewer,andthegood-naturedbutpurportedly

‘uncivilised’indigenoussubject.There-framedphotographbecameasentimentalised

andprosaicimageoftheNobleSavage,whichreclaimedtheindigenoussubjectin

morefamiliarandsentimentaltermsthanNationalGeographic,butalsore-fashioned

himtextuallyasapassiveasopposedtoactiveconstruct,whosesartorialpracticesstill

remainedaninsignificantmysterytomosturbanmaleBrazilians.

ADocumentaryGazeonAngolanBraziliansin2003

ThesecondsnapshotthischapterdiscusseswaspublishedinNational

GeographicBrasilinFebruary2003,withinanarticleentitled‘LittleAfrica:Livingina

communityinRiodeJaneiro,peoplefromAngolarecreatetheenvironmentwhere

sambaandcarnivalwereborn’.418Unlikethefirstsnapshotexamined,ratherthan

beingare-presentationofmaterialthathadoriginallybeenpublishedinNational

Geographic,itwasproducedindependentlybyNationalGeographicBrasil,butwasstill

checkedpriortopublicationbyNationalGeographic.Thetwenty-pagearticle

documentedAngolanimmigrantslivinginanareaofRiodeJaneiroidentifiedas‘Little

Africa’becauseofitshighconcentrationofAfro-Brazilians,whointhelatenineteenth

centuryhadbeguntoinhabitthezoneinDowntownRiodeJaneirobetweenthePort

418Beliel,‘MaisBrasil:AngolanosnoRio’.

219

andPraçaOnze.419BelielfabricatedapalimpsesticconnectionbetweenLittleAfrica’s

pan-Africanpast,anditsdiverseAngolanpresent,andsoughttoexaminehownew

culturalpracticeswitnessedintheareawereenrichingandre-inscribingmore

establishedAfro-Brazilianculturalexpressions.Heexplainedhisintentionsforthe

article:

InthelatenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcenturytheareabetweenthedocksandtheneighborhoodsofHealth,SantoCristo,Gamboa,andNewTownPlazaXIwasinhabitedbyslavesanddescendantsofslavesandanAfricanculturedevelopedtherewithsamba,capoeira,andcandomblé.AtthattimetheareawasknownasLittleAfrica.ManyAfricanimmigrantslivinginthisareatodaydonotevenknowthehistoricalcoincidencethattheyaresharingthesamegeographicspacethatotherAfricanshadinhabitedacenturypast.Imadethedecisiontogiveadirectapproach,andmakeacultural,historical,socialandpoliticalcomparisonbetweennineteenthcenturyAfricaandtheAngolanslivingthereinthepresent.420

Belielwasclearlysensitivetothedepthandcomplexitiesoflivedexperiencesin

Angola,whichreceivedindependencefromPortuguesecolonialrulein1975,overone

hundredandfiftyyearssubsequenttoBrazilianindependencein1822,butdescended

intoaturbulentCivilWarthatcontinued,interspersedwithfragmentedperiodsof

peace,until2002.421Asheexplained:

InthecaseofAngolaIhaveknownthecountryalongtime.Iwenttherethefirsttimecoveringthewarin1996andthenreturned,oftenreportingonculturalandsocialissues.InRio,atthetimeIwrotethismaterialforNational

419Thename‘LittleAfrica’isattributedtoBraziliancomposerandpainterHeitordosPrazeres(1898-1966),wholivednearPraçaOnze.BrunoCarvalhoprovidesaninterestinganalysisoftheareaduringthefirstdecadesofthetwentiethcentury,when‘LittleAfrica’constitutedtheuncivilisedOtherareaofRiodeJaneiro,apointofcontrasttothebeautiful,modernisingSouthZone.See‘BeyondtheBelleEpoque:OntheBorderofa“DividedCity”,PorousCity:ACulturalHistoryofRiodeJaneiro(Liverpool:UniversityPress,2013),pp.74-103.420RicardoBeliel,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(11April–12May2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.421AlthoughtheAngolanCivilWarwasfuelledbymilitaryrivalrybetweenthePopularMovementfortheLiberationofAngola(MPLA)andtheNationalUnionfortheTotalIndependenceofAngola(UNITA),twoformerliberationmovementswhowereinconflictfollowingthedecolonisationofAngola,fightingwaspropelledbyinternalandexternalcircumstancesthatstemmedfromColdWardynamicsbetweentheUSAandUSSR.WhilsttheconditionsoftheAngolanCivilWararestillsubjecttodebateandreflection,acomprehensiveintroductionthataddressesthecomplexitiesofLusophoneAfricawithinthepostcolonial,globaleracanbefoundinFernandoArena,LusophoneAfrica:BeyondIndependence(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2011).

220

GeographicBrasil,IknewverywellseveralAngolanimmigrantsorstudentslivinginBrazil.WhenIthoughtaboutdoingthisjobitwasbecauseIhadalotofinformationandaccesstotheenvironmentofthiscommunity.422

DespiteBeliel’sawarenessoftheproblemsthathadbeenencouragingAngolan

refugeestoemigratetoBrazilsince1975,aproblematicinterweavingofpastand

presentpermeatedhisarticle,throughrepeatedallusionstoacollectiveAfricanpast

allegedlyinscribedintheactivitiesofpresent-dayAngolans,andtheenvironmentin

whichtheylived.HeobservedthatAngolans‘haveintheirbloodtheheritageofa

continentwhichtheyknowonlytobeontheothersideoftheocean’.423Such

ambiguouscommentscontributedtoanimaginaryideaofasingularandculturally

monolithicentitytermedAfrica,towhichAngolansareintimatelyconnectedbyvirtue

ofhavingbeenborninthesamelandmass,whichoversimplifiedthecontinent’s

diversepeoples,culturesandhistories.Belielnotedthat‘preservingtheircultureisa

lawamongimmigrants’who‘recreatetheenvironmentwheresambaandcarnival

wereborn’.424SimilarobservationswovenintothefabricofthearticleplacedAngolan

subjectswithinafixedandtraditionalpast,concernedonlywithsafeguarding

stereotypicalAfro-Brazilianculturalexpressions,anddisregardedtheirabilityto

exercisechoiceanddiscretioninincorporatingnewideasfromcontemporaryglobal

culture.

Nevertheless,interlacedwithinthisdominanttextualnarrative,wasarevealing

subtext(manifestinthetextandimagery),whichfocusedonyoungmaleAngolans,

whore-elaboratedandre-negotiatedglobalhip-hopculturethroughclothing,style,

bodylanguageandgesture.Thissubnarrativemovedbeyondthepotentially

422Beliel,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.423Beliel,‘MaisBrasil:AngolanosnoRio’,p.116.RefertoAppendix8:TranslatedArticles.424Ibid.,p.114.

221

objectifyingandmystifyingtextualdescriptionsthatconflatedAngolawiththeAfrican

continentinitsentiretyandblurreddistinctionsbetweenthecolonialpastand

postcolonialpresent.Instead,Belielusedhip-hoptohighlightthemultidirectional

flowsofglobalisationthathaveenabledyoungAngolanrapperstoself-fashiontheir

diasporicidentitiesin-betweentheU.S.,BrazilandAngola.Heoutlinedthesartorial

subtletiesofAngolanidentificationwithhip-hopinBrazil,whichhasadapted

ubiquitousglobalclothing(sneakers)tolocaltastes(intermsofcolour):

ItisnothardtorealisetheAngolanpresenceamongthecrowdinLapaneighbourhood.Stylemakesthedifference.Ignoringalleconomicissues,theimmigrantswearacombinationofforeignlabelswithanAfricantouch.Forthemtobewell‘labeled’,astheycallit,theywillspend500RSinshiningsneakersinAngolancolours–redandblack.425

BelielcarefullyexplainedtheoppressionthatAngolanshadencounteredinAngola,but

alsothemarginalisationandsubordinationtheyhavebeensubjecttosincetheirarrival

inBrazil,wherethehistoryofcolonialrepressionreverberatedincontemporaryAfro-

Brazilianexperiences.HequotedanAngolanrappernamedBigMani,wholeftAngola

toescapeenforcedmilitaryconscription,reintroducedbytheAngolangovernmentin

1993:‘”Herethere’salotofprejudicetowardsAfricans.Theystillthinkweareslaves

andI’vebeenaskedifIcametoBrazilwhileridingahorse”’.426Thisimportant

contextualbackgroundenabledAngolanimmigrants’engagementswithhip-hoptobe

seen,notasderivativeandtrivialinrelationtoU.S.hip-hop,butasameansof

individualself-expressiontofashionandperformpoliticalviewsagainsttherepressive

measuresoftheAngolangovernment,butalsoagainstaraciallyintolerantBrazilian

society.Ratherthantheadoptionofhip-hopinBrazilbeingexemplaryofmisplaced

ideas,itsappropriationandre-definitionbyyoungAngolanmentoaddress

contemporarydiasporicstruggleswasatangibledemonstrationofdisplacedideas.425Ibid.,p.122.426Ibid.,p.123.RefertoAppendix8:TranslatedArticles

222

Snapshot9:LourençoLoy’sRedandWhiteBandanaandGoldMedallion

Oftheninebrightlycolouredphotographsthataccompaniedthearticle,one

particularsnapshotstoodoutforitsmultilayeredqualitiesandstartlingabilityto

provideadynamicspaceofagencyforthemalesubjecttofashionhisglobalhip-hop

identitythroughdressandgesture.Itwasaportraitofanathleticandmuscularyoung

blackrappernamedLourençoLoy(Fig.5.9).427Heiscapturedposingontheright-hand

sideofasingle-pagespread,oppositeahalf-pageblockoftextthatrestsabovea

candidhalf-pagephotographoftwoolderAngolanleaders,MuadaFelizandMaitre

Boa,wholeadaceremonyinaKibanguistaChurchinRiodeJaneiro,nativetothe

Bakongocommunity.Thereisanimmediatevisualdistinctionbetweenthebright

contrastsandcolourfuljuxtapositionsofred,yellowandgreenthatframeLourenço

Loyoutsideinthephotographontheright,andthemoresombrepaleyellowsand

whitethatframethetwofiguresinsideontheleft.Thisdistinctionisreinforced

throughtheclothingchoicesofrepresentedsubjects;unlikethephotographonthe

left,dressdominatestheimageofLourençoLoy,whoappearscomfortablewiththe

prospectofbeingseen.

Thecaptiondirectedtheviewer’sattentiontowardsdressasthecentralpoint

ofreferenceforaninterpretationoftheimage:‘TheclothingofLourençoLoy,a

rapper,showsthevanityofAngolanyouth.’428Whilstvanityisaderogatorychoiceof

word,suggestingthesubjecthasanarcissisticpreoccupationwithhisownmirror

image,italsopointedoutthatitisaconsciousdecisionofthesubjecttodresslikethis,

thesubjecthavingcarefullychosenthetermsonwhichhepresentshimselftothe

photographer’sgaze.Inhighlightingthatthis‘vanity’isprevalentamongstAngolan

427Ibid.,p.117.428Ibid.

223

youth,thecaptionalsoarticulatedanoppositiontotheoldermenontheleft-hand

sideofthedouble-pageview,whomayhavebeenassociatedwithmoreconventional

Angolancultureandcapturedseeminglyunawareoftheirownactions,and

foregroundsinsteadasenseofbecomingthroughyouthfashionsandself-

presentation.Thesubjectwearsoversizedbaggygreytrousers,aredandwhiteprinted

bandanathatpushesbackhisbraidedhair,awhiteNikesweatbandonhisrightwrist,

shinytintedsunglasses,silverrings,adiamantestudinhisrightear,alargewatchand

aheavygoldchain.Thechainoccupiesthecentreoftheframeandhasapendanthung

ontheendthatreads‘DeathRowRecords’.Thependanthastheemblemofthe

Americanrecordcompany‘DeathRowRecords’thatwasfoundedin1991andwas

famousforsigningnumerousWestCoasthip-hopartistssuchasAfrican-American

rapperTupacShakur,whoworeasolidgold,diamond-encrustedversion.429Lourenço

Loy’sclothingshowsthatheisinfluencedbythemalebravadoofU.S.hip-hopstyle,

andheemulatesthepopulargestures.Croucheddownlow,thecreasesandfoldsof

hisbaggydenimjeansareemphasised.Hisbodylanguageisconfidentandheglances

askance,lookingupandoutsideoftheframewithasenseofself-possession.Hewears

noshirtandtheupperpartsofhisarmsarehighlightedtoexaggeratehismuscular

physique.Shotfromalowangle,thesubjectconveysstrength.Hiscarefullypositioned

handgestures,withthewristsbentslightlyforward,renderthehandslargerandmore

expressivetothecamera.Theygiveasenseofthesubjectasanexhibitorofhisown

actionsthroughdressandbodylanguage.

WhilsthisdressandbodylanguageidentifyhimwithAfrican-Americanpopular

culture,therearevisualandtextualcueswithintheimagethatreferencelocal

429RoninRo,HaveGunWillTravel:TheSpectacularRiseandViolentFallofDeathRowRecords(NewYork:Doubleday,1998).

224

BrazilianandAngolanculturalmarkers,andsuggestthathisstyleisnotsimplyan

inferiorandmisplacedimitationofAfrican-Americanhip-hop.Ratherthanbeing

placedinahomogenousandunidentifiableenvironment,LourençoLoyis

photographedsittingonstonestepsthatleaduptothebrightexteriorfaçadeofa

yellow,green,blackandredcolonial-stylehousebuiltbythePortuguese.Thehouseis

decoratedinblocksofPan-Africancoloursthatalsomakeupthecoloursofthe

AngolannationalflaganditsBraziliancounterpart.Thesecontextualdetailsfirmly

situatehisprocessesofself-fashioningwithinBrazilianandAngolan,asopposedto

U.S.,interests,anddemonstratehowfashionhasbeenadaptedtolocalconcerns.As

CarolM.RotleyandGeraldineRosaHendersonhavepointedout,whilstmany‘global

hip-hopsubsegmentstakecuesfromAfrican-Americanhip-hop,theyalsoimbueit

withaninventivenessandcreativitysothatitbecomesuniquelytheirs,andrepresents

theirpains,strugglesandpoliticalissues’.430

Yetthelayoutofthisbrightlycolouredimageonthedouble-pagemagazine

spreadcomplicatedthepoliticalmessagesthatwereencodedwithinthesubject’s

performanceofhip-hopthroughdressandgesture.Itriskedplacingthesubjectasa

hyperbolicexpressionofblackOtherness,advertisedforaestheticappropriationbya

distanced,white-skinnedNationalGeographicBrasilviewer.Presented

straightforwardlyonthepage,asthoughonastageorscreen,Loyisthemale

protagonistofadramabeingnarrated,andviewerswatchhimperformhisstarring

role,whereheisgivenspaceforself-presentationandself-expression.Theextreme430CarolM.MotleyandGeraldineRosaHenderson,‘TheGlobalHip-HopDiaspora:UnderstandingtheCulture’,JournalofBusinessResearch,61(2008),243-53(p.246).AlthoughnotreferringexplicitlytoAngolanimmigrants’identificationwithhip-hop,DerekPardueprovidesaninformativeethnographicstudyofBrazilianhip-hop,predominantlyasithasemergedanddevelopedontheperipheryofSaoPauloinrecentyears.HehaspointedouthowBrazilianhip-hoppers‘borrowandrecasthip-hopsignstheyassociatedwiththeU.S.’throughaprocessofculturalappropriationandnegotiation.DerekPardue,IdeologiesofMarginalityinBrazilianHip-Hop:RetellingMarginalitythroughMusic(London:PalgraveMacMillan,2008),p.6.

225

close-upanddominantpositionofLourençoLoyonthemagazinepageplacedhimtoo

closefortheviewernottoexperienceanintimateengagementwithhim,yettheterms

ofthatinvolvementwerecontradictoryandambiguous.Inherdiscussionoffilm,

whichisusefulwhenanalysingphotographyanditssequentiallayoutinmagazines,

JenniferM.Barkerhaswrittenofhow‘thissenseoffleshy,muscular,visceralcontact

seriouslyunderminestheoppositionbetweentheviewerandthefilm,invitingusto

thinkofthemasintimatelyrelatedbutnotidentical,caughtupinarelationshipof

intersubjectivityandco-constitution,ratherthanassubjectandobjectpositedon

oppositesidesofthescreen.’431Inthisphotographicexample,however,thesubject

looksbeyondthephotographframe,andrefusestoengagewithhisaudience,which

engendersanuneasiness,andfrustratesaphysicaloremotionalintersubjectivity

betweenviewerandsubjectthroughthepagesofthemagazine.Thereisanarrayof

texturescentredondressandthebodywithintheimage,fromroughdenimjeans,

smoothskin,gleamingplasticsunglasses,softcottonbandana,toshinygoldmedallion,

allofwhichemphasisesurfaceoverdepth.Whiletheprofoundlytactilequalityofthe

imageostensiblybringstheviewerclosertothesubject,andencourages,asBarkerhas

articulated,‘acaressingtouchratherthanapenetratinggaze’,thebrightblocksof

saturatedcolourandthesubject’sblackskinaddarhythmicandemotionaldimension

thatencouragesaloud,synaesthesticresponse,andthreatenstooverridetheviewer’s

deeperunderstandingofthesociopoliticalpurposeofhip-hopforAngolanimmigrants

livinginRiodeJaneiro.432Itisinthisveinthatthephotographiscomparabletoimages

ofnon-Westernsubjectsre-framedinNationalGeographicFashion,examinedinthe

previouschapter,whichdemonstratedatendencytofocusontheirexoticspectacleas

431JenniferM.Barker,TheTactileEye:TouchandtheCinematicExperience(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2009),pp.12-13.432Barker,TheTactileEye,p.24.

226

opposedtoacknowledgingcriticallytheindividualprocessesofself-fashioning.Kobena

Mercerhasemployedtheterm‘hyperblackness’todescribetheparadoxicalcondition

ofblackculturalexpressionssuchaship-hopwhich,asahighlyvisualformofglobal

brandingmarkedbyrhetoricalexcessandexaggeration,oftendivorcesblackculture

fromitspoliticalaspirations,particularlywhenviewedbywhite-skinned

viewers/consumers.433Hyperblacknesswasapparent,notsolelyinthisparticular

image,butinnearlyalloftheimagesreproducedwithintheNationalGeographicBrasil

article,eachofwhichhadalyricalqualityandarhythmicdimension,fabricatedbythe

brightcoloursandtactiletexturesthatframedtheblackmale(andfemale)subjects.

Whilstthisdialecticbetweenfigure,formandcolourfulenvironmentcouldbereadas

acelebrationofblackness,theimages’referentialcapacitiesweredrastically

underminedwhenviewedincomparisontotheadvertisementsreproducedelsewhere

withinthesameeditionofthemagazine,whichpresentedonlywhiteBraziliansin

aspirationalscenarios.

