FAO (Lipid and Lipid Acid)

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Fats and fatty acids in human nutrition Report of an expert consultation ISSN 0254-4725 FAO FOOD AND NUTRITION PAPER 91 Food and Agriculture

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Fats and fatty acids in human nutrition Report of an expert consultationISSN 0254-4725FAOFOOD ANDNUTRITIONPAPER91Food andAgricultureOrganization oftheUnited NationsFats and fatty acids in human nutrition Report of an expert consultationFAOFOODANDNUTRITION PAPER9110 14 November 2008GenevaFOODANDAGRICULTUREORGANIATIONOFT!EUNITEDNATION" Rom#$ %&1&The designations employedandthepresentation of materialin this informationproductdonotimply theexpressionof any opinionwhatsoeveronthepartof theFood andAgriculture Organizationof theUnitedNations(FAO) concerningthelegal or development statusof any country territory city or areaor of its authorities or concerningthedelimitationof its frontiersor !oundaries" The mentionof specificcompaniesor productsof manufacturers whetheror notthesehave!eenpatented doesnotimply thatthesehave!eenendorsed or recommended !y FAO in preferencetoothersof a similar naturethatare notmentioned"#$%N &'()&*)+),-.'//)(All rightsreserved" FAO encourages reproduction anddisseminationof materialin this informationproduct"Non)commercialuseswill !eauthorizedfree of charge upon re0uest"1eproductionfor resaleor othercommercialpurposes includingeducational purposes may incur fees" Applicationsfor permissiontoreproduce or disseminateFAO copyrightmaterials andall other0ueriesconcerningrightsandlicences should !e addressed !y e)mail toc o p yright2fa o "o rgor tothe3hief 4u!lishing4olicy and $upport %ranch Office of 5nowledge 6xchange 1esearch and6xtension FAO7iale delle Terme di 3aracalla --,+/ 1ome #taly"8 FAO *-,-In eoria4rofessor9ohn3":aterlow diedpeacefullyon,&Octo!er *-,- attheageof&;atthe 3helsea and :estminster ing in?uyana Trinidadand To!agoand 9amaica where he esta!lished theTropical@eta!olism 1esearch Unitatthe Universityofthe :est #ndiesin5ingston9amaicaandcarriedouthiscutting)edgewor>onthepathophysiologyandtreatmentofmalnutrition"Atrademar>ofhiswor> was to transform complex scientificandtechnicalissues intosimple practicalmessagessuchas his A,-easy)to)remem!er stepsBtreatment guidelinesforhospitalstaffin treating malnutritionandits relateddiseases":hen4rofessor:aterlowreturned totheU5 and!eganhis longtenureas4rofessorofines andtheiractivities3yto>ine 4rincipal producingcells @ain target cells Function?@)3$FTh cells 4rogenitorcells ?rowthanddifferentiationofmonocytesandF3#=),EN #=), @onocytesNmacrophagesN % Th cells 3o)stimulation cellsN F3%cells @aturation andproliferationN5cellsActivation7arious #nflammationacutephaseresponsefever#=)*Th, cells ActivatedTand%cells ActivationgrowthandproliferationN5 cells#=)/Th cells N5cells$temcells ?rowthanddifferentiation@astcells ?rowthandhistaminerelease#=); Th* cells Activated%cells4roliferationanddifferentiationN#g?,and#g6synthesis@acrophages@einflammatoryprocesses"3onsumption of$FAin humansimpairs theanti)inflammatoryproperties ofes of n)/=34UFA"6videnceofa!enefit isstrong inrheumatoidarthritis!utwea>er inotherconditions" es for preventionand to some extenttreatmentofinflammatory processes are rather similarto those that are appliedfortheoptimization andmaintenanceofother aspects ofhuman health (controlof!odyweight cardiovascularfunction prevention ofcancers)"#nta>esofaround /gn)/=34UFAOdayarerecommendedforsomechronicdiseasesespeciallyrheumatoidarthritis" 1ecommendationsshould !e tailored to individualson the !asis of theassessment oftheirFAstatusandgeneralsituation"RE*EREN"ES:aCan2NB9B *--'"Omega)/fattyacidspro)inflammatory signalingandneuroprotection"Curr> 1pin>Clin> ;utr>Metab>Care ,-H,/.),;,":ur-.e29B"B J "al-er2PB"B *--."Fietary F)linolenic acidandhealth)related outcomesH a meta!olicperspective";utr>.es> .ev",&H*.)+/""al-er2 PB"B*--."N)/ polyunsaturated fatty acids inflammationand inflammatorydiseases"#m>?> Clin> ;utr"(/($uppl")H ,+-+$),+,&$""al-er2PB"B*--&a"4olyunsaturatedfattyacidsandinflammatory processesHnewtwistsin anoldtale"-iochimie&,H'&,)'&+""al-er2PB"B *--&!"Fattyacidsandimmune functionH relevancetoinflammatory !oweldiseases")nt>.ev>)mmunol" *(H+-.)+/;""al-er2PB"B*--&c"4olyunsaturatedfattyacidsandinflammationHtherapeuticpotentialin rheumatoid arthritis"Curr> .heumatol> .ev"+*,;)**+"*aroo1ui2 ABAB2#orroc6s2 +BABJ*aroo1ui2 TB*--'" @odulation ofinflammation in!rainHamatter offat"?> ;eurochem> ,-,-H+'')+&&"#o-.e2 +B2 Saloe2 "B(B2 #u./es2 LB(B et al.,&&("6ffects ofdietaryinta>eof omega)/andomega). fattyacidsonseverity ofasthmain children"%ur> .espir> ?" ,,H/.,)/.+">in.2;BRB2 #uan.2DB+B2 &0all2DB+B2 "urran2 OBEB2 Priestl02LB;B J (ic/aelTitus2ABTB*--." Omega /fatty acidsimprove recoverywhereas omega .fatty acidsworsenoutcome afterspinalcordinDury in theadultrat"?> ;eurosci"*.H;.'*);.(-"Na.a6ura2 TB2(atsu-a2SB2S/ic/iE0o2 >B2Su.ioto2#BJ#ata2 >B*---" Fietarysupplementation withfish oil rich in omega)/ polyunsaturated fattyacids in childrenwith!ronchialasthma" %ur> .espir> ?" ,.H(.,)(.+"Sc/ac/ter2 #B2Reisan2 LB2 Tran2>B et al.*--;" eandcancerhas!eeninvestigated extensivelyformorethan twodecades"sforcolorectal cancer(313) endometrial cancerandpostmenopausal !reastcancerZFoes totalfatcontri!utetoo!esityandif soinwhat wayZThe6xpert3onsultationaffirmedthat there is nodirectrelationship!etween totalfatando!esityandthatitis energyim!alancethenutrients contri!uting toitandlife styles thatareresponsi!leforo!esity"Fofattyacidsplayaspecificroleincancerdevelopment !eyondtheircontri!utiontoprovidingenergyZThis 0uestion is particularlyrelevantto4UFAespecially n)/andtransFAnotonly !ecausetheircontri!ution toenergyinta>eis low!ut!ecausetheyareendowed withspecific functionalproperties"eof theseFAprovidespecial characteristicsin theirownright"For examplethesourceofn)/=34UFAis essentiallyfishandfishis alsoasourceofvitaminF andselenium!oth!eingcreditedwithapossi!leprotectiveeffectagainstsomecancers"Thusif areduction inris> associated withfishconsumptionis o!served itcould!eentirelyorpartlyduetothese othernutrients" @oreoverif fishsu!stitutesformeatwhichisrecognized asaris>factorforcolorectalcancer anyo!served reduction inris> may!eerroneouslyattri!uted tofishanditsnutrients" 2rans FAwhichareoftenfoundinprocessed andenergy)densefoods!eingpartofthe:estern dietpatternaresuspectedto!earis> factorassociated withseveralcancers(3haDesetal"*--(N=iuetal" *--'N3havarroetal" *--()"Thus o!servationalepidemiologyalonemay !euna!letoprovidesufficientevidencetoconclude withcertaintywhetherornotthe0uantityortypeoffatinthediethasanyeffect on the ris>ofdeveloping anytypeofcancer" 6xperimentalstudies