Belielhasexplainedthephotographicapproachheadoptedforthisarticle:

Manyofthephotosarespontaneoussituationsthatnaturallyhappened,I’venevercreatedanartificialsituationtophotograph,whatIdoisjournalism,butIcanaskthepersonbeingphotographedtoremaininaplaceoradirection,inordertolooktothevalueofthefinalimage[…]Apictureofsomeonealwayshasthecooperationofthepersonbeingphotographed.Itisimpossibletoremainindifferentandbephotographed.Everyoneissomehowexpressedthroughbeingphotographed.434

Hisinitialdescriptionoftheprocessbywhichhedocumentedhissubjectsrestedfirmly

withintheconfinesofreportageandconnotedspontaneity,neutralityonthepartof

433KobenaMercer,‘DiasporaAestheticsandVisualCulture’inBlackCulturalTraffic:CrossroadsinGlobalPerformanceandPopularCulture,ed.byHarryJ.Elam,Jr.andKennellJackson(AnnArbor:TheUniversityofMichiganPress,2005),pp.141-61(p.160).434Beliel,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.

227

thephotographer,truthfulnessandobjectivity.Yet,inapparentopposition,Belielthen

acknowledgedthathemightdirectthesubject‘toremaininaplaceordirection’,and

thateveryphotographiscollaborativetosomeextent,sincethesubjectisalways

responsivetothephotographer’sgaze,andtherebyhasadegreeofagencyinself-

presentationbeforehiscamera.Thisdescriptionofhisworkingmethodshighlighteda

similarcontradictiontoStanmeyer,whowasquotedinthepreviouschapter.

Stanmeyer’sworkingmethodsoscillatedbetweentransparentlyobjective,evidentin

hisassertionthat‘thisisreportagephotography.Itisnaturallyhappening–noposes

orstylingdone’,andopenlyfictitious,apparentinhisacknowledgementthatcapturing

aphotographwas‘likeworkingapotterywheel,constantlymoldingtheclayuntilthe

narrativetakesshapeandform’.435BothBelielandStanmeyerdefinedtheir

photojournalisticapproachesinoppositionto,orpossiblyevenbeyond,simplistic

oppositionsbetweenfactandfiction.Theircommentsbearwitnesstotheinstabilityof

reportagephotography,andsuggestacontemporaryshifttowardsacknowledgingits

decidedlysubjectivestatus,evenasitsobjectivityissimultaneouslyreasserted.T.J.

Demoshaspointedoutthatithasbecome‘common,evenfashionable,toannounce

subjectivebiases,ortoarguefortheimpossibilityofdocumentaryrepresentationtout

court,duetoitshistoricallydiscreditedstatus’.436Demosarticulatedadesireto

suspenddisbelief,toassertthatreportageisobjective,evenasthisproclamationis

forciblyrejectedbythewidespreadandcross-culturalinclinationtohighlightthe

creativefabricationofanimagebytheartisticmasteryofthephotographer

(particularlyinthecaseofStanmeyer,whoadoptsamoreauthoritarianapproach),but

435Stanmeyer,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.436T.J.Demos,TheMigrantImage:TheArtandPoliticsofDocumentaryduringGlobalCrisis(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2013),p.36.

228

oftenalsoincollaborationwithhissubjects(inthemorecooperativeexampleof

Beliel).

RatherlikeBeliel’sdescriptionofhisworkingmethods,thesecondsnapshot

thischapterexaminedwasindeterminate.WhilstAngolanhip-hopfashionswornin

Brazilwereadisplacedre-interpretationofUnitedStatesmainstreamhip-hopculture,

adaptedandlocalisedtohighlightthepovertyandracialinequalityexperiencedby

AngolanslivingonthesocialmarginsofRiodeJaneiro,theirrepresentationby

NationalGeographicBrasilpresentedacarnivalesquespectacleofblackOtherness,

whichwasadvertisedforaestheticappropriationbyadistancedwhiteviewer.Ithinted

thatthevisualandtactilegazeoftheNationalGeographicBrasilviewerinrelationto

theAngolansubjectwasimbuedwithunevenrelationsofpower;whereasthis

dynamichadpreviouslybeenbetweenNationalGeographicandBraziliansubjects,

powerhadbeenmobilisedandexchanged,andwasnowinoperationbetween

NationalGeographicBrasilandAngolanslivinginBrazil.Thissnapshotencapsulated

displacedideastotheextentthatithighlightedtheadditionalhierarchiesprevalent

withinthePortuguesecolonies,andcontributedtoanoverridingimpressionthata

newcontactzonehademerged,nolongerbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil,but

betweenBrazilandAngolanimmigrantswithinitsborders.

APortraitureGazeonJapaneseBraziliansin2008

ThethirdsnapshotthischapterexamineswaspublishedinNationalGeographic

BrasilinJune2008,withinanarticleentitled‘NearEast:InLiberdadeinSãoPaulo,the

229

spiritof100yearsofJapaneseimmigrationtoBrazilresides.’437LikeBeliel’sarticle,it

examinedanareaofSaoPaulonamed‘Liberdade’(‘Freedom’)in1920,whichhasbeen

hometothelargestJapaneseexpatriatecommunityintheworldsince1912.Scavone

explainedthatthearticlewaspublished‘tocelebrate100yearsofJapanesepresence

inBrazil’,sincethefirstJapaneseimmigrantsarrivedinSantos,stateofSaoPaulo,on

theKasatoMarushipinJune1908.438Thereductivetitle,‘NearEast’,drewuponNorth

AmericanandWesternEuropeanideasofanexoticOrient.ItplacedLiberdadeasa

synecdocheforJapan,whichwasextendable,throughthedeliberateandnebuloususe

ofthegeographicallyindistinctterm‘theEast’,totheOrientinitsentirety,substituting

apartforawholeinasmuchasBeliel’sarticlenarratedaculturallydistinctareaofRio

deJaneiroasasynecdocheforAfricaatlarge.

Scavone’stexthadamoremeditativequalitythanBeliel’sinthewaythatit

lyricallyinterlacedpastandpresentthroughaffectivedescriptions,whichrecalledhis

owncaptivatingandsubjectivememoriesofLiberdadeonfirstvisitingtheareainthe

early1970s,accompaniedbyhisfather,forwhom‘themagicoftheJapanesedistrict

hadlongagocapturedhisimaginationasawriter’.439Scavonere-presentedLiberdade

lessasageographicallydistinctzoneasanidealisedrealmforimagination,desireand

nostalgia,whereboththeJapaneseexpatriateandtheBrazilianobservermighthope

toretrieveandreigniteamemoryofapastJapanesepresenceunavailableinthe

present.ScavonedescribedhowthearchitectureandurbanenvironmentofLiberdade

have‘anambercolourthatisloadedwithnostalgia’,whichinautumnallightmadeit

437Scavone,‘NearEast’.438MarcioScavone,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(22November2014–6January2015).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.439Scavone,‘NearEast’,p.45.

230

appear‘evenmoreoriginal,morereal,andclosertoitsEasterndescent’.440Such

romanticiseddescriptionsevokedanimageofafadedoldsepia-tintedphotograph,

ratherlikethevisualtropeusedinNationalGeographicBrasilinthefirstsnapshot

examined,wheretimeandspacewereintricatelyinterwoventhroughthephysical

disintegrationofthematerialobject,whichwasmadetosymboliseabygoneera.

ScavonedescribedhowincontemporaryLiberdade‘everythingseemstoblur,waiting

foramysteriousordertoreturntowhatitoncewas’.441Suchnostalgiclongingsfora

more‘authentic’butpastLiberdadeofthe1960sand1970spermeatedhiswriting,a

periodhedeemedtobeof‘strengthandculturalautonomy’,butwasirretrievablylost

inthepresent,sincethearea‘grewupandwasswallowedbythemetropolis…

dissolvedintheethnicmeltingpotofneighboringareas’.442

Thesesensualtextualdescriptionswerereinforcedbytheaccompanying

images.Thetenphotographspublishedwithinthesixteen-pagearticleemployeda

shallowdepthoffield,atechniqueoftenusedinportraiture,whichrenderedmanyof

thebuildings,figuresandfacesdocumentedslightlyblurred(seeforexampleFigs.5.10

and5.11).Whilstthisphotographicdecisionevokedanostalgicmoodthatconnected

tothewhimsicaldescriptionsofthetext,italsoestablishedaboundary,ratherlikea

diaphanousveil,betweenthesubjectandtheviewer,whichobscuredtheviewer’s

directentranceintothesettingandcharactersofthescene,andfrustratedan

immediateidentification,andemotionalconnection,withrepresentedJapanese-

Braziliansubjects.

440Ibid.441Ibid.442Ibid.p.46.

231

Snapshot10:TheJapanese-BrazilianWomen’sCottonYucataandWoodenGeta

Aparticularexamplecanbeseeninthefinalsnapshotthischapterexamines,

whichwasreproducedonadouble-pagespread(Fig5.12).443Spreadhorizontally

acrossthepage,itcapturedthirteenwomenofJapanese-Braziliandescentinan

interiorsetting,linedupinarowtofacethegazeofScavone’scamera,andthatofthe

NationalGeographicBrasilviewer.Thewomenarephotographedstationaryand

subjecttoalevelofscrutinyastheystandupstraight,dressedintheyukata,an

informalandmorecomfortableunlinedversionofthekimono,whichisconstructed

fromalightweight,printedcottonfabric.Thecreasesandfoldsoftheirclothingare

capturedincrispdetailbyScavone’scamera.Decoratedwithaboldlyprintedgraphic

patternthatstretchesfromdarkbluearoundthebottomtopalepurpleatthetop,the

textureofthewomen’syukatacontrastswiththeblurofpolishedwoodenfloorinthe

foregroundoftheimage.Abrightredobi,silksash,iswornhighupandtiedtight

behindthesubjects’waists.Itiscrisplyphotographedtohighlightthedelicately

patternedpolkadotsimprinteduponthecloth.Thewomenweargeta,Japanese

footwearwithalongculturalheritage,whichareconstructedfromwoodandasoft

thongedpieceofclothorleather.AnexampleofayukataandgetacanbeseeninFigs.

5.13and5.14,takeninashoponRuaGalvãoBueno,inLiberdade,SaoPauloin2014.

Whenwearinggeta,thefootsitslightlyonthewoodenbaseoftheshoe,notpushed

entirelyintotheforkofthethong,whichrequiresaslightforwardtiltfromthewearer,

particularlywhenwalking.Eventhoughthewomenarecapturedstationary,Scavone’s

443Ibid.,pp.44-45.

232

cameraangleemphasisesthisforwardtiltcreatedbythegetainaction,sothatthe

womenappearreadytotoppleforwardtowardstheviewer.

Thewomen’sdifferentfacialfeaturescounteractthehomogeneityoftheir

dress,whichassumesasuperficialveneerofanonymityassociatedwithanyformof

uniform.Notallofthesubjects’facescanbeseen,asaresultoftheharshcropping

andfull-pagebleedofthephotograph,whichcamefromamuchlargerprint(Fig.

5.15).Thatwecannotseealloftheindividualfacesdiscouragesidentificationwiththe

subjectsonthepartoftheviewer,whosurveysthewomenbutisunabletogetclose

tothem,andisinsteadcaptivatedbytherangeoftactilesurfacetexturesevokedby

theblurredshallowdepthoffieldandthecontrastbetweensmoothwoodandcrisp

cotton.Thosefacesthatarecapturedpresentamixtureofexpressions,fromforced

smilestoapparentindifference.Noneofthesubjectslookatthecamera,noratone

another,exceptforthesubjectonthefarleftwhogazeswarilyinthedirectionofthe

photographer,possiblyenactingacovertformofresistancetoherdocumentation.

Thatallofthewomenexceptforoneclutchtheirhandsacrosstheirbodiesandin

frontoftheircrotchesdrawsattentiontothewidesleevesoftheiryukatabutalso

accentuatestheirfemininity;asScavonelateracknowledged,‘formethisphotograph

isallabouttheexpressionsofthegirlsbeingtransferredtotheirhandsandfeet’.444

ThephotographwastakenduringabeautycontestheldduringtheTanabata

MatsurifestivalthattakesplaceinJapanandSaoPaulointhefirstweekendofJuly.

Thecaptionthataccompaniedthephotographacknowledgedthisandread:‘MISS

TANABATACONTESThappensattheAssociationheadquartersMiyaguiKenjinkail.In

2008the30theditionwillbeheld.Thecandidates,whocomefromalloverthestateof

444Scavone,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.

233

SãoPaulo,arewearingtheyukata,alightercostumekimono,whichiscompatiblewith

theclimateofBrazil.ClothingisagoodsymboloftheJapaneseBrazilian

neighborhoods.’445Thecaptionstagedanambivalence;itbothhighlightedhowa

traditionalmodeofJapanesefemaledresshasbeenreinventedandacclimatisedfor

localwearinBrazil,butitalsousedclothingasasymbolofethnicandcultural

difference.Ontheonehand,theyukataisaformofdressthatisexemplaryof

displacedideasandhasenabledJapanese-Braziliansubjectstoself-fashionandself-

presentbyaffirmingtheircross-culturalidentitiesin-betweenJapanandBrazil.446The

captionhighlightedthatthismodeofethnicdresswasnotstaticbuthadbeenfluidly

refashionedforcompatibilitywithitslocalcontext.Itacknowledgedthatthe

photographhadbeentakenonaceremonialoccasion,whichreiteratedthatitis

unlikelytohavebeenwornbythesewomenonadailybasis,buthasbeenusedto

reviveandreigniteamoretraditionalandfeminineJapaneseidentityforaspecific

purpose.Yetsimultaneously,theyukataprovidedasartorialfocustomobilisethe

distanceanddifferenceofthefemalesubjectsinrelationtothepredominantlymale

NationalGeographicBrasilviewer.Thatthewomenaredocumentedinsidegivesa

senseoffemininedomesticity,whichcontrastedwiththetoughmasculinityevokedby

therepresentationofLourençoLoyintheprevioussnapshotexamined.Thecaption

encouragesaquasi-ethnographicsurveillanceofthewomen,ratherlikethecaptionin

thefirstsnapshotexamined,andassertedthedistinctivenessoftheirdresswhilst

remarkingthatitwasculturallyspecifictoJapaneseBrazilians,ratherthanareflection

445Scavone,‘NearEast’,pp.44-45.446ThefollowingstudiesprovideaninformativeintroductiontohowJapaneseimmigrantshavesimultaneouslyassimilatedwithBraziliancustoms,butalsoexpressedasenseofloyaltytoJapaneseculturalpracticesthroughoutthetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturies:SearchingforHomeAbroad:JapaneseBraziliansandTransnationalism,ed.byJeffreyLesser(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2003);JeffreyLesser,ADiscontentedDiaspora:JapaneseBraziliansandtheMeaningsofEthnicMilitancy,1960-1980(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2007);TakeyukiTsuda,JapaneseBrazilianReturnMigrationinTransnationalPerspective(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2003).

234

ofasartorialperformancere-enactedtomarkaspecificevent.Suchatouristicgaze

wasreinforcedbythefactthatalmostallofthewomenshylyaverttheirgazefromthe

viewer,contributingtoafeelingoftheirsubmissiontothephotographer’sgaze.

Certainly,itwasaconsciousdecisionmadebyNationalGeographicBrasilto

choosetopublishthisphotographofJapaneseBrazilianwoman,wearingaformof

cross-culturaldresslesseasilyrecognisabletotheviewer,thantoincludeafarmore

dynamicandcontemporary(bothindressandphotographictechnique)imagethat

ScavonecapturedonthesametriptoLiberdade(Fig.5.16).Thisphotograph

documentedaJapanese-Brazilianwomanoutsideinbrightsunlightintheurbancity

environmentofSaoPaulo.Althoughthebackgroundisblurred,thecentralsubjectis

crisplydocumented,distinctfromthehazyimagesreproducedinNationalGeographic

Brasil,tocapturetheknitofhergreysleevelessroll-necktop,theglossysheenofher

darkhair,andthesparkleofherdiamanteearrings.Eventhoughthesubjectdoesnot

lookdirectlyatussheappearsconfidentandself-possessed,andtheup-closefocuson

herface,assheglancestoherleft,engendersamoreintimateengagementbetween

viewerandsubject.HermodeofdressismorereflectiveofwhatmostJapanese

Braziliansmightwearonadailybasis.ThephotographcouldhavebeentakeninTokyo

orSaoPaulo,andreflectsmorerealisticallythecross-culturalmixofculturesthat

interactandnegotiateinLiberdade,whichisnotaromanticisedlocationofquaint

Japanesecustoms,astheimagere-presentedinNationalGeographicBrasilmayhave

suggested,butoneareaofathrivingglobalcity.

Scavone’ssummaryofhisphotographicapproachinthisarticleprovidesan

interestingpointonwhichtoconcludethischapter.Asheexplained:

235

Iamabsolutelytakenbyportraitphotography,somuchsothatIusemyapproachtoportraituretoexplainandnavigateinallothergenresofphotographythatinterestme[…]Idecidedthatanessayaboutacity,astreetoradistrict,likeLiberdade,isaportrait,Icallitanexpandedportrait.Iletthepeopleandtheobjectstellthestory[…]Myapproachwouldneverbeobjective,therewasneveranintentionofjournalismbehindit[myitalics].447

Scavoneclearlydrewontheaestheticqualitiesandcommunicativepossibilitiesof

portraiture,amodeofdepictionthatisrootedinsubjectivity,reinforcedbyhis

assertionthat‘Myapproachwouldneverbeobjective’.448Heoutlinedtheaesthetic

qualitiesandcommunicativepotentialsofhispractice,whichoverrideitsreferential

function,asanunbiasedmeansofaccuratelyconveyingdetailedinformation.Yethis

assertion,‘Iletthepeopleandtheobjectstellthestory’,actuallysuggestedamore

unmediatedrelationtohissubjectsthanthepreviousphotographersexaminedinthis

thesis,eachofwhomwasquicktoassertthereportagestatusoftheirpractice.449

Scavonesuggested,instead,thatthelivedexperiencesandpracticesofhissubjects

drovethecreativefabricationoftheimages,ratherthanhisowndesiretoimposea

particularstyleorsingulardocumentary‘truth’.Hisapproach,eventhoughthe

photographsselectedforinclusioninthemagazinetendedtofocusonmore‘ethnic’

formsofdress,wasthereforeashiftbeyondthatofthepreviousphotographers

examinedinthisthesis.ThisisbecauseScavone’scommentssuggestedacriticalre-

thinkingofdocumentaryphotography,whichcontainedthepotentialforamore

subjectivere-workingofthemedium,apointthatwillbetakenupintheworkofthe

photographerexaminedinthefinalchapterofthisthesis.