and!iologicalplausi!ilitymaycontri!utecomplementarylinesofevidenceand rationaleand couldhelptoreach aconclusioninsome situations" Therefore aportfolio(ormosaic)approachhas !een used to estimate the strengthofthe evidence !asedonstudiesselected onmethodologicalcriteriastarting frompreviousexpertreports(AF$$A*--/N:31FOA#31*--')andupdated to$eptem!er *--("Onecanalsoas>ifisityetpossi!letogivefiguresonfattyacidinta>e aimedat reducing cancer ris>followingathoroughliterature reviewofthe evidence forassociationof fattyacid inta>eandris> of cancerincidence"$ince it has!eenproposedtouse diseaseoutcome as an indicatorof ade0uacyor optimalinta>erecommendationswill !eproposed" Theserecommendationsare0uantitative whenever Dudgedpossi!le"This exerciseis constrained !y severallimitations"@anyofthestudiesdonot0uantifytheFAassociated withcancerris>N afoodfre0uency0uestionnairewhichis themaintoolforexposureassessmentis su!Decttomeasurementerror(%inghametal"*--/N5ipnis andFreedman *--()andhencetheexposure valuesaresupposedtoclassify4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $00thecasesrelatively tocontrols andcannot !econsidered a!solute" es inhigh)incomecountries where mostoftherelevantstudieshave!een conducted(Astorget al"*--;) energy mayconfoundanyeffect oftotal fat" Thisisshown intwocase)control studiesoncolorectalcancer(?er!er*--&)where adDustmentofenergyusingtheresidualmethod negatedtheincreased ris> associated withtotalfatinta>e(Theodoratou etal"*--')whereas theincreasedris> persistedwhenanadDustmentwasmade fortotalenergy(ingintoaccount thisevidence theconsultationconcludedthatit is very li>ely thattotalfatconfounds theeffectof energyandthattotalfatpersedoesnotcontri!ute to313 ris>":reastcancerNotall studyresultsarein agreement ontherelationship!etween totalfatinta>eand!reastcancer(%3)"A suggestive!utlimitedrelationshipwasreported !y the:31FOA#31 (*--')" (O1R,"-/N3#H ,"-*),"-;foranincrement of*-gOdayoftotalfat)andthat ofsevencase)control studiesshowed anoverallO1 of,",,(3#H ,"-/),"-.)"#n additionthe:omenCs eN*)hormoneconcentrations decreasedintheexperimental group!utwerenotmodifiedinthecontrolgroup" This change inhormoneconcentrationiso!served inwomen treatedwith anti)aromataseand adipose tissue aromataseis!elievedto!eresponsi!le forextragonadalhormonesynthesisN/)sex)hormone)!inding)glo!uline ($ 0uestionnaire" 11H;"( (,"/),(",)andTH-"-(in premenopausal women"*3ohortof+,*patients with%3" edwithcolon)rectumendometrialandovariancancers"Forthesethreecancersgiventhatanimalfatis mostoftenacomponent ofenergy)densefood itseffect can!econfounded!yenergy" #naddition forcolorectal cancer itmight!econfounded !ysomecharacteristicsofthemeat (Theodoratou etal" *--()"Fataaretooscarcetoreachaconclusionforovarianandendometrial cancer!utthe:31FOA#31(*--')concludedthatthereis limited!utsuggestiveevidencethatfoodscontaininganimalfatwhichareenergy)dense increasetheris> of313"SATURATE&*ATThereisnorelationship !etween313 and$FA" $FA especiallymyristic andpalmiticacidshave!een reportedtoincrease the ris>ofprostatecancer 43(5urahashietal"*--()andof43 progression ($trometal"*--()"eand!odyweightdia!etesandthemeta!olicsyndromeBN /) thecontextofthe@editerraneandietpatternmighteithercontri!utetoorconfoundtheeffect"Againsimilar o!servationsarereported in Atherelationship!etween dietaryfatandfattyacidinta>eand!odyweightdia!etesandthemeta!olicsyndromeB"The datacollecteda!out@UFA underlinetheimportance of ta>inginto considerationthesourceofFAandtheglo!aldietarypattern whenDudging!eneficialordeleteriouseffectsof theseFA oncancers(?er!er*--,NFung etal" *--.)"Thus olive oil providesasourceofmicroconstituentsthat mightofferspecificnutritional!enefit inadditionto!eingasourceoffatwithout deleterious effectsonthelevelof=F=)cholesterolthere!ydecreasingtheris> ofheartdisease"ESSENTIA+*ATT)A"I&S%N-7*A%+INO+EI" A"I&AN&N-'*A%A-+INO+ENI"A"I&@ostepidemiologicalstudiesdonotshowanyassociationof=Aandn).FAwith31343 and%3" This contrastswiththeresultsfromanimalstudiesandmight!eexplained!ya differencein theproportion of FA in thedietor !y thepartplayed!y thediversificationoffoods inhuman diets"3ontradictory results are reportedforA=Awith regardto prostateand!reastcancers"Therearenodataprovidingevidence ofalin>!etweenessentialfattyacidsandcancerris>andthusnorecommendationcan!emade"N-'+"PU*A "olorectal cancerThe:31FOA#31report (*--')noted that there islimitedevidencethat eating fishprotects against313" $incethatreportfourcase)control studies(:a>aietal" *--.N$iezen etal" *--.N5imura etal" *--'N reduction for313 incidenceH-"((&+G 3#H-"'(),"--(?eelenetal" *--')"1ecentstudiesontherelationship ofn)/=34UFAand313 haveintroduced newdata (?er!er *--&)" One case)control study (Theodoratouet al"*--') and twocohortstudiesreportedonn)/=34UFAinta>eaccordingtoresultsofa0uestionnaire(O!aetal"*--. ersofn)/=34UFAinta>eshowedasignificantreduction inris> of313 inthe0uantile withthehighest percentageofn)/=34UFAin the!lood(5oDima etal" *--+)andforsu!Dectsnotta>ingaspirin()reducingeffectofn)/=34UFA"Oneistheanti)inflammatory effectwithinhi!itionofthe3OI *enzymeandtheother istheapoptoticeffectasshown inanimalmodels(3hangetal" ,&&()"Chapter"0 2otal fat6fattyacid inta$eandcancers $0'Asmentionedearlierfishinta>e isnot e0uivalent ton)/=34UFAconsumptiongiventhat fishcontains other nutrients associated with protectionagainst cancerincludingvitaminFand selenium" e(?er!eretal"*---Nfactorfor313replacingmeat!yfishmight confoundtheris> reduction associated withhighinta>esoffish"Neverthelessrecentstudiesstrengthenthepro!a!ilityofacausalrelationship!etweenfishinta>eand313 indicated!y experimentalmodelsand!iologicalplausi!ility" Thusfish inta>epro!a!ly decreases313 ris> andthelimited datasuggesta possi!lecausalrelationship!etween n)/=34UFAinta>eandcolorectalcancerris> reduction"Prostate cancerFewstudies report onthe effect offishandOor n)/=34UFAon43ris>except oneprospective study using !lood mar>ers (?er!er *--&)" Overallthe evidence of aprotectiveeffectof n)/=34UFAon43 is limited"The o!servedheterogeneity of resultsmightresultfromthepossi!lewiderangeofcontaminants in fish":reastcancer4reviousreportswereuna!letoreachaconclusiononthissu!Dectduetoinsufficientdata" $incethat timetwoprospective($trippetal"*--/N6ngesetetal"*--.)andthree case)control studies ( and64AOFeof fish or n)/=34UFA is associatedwitha possi!le reductionin ris> ofdeveloping%3 whereas thereis eithernoeffectorincreasedris> in northern6uropeancountries"Thus thereis limited !utsuggestiveevidencethathightomoderateconsumption offish andn)/=34UFAaspartofagooddietis associatedwithreduced%3 ris>" The increasedris> recordedforsome6uropeancountriesmight!erelatedtoaless favoura!lecontextualfoodpattern andOortopossi!leendocrinedisruptorpollutants>nownto!epresentin theseasaroundthesecountries(ingornotta>ingaspirin(3havarroetal"*--')" ein differentpopulationsHe"g"animalversusvegeta!le(1asmussenetal" ,&&.N?er!er,&&')andprocessedversusnon)processed(Thik!aultetal" *--'N3haDlsetal" *--(N:angetal" *--()"Any recommendationsmademayneedtota>eintoconsiderationthecontextofthefoodthat containstheFAin determining its rolein adiseaseoutcome (?er!er*--,NFungetal" *--.)"Thismayleadtotheneed foradecisionastowhethertherecommendationsshould!edietary)!ased reference valuesandOorpopulation reference inta>esofFA"?eneticpolymorphismsinrelationtocarcinogenesis have!eenmainlydescri!edforenzymesinvolvedindetoxication (phase,and*enzymes)orFNArepair"Therearefewerexamplesofnutrigenomicmechanisms forcancerthan forheart disease"$u!DectscarryingthehomozygousA43 variantatcodon ,(** (valineOvaline) wereatlowerris> ofcancerif theyconsumedalow)fatdiet(O1 -"*N&+G 3# -",)-"+)relativeto those who were homozygouswildtype and ate ahigh)fat diet" Thisfindingwasspecifictoalow)fatdietandwasunrelatedtoother dietaryvaria!les($lattery etal" *--,)"Theodoratou etal" (*--()reported theenhanced effectof n)/=34UFAinsu!DectscarryingthehomozygousA43 variant,(**" Fish4^## 313H ^*S/portionsOwee>Foodpatterns@editerraneanOAsian4$^4$^4rudentOlowfatOlow4$^4$^animalfat3 Rconvincing 4 Rpro!a!le 4$ Rpossi!le #R#nsufficient N1 Rnot related]increased ris>^decreasedris>RE"O((EN&ATIONSA summaryofthestrength ofevidenceforrecommendationsis providedin Ta!les &",and&"*"Total fat$ince totalfatinta>eis notrecognizedasafactorin o!esityassuchonly contri!utingtoanexcessofenergyinta>eitis assumed that there is noconvincingrelationship!etween313and 43"Fata are insufficient for drawing conclusions on ovariancancers" Arelationship ismore convincing regarding %3followingpu!lication ofanew prospective study !ut the limiteddata availa!leindicate that there isnoincreasedris> for%3 upto/-)//G6" Thereis possi!leevidenceofanincreasedris>forendometrialcancer!eingcausallyrelatedfortotalfatinta>erelatedtoincreased!odyfatness"4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $07S*AThe limiteddataregarding%3 suggest>eeping$FAunder,,G6"(U*AFataarecontradictory suggesting theinfluenceofthecontri!uting food(see!elow dietary!asedrecommendations)"Essentialfatt0 aci-s2+Aan-A+AThereis norelationship!etween 313 43 and%3 and=A(convincing)"EPA@ATherearesuggestive data that 64A_F(pro!a!le)"Theevidenceis possi!lefor%3" =imited dataindicatethat+--mgOday inta>epossi!lydecreases 313 and%3"TRANS *AThereisnoconvincingrelationship regarding 313" Thedata areinsufficientfortheother cancersexcept43where there is apossi!leincreaseassociated withtransfatinta>e"The limiteddataindicatethatthereis noincreasedris> !elow,"(G6"*OO& AN& &IETAR)-:ASE RE"O((EN&ATIONS *is/Thereis possi!leOpro!a!leevidencethat*S/portionsoffish perwee>decreases313"Fataareinsufficientregarding43 and%3"*oo-patternsMediterraneanB#sianThereis possi!leevidenceforaprotectiveeffectofthesedietsregarding313 and%3"PrudentBlow fatdiet and low animal fatThereispossi!leevidenceforaprotective effect ofthese dietsregarding 313 andovariancancers"RE"O((EN&ATIONS *OR *UTURE RESEAR"#2rans fattyacidandsaturated fattyacidsshould!einvestigatedfurtherwithregardto43" N)/ 4UFAandfish should!einvestigatedfurtherwithregardto313 43 and%3"RE*EREN"ESA*SSA3A.ence*ranUaise pour la securitP sanitairealientaire%*renc/ *oo-Safet0A.enc04B *--/" Acidesgrasalimentaires etcancersHktat desconnaissancesetperspectives"AF$$A4aris"Astor.2PB2Arnault2NB2"Cernic/oCancer.-H,'')('":in./a2SBAB2+u8en2RB2Delc/2AB2Dare/a2NB2>/aBTBJ&a02NB*--/Areimprecise methodso!scuringarelation!etweenfatand!reastcancerZLancet/.*H*,*)*,;":oru.ian2 (BLB2S/eps2SB:B2>i-Sin.2 "B2;anPatten2"B2Potter2 LB&B2&unn2 :B29alla./er2RBPBJ#islop2TB9B*--;"#nsulinmacronutrientinta>eandphysicalactivityH arepotentialindicatorsof insulin resistanceassociatedwithmortalityfrom!reastcancerZ Cancer %pidemiol>-iomar$ersPrev" ,/(')H,,./)'*""/aEVs2 ;B2 T/iP8aut2AB"B(2B Roti!al2 (B2 9aut/ier2EB2 (aillar-2 ;B2 :outron-Ruault2 (B"B2Loulin2 ;B2+enoir2 9B(BJ"la!el-"/apelon2*B*--(" Association!etweenserumtrans)monounsaturatedfattyacidsand!reast cancerris>inthe6/N)64#3study"#mer>?> %pidemiol",.'H,/,*),/*-""/an.2DB+B2 "/ap6in2RBSB J +upton2LBRB ,&&(" Fish oil !loc>sazoxymethane)inducedrat colon tumorigenesis!yincreasing celldifferentiationand apoptosis rather thandecreasingcell proliferation"?> ;ut",*(H;&,);&'""/a!arro2 LBEB2Stapfer2(BLB2+i2#B2"apos2 #B2>urt/2 TB J(a2 LB*--'" Aprospectivestudyofpolyunsaturatedfattyacidlevels in!loodandprostatecancerris>"Cancer %pidemiol>-iomar$ersPrev>6 ,.(')H,/.;),/'-""/le8oristal2 AB2 "aan2 :B2 (ic/aelson2 RB2;inci.uerra2;B2&el Prete2 SB2Din6ler2 (B2#all2RB2Sion2 (B2Dinters2 :B+B JElas/off2 RB(B*--."Fietary fatreductionand!reastcanceroutcomeH interimefficacy resultsfromthe:omenCs #nterventionNutrition$tudy"?> ;atl> Cancer )nst"&((*;)H,'.'),''."En.eset2&B2An-ersen2;B2#Earta6er2ABJ+un-2EB*--'"3onsumptionoffishandris> ofcoloncancerintheNorwegian:omenand3ancer(NO:A3)study"-r> ?> ;utr"&(H+'.)+(*"En.lis/2&BRB2 (acInnis2RBLB2 #o-.e2 AB(B2#opper2LB+B2#a0-on2 AB(BJ 9iles29B9B*--;" 1edmeat chic>enandfishconsumptionandris>ofcolorectalcancer" Cancer%pidemiol>-iomar$ersPrev> ,/(&)H,+-&),+,;"*un.2 TBTB2 #u2 *B:B2 #oles2(B&B2 Rosner2 :BAB2 #unter2 &BLB2"ol-itC2 9BAB JDillett2DB"B *--+"Fietary patterns andtheris> ofpostmenopausal !reastcancer")nt>?> Cancer,,.H,,.S,*,"9a.o-&oin.ueC2(B2)uan2LB(B2Sun2"B+B2 +ee2#BPBJ)u2(B"B*--/" Opposingeffects ofdietaryn)/andn).fattyacidsonmammary carcinogenesisH The$ingapore3hineseap/uis2 "B2Sta2:BEB2:urea2LB2Ren6ea2LB(B2:a66er2EBLB2;anQt;eer2PBJ>apan2EB*--'"Fish3onsumptionn)/fattyacidsandcolorectalcancerHameta)analysisofprospectivecohortstudies"#m>?>%pidemiol",..H,,,.),,*+"9er8er2(B ,&&'"Olive oil monounsaturated fattyacids andcancer"Cancer Lett",,;H&,)&*"9er8er2 (B2 Scali2 LB2 (ic/au-2AB2 &uran-2 (B2 Astre2"B2&allon.e!ille2LBJRoon2 (B*---" 4rofilesofahealthydietanditsrelationship with!iomar>ers inapopulation sample from@editerraneansouthernFrance"?>#mer> !iet>#ssoc" ,--H,,.;),,',"9er8er2(B*--," Thecomprehensive approachtodietHacriticalreview"?>;utr",/,H/-+,$)/-++$"9er8er2(B2T/iP8aut2A2Astor.2PB2"la!el-"/apelon2*BJ"o8e2NB*--+"Fietary fatfattyacidcomposition andris>ofcancer"%ur>?>Lipid3ci>2echnol",-'H+;-)++&"9er8er2(B*--&"%ac>groundreviewpaperontotalfatfattyacidinta>eandcancers")n%urlingame%" Nishida3"Uauy1" W :eisell1"eds"4ats andfattyacidsinhumannutrition>?oint4#1BC/1%=pert ConsultationNovem!er,-),;*--(?eneva$witzerland"#nn>;utr>Metab"++(,)/)H ,;-),.,"#all2(BNB2"apos2 #B2+i2 #B2Sesso2#B&B2Stapfer2(BLB2Dillett2 DB"BJ (a2LB*--'" %loodlevelsoflong)chain polyunsaturatedfattyacidsaspirinand the ris>of colorectalcancer"Cancer %pidemiol>-iomar$ersPrev" ,.H/,;)/*,"#all2(BNB2"/a!arro2LBEB2+ee2IB(B2Dillett2DB"BJ(a2LB*--("A**)yearprospectivestudyoffishn)/fattyacidinta>eandcolorectalcancerris>inmen"Cancer %pidemiol> -iomar$ersPrev" ,'(+)H,,/.),,;/"#e-elin2(B2 "/an.2EBTB2 Di6lun-2*B2 :ellocco2 RB2 >lint2 AB2 A-olfsson2 LB2S/a/e-i2>B2Au2LB2A-ai2 #BOB29ron8er.2 #BJ:alter2 >BAB*--'" Associationoffre0uentconsumptionoffattyfishwithprostatecancerris>ismodified!y3OI)*polymorphism")nt>?