ThischapterhasexaminedtheestablishmentanddevelopmentofNational

GeographicBrasiloveritsfirsttenyearsinpublication.Inallthreeofthesnapshots447Scavone,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.448Ibid.449Ibid.

236

examinedtherehasbeenaconcernwithBrazil’shistoryandculturalidentity.Thefirst

snapshotre-framedandre-contextualisedanimageofanindigenousBraziliansubject

thathadoriginallybeenpublishedinNationalGeographicinApril1926,andplaced

himinmoreromanticisedandsentimentaltermsasaNobleSavageseventy-sixyears

later.YetNationalGeographicBrasilcamouflagedanimportantaspectofthesubject’s

creativeperformanceofgambiarra,andrenderedhimapassivesignifierofBrazil’s

indigenoushistory,divorcedfromcontemporaryBraziliancivilisation.Therewasan

overridingsenseinthissnapshotthatNationalGeographicBrasilhadre-fashionedthe

Mayongongsubjectasobjectifiedandraciallymonolithic,ratherthanthesubject’s

ownpracticesofself-fashioningconstitutinganactofindividualdefiancetohisoriginal

ethnographicsurveillancebyNationalGeographic.WhilstNationalGeographicBrasil

clearlyvisuallydeconstructedsomeoftheasymmetricalrelationsofpowerpreviously

inplacebetweentheindigenousBraziliansubjectandtheNationalGeographicviewer,

itmobilisedanewdynamicofcontrolthroughtextthatessentialisedandidealised

Brazil’sindigenouspast,andpaidlittleattentiontothesubjectivitiesandsubtletiesin

differentiationindressbetweenMayongongmenandwomen.Overall,thissnapshot

wasexemplaryofdisplacedratherthanmisplacedideas,becauseitintentionally,as

opposedtoaccidentallyorinevitably,usedtheindigenoussubjectasatooltomobilise

collectivememoryofanindigenouspastforthebenefitofcontemporaryBrazilian

viewers,yetindoingso,refusedtounderstandBrazil’snumerousandculturally

distinctindigenoussocietiesasbelongingtopartofthepresent.

Thesecondandthirdsnapshotsbothexaminedculturallydistinctimmigrant

communitiesofAngolansandJapaneselivinginzonedareasoflargeurbancities,Rio

deJaneiroandSaoPaulo.Bothofthearticlesthatthesesnapshotswerepublished

237

withinstruckanemotionalchordwiththeviewerthroughtheircomplexinterweaving

ofpastandpresent,andconstantreferencestoatraditionalpastapparentlyinscribed

inthesubject’spresent-dayactivities.WithinBeliel’sarticle,aninterestingsubtext,in

textandimages,concerningyoungAngolanmales’identificationwithglobalhip-hop

throughdressandgesture,workedtounderminetheproblematicanddominant

textualnarrative.Hip-hopenabledtheNationalGeographicBrasilviewertoseehow

Angolansubjectsnegotiatedandre-negotiatedglobalfashionsandusedthemto

expresstheirsocially,culturallyandpoliticallymarginalisedexperiencesinBrazil,but

alsoAngola,whichhadpromptedtheiremigration.Yettheirbrightlycolouredvisual

representationinNationalGeographicBrasilriskedmaskingtheirsociopoliticaluseof

hip-hoptoself-fashion.ItriskedinsteadfashioningAngolansubjectsinacarnivalesque

spectacleofblackOtherness,andadvertisingthemforaestheticappropriationbya

culturallydistancedandpredominantlywhite-skinnedBrazilianviewer.WhereasBeliel

establishedamasculineOther,Scavone’sarticlewasmoreconcernedwithafeminine

Other.Boththetextualnarrativethataccompaniedhisarticle,andhisaccompanying

photographs,fashionedawhimsicalandmythicalconstructionofLiberdade,whilstthe

snapshotexaminedwasaninterestingdemonstrationofhowJapanese-Brazilian

womenusedresstoconstructandperformtheirfluid,cross-culturalidentitieson

particularceremonialoccasions.Yetthecaption’sfocusondressriskedobscuringthis

exemplaryexpressionofdisplacedideasinfavourofaromanticiseddepictionofdress

asasymbolofpassive,feminisedOrientaldifference.

InNationalGeographicBrasil,comparabletoNationalGeographic,therehas

beenapalpabletensionbetweenencouragingidentificationwithBraziliansubjects

andhighlightingtheirexoticdifference.Schwarz’sargumenthasbeenre-fashioned

238

anddefinedintermsofmovementandrelocation,asdisplacedideas,asopposedto

solelyintermsofloss,asmisplacedideas.Thisreworkedtheoryhasenabledustosee

howideasbetweenNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasilhavebeenin

fluxratherthanstatic,butithasalsodemonstratedthenewhierarchiesand

inequalitiesthathavebeenestablishedintheformationofanewcontactzone,no

longerbetweentheUnitedStatesandBraziliansubjects,butbetweenBrazilandthe

variousimmigrantgroupsthathavesettledwithinitsborders.

239

Chapter5.Mundialization:BraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasil,August2013

• Snapshot11:TheGuarani-Kaiowa’sWestern-styledressandFeatheredHeaddresses,August2013

Theprecedingfourchaptersofthisthesisusedasnapshotmethodologytoanalyseten

casestudiesfromNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil,whichspanned

theperiod1926to2011.Thesechaptersexpandeduponthetheoreticalconceptsof

anthropophagy,anaestheticsofgarbage,thespacein-betweenandmisplacedideas,

conceptualisedrespectivelybyAndrade,Stam,SantiagoandSchwarz,toanalysethe

shiftingdynamicsandhierarchiesofpowerwovenintotherepresentationandre-

presentationofBraziliandressandfashion.Thesefourscholarswereselectedfortheir

specificandinterdisciplinaryusesofdressandfashionmetaphors,whichwere

employedtomakeapositiveidentificationwiththecross-culturalcomplexitiesof

Braziliansartorialidentities.

Themethodologicalframeworkusedinthefinalchapterofthisthesiscanbe

situatedhistoricallyastheculminationofthesefourtheoreticalconcepts.Inthe

greatlyacceleratedphaseofcontemporaryglobalisation,Brazilianculturalcriticand

sociologist,RenatoOrtiz,haspointedoutthelimitationsofmethodologiesthat

assumeBrazil’sdependencyontheWest,eveniftheyareusedpositivelytorevalorise

theimprovisationalandinteractivedimensionsofcross-culturalencounterand

exchange.Ortizadvancedthelogicofcrucialaspectsofconceptsemployedby

Andrade,Stam,SantiagoandSchwarz,andconsideredBrazil,nolongerasuniqueand

peripheralinrelationtotheWest,butoneculturalmanifestationcompetingagainst

numerousothersinaglobalsystem,withinwhichithasbecome,‘somehowsenseless

240

[…]totalkaboutadiffusingcentralityofaclearoppositionbetweenexternaland

internal,foreignandautochthonous’.450

OrtizisparticularlyrelevanttoanexaminationofNationalGeographicBrasilin

thetransitionalperiodfollowingMay2010,whenthemagazinecelebrateditstenth

anniversary,andbegantopositionitselfmoredynamicallyandpragmaticallyin

relationtoNationalGeographic.451AsMatthewShirtssummarised:

In2010,thecycleofglobalizationofNationalGeographicclosedwhenoneoftheeditorsoftheBrazilianedition,RonaldoRibeiro,wrotethetextofthereportonLençóisMaranhensesforthemothermagazine,publishedaroundtheworldandreadby40millionpeople[…]GlobalissuesareincreasinglycomingtoNGBrasil.It’struethatmanymaterialswereveryAmericanized,butwehadtotaketheseinordertoalsoproducetheBraziliancontent.Now,however,NGBrasilandNGUSAareincreasinglydiscussingthesametopics,albeitfromdifferentperspectives[myitalics].452

ShirtscitedtheexampleofaJuly2010articlewrittenbyRonaldoRibeiro,entitled‘Sea

ofDunes:windandrainhavesculptedthelandscapeofLençóisMaranheses.Butthis

BrazilianNationalParkfacesproblems’,whichwaspublishedsimultaneouslyin

NationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil.453WhereasNationalGeographic

Brasilhadpreviouslybeendependentuponthe‘mothermagazine’,inacoercive

relationshipthathadforcedthemagazinetopublisharticlesonissuesmore

immediatelyrelevanttoaU.S.audience,inordertoalsoproducelocalBrazilian

content,Ribeiro’sarticlesymbolisedaparadigmshifttowardsamoreconsensual

rapportwithWashingtonDC.RatherthanNationalGeographicandNational

450Ortiz,‘PopularCulture,ModernityandNation’inThroughtheKaleidoscope:theexperienceofmodernityinLatinAmerica,ed.byVivianSchelling(NewYork:Verso,2000),p.144.451RefertoAppendix4:therepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicBrasil(May2010-December2014).452Shirts,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.453RonaldoRibeiro,‘DazzlingBrazilianDunes’,NationalGeographic,July2010,pp.108-17;Ribeiro,‘MardeDunas:ventoechuvasesculpiramapaisagemdosLençoisMaranheses.Masesseparquenacionalbrasileiroenfrentaproblemas’,NationalGeographicBrasil,July2010,pp.50-65.

241

GeographicBrasilco-existingwithinahierarchicalrelationofpower,theynowentered

inproductiveanddissonanttension,‘discussingthesametopics,albeitfromdifferent

perspectives’.454Shirtsacknowledgedthatthereweremultipleworld-viewsanda

parallelcanbedrawnherewithOrtiz’sunderstandingofmundialization.

Ortizmadeadistinctionbetweentechnologicalandeconomicglobalisation,

andtheculturaldimensionsofglobalisation,whichheconceptualisedin2006usingan

Englishneologism,mundialization,derivedfromtheFrenchword,mondialisation:

Thereisnoconceptualoppositionbetweenthecommonandthediverse;amundializedculturepromotesaculturalpatternwithoutimposingtheuniformityofall;itdisseminatesapatternboundtothedevelopmentofworldmodernityitself.Itswidthcertainlyinvolvesotherculturalmanifestations,butitisimportanttoemphasizethatitisspecific,foundinganewwayof‘being-in-the-world’andestablishingnewideasandlegitimizations.Andthatisthereasonwhythereisnotandtherewillnotbeasingleglobalculture,identicalinallplaces.Aglobalizedworldimpliesapluralityofworld-views.Whatwedohaveistheconsolidationofacivilizationmatrix,worldmodernity,thatisactualizedanddiversifiedineverycountry,region,place,asafunctionofitsparticularhistory.Andthismeansthatglobalization/mundializationisoneanddiverseatthesametime.455

Ortizarguedthattorefertothetechnologicalandeconomicsphereistodesignate

processesthatarereproducedthroughouttheworldinthesamefashion:whethera

singleandunifiedglobaleconomicstructure(capitalism)orasingulartechnological

system(comprisedoftheInternet,computersandsatellitesetc.).Hecontendedthatit

isnotpossibletospeakofasingularglobalcultureoridentityinthesamesensethat

onecanrefertoasingulartechnologicaloreconomicstructure,andasserted:‘thereis

454RenatoOrtiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge–GenealogiesoftheGlobal/Globalizations’,Theory,Culture&Society,23(2006),401-03(p.402).Ortizfirstintroducedtheconceptofmundialization,ormundialización,inSpanishin1998,inonechapter,‘SobrelaMundializaciónylacuestiónnacional’,publishedasacollectionofessaysinOtroTerritorio:ensayossobreelmundocontemporáneo(BuenosAires:UniversidaddeQuilmes,1996).ThatOrtizwaswritingadecadelaterthanSantiagoandSchwarz,whenamorepostnationalunderstandingofthehierarchiesbetweennativeandforeigninfluenceswasbeingdevelopedinBrazil,ispartofthereasonthathisargumentadvancesbeyondthespacein-betweenandmisplacedideas.455Ortiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge’,p.402.

242

noglobalculture;onlyaprocessofculturalmundialization’.456Ortizusedtheexample

oftheEnglishlanguagetodemonstratehispoint.WhilstthepredominanceofEnglish

throughouttheworldunequivocallydemonstratesanimbalanceofpowerwithinthe

globalcontactzone,itdoesnotautomaticallyindicatethedisappearanceofdiverse

languagesorentailasingularmodeofconversinginthefaceofitsuniversal

dominance.Mundializationmustbeunderstoodthenasasiteofresistance,change

andadaptation;itdenotesaworldvisionthat‘co-existswithotherworldvisions,

establishinghierarchies,conflictsandaccommodationswiththem’.457Itisfacilitated

bythetechnologicalandeconomicprocessesofglobalisation,butdelineatesaspace

fordifferentconceptionsoftheworld,wherebydiverse,andsometimesconflicting,

formsofunderstandingcomeintocontactwithoneanother,neverthelesspreserving

thediversitiesoftheirdifferences.

Ortizarguedthatitwasinappropriatetorefertoanautonomousglobal

culture,whichishierarchicallysuperiortonational,regional,localorindividualcultural

practices.Hestressedthatmundializationisanoverallsocialphenomenon;whilst

thereexistsa‘culturalpattern’,acommonbackgroundthatweallsharethroughout

theworld,thatthismustnotbemisunderstoodasapervasivehomogenisationor

standardisationofideas,behaviourorculturalproducts,‘imposingtheuniformityof

all’.458Hisuseofadressmetaphorissignificant,andprovidesausefultooltoconsider

howthedynamicsofglobalculturearelocalisedandindigenisedthroughfashionand

dresspractices,whetheronamicroormacrolevel.Intheglobalfashionindustry,a

patternisatwo-dimensionalindustrialtemplateusedtocreateanynumberofthree-

456Ortiz,‘SocialSciencesandtheEnglishLanguage’,RevistaBrasileiradeCiênciasSociais,19.54(2004),5-22.457Ortiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge’,p.402.458Ibid.

243

dimensionalgarments.Yetthetypeofpatterncandifferdrastically,nottomention

theendlesspossibilitiespriorandsubsequenttocutting,focusedpredominantlyon

thesurfaceofthegarmentandconcernedwithuseofdifferentfabrics,materials,

coloursanddecoration,eachofwhichisarticulatedanddifferentiatedaccordingto

theparticulardiscernmentsanddesiresofanindividual,group,cultureorcountry.A

revealingexampleofmundialization,inoperationonamicrolevel,hasbeenprovided

byMyleneMizrahi,whoconductedanethnographicstudyofthelocalappropriationof

aspecificBrazilianformofdenimwornbywomenatfavelaFunkBallsinRiode

Janeiro.459Whilstthejeanswornbydancersmayhaveappearedtobeagenericand

homogenousformofaglobalstyle,theywereproducedfromastretchyfabriccalled

moletom,whichwasnotdenimbutsimulateditsappearance.Thisdistinctivefabric

wasthickerthandenim,enablingrhinestones,embroideries,laceandotherfabricsto

beattachedtoit,aswellasrips,tearsandperforationstobemadeintoit,andclungto

themovingbodylikeasecondskin.TheresultwasadistinctivelyBrazilianre-

presentationofglobaldenimthatdrewmanyparallelswiththeLycrafashions

documentedinthefifthsnapshotthisthesisdiscussed,whichcapturedanAfro-

BraziliangirldancinginBahia;bothhadaseductivepowerasbody,clothinganddance

workedtogetherinmotion,whichpromptedviewerstoconsidernotonlyhowthe

Lycratopanddenimjeanslooked,butalsohowtheyfelt.

JustasMizrahiobservedthesubjectiveandsensoryexperiencesofBrazilian

jeansforwearerandviewer,Ortizreferredtomundializationinphenomenological

termsasaprocessthathasprovidedindividualswith‘anewwayof“being-in-the-

world”andestablish[ed]newideasandlegitimations’.460Suchastatementappeared

459MyleneMizrahi,‘“BrazilianJeans”:materiality,bodyandseductionatRiodeJaneiro’sFunkBall’inGlobalDenim,ed.byDanielMillerandSophieWoodward(Oxford:Berg,2011),pp.103-26.460Ortiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge’,p.402.

244

tosuggestthatnotonlyistherenosingularglobalculture,butthereisnouniversal

experienceofglobalisation;rather,anindividual’sspecificengagementwiththe

processesofculturalmundializationareanchoredinhersubjectivesensory

perceptionsandexperiencesofhersurroundingenvironment.Thismundialized

sensoriummaytakediscursiveandnarrativisedforms,producingandfashioningnew

subjectivitiesandsensoryspacesacrossworld-timeandworld-space.Mundializationis

notsimplythehybridmixoflocalandglobal,asdiverseobjects,elementsandideas

interactandarere-fashioned,butalsothenewsensorymodesofperceptionand

experienceopenedupduringtheprocess.InaccordancewithOrtiz’sassertionthat‘a

globalizedworldimpliesapluralityofworldviews’,andbuildingupontheanalysis

madeinthepreviousfourchapters,thischapterseekstoconsiderhowtheBrazilian

subject,butalsotheNationalGeographicBrasilviewer,perceived,experienced,and

articulatedarelationtotheirsurroundingenvironmentthroughdress.

Thefinalcasestudythischapteranalysesexpandsmysnapshotmethodology

toexaminethreesnapshotswithinonearticle,whichwaspublishedinNational

GeographicBrasilinAugust2013.Thisarticlewasthecross-culturalproductofU.S.

photojournalistNadiaShiraCohenandherpartner,BrazilianphotojournalistPaulo

Siqueira.ItconcernedtheGuarani-Kaiowaindigenousgroup,whoinhabitareasofthe

central-WesternstateofMatoGrossodoSulinBrazil.461Ibeginbycontextualisingthe

articleandintroducingthemorespecificworld-viewthatinformsthegeographicaland

sensoryspacesthattheGuarani-Kaiowainhabit,whichwillbeusedtoanalysetheir

dresspractices.Imoveontoanalysethefirstsnapshot,whichwaspublishedonthe

461NadiaShiraCohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindigena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,August2013,pp.116-31.RefertoAppendix8:TranslatedArticles.