> Cancer,*-H/&();-+"#irose2 >B2Ta6eCa6i2TB2#aaEia2 NB2(iura2SBJ TaEia2>B *--/" Fietaryfactorsprotectiveagainst!reastcancer in 9apanesepremenopausal and postmenopausalwomen" )nt>?> Cancer,-'(*)H *'.)*(*"#o0er2ABPB2 9ran-Eean2PB2 Lor.ensen2 TB2 :roc62 LBDB J #art!i.2#B:B ,&&("Organochlorine exposureandris> of!reastcancer"Lancet/+*H,(,.),(*-"#u2LB2(er02 +B2&eseules2(BJ(acleo-2(B*--'" Fietand vitaminormineralsupplementation andris> ofrectalcancerin 3anada" #cta1ncol";.H/;*)/+;"Lunien2"B J Nata/annielC2 PB *--+"1eportof the#A$O $toc> conference *--."6arly andlifelongenvironmentalepigenomic programmingofmeta!olic syndrome o!esityandtype*dia!etes" 1bes>.ev"(H;(')+-*">iura2 )B2 >ono2SB2 To0oura2 >B2 Na.ano2 LB2 (iCoue2 TB2 (oore2 (BAB2(i8u2RB2Tana6a2(B2>a6eEi2)B2(ae/ara2)B2O6aura2TB2I6eEiri2>B2*utai2>B2)asunai2 )B2(ae6aB2Ic/ii0a2#BJIaiCui2NB*--'"Chapter"0 2otal fat6fattyacid inta$eandcancers $0,@eatfish andfatinta>ein relationtosu!sitespecific ris> ofcolorectalcancer"Cancer3ci" &(H+&-)+&'">ipnis2 ;B J *ree-an2+B *--("#mpactof measurement errorin nutritionalepidemiology"?> ;atl>Cancer )nst",--H,.+(),.+&">oEia2(B2Da6ai2>B2To6u-oe2 SB2SuCu6i2>B2Taa6os/i2 >B2Datana8e2)B2 >a?> %pidemiol",.,H;.*);',">ura/as/i2NB2 Inoue2(B2 Ie and prostatecancerinaprospective cohort of9apanese men" Cancer%pidemiol>-iomar$ersPrev" ,'(;)H&/-)&/'">uri6i2 >B2 #irose2>B2 Da6ai2>B2 (atsuo2 >B2 Ito2#B2SuCu6i2TB2#ira6i2 AB2Saito2 TB2I"*--'" %reastcancer ris>and erythrocytecompositionsofn)/highly unsaturated fattyacids"?apanese)nt>?> Cancer*,H/'')(+"+arsson2 SB"B2Rafter2 LB2#ol8er.2+B2:er.6!ist2+BJDol62 AB*--+" 1edmeatconsumptionand ris>ofcancers ofthe proximalcolondistalcolonand rectumH the$wedish@ammography 3ohort")nt>?> Cancer,,/H(*&)(/;"+iu2 AB2 Sc/uac/er2 *BRB2Pluer2SBLB2 Lor.enson2 EB2 "ase029B J Ditte2LBSB *--'"2rans fattyacidinta>eandincreased ris> ofadvanced prostatecancerHmodification!y1NA$6=1;.*Yvariant"Carcinoenesis*(H,*/*S,*/."+uc/ten8or.2 (B2 DeiEen8er.2 (BPB2 -e9oeiE2AB*B2 Dar62 PBAB2 :rin62 (B2Roeen29B(B2+entEes2(B#B2-e :ruine2ABPB29ol-8o/2RBAB2!anQt ;eer2PBJ!an -en :ran-t2 PBAB*--+" @eat and fishconsumptionA43gene mutationsand h@= andtheA43 F,(**7variant")nt>?> Cancer,,*H,.,),./"Norat2TB2:in./a2 SB2*errari2 PB2Sliani2NB2Lena82(B2(aCuir2(B2O!er!a-2 >B2Olsen2 AB2TEonnelan-2AB2"la!el2*B2:outron-Ruault2(B"B2 >esse2 EB2 :oein.2 #B2:er.ann2(B(B2Nieters2 AB2+inseisen2 LB2Tric/opoulou2AB2Tric/opoulos2&B2Tountas2)B2:errino2 *B2 Palli2&B2 Panico2 SB2 Tuino2RB2;ineis2 PB2:ueno--e- (es1uita2#B:B2Peeters2PB#B2En.eset2&B2 +un-2 EB2S6eie29B2 Ar-anaC2EB29onCaleC2"B2Na!arro2"B2=uiros2LBRB2Sanc/eC2(BLB2:er.lun-29B2(attisson2 IB2 #allans2 9B2Pal1!ist2 RB2&a02 NBEB2>/aBTB2>e02TBLB2SanLoa1uin2(B2#eon2:B2Saracci2RB2>aa6s2RB2JRi8oli2EB*--+"@eatfishandcolorectalcancer ris>Hthe6uropean 4rospective#nvestigationintocancer andnutrition"?>;atl>Cancer )nst"&'H&-.)&,."4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $$0O8a2SB2 S/iiCu2NB2 Na.ata2 "B2 S/iiCu2#B2 >aetani2(B2 Ta6e0aa2 NB2 O/nua2TBJ (atsus/ita2 SB *--."The relationship!etween theconsumption of meatfatand coffee andtheris> of coloncancerHa prospectivestudyin 9apan"Cancer Lett"*;;H*.-)*.'"Prentice2RB+B2"aan2:B2"/le8ouller2+B#B2Oc6ene2LB>B2 (ar.olis2>B+B2+iac/er2(B"B2(anson2LBEB2Par6er2+B(B2Pas6ett2EB2P/illips2+B2 Ro88ins2LB2RossouB"B2>otc/en2LB(B2+a"roix2ABKB2+ane2&BSB2+an.er2RB&B2 +asser2NB+BJ #en-erson2(B(B*--." =ow)fatdietarypatternandris> ofinvasive !reastcancerHthe:omenCs/an-e6ar2 LB2 S/i6an02LB(B2Satterfiel-2SBJ"/le8oB ,&&."Fifferentialeffectsofsaturated andmonounsaturated faton!loodglucoseandinsulin responses insu!Dectswithnon)insulin)dependentdia!etes mellitus" #m>?> Clin> ;utr"./H*;&)*+/"Re--02:BSBJ(eura2)B,&(;"Tumorpromotion!ydietaryfatinazoxymethane)induced coloncarcinogenesisinfemaleF/;;ratsHinfluenceofamountandsourceofdietaryfat" ?> ;atl>Cancer )nst"'*H';+)'+-"Rouillier2 PB2Senesse2PB2"ottet2 ;B2;allPau2 AB2*ai!re2LBJ :outron-Ruault2(B"B*--+" Fietarypatternsandtheadenomacarcinoma se0uenceofcolorectalcancer"%ur> ?> ;utr";;(+)H/,,)/,("S/annon2 LB2 >in.2 IB:B2(os/ofs602 RB2 +ape2 LBDB2 9ao2 &B+B2Ra02 RB(B JT/oas2&B:B*--'" 6rythrocytefattyacidsand!reastcancerris>H acase)control studyin $hanghai3hina"#m>?> Clin> ;utr>(+H,-&-),-&'"Siari2SB2Scali2LB2Ric/ar-2AB2Tretarre2:B2&aures2 LBPB2 Pa-illa2(B29rosclau-e2PBJ9er8er2(B*--*"$u!regionalvariationsofdietaryconsumptionandincidencesofcancerin$outhernFrance")n1i!oliand=am!erteds";utritionandLifestyle0opportunitiesfor cancerprevention NL,+.S,+/" #A13$cientific pu!lications=yon"Sieri2SB2>ro./2;B2*errari2PB2:errino2*B2Pala2;B2T/iP8aut2AB"B(B2TEWnnelan-2AB2Olsen2AB2O!er!a-2>B2U/reLa6o8sen2(B2"la!el-"/apelon2*B2"/aEes2;B2:outron-Ruault2(B"B2>aa6s2RB2+inseisen2LB2:oein.2#B2NOt/lin.s2UB2Tric/opoulou2AB2 Nasa62AB2+a.iou2PB2 Panico2SB2Palli2&B2;ineis2PB2 Tuino2 RB2+un-2EB2>ule2(B2S6eie29B29onCaleC2"BAB2Ar-anaC2EB2Aiano2PB2Toro2(BLB2(artXneC-9arcXa2"B2=uiros2LBRB2:er.lun-29B29ull8er.2:B2Chapter"0 2otal fat6fattyacid inta$eandcancers $$$#allans29B2 +enner2PB2 :ueno-4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $$2-e-(es1uita2#B:B2!an&uiEn/o!en2*BLB:B2Peeters2PB#B2!an9ils2"B#B2 >e02 TBLB2 "ro/aBTB2Rinal-i2SB2Sliani2NB2Lena82(B2 Norat2TBJRi8oli2 EB*--(" Fietaryfat and !reast cancer ris>inthe 6uropean 4rospective#nvestigationinto3ancerandNutrition"#mer>?> Clin> ;ut"((H,/-;),/,*"Slatter02 (B+B2Sao%pidemiol>Community/ealth+;(,-)H'+.)'.-"Stripp2 "B2O!er!a-2>B2"/ristensen2LB2T/osen2:B+B2Olsen2 AB2 (Wller2 SBJTEWnnelan-2AB*--/" Fish inta>eis positively associated with!reastcancerincidence"?> ;utr",//H/..;)/..&"Stro2SBSB2 )aaura2)B2 *oran2 (BRB2 Pettaepredicts!iochemicalfailure afterprostatectomy" )nt> ?> Cancer,**(,,)H*+(,)*+(+"T/eo-oratou2 EB2 (cNeill29B2 "etnars60E2RB2 *arrin.ton2SB(B2 Tenesa2 AB2:arnetson2RB2Porteous2(B2&unlop2 (BJ "ap8ell2 #B*--'" FietaryfattyacidsandcolorectalcancerHacase)controlstudy"#m>?> %pidemiol",..(*)H,(,),&+"T/eo-oratou2EB2"ap8ell2#B2Tenesa2AB2(cNeill29B2"etnars60E2RB2:arnetson2RBAB2 Porteous2 (BEB2 &unlop2(B9B J*arrin.ton2SB(B *--("@odification oftheassociations!etweenlifestyledietaryfactorsandcolorectalcancerris>!yA43variants" Carcinoenesisonline@ar*("T/iP8aut2AB"B(B2>ipnis2;B2"/an.2S-"B2Su8ar2AB*B2T/opson2*BEB2Rosen8er.2PBSB2#ollen8ec62ABRB2+eitCann2(BJSc/atC6in2AB*--'"Fietaryfatandpostmenopausal invasive!reast cancerintheNational#nstitutesofCancer )nst"&&(.)H;+,);.*"T/iP8aut2AB"B(B2"/aEVs2;B29er8er2(B2:outron-Ruault2(B"B2Loulin2;B2+enoir29B2 :errino2*B2 Ri8oli2EB2 :Pnic/ou2 LB J "la!el-"/apelon2 *B *--&"Fietary inta>esofX). and X)/polyunsaturatedfattyacidsand the ris>of!reast cancer" )nt>?>Cancer,*;H&*;)&/,"Trana/2 9BLB2 9io!annucci2 EB2 (a2LB2 *uc/s2"B J #unter2&BLB *--'"A43 Asp,(**7aland ?ly*+-*$er polymorphisms and ris>ofcolorectal cancer and adenoma"Cancer%pidemiol>-iomar$ersPrev" ,;H(./)('-"Da6ai2 >B2Taa6os/i2 >B2&ate2"B2 *u6ui2 (B2 SuCu6i2SB2 +in2)B2 NiB2 )atsu0a2 #B2>on-o2TB2To6u-oe2SB2)aaoto2AB2To0os/ia2#BJ Taa6os/i2AB*--+" 9A33 $tudy?roup"Fietaryinta>esoffatandfattyacidsandris> of!reastcancerHaprospectivestudyin 9apan"Cancer 3ci" &.(&)H+&-)+&&"Da6ai2>B2#irose2 >B2(atsuo2>B2Ito2#B2>uri6i2 >B2SuCu6i2 TB2>ato2TB2#irai2TB2>aneitsu2)BJ TaEia2>B *--." Fietaryris> factorsforcolonandrectalcancersHacomparativecase)controlstudy"?> %pidemiol",.H,*+),/+"Chapter"0 2otal fat6fattyacid inta$eandcancers $$'Dan.2LB2 Lo/n2EB(B2 #orn-Ross2PB+BJ In.les2SBAB*--("Fietaryfatcoo>ingfatand!reastcancerris> in amultiethnicpopulation" ;ut>Cancer.-H ;&*)+-;"DirfNlt2EB2;ess802:B2(attisson2IB29ull8er.2:B2Olsson2#BJ:er.lun-29B*--;"Norelations!etween!reastcancerris>andfattyacidsoferythrocytemem!ranesinpostmenopausal women of the@almm Fiet 3ancercohort($weden)"%?C; +(H '.,S''-"D"R*?AI"R 3Dorl-"ancer Researc/*un-?Aerican Institutefor"ancer Researc/4B*--'"4ood nutrition6Physical activity andthepreventionofcancer0 a lobal perspective" A#31:ashington F3"$$'"/apter$0%*at an-fatt0 aci-inta6ean- eta8olic effectsint/e/uan8o-0SU((AR)Fifferencesin plasmatotalcholesterol(T3)concentrations and!loodpressure(%4)arepowerfulpredictorsof ris> of cardiovasculardisease(37F) andcontri!ute largely tothevariationin37F ris> among differentcountriesandpopulations" @orerecentlyothermeta!olic factors associated with37F ris>have!een identified includingspecificlipoproteinsthe meta!olic syndrome(insulinresistancesyndrome) postprandiallipaemiaindicesofinflammation and haemostasisarterialstiffnessand endothelialfunction"The effectofdietaryfatandfattyacidsonthese37F ris> factorsis reviewedandtheevidenceis summarizedin Ta!le ,-","TA:+E$0B$3hange inserum lipids(mmolO=with &+G3#) predictedfrom replacing ,Genergy!y individual fattyacidsforcar!ohydrate !ased onmeta)analysis,andchanges from increasing inta>eofdietary cholesterol !y,--mg*FattyacidTotal cholesterol=F=cholesteroledwithincreased 37F ris>especiallywhen itisassociated withelevatedplasma =F= concentrations($eed et al",&&-)" Therelationship !etween fastingplasma triacylglycerol(T?) concentrationand 37F ris>ismore complex!ecause itcan !e transiently changed!ydiet alcohol inta>e and physicalactivity"eoffatis accompanied !y areductionofenergyinta>eandweightlossanimprovement in insulin sensitivity is li>ely(Tuomilehto etal" *--,NOrchardetal" *--+N1oumenetal" *--()"IN&I"ESO* OAI&ATI;E STRESSThereisconvincing mechanistic evidence to implicate lipoprotein oxidation inthepathogenesisofatherosclerosis (?riendlingandFitz?erald*--/)!utthe!enefits inhuman studies ofaltering lipoprotein oxidation arenot well)esta!lished" Anum!erof!iomar>ers ofoxidativedamageare availa!le!ut none are strongly predictiveofris>of37F and there isnoconvincingevidencetodemonstratethat modifyingthecomposition ofdietaryfathasasignificantimpactontheprocessoflipoproteinoxidationin vivo"Chapter*(04at andfattyacid inta$eandmetaboliceffectsin thehumanbody $$7IN*+A((ATOR)(AR>ERS3hronic inflammationresults in the elevation of acute phase proteins includingfi!rinogenand3)reactiveproteinandis !elieved to!e mediated !y elevatedproductionofcyto>inesparticularly#=)." 3hronicinflammationincreases37F ris> especially if theT3Her*--,)" O!esitymaydirectlycontri!utetoincreasedproductionof#=). fromadipose tissue" 4ostprandial lipaemia mayalsomodifytheproductionofcyto>ines involvedinregulating inflammation and vesselremodeling(?raingeretal"*---N 6rridgeetal"*--')"esofn)/=34UFA(M/gOd)intheformofdietarysupplementdecrease cyto>ineproduction(@eydani*---N7edinetal" *--()andpro!a!lydecrease inflammatorymar>ers!utrandomized controlledtrialsusinglowerinta>es asmayha!itually!econsumedinusualdietshavefailedtodemonstrate anycleareffects(%al> etal" *--.N%lo> etal" ,&&'NTheo!aldetal"*--')"Thereis possi!leevidencethattransfattyacidsincreasesystemicinflammation(%aer etal" *--;)!utnotall studies(@otard)%elangeretal" *--()haveconsistentlyshownsucheffects"PRO-"OA9U+ANTAN& *I:RINO+)TI" A"TI;IT)6levatedprocoagulantF7##andfi!rinogenanddecreased indicesoffi!rinolytic activity(asassessed!ymeasures ofclotlysistimeorelevatedplasminogen activatorinhi!itor4A#),activity)are associated with increased ris>of athero)throm!osis(Folsometal"*--,N eresultsin falls in F7##candanimprovement in fi!rinolyticactivity ( in theelderly(Teraietal"*--(NAndersonetal"*--&)"Thereis possi!leevidencethatn)/=34UFAmaydecrease arterialstiffening(ietal",&((NVamadaetal" *---NTomiyama etal" *--+)"EN&OT#E+IA+*UN"TION#mpairedendothelial functionasmeasured!ytheflowmediated dilatationtechni0ueisassociated with increased 37Fris>(Ve!oah et al"*--')" nown toimpairendothelial function" @ealshighinlong)chain fattyacidsthat inducesu!stantial lipaemiacomparedwithmealslowinfat!uthighincar!ohydrateresultinanimpairment ofendothelial function inthepostprandial periodinhealthysu!Dects (7ogeletal",&&'N Ongetal",&&&N 7ogeletal"*---N %aeetal"*--,N 3ortes etal"*--.)" Thereispossi!leevidence thatn)/=34UFAmayimprove(6ngler etal" *--;N?oodfellowetal" *---N=eesonetal"*--*) and transfattyacidsmayimpair(de1oosetal"*--,) endothelial function"Thereis insufficientevidencetoconcludethatthereareanyotherdifferences!etweenmonounsaturatedpolyunsaturated and$FA( factorshave!eenidentifiedthat mayhaveinteractions withdietaryfatinta>e" $u!Dectswho carrythe o;alleleforapolipoproteinhavehighertotaland=F=)3concentrationscomparedwiththosecarryingthe common o/allele"Theseo;carriersappear to show greater a!solutefallsintotaland=F=)3comparedwitho/carrierswhen theydecrease theirinta>esofsaturatedfattyacidsandcholesterol (=efevre etal",&&'N $ar>>inenetal",&&()"$u!Dects who are homozygousfor the o*alleledo not show increase inserumcholesterolinresponse todietarycholesterol !utthisgenotype is associated withanincreasedprevalenceof:of developingpremature cardiovasculardisease"4lasmatotaland=F=)3concentrations in individualswhocarrythismutation arerelatively unresponsive tochanges inthelevel ortypeofdietaryfat(4oustieand1utherford*--,)"The interactions !etween genes andenvironmental factorsre0uirefurtherelucidation" nowledgeprovidesconvincingevidencethatthemaDordeterminants ofdifferencesinmeta!olicris> factorswithinandacrosspopulations primarily aredueto!ehavioralandlifestyle factors(dietphysicalactivityo!esity smo>ing alcohol use) rather than genetic differences (:uet al"*--'NOrdovas*--&)"Chapter*(04at andfattyacid inta$eandmetaboliceffectsin thehumanbody $$,RE*EREN"ESAlen-in.en2 >B2 Lor-al2OB2>ierulf2PB2 San-sta-2 :B J Pe-ersen2 LBIB,&&+"6ffects ofpartiallyhydrogenated fishoil partiallyhydrogenated soy!eanoil and!utter onserumlipoproteinsand=p(a)in men"?