245

left-handsideofadouble-pageviewwithinthemagazine.Thisanalysisisdevelopedin

thesecondsnapshot,whichexaminestheright-handsideofthesamedouble-page

viewasitwasre-framedandre-contextualisedforthedigitaliPadortableteditionof

NationalGeographicBrasil.Thefinalsnapshotadvancesbeyondthephotographic

analysismadeinthepreviousfourchaptersofthisthesisandexaminesathree-minute

filmthatwasproducedexclusivelyforthedigitaleditionofthearticle,tobeviewedon

aniPadortabletscreen.Thesethreecasestudies,locatedwithinonesnapshot,willbe

contextualisedwithcontemporaryexamplesfromthebroaderglobalmediascape.This

chapterconcludesbyknittingtogetheraseriesofconclusionstothefollowing

questions:howhasNationalGeographicBrasilfashionedanimageoftheGuarani-

Kaiowathroughtherepresentationoftheirdress,andtowhatextentcanindigenous

subjectsbeseentohaveself-fashioned?HasNationalGeographicBrasilhighlighted

thecomplexandshiftingprocessesofmundializationthroughwhichtheGuarani-

Kaiowahaveengagedandinteractedwiththetechnologicalandeconomicprocesses

ofglobalisation?Orhasitreducedtheseprocessestoaformofstandardisationand

homogenisation?

AnEthnographicGazeontheGuarani-Kaiowain2013

Thecasestudiesthischapterexamineswerepublishedwithinasixteen-page

article,writtenbyCohenandaccompaniedwithphotographsbySiqueira,entitled

‘Guarani:redearth.Theybelievetheyhaveaspiritualconnectiontotheplacewhere

theirancestorslived.InMatoGrossodoSul,fordecadesthisbeliefhasbathed

246

indigenousterritoryinblood.’462Thetitlereferencedthefertile,redearthofMato

GrossodoSul,anagriculture-richBrazilianstatethatbordersParaguayandBolivia,but

alsothebloodshedthathastakenplacethereasaresultofanincreasinglytense

stalematebetweenEuropean-descendedfarmersandindigenousgroups.Theregion

hasalargeproportionofhigh-valuefarmland,comprisedofsugarcaneandsoya

plantationsandcattleranches,whicharevitaltoBrazil’sincreasingeconomic

prosperityandsupportedbythedevelopmentalagendaofBrazilianPresidentDilma

Rousseff(1January2011-).463Theregionisalsohometoover61,000indigenous

people,themajorityofwhomareGuarani-Kaiowa.464Theconflictstemmedfroma

1988constitutionthatpromisedindigenouspeoplestherighttoinhabittheirancestral

lands,thoughnotthelegalrighttoownthem,aprocessofputtingthelawinto

practicethathasbeenconsiderablydrawnoutandjudiciallychallengedbythefarm

lobby.465Thisconstitutionovertheidentificationanddemarcationofsmallareasof

indigenouslandwasputinprocessin2007,andissupportedbyFUNAI,federal

prosecutorsandinternationalNGOs,buthasbeenrepeatedlyblockedbylegal

challenges,andopposedbyfarmers,thestategovernmentandFarmasul,theindustry

bodyforfarmers.466Indigenousgroupshavestagedaseriesofoccupationsof

462NadiaShiraCohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindigena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,August2013,pp.116-131.RefertoAppendix8:TranslatedArticles.463IncontrasttoLuizInacioLuladaSilvawho,althoughcriticisedbytheindigenousmovementduringhistimeinofficeoversawanumberofdemarcationsthatreturnedancestrallandstoindigenouspeoples,Rousseffisincreasinglyseenasaneconomicpragmatistwhoisinsensitivetoindigenousrights.ThisislargelyduetoherroleindisputesovertheBeloMontedamproject,whichwasexecuteddespitecriticismfromtheInter-AmericanCommissiononHumanRights.Anon.,‘Brazil:Clasheswithindigenousmovementwillrise’,inOxfordAnalyticaDailyBrief<https://www.oxan.com/>[accessed12February2015]464TherearethreesubgroupsoftheGuaranilivinginBrazil:theMbya,NandevaandKaiowa,eachwithsubtledifferencesinreligiousorientation,socialandpoliticalpractices,linguisticformsandcustoms.‘GuaraniKaiowa:Introduction’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/guarani-kaiowa>[accessed3June2015]465Anon,‘Brazil:ClasheswithIndigenousMovementwillRise’,n.p.466Ibid.,n.p.

247

farmland,whichhasresultedinviolentexpulsionbyfarmsecurityguardsandfederal

police.Thetensionsbetweenlandownersandindigenouspeoplesthathavearisenin

MatoGrossodoSularerootedintheterritorialimportancethattheGuarani-Kaiowa

attachtothegeographicalareatheirancestorsinhabited.

ItisinthisrespectthatIintroducethecriticaltermthatconstitutestheworld-

viewoftheGuarani-Kaiowa.TheGuarani-Kaiowausethetermtekohatodenotethe

physicalplacesthattheyinhabit(whetherland,field,forest,water,animalsorplants),

andinwhichtheGuaraniteko(wayofbeing)isrealised.Thetekohahasbeendefined

as‘aresultandnotasadeterminingfactor,asacontinuingprocessofsituational

adjustment…definedbyvirtueoftheeffectivecharacteristics–materialand

immaterial–ofaccesstogeographicalspacebytheGuarani’.467Asacategorythat

onceconnotedsolelyterritorialspacefortheGuarani-Kaiowa,tekohahassince

acquiredgreatrelevanceandwideusageasasocio-political,culturalandmultisensory

spacethatencompassesbehaviour,habitatandculturalexpression,andinfluences

theirwayofbeing:ofthinking,feeling,acting,dressingandwearing.Thetekohaisnot

fixed,butcontinuouslyre-evaluatedinrelationtotheirchangingenvironment.A

parallelcanbedrawnherewithPierreBourdieu’sdelineationoftheevershifting

‘habitus’,whichhedefinedas‘structuredstructurespredisposedtofunctionas

structuringstructures,thatis,asprincipleswhichgenerateandorganizepracticesand

representationsthatcanbeobjectivelyadaptedtotheiroutcomes’.468Thehabitus

encompassesthecharacteristicnormsandtendenciesthatinfluencebehaviourand

thoughtinagivensocietyorgroupandstructuresthewaythatembodiedindividuals

live;likethetekoha,itentailsasituationaladjustmentandadaptationtoshifting

467‘GuaraniKaiowa:Introduction’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/guarani-kaiowa>[accessed3June2015]468PierreBourdieu,TheLogicofPractice(Cambridge:PolityPress,1990),p.53.

248

surroundingsandunexpectedsituations.ThetekoharesonatedwithOrtiz’sassertion

thatmundializationwas‘atotalsocialphenomenon,whichpervadesallcultural

manifestations.Thewholegoestothecoreofitsparts,redefiningthemintheir

specificities.’469Thetekohamustbeunderstoodtheninphenomenologicalterms,asa

pervasivemanifestationoftheGuarani-Kaiowa’sembodiedexperienceandperception

of‘being-in-the-world’.470

CaseStudyOne:Magazine

Thefirstsnapshotthischapterexamines(Figs.6.0and6.1)wasprintedon

theleft-handsideofadouble-pageviewinNationalGeographicBrasil.Asetoffour

full-lengthphotographsofanonymousmembersoftheGuarani-Kaiowa,itwasplaced

oppositeaphotographofanindigenousmanreproducedontheright-handpage.471

Thesnapshothadastandardised,uniformquality,andstoodoutfromtheapparent

artlessnessthatcharacterisedthemajorityofimagespublishedwithinthearticle,

whichlayclosertowhattheNationalGeographicBrasilviewermayhaverecognisedas

asensationalist,photojournalisticaesthetic.Anexampleofthelattercanbeseenin

Figure6.2,afull-bleeddouble-pagespreadthatcapturedaGuarani-Kaiowanamed

Osoriobleedingfromaheadwoundfollowingaconfrontationwithalocal

landowner.472Itisadirectimage,instantlyrecognisableasreportageasaresultofits

hard-hittingsubjectmatter(accordingtoSusanSontag,‘warwasandstillisthemost

irresistible–andpicturesque–news’),andthechargedcompositionaltensionthat

469Ortiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge’,p.402.470Ibid.,p.420.471Cohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha’,pp.126-27.472Ibid.,pp.120-21.

249

indiscriminatelycropsfragmentedbodiesoutofthephotographframe.473Incontrast,

thefourcarefullyframedidenticallysizedimagesthatconstitutethissnapshotwere

publishedinagridformationonanotherwiseblankmagazinepage.Theimagesshared

thecompositionalformatofasinglefigureposedinthecentreoftheframe:astyleof

representationdiscussedinthefirstsnapshotofthisthesisandsituatedwithinalong

traditionoftheessentialisedandobjectifiedethnographic‘type’,wherebythesubject

ispresentedwithinashallowpictureplane,instandardised,evenlighttoenableafull,

evenmathematical,mappingoftheindigenousbody.Here,thephotographerhas

maintainedastandardiseddistancefromhissubjects,andusedalargeapertureto

giveashallowerdepthoffield,whichlendsacrispnessandclaritytotheisolated

subjects,whoarecolourfullystagedagainstasoftlyblurred,lusciousgreen

background.Ostensibly,thisseductivefull-colourethnographicgaze,whichis

comparableincompositiontoStevens’monochromedocumentationoftheMakuman

andwomanin1926,encouragestheviewertostudytheisolatedandexoticsubjects

anthropometrically,asobjectsratherthanasinteractingsocialagents,andtomakea

comparativestudyoftheirdifferentmodesofdressfromwithintheuniformityoftheir

depiction.

Yetthecaptionthataccompaniedthisimageread:‘TheGuaranicallthese

takenlandstekohas.InPueblitoinIguatemi,anothermunicipality,residentstryto

buildalifeintheareaconsideredancestralterritory.’474Ithighlightedthetermtekoha,

anddrewtheviewer’sattentiontotheprocessofculturalmundializationbywhichthe

Guarani-Kaiowaattempttobuildanewlife,throughaprocessofsituational

adjustmenttotheirenvironment.Whilstthecaptionomittedtomentiondress,it

473Sontag,RegardingthePainofOthers,p.49.474Cohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha’,p.126.

250

situatedthesubjectsasinteractingsocialagentsratherthanessentialisedand

racialisedspecimens,andencouragedacloserexaminationofthefoursubjects.

Whereasethnographicphotographsweremadetocompareandcontrastdifferent

racesandethnicities,theseimagesdepictedsubjectsfromthesameindigenousgroup;

asaresult,ratherthansuggestingtheirhomogeneityasawhole,thesnapshotserved

toidentifyindividualdifferences.Theonlytypicalityistheserialapproachof

photographingthesubjects,sincethediversecharacteristicsofeachsubjectisshown

throughdress,pose,settingandtheirplacementwithinthephotographicframe.Each

subjectdisplayscalmandself-possessedexpressions,gesturesandposes,and

demonstrateshisorheragencyinself-fashioningbeforethephotographer’sgaze,

whichbecomesanimaginativespacetostagefancifulversionsofthemselves.

ThereisapalpableshiftinthissnapshotintherepresentationofGuarani-

Kaiowaidentity,fromsomethingfixed,tosomethingperformative.Thelittleboy

standswithhisfeettogetherandarmsandheadpoisedupwardsashefireshisplastic

gun(Fig.6.3);thelittlegirlstandslegsapartwithherhandscrossedinfrontofher,

lookingdowntoherright(Fig.6.4);thewomaninthetopleftportrait(Fig.6.5)stands

sidewaysonandlooksdownpensively,apparentlyabsorbedinherownthought,with

herhandsgentlyclaspingthehandleofagourdmaraca;andthewomaninthebottom

leftportrait(Fig.6.6),herfingerssplayedoverthetopoftwoceremonialstickspointed

intotheground,commandstheviewer’sattentionwithhersternexpression.Asthe

onlysubjecttodirectlyaddressthecamera(theotherslookup,downoroutsideofthe

pictureframe),sheformsthefocalpointofthesnapshot,compellingtheviewerto

meethergazeandpositioningherselfasanactiveparticipantofperceptionand

expression.AlisonGriffithshashighlightedtheparadoxicalqualitythatisattachedto

251

whatshetermsthe‘returngaze’,wherebyethnographicsubjectsdirectlymatchthe

gazeofthephotographer:‘Whileitsignalsthefilmmaker’s[orphotographer’s]agency

asthegathererofimages–wecollectimagesofthemandnotviceversa–atthesame

timeitcarrieswithitasubversiveordefiantelement,alookthatcouldbetranscribed

as“Iseeyoulookingatmeanddon’tlikeit”.’475Inthisexample,however,thesubject

appearscalm,composedandcomfortablewithherexposure,andtheimagecanbe

readlessasastraightforwardactofdefiancetoacontrollingphotographicgaze.Her

returngazeiscomparabletothatoftheBrazilianwomandocumentedinthefashion

boutiquebyStanmeyerin2011,examinedintheseventhsnapshotthisthesis

discussed,andsuggeststhatthenatureoftheinteractionbetweenphotographerand

subjectiscomplicitandconsensual,ratherthancontrolling.Thereisnoawkwardness

intheresultingimages,butratherasensethatthesubjectshadanincreased

awarenessandconsciousnessoftheirbodiesinphenomenologicalterms,asasubject

tobelookedat,andasanimagebeforethecamera.Thereisastillnesstothese

images,whichencouragesamoremeasuredandcontemplativeresponsefromthe

NationalGeographicBrasilviewerandisnotunexpected,giventhatprototypesfor

theseimageswereinitiallymadeusingalargeformatcamera,whichslowsdownthe

image-makingprocessanddemandsthatthesubjectsremainstillforaprolonged

periodoftime.476

Siqueiracommentedonthissnapshot:

WiththeseimagesIwasnottryingtopretendthattheyareobjective–theyareposedportraitsanditisobvious.Iallowedthesubjectstoshowthemselvesas

475AlisonGriffiths,WondrousDifference:Cinema,AnthropologyandTurn-Of-The-CenturyVisualCulture(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2002),p.200.476CohenandSiqueira,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.

252

theywished.ThisisamorerecentnewdirectionthatIhavetaken,awayfrommoretraditional,reportagephotography.477

RatherlikeScavone’sdescriptionofhisworkingmethodsinthepreviouschapter,he

describedhisrolewithintheimage-makingprocessasrelativelypassiveand

unmediated,butadvancedonestepbeyondScavonesince,intheseparticularimages,

he‘allowedthesubjectstoshowthemselvesastheywished’.478Heassertedthatthis

innovativeapproachdemonstratedashiftawayfrom‘moretraditional,reportage

photography’,inwhichsubjectsdonotposeandthephotographer,ashidden‘fly-on-

the-wall’witness,decidesonthecompositionandangleatwhichtocapturethem.

Siqueiradeemedthiswell-establishedphotojournalisticpracticetobeafaithful

transcriptionofreality.479Incontrast,withinthese‘posedportraits’,ratherthan

establishadistancefromhissubjects,Siqueiradistancedhimselffromtheimage-

makingprocess,beyondsettingupthecameraequipmentatauniformdistancefrom

eachsubject,andtakingthephotograph.TheimplicationhereisthatSiqueiradidnot

perceivetheseimagestorestwithintheconfinesofanobjective,documentarymode,

butrathersawthemasacontingentdramatisationofidentity,assubjectsperforming

theirownsubjectivities.480WhilstSiqueirapositedadividebetweenobjectivity,

‘traditionalreportage’,andsubjectivity,‘posedportraits’,healsoarticulatedalong

recognisedparadoxconcerningdocumentaryphotography,centredonan

understandingthatitissurelymorerealisttoallowsubjectstopresentthemselvesas

theywish,andtodisplayopenlythephotographicequipmentused,ratherthanto

catchthemoff-guard,andtoconstructtheiridentitiesfromadetermineddistance.481

477Ibid.478Ibid.479Ibid.480Ibid.481Ibid.

253

AlthoughnotopenlyacknowledgedbySiqueira,inmyreading,theseimageswerea

tangibledemonstrationofa‘performativedocumentary’,touseatermcoinedbyT.J.

Demos,wherein‘thedramatizationanddirecttransmissionofrealityintertwine’.482

ProducedinthesameyearthatCyprienGaillardcreated‘L’OrigamiduMonde’for

032c,thissnapshothintedathowamoreobjectivetruthmightbereclaimedthrough

narrativeconstructionandimaginativestorytelling,butoperatingonthepartofthe

Guarani-Kaiowasubjects,ratherthantheO32cviewer,whodramatisetheiridentities

throughdress.

Dressperformedacrucialrolewithinthissnapshotinarticulatingthe

subjects’identities,andfracturingthedistancebetweenNationalGeographicBrasil

viewerandGuarani-Kaiowasubject.Thereisanemphasisonthetextureand

materialityofthesubjects’colourfulclothing,whichrefusestoblendseamlesslyinto

thelushgreenenvironmentthatframesthem.Thesettingemphasisestherichness

andfertilityoftheenvironment,butalsotheimportancetheGuarani-Kaiowaattachto

theirtekohaasasourceofcultivatingfood,andcollectingrawmaterialsforuseas

firewood,remedies,utensils,tools,buildingsuppliesanddress.483Theirclothing

demonstratestheGuarani-Kaiowa’ssituationaladjustmenttotheirchanging

immediateenvironment,astheycreateoutfitsfromthetoolsandmaterialsthatthey

havetohandinaprocessthatdrawsongambiarra,whichwasdiscussedinthefirst

andeighthsnapshotsofthisthesis.Theimagesinviteatactilegazefromtheviewer,

whoseeyesmoveacrosstheglossyflatsurfaceofthemagazinepageandperceivethe

differenttexturespresented,fromthesoftcottonofWestern-styleT-shirts,the

482T.J.Demos,ReturntothePostcolony:SpectersofColonialisminContemporaryArt(Berlin:SternbergPress,2013),p.26.483‘GuaraniKaiowa:Introduction’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/guarani-kaiowa>[accessed3June2015]

254

smoothfeelofapatternedpolyesterskirt,totheroughpatchesofdenimona

customisedskirt.Thetactilityoftheimagesinvitestheviewertoruntheirfingertips

acrossthepage,nottosimplylook,butalsotofeelthedresswornbythesubjects,

whodisplayacombinationofWestern-styleclothingandindigenouselementssuchas

beadednecklaces,bracelets,headdressesandskirtsfashionedfromstripsofcloth,

woolandplastic.484Thelittleboywearsmud-stainedpaleblueandgreenshorts,a

stripedT-shirt,redfacepaintandnecklacesmadeoffruitstones,gourdsandfound

objects.Thelittlegirlwearsadarkpurpletop,tie-dyeshorts,redfacepaintandaskirt

madefromdifferentcolouredwoolandplastictassels.Thewomaninthetopleft

portraitwearsanoversizedblueT-shirt,anorangebeadedandfeatherheaddress,

necklacesmadefromfruitstonesandfoundobjects(bones,gourds,animalskin,wood

andseeds),brownfacepaint,andaskirtmadefromdenim,feathers,fruitstonesand

blackT-shirtfabric.Thewomaninthebottomleftportraitwearsanelasticatedheavily

patternedskirt,anecklacemadeoffruitstonesandfeathers,acollectionofplastic

bracelets,andaredT-shirtthatreads‘FelizNatal’(‘MerryChristmas’inPortuguese).