> Lipid .es"/.H,/'-),/(;"An-erson2 SB9B2San-ers2 TBAB J "ruic6s/an62LB>B*--&"4lasmafattyacidcompositionasapredictorofarterialstiffnessandmortality"/ypertension+/H(/&)(;+"Appel2+BLB2"/apa.ne2"B(B2#ars/a2&BDB2"ooper2+BSB2O8arCane62EB2Eler2PBLB2Ste!ens2;BLB2;oller2DB(B2+in2PB#B2S!et6e02+BPB2Ste-an2SBDBJ)oun.2 &BRB*--/" 6ffectsofcomprehensive lifestylemodification on!loodpressure controlHmainresultsofthe416@#61clinical trial"?#M#*(&H*-(/)*-&/"Appel2 +BLB2Sac6s2 *B(B2"are02 ;BLB2O8arCane62EB2Seon!loodpressureandserumlipidsH resultsoftheOmnii2>B:B2>i2)BNB2 >i2>BSB2+ee2 #BLB2(oon2>B"B2+ee2 (BSB2 Par62>B)BJSc/?> Clin> ;utr"(+H,;(.),;&;":err02SBEB2Doo-atan2(B:B,&&'" 4ro)and anti)inflammatory cyto>inesinhealthyvolunteers fed variousdosesoffish oil for,year"%ur> ?> Clin> )nvest"*'H,--/),--(":rouatan2 (B:B*-,-" 6ffectofanimal and trans fattyacidson ?> Clin> ;utr"('H++()+..""/ou-/ur02 NB2Tan2+B J Trus?> Clin> ;utr".,H,-;/),-+,""ortes2:B2 NuneC2IB2 "ofan2(B2 9ila8ert2RB2 PereC-#eras2AB2 "asals2EB2 &eulofeu2 RBJ Ros2EB *--." Acuteeffectsofhigh)fat mealsenriched withwalnuts orolive oil on postprandial endothelialfunction"?> #m>Coll> Cardiol" ;(H,...),.',""ostacou2 TB J (a0er-&a!is2 EBLB *--/"Nutritionandpreventionof type* dia!etes"#nn>.ev>;utr"*/H,;'),'-""ritc/le02LB2 +iu2 LB2 K/ao2&B2Dei2DBJ "ape?> Clin> ;utr"(.H,*(.),*&*"E!ans2AB2Tolonen2#B2#ense2 #BDB2*errario2(B2Sans2SBJ >uulasaa2 >B *--,"Trends in coronaryris> factorsin the:?> Clin> ;utr>6''H'(/)'&+"*olso2ABRB2Ale6sic2NB2Par62EB2Saloaa2;B2LuneEa2#BJDu2>B>B*--,"4rospectivestudyoffi!rinolyticfactorsandincidentcoronaryheartdiseaseHtheAtherosclerosis1is> in3ommunities (A1#3)$tudy"#rterioscler>2hromb>:asc>-iol" *,H.,,).,'"9ar.2 AB,&&(" Coll>Cardiol"/+H*.+)*'-"9rain.er2&BLB2(ose-ale2&BEB2(etcalfe2LB"BJ:ottin.er2EBPB*---"Fietaryfatand reducedlevelsofT?F!eta,actsynergisticallyto promoteactivation ofthevascular endothelium andformation oflipid lesions"?> Cell 3ci" ,,/(4t ,/)H*/++)*/.,"9rien-lin.2>B>B J *itC9eral-29BAB *--/"Oxidative stressandcardiovascularinDuryH 4art##Hanimalandhumanstudies"Circulation ,-(H*-/;)*-;-"9riffin2(B&B2San-ers2 TBAB2&a!ies2IB9B2(or.an2 +B(B2(ill"1esultsfromthe 41O3A@ studyinhealthymen"#rterioscler>2hromb",;H+;)+&"Le882SBAB2+o!e.ro!e2LBAB29riffin2:BAB2*rost29BSB2(oore2"BSB2"/atfiel-2 (B&B2:luc62+BLB2 Dillias2 "B(BJSan-ers TBABH RIS">Stu-0 9roup *-,-" 6ffectofchanging the amountand type of fat and car!ohydrateon insulinsensitivityandcardiovascular ris>Hthe 1#$35(1eading#mperial$urrey3am!ridge and 5ings) trial"#m>?> Clin> ;utr"&*(;)H';()'+(">elle02 &BSB2 Sie.el2&B2 ;euri2 (B J(ac6e02 :BEB*--'" Focosahexaenoicacidsupplementation improvesfastingandpostprandial lipid profilesinhypertriglyceridemicmen"#m>?> Clin> ;utr>6(.H/*;)///">e0s2ABNB"BEB J ParlinRBDB ,&.." $erum3holesterol1esponseto3hanges inFietary=ipids" #m>?> Clin> ;utr>6,&H,'+),(,">?> Cardiol" &-H/-i);'i"+a Med>?> /*-H (.,)(.;"+eeson2"BPB2 (ann2AB2 >atten/orn2 (B2 &eanfiel-2 LBEB2 +ucas2 AB J (uller2&BPB *--*"1elationship!etweencirculatingn)/fattyacidconcentrationsandendothelial functionin early adulthood" %ur> /eart>?" */H*,.)***"+efe!re2(B2 9ins8er.2#BNB2>ris-Et/erton2PB(B2Eler2PBLB2Ste4ar> ester2AB&BJ>atan2(B:B*--/"6ffectsofdietaryfattyacidsandcar!ohydratesontheratioofserumtotalto.ev"+(H+.)+&"Chapter*(04at andfattyacid inta$eandmetaboliceffectsin thehumanbody $2'(iller29BLB *--+" Fietaryfattyacidsandthehaemostaticsystem"#therosclerosis,'&H*,/)**'"(ini/ane2AB(B2>/an2SB2+ei./-*ir8an62EB"B2Talu-2PB2Dri./t2LBDB2(urp/02(B"B2 9riffin2:BABJDillias2"B(B*---"Apo6polymorphismandfishoilsupplementationinsu!Dectswithanatherogeniclipoproteinphenotype"#rterioscler>2hromb>:asc> -iol"*-H,&&-),&&'"(iura2>B2Staler2LB2Na6a.a?> Clin>;utr>6('H+&/)+&&"(oCaffarian2 &B J "lar6e2 RB *--&"Yuantitativeeffectsoncardiovascularris> factorsandcoronaryheartdiseaseris> ofreplacingpartiallyhydrogenated vegeta!le oils withotherfatsandoils" %?C;./($uppl"*)H $**)$//"N"EP-'B*--,"6xecutive$ummary of The Third1eport of The National 3holesterol6ducation4rogram(N364) 6xpert 4anel onFetection6valuation And Treatment of B2 #a0es2>B"B2 &eDitt29B*B2Le.at/esan2 (B2Sat.unasin.a2 NB2On.2ABSBJTan2&B,&&*" Fietarypalmiticandoleicacidsexertsimilar effectsonserumcholesterolandlipoprotein profilesinnormocholesterolemicmenandwomen" ?> #m> Coll> ;utr",,H/(/)/&-"Oa6le02*BRB2San-ers2TBABJ(iller29BLB,&&("4ostprandial effectsofanoleicacid)rich oilcomparedwith!utter onclotting factor7##and fi!rinolysis inhealthy men"#m> ?> Clin> ;utr>6.(H,*-*),*-'"On.2PBLB2&ean2TBSB2#a0Htoolsforprimaryprevention" #m>?> Clin> ;utr>6(&H,+-&$),'$"Poustie2 ;BLB J Rut/erfor-2PB *--,"Fietary treatment for familial hypercholesterolaemia"Cochrane!atabase3yst>.ev"3F--,&,("Ri-6er2PB(B*--," assessment intheprimaryprevention ofcardiovasculardisease"Circulation ,-/H,(,/),(,("Rouen2"B2 "orpeleiEn2EB2 *es6ens2EBLB2 (ensin62(B2 Saris2 DB#B J :laa62 EBEB *--("#mpactof/)yearlifestyleintervention onpostprandial glucose meta!olismH the $=#@study"!iabet>Med"*+H+&').-+"San-ers2 TBABJ :err02SBEB *--+" #nfluenceofstearicacidonpostprandial lipemiaandhemostatic function"Lipids ;-H,**,),**'"San-ers2TBAB2:err02SBEBJ(iller29BLB*--/a"#nfluenceoftriacylglycerolstructure onthe postprandialresponseof factor7##tostearicacid)rich fats"#m>?> Clin> ;utr>6''H''')'(*"San-ers2 TBAB2-e 9rassi2TB2(iller29BLBJ#up/ries2SBEB,&&&" Fietaryoleicandpalmitic acids and postprandialfactor 7## in middle)agedmen heterozygousandhomozygous forfactor7##1/+/Ypolymorphism"#m>?> Clin> ;utr>6.&H**-)**+"San-ers2TBAB2-e9rassi2TB2(iller29BLBJ(orrisse02LB#B*---"#nfluenceoffattyacidchainlengthandcisOtransisomerizationonpostprandiallipemiaandfactor7##inhealthy su!Dects(postprandiallipids andfactor7##)"#therosclerosis,;&H;,/);*-"San-ers2TBAB29leason2>B29riffin2 :BJ(iller2 9BLB*--.a"#nfluence of an algaltriacylglycerolcontaining docosahexaenoicacid(**H.n)/)anddocosapentaenoicacid(**H+n).)oncardiovascularris>factorsinhealthymenandwomen" -r> ?> ;utr>6&+H+*+)+/,"San-ers2 TBAB2 +eenfor*wee>sdonotinfluenceprocoagulantandfi!rinolyticris>mar>ersfor3?>;utr>6(&H'.')''."Chapter*(04at andfattyacid inta$eandmetaboliceffectsin thehumanbody $25San-ers2 TBAB2Oa6le02 *BRB2(iller29BLB2 (itropoulos2>BAB2"roo62&BJ Oli!er2(B*B,&&'" #nfluenceofn).versusn)/polyunsaturatedfattyacidsindietslowinsaturated4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $27fattyacidsonplasma lipoproteins andhemostaticfactors" #rterioscler>2hromb> :asc>-iol" ,'H/;;&)/;.-"Sar66inen2 EB2 >or/onen2(B2Er66ila2 AB2E8elin.2 TBJ Uusitupa2(B,&&(" 6ffectofapolipoprotein 6polymorphismonserumlipid response totheseparate modificationofdietaryfatanddietarycholesterol"#m>?> Clin> ;utr>6.(H,*,+),***"See-2(B2#oppic/ler2*B2Rea!ele02&B2(c"art/02SB2T/opson29BRB2:oer%nl> ?> Med"/**H,;&;),;&&"S/a/2 (B2-as-#uet2:BJ9ar.2AB*--'" 6ffectofhigh)car!ohydrateorhigh)cis)monounsaturated fatdietson!loodpressureHameta)analysisofinterventiontrials"#m>?> Clin> ;utr>6(+H,*+,),*+."Siri-Tarino2PBDB2Dillias2PBTB2*ernstro2#BSB2Rarauss2RB(B*--&"1eversalofsmalldense =F=su!classphenotype!ynormalization ofadiposity"1besity 6)pu!ahead ofprint"Sun-ra2>B2 Isail2AB2#a0es2 >B"B2 Le0aalar2 RB J Pat/anat/an2 RB ,&&'" Trans(elaidic) fattyacidsadverselyaffectthelipoprotein profilerelativetospecificsaturatedfattyacidsin humans" ?> ;utr",*'H+,;$)+*-$"Tar-02AB+B2+a8ert-Porc/eron2SB2(alpuec/-:ru.ere2"B29irau-et2"B2Ri.au-iere2LBPB2+aillet2 :B2+eru0et2 PB2Pe0rau-2 LB+B2 :oirie2 )B2+a!ille2 (B2(ic/als6i2 (B"B2"/ar-i.n02 LB(BJ(orio2 :B*--&" Fairyand industrialsourcesoftransfatdonotimpairperipheralinsulinsensitivity inoverweight women" #m>?>Clin> ;utr>6&-H(()&;"Terai2 (B2O/is/i2(B2Ito2NB2Ta6a.i2 TB2Tatara2 )B2 >ai8e2(B2>oai2NB2Ra6u.i2#BJO.i/ara2 TB *--(" 3omparison of arterial functional evaluations as a predictorofcardiovasculareventsinhypertensivepatientsHtheNon)#nvasiveAtherosclerotic6valuationin Clin> ;utr>6'&H++()+./"T/eo8al-2 #BEB2 9oo-all2 AB#B2 Sattar2 NB2Tal8ot2 &B"B2 "/o?> Clin> ;utr>6'/H,&()*-("Chapter*(04at andfattyacid inta$eandmetaboliceffectsin thehumanbody $27Toi0aa2#B2Ta6aCaB2 Osa2SB2#irose2>B2 #irai2 AB2I6etani2TB2(on-en2(B2Sano0aa2 >B J)aas/ina2 AB *--+"Fo eicosapentaenoic acid supplementsattenuateage)relatedincreases inarterial stiffness inpatients with dyslipidemiaZH Apreliminarystudy"/ypertens>.es"*(H.+,).++"Tuoile/to2LB2+in-stro2 LB2Eri6sson2 LB9B2;alle2 TBTB2#aalainen2#B2Ilanne-Pari66a2PB2>einanen->iu6aanniei2SB2+aa6so2(B2+ou/eranta2AB2Rastas2 (B2Salinen2 ;B J Uusitupa2 (B*--,"4reventionoftype*dia!etes mellitus!ychangesin lifestyle amongsu!Dectswithimpairedglucosetolerance" ;> %nl> ?> Med"/;;H,/;/),/+-"Ues/ia2 #B2 Staler2LB2 Elliott2 PB2 "/an2 =B2 :roeofindividuals(totallinolenic acid long)chain)andtheir !loodpressureH#NT61@A4 study"/ypertension6+-H/,/)/,&";artiainen2 EB2 Lousila/ti2 PB2Alft/an2 9B2Sun-!all2 LB2 Pietinen2PBJ Pus6a2PB *---"3ardiovascularris> factorchangesin Finland ,&'*),&&'" )nt>?> %pidemiol"*&H;&)+.";e-in2IB2 "e-er/ol2 TB2 *reun-2+B)B2:asun2#B2 9arlin-2 AB2 *axen2IB9B2Lon/a.en2(BEB2;ess802:B2Da/lun-2+BOB JPal8la-2LB*--("6ffectsofdocosahexaenoicacid)richn)/ fatty acidsupplementationon cyto>ine release from!loodmononuclear leu>ocytesHtheOmegAFstudy"#m>?> Clin> ;utr>6('H,.,.),.**";ess802 :B2Unsitupa2 (B2#eransen2 >B2 Riccar-i2 9B2Ri!ellese2 ABAB2Tapsell2+B"B2Nalsen2"B2 :er.lun-2+B2 +ou/eranta2 AB2 Rasussen2 :B(B2 "al!ert29B&B2(affetone2AB2Pe-ersen2EB29ustafsson2IB:BJStorlien2 +B#B *--," $u!stitutingdietarysaturated formonounsaturated fatimpairsinsulinsensitivity inhealthymenandwomenHThe 5AN:U$tudy"!iabetoloia;;H/,*)/,&";o.el2 RBAB2"orretti2(B"BJ Plotnic62 9B&B,&&'" 6ffectofasinglehigh)fat mealonendothelialfunctionin healthysu!Dects"#m>?> Cardiol" '&H/+-)/+;";o.el2RBAB2 "orretti2(B"B J Plotnic629B&B *---"The postprandialeffectof componentsofthe@editerranean dietonendothelialfunction"?> #m>Coll> Cardiol" /.H,;++),;.-"De..eans2 RB(B2 Koc62 PB+B2 >atan2(B:B *--,"Fietary cholesterolfromeggsincreasestheratiooftotalcholesteroltohigh)densitylipoproteincholesterolinhumansH ameta)analysis" #m>?> Clin> ;utr>6'/H((+)&,"D/itloc629B2+e /eart>?" *(H*&/-)*&/.")aa-a2TB2Stron.2LBPB2Is/ii2TB2Ueno2TB2>o0aa2(B2Da.a0aa2#B2S/iiCu2AB2 Sa6ai2 TB2(alco29BTBJ9uCan2 (BAB*---" Atherosclerosis and omega)/fatty4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $25acids in thepopulations of a fishing village anda farmingvillage in 9apan"#therosclerosis,+/H;.&);(,")e8oa/2LB2"rouse2 LBRB2#su2*B"B2:ur6e29B+B J#errin.ton2&B(B*--'" %rachialflow)mediateddilationpredictsincidentcardiovasculareventsinolderadultsHthe3ardiovascularris-Et/erton2PB(B,&&&" 6ffectsoftheNational3holesterol6ducation4rogramCs$tep#and$tep##dietaryinterventionprogramsoncardiovasculardiseaseris> factorsHa meta)analysis"#m>?> Clin>;utr>6.&H./*).;."Kapelas2 AB2 Peel2ABSB2 9oul-2:BLB2 Dri./t2LB J Dillias2"B(B ,&&;"4olyunsaturatedfattyacidsofthen).andn)/seriesHeffects onpostprandial lipidandapolipoproteinlevels in healthymen"%?C;;(H(;*)(;("K/an.2LB2Pin.2DB2"/unron.2DB2S/ou2"BABJ>e0ou29B,&&'"Nonhypercholesterolemiceffectsofapalmoildietin3hineseadults"?>;utr",*'H+-&$)+,/$"p$2,"/apter$$%&ietar0fatan-coronar0/eart-isease6cological studiesthat compare differences in3esoffattyacidsindifferent populationsareuni0uelyinformative!ecause suchassociations arevirtually unaffected !y regressiondilution!ias"The !est>nownecologicalstudyofdietand3esof4UFAincreasethelevel oftotalcholesterolandultimatelyresultin thedevelopmentof3e of$FA and 4UFA and dietarycholesterol" Theconcordanceof the results of the ecological and the meta!olicward studies pro!a!ly relate tothe limitedamountofmeasurementerrorin!othstudy designs" #nviewof these findings some investigators have concluded thatuseofcholesterol asanintermediary factoris themostrationalwayofstudyingtheassociations!etween dietand3 of3e Dudgementand su!stantiatethe effects ofdietary fat onris> ofcoronaryheart diseaseis unsatisfactory andunrelia!le"Thenullresultsoftheo!servational and interventional studies ofdietary lipidsand 3es and the prolongedfollow)up of individualswithoutrepeat dietaryassessment"Furthermore theevidencefromcohort studiesofdietaryinta>e offatsand 3eandris> of3es itdifficulttodisentanglethespecificeffectsofdietaryfatfromothercomponents ofthediet"#n effectthedietaryinterventions arenot homogeneousand the resultsofthe meta)analysis should !einterpreted withcaution"The meta)analysisofclinical trials in whichserumcholesterolconcentrations in thehigh4O$ dietgroupweresignificantly loweratfollow)upthaninthecontrolgrouprevealedthatadiethigherin 4UFAandlowerin $FAdecreased theris> offatal3otc/en2LB(B*--.=ow)fat dietarypatternandris>ofcardiovascular diseaseHthe :omenCs?> Clin> ;utr"(&H,;*+),;/*">e0s2AB ,&(-"3oronaryheartdiseasein sevencountries"Circulation ;,H,)*,,">e0s2AB2 An-erson2 LBTB J 9ran-e2*B ,&.+"$erumcholesterolresponsetochangesin thediet"#7" 4articularsaturated fattyacidsin thediet"Metabolism,;H''.)'('">e0s2AB2 (ienott2 AB2 >ar!onen2(BLB2 Ara!anis2"B2 :lac68urn2#B2 :uCina2RB2 &Eor-Ee!ic2:BSB2 &ontas2ABSB2 *i-anCa2 *B2 >e0s2 (B#B2 >ro/out2&B2Ne-elE6o!ic2 SB2Punsar2SB2Eccareccia2*B JTos/ia2 #B,&(."Thedietand,+)yeardeath ratein thesevencountriesstudy"#m>?