Theviewerisencouragedtoidentifywiththesubjectsthroughtheirdress,totakeinto

accountitssensoryandexpressivemeanings,andtoexperiencevicariouslythetactile

fascinationthatinformstheGuarani-Kaiowa’sownrelationshiptotheirtekoha.

Althoughdresswasnotdirectlymentionedinthearticle,SiqueiraandCohen

wereclearlyinterestedintheclothingchoicesoftheGuarani-Kaiowa.485Adistinction

canthereforebedrawnfromtheBrazilianauthorsofthesnapshotsdiscussedinthe

previousfourchapters,oneofwhomevenconfessed:‘I'mnotanexpertonclothingor

484Itisimportanttoacknowledgethatmyuseoftheterm‘Western-styleclothing’istopointtothefactthatthestyle,evenifnotitsmanufacture,originatesinNorthAmericaandEurope.Maynard,DressandGlobalisation,p.12.485CohenandSiqueira,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.

255

femininebehavior’.486SiqueiraandCohendescribedhowdress‘hasshiftedalongwith

theGuarani-Kaiowa’sadaptationtotheirland.Todaytheyhaveincorporatedthe

materialsthattheyhavetohandintotheirdress.’487Thiscommentacknowledgedthe

Guarani-Kaiowa’scriticalassimilationofforeignelementsfoundwithintheirtekoha,

whicharere-fashionedtosuittheirownneedsandtastes.Anexamplecanbeseenin

theouterskirtwornbythewomaninthetopleftportrait,whichisacontemporary

adaptationofGuarani-Kaiowaceremonialdress,createdherefromapairof

deconstructedandre-stitcheddenimjeansandatorn-upblackT-shirtanddecorated

withaknottedbeltofwhitestonesandorangefeathers.SiqueiraandCohenexplained

thattheGuarani-Kaiowa‘usedtouseonlyfeathersfoundontheirland’asdecoration

fortheirdress,butnowtheyalsostrategicallyappropriateitemsfrommainstream

cultureand‘incorporatedifferentthingssuchasplasticbags,T-shirts,plasticbeads’.488

Anexampleofthecreativeutilisationofusedmaterialscanbeseenintheportraitof

thelittlegirl,whosedistinctiveskirthasbeenmadebyknottingtogetherrecycled

plasticbagsandwooltocreatehangingtassels.SiqueiraandCohencommentedthat

amongsttheGuarani-Kaiowa‘dressisverydifferent…therearethosewhowearonly

traditionaldress,thosewhoutilizeelementsoftraditionaldress,andthosewhodress

likenormalBrazilianteenagers’.489ThisremarkacknowledgedtheGuarani-Kaiowa’s

abilitytopickandchoosewhat,whenandhowtheyinteractwithitemsofglobaldress.

CohenandSiqueiradescribedhow‘theGuarani-Kaiowadressupforspecialoccasions,

forbattleandfordefense.Theyusedresstodemonstratetheirpersonaldesiresand

individualchoices.’490Thiscommentemphasisedtheflexibilityandfreedomthatthe

486Beliel,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.487CohenandSiqueira,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.488Ibid.489ibid.490Ibid.

256

Guarani-KaiowahaveintakingelementsofWestern-styledressandusingthemto

fashiontheirownindigenousidentities.Anexamplecanbeseenintheportraitofthe

womanwearingtheredT-shirtthatreads‘FelizNatal’.TheT-shirtisnotbeingworn

duringthefestiveperiodandtakesonanewmeaninginitsdifferentcontext.The

authorsacknowledged:‘Thelongerthatwestayedinthecommunity,webegantosee

changes.SomeoftheIndiansdidn’tweartraditionalclothesallofthetime,butothers

did,andothersdroppedtraditionalwearalltogether.Theyoungerkidswillnotgoto

thevillagedressedasIndiansbecausetheyareembarrassed,andtheybalkattheir

grandparentsfordressinglikethis.’491Thereisthesuggestionherethatyoung

membersofthegroupareashamedbytheirgrandparents’inabilitytoadaptand

negotiatechangethroughdress.Asawhole,theauthors’commentsacknowledged

thattheonlyaspectthatisWesternaboutGuarani-Kaiowaclothingisitsorigin,sinceit

hasbeenselectivelymodifiedandre-fashioned,anddemonstratestheprocessof

mundializationasproductstransferredacrosstheworldasaresultofeconomic

globalisationareusedstrategicallyforthecreationofpersonalandculturalindigenous

Brazilianidentities.

Arevealingpointofcomparisoncanbedrawnwithaphotographofan

anonymousGuarani-Kaiowagirl(Fig.6.7),whichwaspublishedon9October2013on

theonlineblogaccompanimenttotheBraziliannewspaper,OEstadodeS.Paulo,

withinanarticleentitled‘NGOsassociatehighrateofsuicideamongyoungIndiansto

landproblems’.492ThearticleexaminedincreasedsuicideratesamongsttheGuarani-

KaiowaandGuarani-Nandevacommunities,whichweremuchhigherthanthenational

491Ibid.492RoldaoArruda,‘ONGassociaaltataxadesuícidioentreíndiosjovensaproblemasfundiários’,<http://politica.estadao.com.br/blogs/roldao-arruda/ong-associa-alta-taxa-de-suicidio-entre-indios-jovens-a-problemas-fundiarios/>[accessed15March2015]

257

averageanddisproportionatelyaffectedadolescentsandyoungpeople.This

disproportionatetrendwasassociatedwiththeirsocialdislocationatlosingland

ownedbytheirancestors.Thearticledetailedthealcoholismandmalnutrition

widespreadonGuarani-KaiowareservationsthroughoutMatoGrossodoSul,andwas

publishedtocoincidewithWorldMentalHealthDayon10October2013.Itwas

accompaniedbyaphotograph,captioned‘GuaraniChild:forinternationalNGOsthe

solutiontotheproblemswouldbethemagnificationofindigenouslands’.Ayounggirl

staresdirectlyintothecameralensatcloserange,hersymmetricalbodyplaced

squarelyintheforeground.Shewearsadirty,oversizedwhitepatternedjumper,and

herlongdarkhair,plaitedatthefront,hangsforwardoverhershoulders.Sheregards

thecamerawithaninnocent,wide-eyedgaze,herhandsclaspedawkwardlyinfrontof

her,nervouslypullingatherjumper.WhereasinNationalGeographicBrasilthereisa

senseofthesubjectsasexhibitorsoftheirownactions,herethesubjectenactsa

dazedpassivity,whichismorelikelytoengendersympathyandpityintheviewerbut

refusestoacknowledgethesubjectasaninteractingagent.Thesubject’ssoiled

clothingisacleardemonstrationoftheproblemsfacedbytheGuarani,wholivein

overcrowdedreservationsandoftenhavelittleornoaccesstocleandrinkingwater,

medicinalplants,fuelandfood,whilstheryellowinghairisreflectiveofthesevere

malnutritionexperiencedbythecommunity.Adifferenttypeofidentificationbetween

viewerandsubjectisevokedinthisimage;inNationalGeographicBrasildress

revealedthevitalityofthecommunityandcontainedanelementofperformativity,

whereasherethepurposeoftheimageistoevokesympathy.Inthesecondsnapshot

thischapterexamines,however,whichwasalsointendedtobeviewedonadigital

screenasopposedtoamagazinepage,NationalGeographicBrasilriskedglossingover

theseriousproblemsfacedbytheGuarani-Kaiowa.

258

CaseStudyTwo:iPad

Thedouble-pageviewthatappearedinNationalGeographicBrasilwasalso

adaptedforaniPadeditionofthemagazine,whichwaslaunchedinDecember2012

andavailabletodigitalsubscribers.Inthefirstdigitaledition,thetheneditor-in-chief

ofNationalGeographicBrasil(May2000-May2013),MatthewShirtsenthused:

TheiPadeditionofNationalGeographicBrasilhasjustbeenlaunched!Thisisourfirsteditioninthisformat…itseemsthatthetabletcomputerwasmadeespeciallyforourmagazine.Thephotosaremorestunning,ifthatispossible,andthemapsandgraphicsareinteractive,facilitatingtheorganizationofinformation.Therearealsovideosthatcanleadyoutoanewdimensionofjournalisminmagazines.Thenewdigitalformatstimulatesthequalityofeditingmorethanthatprintedonpaper.493

Thedigitaleditionofthemagazinewaslockedsothatitcouldonlybeviewedin

landscapemode(Fig.6.8),aneditorialdecisionthatpromptedtheviewertoperceive

andexperiencetheimagesasaconstructednarrative,comparabletothesequencing

ofafilmstrip,ratherlikeSnapshot7bexaminedinChapterThree.Imageandtextwere

intentionallyisolated;toviewtheimages,whichwerepresentedonablack

background,theviewerwasrequiredtomakeahorizontalswipeacrossthescreen

(Fig.6.9),yettoreadthetext,whichwaspresentedonawhitebackground,theviewer

hadtomakeaverticalswipedownthescreen(Fig.6.10).Thehigh-resolutionimages

wereprivilegedoverthemonochromepagesoftext,whichreiteratedShirts’assertion

that‘Thephotosaremorestunning[…]Thenewdigitalformatstimulatesthequality

oftheeditingmorethanthatonprintedpaper’.494Shirts’emphasisontheproficiency

ineditingthatwasrequiredtoproducethedigitaleditionofthemagazineis

particularlyrelevanttoananalysisofdress,sinceNationalGeographicBrasilwould

493MatthewShirts,‘DoEditor’,NationalGeographicBrasil[digitaledition],December2012,n.p.494Ibid.

259

necessarilyhavebeenrequiredtoconsiderhowparticulartextures,materials,colours

anddecorationappearedwhenre-framedinhigh-resolutiononthedigitalscreen.495

IntheAugust2013iPadedition,thesamesetofportraitsexaminedinthe

previoussnapshotwasre-framedonablackbackgroundforthedigitalscreen(Figs.

6.11and6.12).496Themalesubjectseatedinanarmchairdominatedthebackground

ofthescreen,andservedasthepointofdeparturefromwhichtheviewercould

choosetoselectanyoftheotherfourportraitstoview,whichwerenowprintedin

close-upthumbnailsrunningdowntheleft-handsideofthescreen(Fig.6.13).The

digitaleditionofNationalGeographicBrasilalsoincludedthreenewportraitsnot

includedinthemagazine,whichcapturedtheirsubjectsinavarietyofmodes:dwarfed

bytheirsurroundings(Fig.6.14),attheveryfrontofthephotographframesothatthe

entirebodycannotbecapturedwithinit(Fig.6.15),andaclose-upshowingonlythe

headandtorsoinfocus,againstablurredbackgroundofblueskyandgreenvegetation

(Fig.6.16).Touchwasnowacrucialpartoftheviewingexperience,sincetheactive

viewerwasgivenachoiceastowhichimagestoview,andinwhichordertoview

them,whichwereselectedbypressingonindividualthumbnailswithafingertip.This

interactiveelementdispelledclaims,asdiscussedinthethirdchapter,whichargue

thatdigitalimageshaverenderedtheviewerpassiveandimmobile.Furthermore,the

shinyflatsurfaceoftheiPadnowreflectedtheNationalGeographicBrasilviewer’s

faceontothescreen,sothatsheislikelytohaveexperiencedthesimultaneous

sensationoflookingbutalso,beinglookedbackat.Thisreflectedgazehighlightedthe

495Inhisdiscussionofdigitalfashionfilms,GaryNeedhamhasnotedthat‘clothesarechosenforthescreenbecausetheyfilmwellratherthanwearwellandthisalsoextendstothecomputerscreen–wherefashionimagesexistaselectronicinformation,filesandcoding.Theywayclotheslook,andhowcertainfabricsandcolourswillappearonthedigitalscreen,arenowtakenintoconsiderationatthelevelofdesignandproduction’.GaryNeedham,‘TheDigitalFashionFilm’,inFashionCulturesRevisited,ed.byStellaBruzziandPamelaChurchGibson(London:Routledge,2013),pp.103-111(p.104).496Cohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha’,NationalGeographicBrasil[digitaledition],August2013,n.p.

260

viewer’sownprocessofidentityconstruction–theviewercouldnothelpbutcatch

sightofherownreflectioninthescreenandperhaps,self-consciouslyadjustedher

hair,orre-presentedherselfaccordingly–andindoingso,drewaparallelwiththe

Guarani-Kaiowasubjects’subjectiveprocessesofpresentingthemselvesbeforeagaze.

Thisreturngazewasparticularlyemotivewhenthephotographofthewomaninthe

red‘FelizNatal’T-shirtwasviewedontheiPad,sinceherreturnedgazeactedasa

palimpsestovertheviewer’sgazereflectedonthescreen,promptinganintimate

connectionbetweenNationalGeographicBrasilviewerandGuarani-Kaiowasubject.

Yettheviewer’sreflectedgazeonthedigitalscreenwasmoreproblematicinthe

secondcasestudythischapterexamines,asthefollowinganalysisreveals,sincethe

malesubjectrefusedtomeetthegazeofthephotographerandbyextension,the

viewer.

Inthissnapshot,themalesubjectisseatedoutsideinawornbrownarmchair,

againstaverdantbackdropofcrops,greenfieldandexpansivebluesky.Withhishead

lowered,andbodyinclinedtowardstheviewer,hegazesdownpensivelyandstaresat

theground.Hisleftpalmleansonawoodenstick,whilsthisrighthandholdsagourd

maraca.Althoughre-presentedonthescreenusingportraitconventions,muchasit

hadbeeninthemagazine,thereisade-familiarisationwiththeestablishedcodesof

portraiture,sincethesubject’sfaceandbodylanguagerefusetocommunicatewith

theviewer.Whilstdenyingastraightforwardidentificationbetweenviewerand

subject,theviewerisneverthelessseducedbythethree-dimensionaltactiletextures

thattheimageencompasses,fromtheroughfabricofthedirtydishevelledsofa,the

ribbedcottonofthesubject’smint-greenshirt,thesoftblue,redandgreenfeathers

thatadornhisheaddress,tothestringofshinybeadsandsmoothshellsthathewears

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aroundhisneck.Thesetactilefabricshadanincreasedclaritywhenre-producedon

thehigherresolutioniPadscreen,enablingtheviewertodiscernmoreoftherangeof

differentsurfacetextures,andencouraginghertoconsidernotonlyhowtheylook,

butalsohowtheyfeel.Thesesurfacesleadthevieweraroundtheimageand

encourageasensualgazethatdelvesbeyondthetwo-dimensionalshinyhardflat

surfaceoftheiPadscreen,andencouragesanintersubjectiverelationshipwiththe

dressedsubject.Theensemblewornbythesubject,whosenamethecaptioninforms

usisAvaTapeRendy’i,displaysadiscriminateappropriationandre-presentationof

dressfromtwodifferentculturalsystems,bothWesternandindigenous.His

combinationofcollaredshirtandCargoshorts,wornwithdecorativeitemsfrom

Guarani-Kaiowamaterialculture,isapalpabledemonstrationthatglobalisationdoes

notengenderthelossoflocalformsofdress,butratherisamundializedprocessof

simultaneousfragmentationandreinventionaslocalandglobalitemsofclothing

interact.

Yetaphenomenologicalengagementwiththesubject,andanunderstandingof

hisphenomenologicalengagementwithhisownenvironment,wasunderminedbythe

accompanyingcaptiontotheimage,whichglossedoversartorialsubtletiesand

positionedthesubjectwithinaWesternart-historicalframework.Itread:‘Thespiritual

leaderAvaTapeRendy'i,oftheTeykueindigenouslandinCaarapó,posesinthe

cornfieldoftheSaintHelenafarm.’497Poseisanoverloadedchoiceofwordthatpoints

totheobviouslystagednatureofthehighlyaestheticisedandtheatricalcomposition.

Thesubject’sposesituatedtheimagevisuallywithintheWesternart-historicalcanon,

surelyrecognisabletoaneducatedBrazilianreadership,inwhichtheprincipalsubject

iscrowned,seatedonathrone,framedcentrallywithintheimage,gazingdownand497Cohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha’,NationalGeographicBrasil[digitaledition].

262

holdingsymbolicobjectsinopenpalms.498Thereisanoverridingsense,particularly

whencomparingthisimagetothefourphotographsexaminedinthepreviouscase

study,whereinthesubjectsappearedtorelishtheopportunitytoself-fashionbefore

thecamera,thatthesubject,whoisperhapslesslikelythanSiqueiratohavehadan

awarenessofthecontinuumofsimilarWesternart-historicalimages,hasbeen

fashionedbythephotographer,anddirectedtoremaininthisdramaticposeforthe

durationoftheshot.ThereisanawarenessofAvaTapeRendy'i’spassivesubmission

tothephotographicgaze,ashisheadhangslimplyforwards,andheispositioned

withinafictivemise-en-scèneofSiqueira’schoosing.Thereisacontrastbetweenthe

NationalGeographicBrasilviewer,whoviewsthisimageonthedigitalscreen,and

seesherownidentityreflectedback,andtheGuarani-Kaiowasubject’sinabilityto

asserthisidentity;withhisheadhangingforwards,heisplacedasanobjecttobe

surveyedandcontrolled,ratherthanasubjecttoengageindialoguewith.This

asymmetricalbalanceofpowerbetweentheactiveviewerandpassivesubjectwas

reversedinthefinalcasestudythischapterexamines,whichengagedwiththe

mediumoffilmpresentedonthedigitalscreen,andprovidedarareopportunityfor

thetactileandvisceralqualitiesofGuarani-Kaiowadresstobecapturedinthree-

dimensionalmotion,whichpreviouslycouldonlybesuggestedinthephotographs

presentedinthemagazine,onthewebsite,andontheiPadscreen.

CaseStudyThree:Film

Thefinalsnapshotthischapterexaminesistheshortfilmreproducedonthe

iPadeditionofthemagazine,whichwasentitled‘SemSolução:ogovernofederalnem498ThisWesternarthistoricalcanonincludedpaintingssuchas,tocitebutoneexample,theearlyfifteenth-centuryGhentaltarpiece,executedbyJanvanEyckin1430-42.

263

indenizaosruralistasnemregularizeasterrasindigenas’[‘Hopeless:thegovernment

neitherindemnifiesthefarmersnorregulatestheindigenouslands’].499Itwasfunded

byPlanetaSusteneval,andspeciallymadebyCohenandSiqueiraforthedigitaledition

ofNationalGeographicBrasil,servingasarecordoftheirsix-daytripduringwhich

timetheyphotographedtheGuarani-Kaiowa.Thefilmopenedwithapost-Apocalyptic

sceneasbillowingorangeandgreysmokeemergedfromthesilhouetteofatallforest,

andpollutedacloudlessskybarelyvisibleinthebackground(Figs.6.17and6.18).A

carefullyselectedsoundtrackofcracklingfirewasinterwovenintothesceneto

produceapotentsymbolofthedestructiveeffectsofcolonisationonindigenous

lands.Asthesoundofadecoratedgourdinstrumentbeingmeditativelyplayed

graduallydisplacesthesoundofcracklingfire,anemotivepalimpsestisenacted,and

theframeswitchestothetorsoofAvaTapeRendy’i,recognisablefromtheprevious

photograph,wearingbeadednecklaces,bodypaintandafeatheredheaddress,singing

asheperformed(Fig.6.19).Itisthefirsttimethatwehaveseenindigenousdressin

motion,andhowitconnectstoperformance,danceandsong,andafeelingofco-

presenceisengenderedbetweenviewerandsubject,throughthesenseoftactile

closenesspromptedbythezoomedinshot,whichprovidesacompellingfeelingof

beinginthemidstoftheaction,of“beingthere”withthesubject.Thereisa

mesmerisingqualityasAvaTapeRendy’i’sdressmovesinthree-dimensionalforms;

themusclesofhisrightarmflexasheshakesthemaraca,causinghisredandblack

bodypainttopulsate,thetasselsthatdecoratetheinstrumentmoveintimetothe

music,hisbeadednecklacesjingleandthefeathersonhisheaddressflutterashe

swayshisheadintimewiththemusic.Despitetheflatsurfaceofthedigitalscreenthis

499SemSolução:ogovernofederalnemindenizaosruralistasnemregularizeasterrasindigenas,dir.byPauloSiqueira(Brazil:PlanetaSusteneval,2013).RefertoAppendix8:TranslatedArticlesforatranslationofthefilm’sdialogue.

264

rangeoftactilesensationsandtexturespresentedinmotiongiveasimulatedsenseof

touch.Whilstthereisanelementoftheatricalitytothisperformance,thecameradoes

notlingeronAvaTapeRendy’ilongenoughforhimtobecomeanethnographic

spectacle,butratherswitchestoSiqueiraandCohen,whoaresurveyedwitha

comparablecuriositybutcapturedinWestern-styledressastheyfollowagroupof

Guarani-Kaiowa.

SiqueiraisdressedinjeansandaT-shirtandcarriesafoodsackonhisshoulder

(Fig.6.20).Cohenfollows,dressedinastrappyblackvesttopandrolledupdenim

jeans,carryingherpinkandorangeNiketrainersinonehandandhergreenHavaianas

flip-flopsintheother(Fig.6.21).AvoiceoverbySiqueiraexplainedthatthereare

around50,000GuaranilivinginBrazilatthemoment,andthatheandNadiahadcome

todocumentthedisputesovertheirlands.Throughoutthetwo-minutefifty-eight

secondsduration,viewerswitnesstheGuarani-Kaiowaastheyfulfildailyactivities

suchaswashing,cookingandfarmingtheland.Amemorablescenecapturesa

Guarani-KaiowamaninacombinationofWestern-styledressandindigenousjewellery

standingbeforeagroupofmen,alsoinacross-culturalmixofsartorialelements,

insideahut.Thevoiceovercaptureshimprovidingthepresumedperspectiveofthe

farmers:‘Theindigenousdon’twork,sowhatistheirinterestintheland,itisall

crazy.’500ThroughoutweareconstantlypresentedwithphotographsofCohen(whois

alsoaphotographer,althoughmostofthephotographsprintedinthemagazinewere

shotbySiqueira)documentingtheGuarani-Kaiowa.Shebendsdownandcroucheslow

togetthebestshot.Sheisreflectedwithhercamerainthecarwindscreen.These

shotsareveryself-reflexiveanddonottrytohidethepresenceofthephotographer;

theyemphasiseinsteadthesubjectivityofbothCohenandSiqueira,whichdisrupts

500SemSolução,0.58.

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anynotionoftheirroleasanall-controlling,distancedethnographicgaze.

Representationisinsteadpresentedasafluidprocess,opentovariousdifferent

interpretations,andisreminiscentofacommentthatCohenmakesinthetextofthe

article,whichencouragestheviewertothinkabouthowtheGuarani-Kaiowamight

alsoperceivethephotographers:

OursocietyromanticizestheIndians.WetendtothinkthattheGuaraniwanttoreturntotheirancestralland,plantnewtreesforthewildlifetoreturnandthenliveinhuts,huntalldayandprayatnightdressedinfeathers.Notquite.‘YougoarounddressedasPedroAlvaresCabralin1500?’TonicoBenitesasksthephotographerPauloSiqueira,whoaccompaniesme.BenitesisGuaraniandteachesanthropologyattheFederalUniversityofDourados.‘DoeshavingamobileandcomputermakemelessIndian?Weareevolvingalongwithmodernsociety,likeanyotherethnicgroup,’hesays,aswetakeacoffeeatmyhotelinthecity.501

Thefilmcomprisedaestheticisedimagesthathadappearedinthemagazine,and

footageoftheirtripandinteractionswiththeirsubjects.Itclosedwithaphotographof

oneofthefarmers,namedasDacioQueirozSilva,asheexplainsthatifthe

governmentpaidfarmersconsiderablecompensationthentheywouldleavethearea:

‘Thereisnosolution.Ifyousay:“No,but,thereisanamendmenttothebudgetforthe

indemnificationagreementoftheland!”“So,giveme,giveme,thenIwillbeleaving

…”’502AlthoughnoneoftheGuarani-Kaiowaarenamed,unlikeSiqueira,Cohenand

Silva,theyaregivenanopportunitytorepresentthemselvessartoriallythroughthe

film,demonstratinghowclothingmovesontheirbodiesandfitsintotheirsurrounding

environment,theirtekoha.Thehapticvisualqualitiesoftheirdressinmotion

engendersasenseoftouch,drawingtheviewerin,andencouraginghertoconsiderits

formincloserdetail,producinganintenseawarenessofanactiveself-fashioning

Guarani-Kaiowapresence.WhereasNationalGeographicBrasilusedfilmtoproduce

anintimaterelationshipbetweentheviewerandGaurani-Kaiowadresspresentedon501Cohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha’,p.130.502SemSolução,2.28.

266

thescreen,demonstratingitslivedandsubjectiveexperienceasamanifestationof

individualtastes,aratherdifferentrepresentationofGuarani-Kaiowadressisseenin

thefilmBirdwatchers,producedbyItalian-ChileandirectorMarcoBechis.503

Birdwatchers,afictionalfilmthatwasshotpredominantlywithouttheuseofa

scriptandusedmanyuntrainedGuarani-Kaiowaasactors,neverthelessreducedthe

indigenousgroup’sinteractionswithglobalisationtoaformofstandardisationthatled

toafragmentationofgroupidentity.TheopeningscenecapturedagroupofEuropean

birdwatcherssailingalongapicturesqueriverinMatoGrossodoSul(Fig.6.22),where

theycomeintocontactwithagroupofGuarani-Kaiowahidingintheverdanttreesthat

linetheriverbank(Fig.6.23).Theindigenouspeoplearearmedwithbowsandarrows

andwearloincloths,beadedjewellery,featheredheaddressesandbodypaint(Figs.

6.24-6.26).Afewreleasetokenarrowsfromtheirbowsforthebenefitofthetourists.

ThescenealludestowhatDeborahRoothasarguedistheinsatiable‘appetite’ofa

Europeanaudiencefortheexotic‘other’,asasourceof‘violence,passionand

spirituality’.504Thisnotionisamplifiedbythesecondscene,whichwatchedthe

Guarani-KaiowachangebackintotheirusualWestern-styleclothesofjeansandT-

shirts,andcollectscantpaymentfortheirexoticdisplay(Figs.6.27andFig.6.28)from

thewealthyEuropean-descendedlandownerRoberto,whoprofitsconsiderablyfrom

theEuropeantouriststhathehostsonhislavishestate,nottomentionhisrich

suppliesofsugar,soy,wood,beefandbiofuels.Withaerialshotsthatjuxtapose

denselywoodedforestandopenfieldsofcattleandcrops,thefilmconfrontsthe

devastatingeffectsofEuropeancolonisationupontheregionandthedisplacement

sufferedbytheGuarani-Kaiowa,whoaredehumanised,impoverished,livingonsmall

503Birdwatchers,dir.byMarcoBechis,(Brazil:ParisFilmes,2009).504DeborahRoot,CannibalCulture:Art,AppropriationandtheCommodificationofDifference(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1996),backcover.

267

reservesandmakeshiftprotestcamps,andtreatedwithpatronisingpaternalismby

mainstreamBraziliansociety.ThisismostevidentthroughtheyoungfigureofIreneu

(Fig.6.29),whouseshiswagesfromharvestingsugarcaneonthelandowner’s

plantationtobuyabrandnewpairofsneakersfromtheshoppingmall(Fig.6.30).He

isscoldedbyhisalcoholicfatherNadio,whoremonstratesthatheoughttohave

purchasedadditionalsuppliesfromthelocalshoptoprovideforthemalnourished

community.IreneuisaccusedbyNadioofneglectingtraditionalGuarani-Kaiowa

cultureand,inaclimacticscenetowardstheendofthefilm,hecommitssuicide.The

makeofIreneu’ssneakersisunknownsincethecameraintentionallyneverfocuses

longenoughuponthem,andsotheyserveasahomogenousexpressionofgeneric

globalculture,whichliterallywipesoutanindigenousGuarani-Kaiowalifeintheface

ofitsdominance.BirdwatcherspresentsGaurani-Kaiowasubjectsasfragile,withalack

ofagencythroughdress.Thereisanincreasedawarenessasthefilmprogressesthat

Bechisoughttocapturetheindigenousgroupbeforetheirpresumeddemise,ina

processthatdrewonsalvageethnographydiscussedinthefirstandthirdchapterof

thisthesis.Incontrast,NationalGeographicBrasilpresentedtheGuarani-Kaiowaas

individualsperformingtheirownsubjectivities,ratherthanasobjectsofacontrolling

anddehumanisingethnographicgaze.WhereasBechisfashionedtheGuarani-Kaiowa

asdoomed,onthereceivingendoftheasymmetricalglobalrelationsofpower,

NationalGeographicBrasilhighlightedtheirvitalitythroughmundialization,and

integratedacritiqueofWesterndocumentaryphotographyandethnographicimage-

makingintoarepresentationofGuarani-Kaiowadress.

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ThischapterhasusedOrtiz’sconceptofmundializationtoexaminethree

snapshotsthatwerepublishedwithinanarticleinNationalGeographicBrasilinAugust

2013.Mundializationcanbeunderstoodastheculminationofthefourtheoretical

conceptsemployedinthepreviousfourchapters,andithasbeenusedtoconsider

howBrazilianculturalexpressionsarenolongerfashionedin-betweenBrazilandthe

West,butaremanifestationscompetingagainstmanyothersinaglobalsystem.This

methodologicalframeworkhasbeenparticularlyusefulforanexaminationofNational

GeographicBrasilinthepost-2010period,whenthemagazinebegantopositionitself

morepragmaticallyanddynamicallyinrelationtoNationalGeographic.Ireturnto

Ortiz’sassertionthat‘thereisnoglobalculture;onlyaprocessofcultural

mundialization’.505Thisfluidconceptwasusedtohighlighttheimprovisationalnature

ofGuarani-Kaiowadress,whichwasunderstoodwithinthecontextofthetekoha,the

frameworkthatdenotesthephysicalplacesthattheGuarani-Kaiowainhabit,butalso

theirsituationaladjustmenttotheirchangingimmediateenvironment.

Thefirstcasestudywasexaminedasitwaspublishedwithinthemagazineand

consistedoffourposedportraits,eachofwhichenabledthesubjectstoself-fashion

andself-presentbeforethephotographer’sgaze.Thetactilequalitiesofdress

encouragedtheNationalGeographicBrasilviewertovicariouslyexperiencethe

fascinationthattheGuarani-Kaiowahavewiththeirtekoha,andtherewasatangible

sensethatthemagazinehadtakenadistancefromsubjects,providingaspacefor

themtostagefancifulversionsofthemselves,ratherthanimposingastyleof

representationuponthem.ThisphotographicapproachenabledtheGuarani-Kaiowa

todemonstratetheirindividualsartorialinteractionswiththetechnologicaland

economicprocessesofglobalisation,andrevealednoovertstandardisationor505Ortiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge’,p.402.

269

homogenisationtotheirrepresentation,beyondthegridformationinwhichsubjects

werepresented.CohenandSiqueiraclearlyhadanawarenessofGuarani-Kaiowadress

practicesasaformofmundialization,whichwasashiftbeyondeachofthe

photographersandauthorsinterviewedinthepreviouschapters,noneofwhom

professedtobeparticularlyinterestedindress.Thisworkedtounderminethe

asymmetricalrelationsofpowerbetweenNationalGeographicBrasilandBrazilian

subjects.

ThesecondandthirdcasestudieswereexaminedaspresentedontheiPad

editionofNationalGeographicBrasil.Therangeoftactiletexturesinthephotographic

portraitofAvaTapeRendy’i,whichwasre-presentedforthescreeninhighresolution,

ostensiblybroughttheviewerclosertothesubject,andencouragedanawarenessof

hisabilitytoself-fashion.Yettherewasasensethatthesubjectmayhavebeenposed,

orfashioned,bySiqueira,inadramaticmise-en-scènethatdrewontheWesternart-

historicalcanon.Therewasastandardisationinherenttothisrepresentationalgesture,

whichdrewaveiloverthesubject’sdiscriminatenegotiationandre-negotiationof

dressfromtwodifferentculturalsystems,Westernandindigenous.Thefinalcase

studywasashortfilm,producedexclusivelyforthedigitaleditionofthemagazine.The

re-presentationofdressinmotion,andtheclose-upandtactilequalitiesoffilm,

providedasubstitutionfortouchandencouragedtheNationalGeographicBrasil

viewertoperceivethesubjectsasself-fashioningindividualswithinathree-

dimensional,multisensoryframework.Thismodeofrepresentation,notpreviously

examinedwithinthisthesis,producedanintersubjectiverelationshipbetween

Guarani-Kaiowasubjectsandtheviewer,anddrewherattentiontheindividual,

mundializedprocessesoftheindigenousgroup’ssartorialinteractionswithglobal

270

culture.Ratherthananover-saturationanddesensitisationofimagerypresentedon

thedigitalscreen,thefinalcasestudypromptedamoreintimate,nuancedresponse

fromtheviewer,whichprovidedanopportunityfortheGuarani-Kaiowatorepresent

theirownsubjectivitiesthroughdress,gestureandperformance.

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Conclusion

• Snapshot1:TheMakuWoman’s‘OldPieceofCloth’,April1926(Fig.7.0)• Snapshot2:PaulistaWomen’sWhiteSportswear,October1942(Fig.7.1)• Snapshot3:TheCintaLargaWomen’sBlackBodyPaint,September1971(Fig.

7.2)• Snapshot4:Djaui’sRedT-shirtandAdidasShorts,December1988(Fig.7.3)• Snapshot5:TheAfro-BrazilianGirl’sLycraTopandDenimJeans,August2002

(Fig.7.4)• Snapshot6:TheYanomamiBoy’sGazeattheNationalGeographic

Photographer’sClothing,September2001(Fig.7.5)• Snapshot7:BiancaMarque’sBikinisandVictorDenzk’sDresses,September

2011(Fig.7.6and7.7)• Snapshot8:TheMayongongMan’sRawhideBagandCottonLoincloth,July

2000(Fig.7.8)• Snapshot9:LourençoLoy’sRedandWhiteBandanaandGoldMedallion,

February2001(Fig.7.9)• Snapshot10:TheJapanese-BrazilianWomen’sCottonYucataandWooden

Geta,June2008(Fig.7.10)• Snapshot11:TheGuarani-Kaiowa’sWestern-styledressandFeathered

Headdresses,August2013(Figs.7.11,7.12and7.13)

Thisthesissetouttoexaminethehypothesisthat,sinceNationalGeographic’s

centenaryeditioninSeptember1988,themagazinehastracedthebeginningsofa

differentviewofencounterswithintheUnitedStates-Brazilcontactzone,drivenby

theforcesofglobalisation,whichhaveresistedtheprocessesofobjectification,

appropriationandstereotypingthatpreviousscholarshiphasassociatedwiththe

rectangularyellowborder.IthypothesisedthatthiswasbecausephotographsofBrazil

publishedinNationalGeographicsince1988haveprovidedevidenceofafluidand

variouspopulation,whichhasselectedandexperimentedwithpreferredelementsand

ideasderivedfromNorthAmericanandWesternEuropeandress,anduseditto

fashiontheirown,distinctlyBrazilianidentities.Thetemporalandgeographicalscope

ofthisthesis,aswellasitsprimaryfocusondressandfashion,emergedfrom

dissatisfactionthatacademicdiscoursetodatehasnotconsideredhowNational

GeographicmayhavefashionedBraziliansubjectswithinthecontextofcontemporary

272

sociallife,whichhasunequivocallybeentransformedbyglobaleconomicandcultural

exchange.Equally,andtoensurethatIdidnotprivilegeaWesternperspective,it

soughttoconsiderhowBraziliansubjectsmighthaveself-fashioned,and

demonstratedaresilience,ingenuityandinventivenessinnegotiatingandmodifying

commoditiesandideasthathavematerialisedthroughcross-culturalencounter.I

selectedBrazilasacasestudyduetoitslonghistoryofculturalandethnicdiversity,

whichisdemonstratedinthemultifacetednatureofBraziliandressandfashion.Brazil

embodiestheslipperinessofthetensionsbetweenthe‘Western’andthe‘non-

Western’,andenjoysaninfluentialpositioninLatinAmericaand,increasingly,onthe

worldstage,whichcastsdoubtuponsimplisticassertionsofU.S.culturalandsartorial

imperialism.Thesefactorsraiseinterestingquestionsabouthowarecognisableimage

ofBrazilhasbeennarratedtoanincreasinglyglobalreadershipbymeansofNational

Geographicand,sinceitsestablishmentinMay2000,NationalGeographicBrasil.This

thesishasemployedamultidisciplinarymethodofanalysisthatusesfiveBrazilian

scholarswhohavedeployeddressandfashionmetaphorsintheirwritings,whichhave

encompassedpoetry(Andrade),filmstudies(Stam),poststructuralisttheory

(Santiago),literarycriticism(Schwarz)andanthropology(Ortiz).Thishasprovideda

crucialopportunitytounderstandcontactbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazilthat

wasrepresentedinNationalGeographic,notsolelyfromtheperspectiveofthe

magazine,butalsotakingintoaccountthepracticesandlivedexperienceofdressfor

self-fashioningBraziliansubjects.

Thisconclusiontiestogetherthevariousthreadswoventhroughoutthisthesis

todeducetowhatextentitshypothesishasprovenaccurate,andtohighlightany

areasinwhichithasbeentested.Indoingso,itconsidersthetheoreticalimplications

273

ofthisthesis’findingsinrelationtothewideracademicdiscourseonNational

Geographic,whichhascondemnedtheprimitivisingandexoticisinggazethatthe

magazinehaspurportedlyplacedonnon-Westernsubjects.Thisconclusionprovides

answerstothefollowingfiveresearchquestionsthatwerepositedintheintroduction

tothisthesis:howhasNationalGeographicfashionedandnarratedanimageofBrazil

throughitsrepresentationofBraziliandressandfashion?Howdothese

representationalstrategiesrelatetothoseofthebroaderglobalmediascape?Howdo

themagazine’sdifferentgazesontoBraziliandressandfashionreflectglobal,political,

social,culturalandeconomicattitudesandagendasbetweentheUnitedStatesand

Brazil?Howmightphotographicsnapshotsofdressbreakoutofthesedifferentgazes,

whetherethnographic,documentaryorfashionable,byenablingactiveBrazilian

subjectstoself-consciouslyfashion,throughpose,performance,expression,gesture

andthemobilisationoftheirownmultiplegazes?Howdoestherepresentationof

BraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasilcastalightuponNationalGeographic’s

representationalstrategies?Itwillhighlightthenewconclusionsprovidedbyacross-

cultural,dress-historicalanalysisofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicsince1988,

outlineanylimitationsencounteredand,briefly,considerpotentialavenuesforfuture

research.

HowhasNationalGeographicfashionedandnarratedanimageofBrazilthroughits

representationofBraziliandressandfashion?

Thefirstpartofthisthesis,comprisedofchaptersone,twoandthree,has

demonstratedthatthroughoutthehistoryofNationalGeographic’sdocumentationof

Brazil,clothingand/orbodilyadornmenthasbeenusedbythemagazineasacrucial

274

indicatorofBraziliansubjects’identities,whetherindigenous(snapshotsone,three,

fourandsix),whiteEuropean(snapshotstwoandseven),orAfro-Brazilian(snapshot

five).FromApril1926toSeptember2011,dressandfashionhaveprovidedaprimary

visualsymbolofculturalpracticesthatarepresumedtobeatcertainpointsdifferent

from,butatothertimessimilarto,thoseoftheNationalGeographicviewer.Theseven

snapshotsdiscussedinthefirstpartofthisthesisdemonstratedthatnotonlydidthe

magazineusedressasatooltooppressBraziliansubjectsandemphasisetheirexotic

difference,asLutzandCollins,Steet,andRothenberghavepointedout,italsoused

clothingtopresentthecomplexcross-culturaltensionsbetweenhomogeneityand

heterogeneity,asBraziliansubjectsnegotiatedandre-negotiatedtheforcesof

globalisation.

Asthisthesishasdemonstrated,hybridformsofdresswereapparentin

NationalGeographic’sdocumentationofBrazilintheperiodpriorto1988,which

confirmedthatcross-culturalsartorialengagementsandnegotiationswerealready

takingplacebefore,aswellasafter,theunravellingofthefabricofabipolarColdWar

world.PhotographspublishedinNationalGeographicduringthisperioddrewless

visualattentiontothesubtletiesofBraziliandress,andwereoftenreliantinstead

uponaccompanyingcaptionstoexplainthattheclothingwornbysubjectswasa

carefulandconsideredchoice.Thecaptionsarticulatednewsartorialframesof

reference,whichdisruptedtheasymmetricalpowerrelationsthatpreviousscholarship

hasattributedtoNationalGeographic’spurportedlyimperialistgaze.Whenconsidered

inrelationtothephotographsthattheyaccompanied,thecaptions,whichhighlighted

theMakuwoman’s‘oldpieceofcloth’(snapshotone),‘sports-cladgirls’,andtheCinta

Largawomen’s‘painted“clothing”’(snapshotthree),drewattentiontodressasanact

275

ofselectiveself-presentationonthepartofactivefemaleBraziliansubjects.

Nevertheless,whenconsideredasawhole,therhetoricofthearticleswithinwhich

thesesnapshotswerepublishedlargelyskirtedoverBraziliandresspractices,focusing

insteadonactive,masculinepursuitsintheAmazon;theindustrialisationand

modernisationofaBrazilthatwasreadyforwar;and,finally,anethnographicconcern

todocumentBrazil’sapparentlydisappearingindigenousgroups.Theoverriding

conclusiondrawnisthatintheperiodpriorto1988,themagazinedeemeddresstobe

anunimportant,femininepreoccupation;ontheonehand,thisenabledfemale

Braziliansubjectstoarticulateandconstructtheiridentitiesinidiosyncraticways,but

italsowarrantedlittlesustainedinterestfromNationalGeographic’sfrequently

shiftinggaze.

IntheperiodsubsequenttoSeptember1988,NationalGeographicbecame

increasinglyinterestedinmaleandfemaleBraziliandresspractices.Ratherthan

fashionanincreasinglyhomogenousimageofBrazil,asaresultofthe

interconnectednessengenderedbycontemporaryglobalisation,whichhasenabled

clothingcommoditiesandfashionableideasfromtheUnitedStatesandWestern

Europetomoverapidlyacrossgeographicalborders,NationalGeographichighlighted

thesubtletiesofheterogeneousBraziliandressforms,withinwhichlocalandglobal

elementshaveinteracted.ThephotographicrepresentationofDjaui’sredT-shirtand

Adidasshorts(snapshotfour),aswellastheAfro-Braziliangirl’sLycratopandjeans

(snapshotfive),demonstratedtheaccommodationsandresistancesinherentin

Braziliandress,whichmayhavebeenatacticalandconsideredchoice,asinthecaseof

Djaui,oradistinctiveandlocalre-presentationofEuropeanhighfashion,asinthe

exampleoftheAfro-Braziliangirl.Thehaptic-visualqualitiesofphotographspublished

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inthemagazinesince1988encouragedviewerstoconsidernotonlyhowBrazilian

clothinglooked,butalsohowitfelt,promptingidentificationbetweenviewerand

subjectcentredontheinterconnectedactivitiesoflooking,seeing,being,feelingand,

crucially,wearing.ThiswasatransitionalmomentineditorialpolicyatNational

Geographic,encapsulatedbytheSeptember1988centenaryedition,towardsan

emphasisontheintrinsicandself-expressivevalueofphotography,asimageand

object,whichwasnolongerdeemedmerelyillustrativeoftheaccompanyingtext.This

thesishasshownthatnotonlydidNationalGeographicbegintodocumentamore

multifariouspopulationsince1988,butitalsoprompteditsreaderstoexperience

Braziliansubjectsinanincreasinglymultisensoryway.Despitethis,therhetoricofthe

articleswithinwhichthesetwosnapshotswerepublishedlargelyignoredthevaried

stylesofdresswornbyBraziliansubjects,andeitherrefusedtocommentondress

practicesperse,asinLorenMcIntyre’sarticle‘LastDaysofEden’,orinsteadfocused

onthefolkloricspectacleprovidedbymoretraditionalformsofBraziliandress,suchas

thatwornbythebaiana,thearchetypalmatureblackwomandressedinvoluminous

whitelacewhoisassociatedwithSalvadordaBahia,asinCharlesCobbJr.’sarticle,

‘WhereBrazilwasBorn’.

2001markedthefirstoftwoexceptionstothehypothesisofthisthesis,asthe

magazineattemptedtoengageconsciouslywithfashionforthefirsttime,withthe

publicationofthephotobookNationalGeographicFashion.Ratherthanhighlightthe

nuancesandinflectionsoffashionablestylethroughouttheworld,whetherfastand

throwawayorrarefiedandelite,NationalGeographicfocusedverynarrowlyonethnic,

regionalandnationaldress.ThetextualcommentarythataccompaniedNational

GeographicFashionwascontradictory;itincludedaforewordbyEicher,whosituated

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thephotobookwithincontemporaryacademicscholarshipthatcastdoubton

simplisticdichotomiesbetweenWestern‘fashion’andallegedlynon-Western‘dress’,

butitalsoplacedobscurequotationsbesideunrelatedimages,juxtaposingdiverse

geographicalplacesandtemporalperiodswithlittleconcernforindividualsubjects.

PhotographspublishedwithinNationalGeographicFashionhadclearlybeenselected

withaneyeattunedtoWesternbeautyconventions,whichconnecteddiversesubjects

visually,bytheirmodel-likefacesandsymmetricalbodies.Viewedinitsentirety,the

photobookplacedahomogenisingveiloverthedifferentanddiverseprocessesofself-

fashioningandself-presentationthathaveemergedthroughouttheworld,which

transcendgeographical,social,cultural,politicalandeconomicboundaries.The

haphazardandeclecticjuxtapositionofcolourful,tactileimagery,ratherthan

encouragingidentificationwithBraziliansubjects,riskedresultinginasynaesthetic

overloadthatreinforcedtheirfetishisedstatusasasymbolofexoticOtherness.The

representationofBrazilfocusedentirelyonmaleindigenoussubjects(snapshotsix),

whodisplayednoovertsignsofcross-culturalself-fashioningthroughitemsofdress.

2011markedNationalGeographic’ssecondengagementwithBrazilianfashion,and

documentedhigh-enddesignerclothes(snapshotseven),inthearticlewrittenby

CynthiaGorney,‘Machisma’.Itpresentedfashionwithinananthropological

framework,onlythistimeitsgazehadbeenturneduponwhiteEuropean-descended

BrazilianwomenlivinginRiodeJaneiro,asopposedtoindigenousmalesubjects.It

documentedtheinterioroftwoboutiques,inwhichBrazilianwomenexperienced,

performed,andconsumedfashion,butthemagazinenarratedanideaofthese

activitiesassuperficialanddistinctlyfeminine,whichwasreinforcedbytherhetoricof

thearticlewithinwhichthissnapshotwaspublished.Themagazinepresentedavery

narrowviewofBrazilianfashion,whichignoreditsmultidimensionalnature,ratheras

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NationalGeographicFashionhaddone,andimpliedinsteadthatitwastheprivileged

domainofaselectgroupofelite,white,wealthyBrazilianwomen.National

Geographic’srepresentationofBraziliandresshasthusbeensubjecttovariousshifts

sincethemagazinewasestablishedin1888,whichhastendedtowardsamore

intimateengagementwithBraziliansubjectssince1988,buthasoccasionallystill

lapsedintoolderrepresentationalparadigms,asdemonstratedin2001and2011.

Howdotheserepresentationalstrategiesrelatetothoseofthebroaderglobal

mediascape?

ThefirstpartofthisthesiscontextualisedNationalGeographic’srepresentation

ofBrazilwithexamplesfrommainstreamU.S.magazinessuchasPopularMechanics,

Vogue,Life,TheNewYorkTimesandWomen’sWearDaily,anddrewpointsof

comparisonanddistinction.NationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategiesproved

moremultilayeredthanthoseofcontemporaryU.S.media;eachoftheseven

snapshotsexaminedrevealedpointsoffractureandresistancetosimplisticbinaries

betweencivilisedandprimitive,clothedandunclothed,dominantanddominated.

ThesetensionswerearesultofNationalGeographic’sintentiontocommunicatewith

itsviewersnotsolelyintermsofsemiologicalmeaning,butalsointheaffective

responsesandfeelingsthatimagesofdressevoked,howeversubconsciouslyor

involuntarilytheseoperatedonbehalfoftheviewer.Thiseditorialstrategyprompted

activeNationalGeographicviewerstomakeamorecomplexreadingofphotographs

and,whilstapparentinthemagazinesinceitfirstmadecontactwithBrazilin1906,it

wasbroughtintomuchsharperfocusasofSeptember1988.Byplayingwiththe

affectivecapacitiesoftheviewer,andfunctioningasimageandobject,thearticle

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‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,publishedinthecentennialeditionofthemagazine,

signalledaparadigmaticshift,asNationalGeographicworkedtoprovideviewerswith

anincreasinglymultisensoryandintimateengagementwithdressedBraziliansubjects,

encouragingthemtosee,butalsotofeelthephotographs.Thistactileandintimate,as

opposedtodisembodiedanddistant,gazewasnotsoapparentincontemporaryU.S.

media,butinNationalGeographic,itoperatedtoerodegeographicalandtemporal

distancebetweenthemagazine’sviewersandBraziliansubjects.Thisshiftineditorial

policyrevealedaprescientawarenessonthepartofNationalGeographic,which

recognisedthatitwouldberequiredtokeepup-to-datewith,butalsotocompete

against,theproliferationofimagesproducedbytheglobalmediascape.Although

NationalGeographic,unlikeVogue,Women’sWearDailyandTheNewYorkTimes,has

notfocusedexplicitlyonfashionuntil2001,imagesofdresshaveplayedacrucialrole

infashioninganideaofBrazilandBraziliansubjects.NationalGeographichasproven

morefluidandunstablethanpreviousscholarshiphasacknowledged;thishasbeena

resultofthecontradictionsinthenexusofmeaningbetweenthephotographs,their

placementontheprintedpageorwebpage,theaccompanyingcaption,thetextofthe

articlewithinwhichphotographswerepublished,andthefunctionofthemagazineor

computerasamaterialobject.

Howdothemagazine’sdifferentgazesontoBraziliandressandfashionreflect

global,political,social,culturalandeconomicattitudesandagendasbetweenthe

UnitedStatesandBrazil?

NationalGeographicfirstmadecontactwithBrazilinApril1906,thesameyear

thatthePan-Americanconference,whichwasorganisedforco-operativetradewithin

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theWesternhemisphere,washeldinRiodeJaneiro.Thisdemonstratedthatthe

magazine’sinitialinterestinBrazilclearlyreflectedU.S.awarenessofBrazilasan

economictradingpartner.Articlespublishedbetween1906and1933placedan

ethnographicgazeontheAmazonregion,andemphasiseditssuitabilityforU.S.

economicexpansionandcommercialexploitation.Thesecondtrendnotedemerged

between1939and1945,aperiodofworldwidefragmentationandanxiety,and

articlesplacedadocumentarygazeonBrazil,toemphasiseitssimilaritieswiththeU.S.

intermsofsize,modernityandcapitalism.NationalGeographic’sdocumentationof

BrazilduringthisperiodcanbeunderstoodasareflectionofRoosevelt’sGood

Neighborpolicy,whichwasintensifiedfollowingtheoutbreakofwarinEurope,and

soughttopresentBrazilasanationcomparabletotheU.S.,whichwasreadyand

willingtoparticipateinprotectingtheWesternhemispherefromattackbytheAxis

powers.Thethirdtrendnotedemergedfrom1964to1984,duringaperiodwhen

Brazilwassuppressedbyaright-wingmilitarydictatorshipwhichwaspoliticallyaligned

totheinterestsofUnitedStates.NationalGeographic’sethnographicgazefocusedon

indigenouspopulationsintheAmazonregion.Thisheightenedinterestinindigenous

subjects,whichignoredanysensitivepoliticalinferences,canbeattributedtoU.S.

anxietiesconcerningthebrutalnatureofthemilitaryregime.Thethreepatternsnoted

inNationalGeographic’srepresentationofBrazilpriorto1988demonstratedthatthe

magazinewasclearlyconcernedtoadvancethebroaderpoliticalinterestsofthe

UnitedStates,ratherthanBrazil,andtothisextentitrepresentedaformof

imperialismthatisconsistentwiththefindingsofpreviousscholarship.

Intheperiodsubsequentto1988,however,NationalGeographic’sgazedidnot

reflectanoverteconomicorpoliticalagendabetweentheU.S.andBrazil,anditno

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longerfollowedsuchasystematic,uniform,oreasilydefinablepattern.Generalised

themes,includingtheAmazon,urbancentressuchasRiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo,

andAfro-Brazilians,emergedonlywhenthearticleswereviewedasawholeandfrom

adistance.AllofthearticleswereconnectedbytheirmultifariousarticulationofBrazil

that,forthefirsttimeinthemagazine’shistory,highlightedtheglobalmixofBrazilian

people.WhereaspreviouslythemagazinehadalwaysjudgedBrazilinrelationtothe

UnitedStates,andindoingso,presentedaworldpolarisedonColdWarlines,since

1988itbegantoconsiderBrazilinitsown,uniqueterms.Thisshiftineditorialpolicyat

themagazinemarkedatransitionalperiodforBraziltoo,asitemergedfromabrutal

militarydictatorshipandmovedtowardsademocraticconstitution.Withthe

stabilisationoftheBrazilianeconomyin1994,whentherealreplacedthecruzeiro,

Brazilslowlystrengtheneditsprominenceasaregionalpowerandgraduallyworkedto

gainapositionofinternationalinfluence.Thiswasrecognisedin2001,whenitwas

namedasoneofthefourfast-growingeconomiesdenotedbytheacronymBRICs

(Brazil,Russia,IndiaandChina).AstheleastpoliticallyproblematicoftheBRICs,and

themostculturally,ethnicallyandraciallydiverse,NationalGeographic’sgazeonBrazil

mightbeattributedtothegeopoliticalforcesofcontemporaryglobalisation,which

havepushedthemagazinetorecognisethecountryassymbolic,inmicrocosm,ofthe

evolvingstructureofanewglobalorder.WhilstNationalGeographicneverovertly

focusedontheBrazilianeconomyoritspoliticalconstitution,bydocumentingamore

multifariouspopulationthroughdress,itrecognisedthedynamismofaBrazilthat

couldsartorially,butpotentiallyalsoeconomicallyandpolitically,bridgetheperceived

gapbetweentheWesternandthenon-Western.Thisthesissuggeststhepotentialfor

furtherresearchintothisarea,coveringasimilartemporalperiodbutabroader

geographicalscope,whichcouldexamine,firstly,howNationalGeographic’s

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representationofdressinemergingpowerssuchasRussia,India,ChinaandSouth

AfricamightfareincomparisontoBrazil,andsecondly,whatthismighttellusabout

theirbroadergeopoliticalrelationtomoreestablishedpowers,suchastheUnited

StatesandEuropeanUnion.

Howmightphotographicsnapshotsofdressbreakoutofthesedifferentgazes,

whetherethnographic,documentaryorfashionable,byenablingactiveBrazilian

subjectstoself-consciouslyfashion,throughpose,performance,expression,gesture

andthemobilisationoftheirownmultiplegazes?

InordertoconsidercontactbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazilthatwas

representedinNationalGeographic,thisthesisdrewonPratt’sterm,‘auto-

ethnographicexpression’,whichsheusedtodescribehowethnographicsubjects

creativelyself-fashionedbyappropriatingelementsfromadominantculture,and

infiltratingitwithlocalmodesofdress.Intheperiodpriorto1988,thisthesisdrew

uponAndrade’sself-awaremetaphorofanthropophagytoexaminehowBrazilian

subjectsinNationalGeographicsartoriallyconsumedselectelementsofWestern

culture,andusedthemtoregurgitateadistinctlyBrazilianensemble.Thefirst

snapshotdemonstratedthattheMakuwoman’sappropriationofapieceofcloth

exemplifiedherabilitytodigestforeignculturalelementsobtainedthroughcross-

culturalcontact,andrefashionthemtomeetdifferentends.Dressenabledthesubject

todemonstrateherinventivenessandresourcefulness,whichresistedNational

Geographic’sethnographicphotographicgaze.Inthesecondsnapshot,thePaulista

girls’whitesportsweardemonstratedhowawell-establishedU.S.sportswearaesthetic

hadbeenappropriatedandre-presentedtoserveadifferentmeans,whichworkedin

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favourofVargas’EstadoNovoregimethatlabouredtopresentBrazilasamodern,

whiteEuropeannation.DressenabledtheBraziliansubjectstodemonstratetheir

BraziliannessratherthantheirAmericannessthroughwhiteclothing,butthe

placementofthedocumentaryphotographonthemagazinedouble-pageview,

oppositeaphotographofBrazilianbeef,objectifiedthewomenandhinderedtheir

abilitytoself-fashion.ThethirdsnapshotofCintaLargawomen’sbodypaintpointed

toaself-reflexivegazebywhichtheymimickedtheethnographicgazeNational

Geographicplacedonthem,andposedtodemonstratetheiringenuityinadoptingand

adaptingWesterndresscodesandphotographicconventions.Ineachofthesethree

snapshots,dressarticulatednewpotentialitiesandsubjectivitiesforaninterpretation

oftheimagesbut,justasAndrade’stheoryrevealedlimitationssinceitassumedthe

contradictionsofBraziliandependencyontheWest,therewasanoverridingsense

thatNationalGeographichadeaten,orratherfashioned,Brazil,asopposedto

Braziliansubjectsself-fashioningthroughdress,poseandgesture.Whilstthis

conclusionisconsistentwithpreviousscholarship,sinceithasrevealedthemagazine’s

processesofobjectifyingandstereotypingBrazilintheperiodpriorto1988,itgoes

beyondtheargumentsofLutzandCollins,Rothenberg,SteetandHawkins,sinceit

recognisesthatthiswasnotastraightforwardasymmetricalrelationofpower

betweenBraziliansubjectsandNationalGeographic,butratherinvolvedvarious

elementsofaccommodationandnegotiationbetweentwodifferentcultures.

Toanalysetheperiodsubsequentto1988,thisthesisusedStam’smetaphorof

anaestheticsofgarbagetoencapsulatethesubtletiesandcomplexitiesofBrazilian

subjects’skillinself-fashioningwithinthecontextofanincreasinglyinterconnected

globalera.Inthefourthsnapshotthisthesisexamined,thegarbagemetaphorworked

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onaliteralbasisandenabledDjauitoappropriatesecond-handitemsofWestern

clothinganduseittomixandmatchlocalandglobalelements.Dressbrokeoutofthe

textualnarrativethatsoughttoplacetheUrueu-Wau-Wauwithinanimposed

ethnographicpresent.Thefifthsnapshotthisthesisexaminedoperatedonamore

conceptualbasisandenabledtheAfro-Braziliansubjecttore-interpretEuropeanhigh

fashionthroughherstrategicrecyclingofsecond-handideasandaesthetics.Dress

brokeoutofNationalGeographic’sgazetotheextentthatitrefusedthetextual

narrativeofthearticlethatsoughttopresentSalvadordaBahiaasastaticcultural

preserveofAfricanness.WhatisinterestingaboutthesetwosnapshotsisthatNational

Geographicactivelydrewattentiontothesubjects’self-fashioningthroughthehaptic-

visualpropertiesoftheimages,whichencouragedviewerstorethinkBraziliansubjects

inawaythatwasnotessentialist.Thesefindingssupportthehypothesisofthisthesis

that,since1988,NationalGeographichasallowedsubjectstodemonstratetactical

decisionsabouttheirdifferentmodesofdress;therewasatangiblesensethatBrazil

representednumerousdifferentstylesofclothingand/orbodilyadornmentthat

constitutethepatchworkquiltofcontemporarygloballife.

Inthesixthandseventhsnapshotsthisthesisexamined,Braziliansubjects

brokeoutofNationalGeographic’sattemptstofashionthemin2001and2011tothe

extentthattheirreturnedgazes,eitherbackattheviewer,oratoneanother,

encapsulatedSantiago’snotionofthespacein-between,wherebydistinctions

betweentheU.S.andBrazil,photographerandphotographed,becameblurred.Inthe

sixthsnapshot,thelittleboy’sinquisitivegazeatthephotographercounteractedthe

visualmasteryofNationalGeographic’sfashionablegaze.Intheseventhsnapshot,the

women’sgazesatoneanotherandatthephotographerreinforcedtheirpositionsas

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interactingsocialagents,whowereabletoself-fashion.Nevertheless,duringthis

period,NationalGeographic’sfocusonthehaptic-visualqualitiesoftheimageasa

materialobjectthreatenedtooverridethesubjects’abilitiestoself-fashionand

providedtheexceptiontothehypothesisofthisthesis.Inthesetwoinstances,the

magazinepresentedalesscomplexpictureofaglobalpopulation,anddefined

subjectsmorenarrowlyaseitherindigenousorEuropean-descended,revertingto

representationalstrategiesutilisedintheperiodpriorto1988.Braziliansubjects

representedinNationalGeographichavethereforedemonstratedanabilitytoself-

fashionsince1888,butthishasbecomemorepronouncedsince1988,anddirectly

communicatedtotheviewerthroughthehapticvisualqualitiesofphotographs,which

haveencouragedanintersubjectiverelationshipbetweenviewerandsubject.

HowdoestherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasilcasta

lightuponNationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategies?

Thesecondpartofthisthesis,comprisedofchaptersfourandfive,provideda

counterpointtoNationalGeographic’sdocumentationofBrazilthroughdress,and

examinedtherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasilsinceMay

2000,whenthemagazinewasfirstestablished.ArticlespublishedinNational

GeographicBrasildrewaconnectionwithNationalGeographic’srepresentationof

Brazilintheperiodsubsequentto1988,sincetheyfashionedanideaofthecountryas

hybridandsyncretic,whichcombinednumerousculturally,ethnicallyandracially

diversesubjects.

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Intheperiodpriorto2010,NationalGeographicBrasildemonstratedthat,

whilstitdeclareditselfnottobeinterestedindress,ratherasNationalGeographichad

doneuntil2001,clothingwasrepeatedlyusedasaprimaryvisualsymbolemphasising

thedifferenceofrepresentedBraziliansubjects.Thefirstcasestudy(snapshoteight)

examinedanimageofanindigenoussubjectthathadoriginallybeenpublishedin

NationalGeographicinApril1926,buthadbeenre-contextualisedseventy-sixyears

laterinNationalGeographicBrasil.Thesubjectwasplacedinmoreromanticisedand

sentimentaltermsthanhehadbeenpreviously,butthisactalsocamouflagedacrucial

aspectofthesubject’sself-presentation,gambiarra,andplacedhimasapassive

construct,ratherthananinteractingsocialagent.Thesubject’sprocessesofself-

fashioning,whichwereexemplifiedbyhisdeterminedgaze,hisdefensivelycrossed

arms,andhisuseofleft-overitemstocreateasetoftoolsto,asNationalGeographic

acknowledgedin1926,‘workhishealingmagicuponthecredulous’,werelargely

ignoredbyNationalGeographicBrasil.506Themagazinedrewaveiloverthesubject’s

tacticaluseofmaterialitemsandexpressivegestures,andinsteadhighlightedhis

clothingasacrucialmarkerofhisdifference.Thiswaspointedoutinthecaption,

whichblindlyquestioned:‘whydoeshetiehisarmssotight?Manyquestionsremain

unanswered.’507NationalGeographicBrasilmobilisedanewdynamicofpower,which

replacedNationalGeographic’spseudo-imperialistgazewithanostensiblymore

intimateBraziliangaze,butitwasonethatdisguisedaninsidiousformofdominance

thatsoughttoessentialise,objectifyandmemorialiseanindigenousBrazilianpast.This

gesturemightbeattributedtoBrazil’sincreasedeconomicstability,andadesireto

severitsconnectionswithnativeindigenouspopulations,whodidnoteasilyfitwithin

itsglobalisingambitionsforthefuture.Thisparticularexampledemonstrated506Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,pp.398-99.507Moraes,‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde’,p.157.

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displacedideas,toemployareformulatedversionofatermfirstusedbySchwarz,

sinceitexemplifiedthefluidityofideasderivedfromNationalGeographic,whichwere

re-presentedinNationalGeographicBrasil,andtherebyusedtoserveadifferent,neo-

imperialistpurposethatadheredtoaBrazilianagenda.

Theconceptofdisplacedideaswasexaminedingreatersartorialdetailinthe

secondexampleanalysedfromNationalGeographicBrasilpriorto2010(snapshot

nine).AsubtextwithinthearticledemonstratedhowyoungAngolanmenlivinginRio

deJaneiroappropriatedelementsofglobalhip-hopculture,andusedthemto

negotiateandre-negotiatetheirownmarginalisedidentitiesin-betweenAngolaand

Brazil.Thetextualnarrativeofthearticlewithinwhichthissnapshotwaspublished

constantlyreferredtoa‘traditional’Pan-Africanpastthatwasallegedlyinscribedin

Angolans’present-dayexperiencesinBrazil.Ittherebydrewmanyconnectionstothe

textualrepresentationofSalvadordaBahiainNationalGeographicinAugust2002

(snapshotfive).YetwhilsttheAfro-Braziliangirl’sclothingresistedandprovideda

palpablecounter-narrativetoNationalGeographic’sgaze,inNationalGeographic

BrasiltherewasanoverridingsensethatthemagazinehadfashionedAngolan-

BraziliansubjectsinacarnivalesquespectacleofblackOtherness.WhereasNational

Geographichadhighlightedthehaptic-visualqualitiesofdressthroughphotographsto

encourageidentification,andanemotionalinterconnection,betweenNational

GeographicviewerandBraziliansubject,NationalGeographicBrasiluseddressto

highlighttheexoticdifferenceofBraziliansubjects.ItisinthisrespectthatNational

GeographicBrasilrevealedmanyoftheprocessesofobjectificationandstereotyping

thatwerenolongerevidentinNationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategiesinthe

post-1988period.ThismightbeattributedtothefactsthatNationalGeographicBrasil

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wasstillstrugglingtoassertitsownidentityasamagazine,thatitwasusingolder

editionsofNationalGeographicforinspirationonthetypesofarticlesitmight

commission,andthatitwasstillbeingcensoredbyNationalGeographic,which

wantedtoensurethatitwaspresentinga‘realistic’visionofBraziltoitsown,English-

speakingreadership.

ThefinalsnapshotfromNationalGeographicBrasilexaminedpriortothe

magazine’sten-yearanniversaryalsodisplayedevidenceofdisplacedideas,

exemplifiedbytheuseof‘traditional’JapaneseclothingbyJapaneseBraziliansto

performtheircross-culturalidentitiesonparticularceremonialoccasions(snapshot

ten),suchasonthecentennialofthefirstJapaneseimmigrationtoBrazil.Thiscase

studywassituatedwithinadominanttextualnarrative,whichriskedobscuringthe

NationalGeographicBrasilviewer’sunderstandingthattheadoptionoftheyukataand

getaamongstthesecommunitieswasacarefulandconsidereddecisionmadeby

Japanese-Braziliansubjects.Suchcross-culturalsartorialreferenceswereobscuredin

favourofpresentingthedressofJapanese-Braziliansubjectsasapassiveandfeminine

spectacleofOrientalOtherness.Thehapticvisualqualitiesofthesnapshotdrewaveil

overthesubtletiesandnuancesoftheyukata,whichhadbeenadaptedforwearinthe

tropicalclimateofBrazil,andplaceditasadistinctsymbolofethnicandcultural

difference.

Thetensionsbetweentextandimagethatwereprevalentineachofthese

NationalGeographicBrasilsnapshotsdrewaconnectiontoNationalGeographic’s

ambiguousrepresentationalstrategies,anddemonstratehowdresshasassumedand

accruednewmeaningsasithastravelledthroughdifferentinterpretativespheres.This

wasparticularlyinterestinginNationalGeographicBrasilgiventhatarticles,unlike

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thosepublishedinNationalGeographic,werefrequentlywrittenandphotographedby

thesameauthor.AsNationalGeographicBrasildevelopedthroughoutitsfirstdecade

ofpublicationandgainedmoreeditorialfreedomfromNationalGeographic,therewas

anoverridingawarenessthatitwasbeginningtoestablishnewhierarchiesand

inequalities,whichsuggestedtheformulationofanewcontactzone,nolonger

betweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil,butbetweenBrazilandthevariousimmigrant

groupsthathadsettledwithinitsborders.AlthoughNationalGeographicBrasil

documentedahybridandmultifariouspopulation,newessentialismsbegantoemerge

throughdressfromwithinthoserepresentations.LikeNationalGeographic,although

themagazinedidnotdirectlyfocusondressandfashion,itplayedacrucialroleinthe

constructionofBrazilianidentities,fromthedominantperspectiveofNational

GeographicBrasil,butalsofromtheviewpointofself-fashioningBraziliansubjects.A

futureresearchpointinmyexaminationofNationalGeographicBrasilintheperiod

from2000to2010wouldbetoanalysecontextualisingexamples,inordertodraw

pointsofcontrastandcomparison,andthereby,developandtestmyconclusion.

Intheperiodpost2010,whenNationalGeographicBrasilcelebrateditsfirst

decadeinpublication,themagazinebegantopositionitselfmorepragmaticallyand

dynamicallyinrelationtoNationalGeographic.Thisshiftwascomparabletotheshift

inNationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategiessince1988,anditwasaresultof

themagazine’sincreasedconfidence,andtheestablishmentofamoreamicable

rapportwithWashingtonDC.ThisthesisusedOrtiz’snotionofmundializationto

acknowledgethattherewasnolongeronlyoneworld-vision,producedbyNational

Geographicbutrather,inanincreasinglyinterconnectedworld,thereexistedmultiple

world-visions,ofwhichNationalGeographicBrasilprovidedone,thatcompetedwith

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numerousothers,bothwithinandbeyondBrazilianborders.Threecasestudieswere

examinedwithinonesnapshot,andtheconceptofmundializationwasusedtodraw

attentiontoGuarani-Kaiowasubjects’abilitytoself-fashionandperformtheir

individualidentitiesusingtheversatileoptionsprovidedbythemovementofclothing

acrossgeographicalandregionalboundaries.AcomparisonwasmadewithNational

Geographic’srepresentationalstrategiesin2011,whichcrossedoverintodigital

media,andthesecondcasestudyexaminedhowNationalGeographicBrasil’siPad

editionofthemagazineaffectedtheviewer’sinterpretationofdressedBrazilian

subjects.RatherlikeNationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategies,discussedin

snapshotseven,whichwasre-framedontheNationalGeographicwebsite,therewas

anoverridingsensethatNationalGeographicBrasilhadfashioneditsBrazilian

subjects,inthiscase,glossingoversartorialsubtletiesandsituatingitssubjectwithina

Westernart-historicalframework.Nevertheless,thefinalcasestudyexaminedmoved

beyondeachoftherepresentationalstrategiesemployedinthepreviousten

snapshotspublishedinNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil.Theuse

ofthemediumoffilm,whichwasproducedspecificallyfortheiPadeditionofthe

magazine,providedanopportunityforGuarani-Kaiowasubjectstorepresentand

performtheirsubjectiveidentitiesthroughdress,movement,gesture,expressionand

gaze.Theclose-upandtactilequalitiesoffilm,andthemovingformsofdressthatit

facilitated,providedasubstitutionfortouchandencouragedanintimatehaptic-visual

relationtoclothedGuarani-Kaiowasubjects.NationalGeographicBrasil’s

representationalstrategiesilluminatedpotentialsforNationalGeographictoventure

intonewmodesofdigitalrepresentation,whicharecapableofcontinuingtoresistthe

processesofobjectification,stereotypingandappropriationthathavebeenassociated

withthemagazineinscholarshiptodate,andwhichcouldmakeuseofthedigital

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technologiesavailableinaglobalcontext.Scholarsareyettoexamineeditionsof

NationalGeographicthathavebeenproducedindifferentlocationsthroughoutthe

world;thiswouldprovideanimportantavenueforfutureresearch,toexaminethe

cross-culturalprocessesofnegotiationthathavetakenplacewithintheU.S.edition,

andtoconsiderhowthemeaningsofdress,butalsoitsrepresentation,neverspeakto

asingleaudience,butaredecodedandrecodedasclothingtravelsthroughdiverse

sitesandlocations.LikeNationalGeographic,asNationalGeographicBrasilhas

developedasamagazine,ithasdemonstratedmoreofaconcernwithissuesof

materialitythatarecentraltotherepresentationofdressasimageandobject,andits

diversionintofilmencapsulateditsabilitytopromoteidentificationwithdressed

Braziliansubjects.

Thisthesis,whichsetouttoexaminethehypothesisthatsince1988National

GeographichasdocumentedamoremultifariousBrazilianpopulation,engagingwith

elementsofNorthAmericanandWesternEuropeandressinindividualandselective

ways,hascontributedadress-historicalandcross-culturalanalysistothebodyof

knowledgealreadyproducedonthemagazine.Ithashighlightedhowdresshas

providedathree-dimensional,multisensorymediumthroughwhichtoreviseprevious

viewsthathavestressedNationalGeographic’sone-dimensionalparticipationinan

imperialistrepresentationregime,andithasdemonstratedthatthemagazinehasby

nomeansfixedsubjectswithinatimelessethnographicpresent.Theambiguitiesand

fluiditiesofBraziliandresshaveenabledittooperateinunexpectedandfrequently

strategicways,oftenagainsttheoverridingtextualnarrativesthathaveframedit.This

thesishasdemonstratedhowNationalGeographichasenabledNationalGeographic

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viewers,butalsoBraziliansubjects,toengageselectivelywithaspectsofglobaldress,

asimage,object,textandideaintertwined,andindoingso,tofashiontheir

interconnectedidentitiesinaprocessthatiscontinuallybecoming,andneverstatic.

Fashioning Brazil: Globalisation and the …...1 Fashioning Brazil: Globalisation and the...

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