> %pidemiol",*;H&-/)&,+"Sin./2RB:B2NiaC2(BAB2S/ara2LBPB2>uar2RB2Rasto.i2;BJ(BJ(os/iri2(B,&&'"1andomizeddou!le)!lindplace!o)controlledtrialoffishoilandmustard oilinpatientswithsuspectedacutemyocardialinfarctionHthe#ndianexperimentofinfarctsurvival));" Cardiovascular !rus J 2herapy,,H;(+);&,"$''"/apter$2%*at inta6e an-"NS functionin.%A.ein. an--iseaseASSU(PTIONS AN& +I(ITATIONS :rain -isor-ers an-entalill-/ealt/Thecostof!raindisorders and mental ill)healthhas!een risingsharplyand now exceedsall othercostsofillhealth" #n the*+6uropeanUnionmem!er states itcostq/(. !illionin*--; (Andlin)$o!oc>ietal"*--+)" #ntheU5 in*--' thecostwasr''!illion andwasestimatedto!ecome oneofthetopthree !urdens ofillhealthworldwide!y *-*-"Focosahexaenoic acid(Fets"$imilarlydevelopingcountriesneedtoguardagainstimportingfoodproductsthatarerich in atherogenic andthrom!ogenicfatsanddonotprovidea!alanceofessentialfattyacids"=imitations ofcurrentstudieson!rainresearchin humansH[$tudiesthusfar!eingdonearein tooshort)term andtoofew"[ 6pidemiologicalevidenceon!enefits attri!utedton)/fattyacidsisassociated withfish andseafood andnotsolely fish fat"[ $eafood andfisharenotDustoils"Theyareparticularlyrichiniodineselenium copperzinc andmanganese aswell asavariety ofanti)oxidants"Thereis evidencethat singlenutrients donothavethesameeffectastheintegralfoodorevennutrient clusters(6lvevolletal" *--.)"#nteractions!etween thedifferentmacro) and micro)nutrients should !e recognizedand encouragedas a specificresearchtheme(e ofAAand F forA1@among regularfish eaters"Onthis!asisseveralinterventional studiesarecurrentlyongoing examiningthepotential !enefit ofsupplementationwithn)/=34UFAforthepreventionoflateA1@ !utnoneis pu!lishedyet"Thereis alsoalac>ofo!servationaldatawith!loodmeasurement offattyacidswhichcouldconfirmthedietarydata"The strength oftheevidenceis regarded aspossi!le"AlC/eierQs -isease6pidemiologicalstudiesexamining n)/=34UFAinta>e or!loodlevelssupport aroleofF%ssent>4atty #cids(-(*)/)H(+)&,""raedatacontri!ute toanunderstanding oftherelationship!etween fatinta>epatterns andhealthoutcomes" #n ordertotranslatefood inta>e data into fatty acids consumedinformation from food compositiondata!asesisre0uired" This information onthe fattyacidcomposition offoods alsocontri!utes tomonitoringtrendsin changesin thefattyacidcompositionoffoods"PRO&U"TIONO* ;E9ETA:+EOI+SAN& ANI(A+SOUR"E*OO&SThe Food%alance$heets(F%$)oftheFoodandAgricultureOrganization oftheUnitedNations(FAO) providevalua!leinformationontheproduction (domesticsupply) of foodcommodities (FAO$TATOF%$*--.)"4roductionatthehouseholdlevel is notta>enintoaccount!utsupplydata atthenational levelareusedandproductionfigurescouldtherefore underestimate theactualproduction ofvegeta!leoils andanimalfatsources"PRO&U"TIONO* ;E9ETA:+E OI+SThe glo!al production (domestic supply) of vegeta!leoilsincreased significantly!etween,&.,),&./and *--,)*--/"?lo!al trends inthe productionof specificvegeta!le oils !etween,&&+),&&' and*--,)*--/ areshownin Ta!le ,/","$oy!eanoil andpalmoil werethemainoils produced andproduction increased!y ;*"(G and+,"/G respectivelyduringthisperiod"At thesametimetheproduction ofsunfloweroil (+";G)decreased"Feveloping countries producedmore vegeta!le oilthan developed countries in*--,)*--/ .("(Gand /,"*Grespectively"Furingthisperiod Asiawasthe mainproducerof palmrapeandmustardgroundnut coconut cottonseed andpalm>erneloils" $outhAmericawasthemainproducer ofsoy!eanoil and6uropewasthemainproducer ofsunflowerandolive oil"Factors thatinfluencetheproduction of vegeta!leoils includepopulationexpansionandthepercapitaconsumptionofvegeta!le oils (%roes>a*--')"?lo!alisationcancontri!ute toanincreasein theavaila!ility andconsumption ofvegeta!leoil (es*--.)" Newgovernmentpoliciesin%razilinconnectionwith the production andexportofsoy!eanoil havecontri!uted toanincreasein theavaila!ility ofsoy!eanoilin countriessuchas3hinaand#ndia (es*--.)"7egeta!leoil pricesareinfluenced!yanincreaseinthedemand forvegeta!le oilsfromcountriessuchas3hinaand#ndia (4aton*--()"The priceofvegeta!leoil is alsoinfluenced!y thedemand fortheproduction of!iofuelandmar>etsforvegeta!le oilmovein tandem withcrudeoil prices(Thoenes*--.N%usiness)standard"com *--&)"4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $40TA:+E$'B$?lo!al trendsintheproduction(domestic supply) ofvegeta!le oilsin,&&+),&&' ,&&()*---and*--,)*--/7egeta!le oils,&&+),&&'a ,&&()*---a *--,)*--/aGincrease!*(((metrictonnesAllvegeta!le oils(-''' &,,*-,-,'** *+"&$oy!ean *-,-( *;+/,*('** ;*"(4alm ,'-.& *-*&+*+(,& +,"/1apeandmustard ,,,;' ,*..;,*/+/ ,-"($unflower &-&&&+// (.,*)+";?roundnut ;((+;&'+ +/+/ &".3ottonseed/(,'/',( /(*; -"*3oconut//+'/,(. /;,. ,"(Olive*;''*.+& /-*; **",4alm >ernel**/**+(. /*,+ ;;"-$esameseed ',/ '*.(*' ,."-a7alues represent themeansofeach/)yearperiod!Fifference!etween theperiods,&&+),&&' and*--,)*--/$ourceHFAO$TATOF%$*--.TA:+E$'B27egeta!le oilsproduced indifferent regions oftheworld (mean *--,)*--/)7egeta!le oils Asia Africa 6urope Americaa America!Oceania*(((metrictonnes$oy!ean .&-*,'. /*'& (&*+ &;//'4alm ***/, ,(+(-;**&(;/*;1apeandmustard .,/-,+;/&; ,./(/-,;+$unflower ,+/;/.- ;&*-*(, ,;&,*+?roundnut /''' ,*&.'(,,((/*3ottonseed *.;///(,*/;,,*.+;;3oconut/-+-,-'/+,;,,..(Olive/*.**& *;+'*,,-4alm >ernel*++.;*,-+&,+;*+aNorth)and)3entralAmerica!$outhAmerica$ourceHFAO$TATOF%$*--.PRO&U"TIONO* ANI(A+SOUR"E*AT@il>production (excluding !utter)increasedin !othdevelopedand developingcountries!etween ,&.*),&.; and *--,)*--/ !ut the increase was larger indeveloping countries" 3heeseis animportantcommodityindeveloped countries andin *--,)*--/ theproduction wasa!outsix timeshigherthanin developingcountries(FAO$TATOF%$*--.)"@ar>etforcesthat impactontheproductionofdairyproductsaregovernmentpoliciesregarding thedairyindustry0uota restrictionsandsu!sidies(@itchell*--,) which influence the productionand export ofdairyproducts incountrieswheredairyingis amainagriculturalactivity" :eather conditionsimpactontheproductionofmil>" FroughtinNewXealandandAustraliahasledtoadeclineinmil> production duringrecentyears(FAO*--(a)"Chapter*30Elobal trendsin production6 inta$eandfoodcomposition $4$The glo!alproduction of!eefpor>poultryaswell asmutton andgoatincreasedsignificantly!etween,&.*),&.;and*--,)*--/"Theglo!alproductionofpor>hasexceeded theproductionof!eefsince,&(-),&(*andwas+'".Ghigherthan thatof!eefin*--,)*--/" Theglo!alproductionandconsumption ofmeatwill pro!a!lycontinue toincrease and itissuggestedthat !y*-*- itwill !e/-- millionmetrictonnes (@T)compared to*//million @T in *---($peedy*--/)"@eatconsumptionis influenced!y wealthandin generalincreaseswithanincreasein thegrossdomesticproduct (?F4) ofacountry($peedy*--/)" Therearehowever exceptions suchasthe=atin Americancountrieswheretheconsumption ofmeatis highin relationtothe?F4 ($peedy*--/)"4oultryproductionwasa!out '"'timeshigherin*--,)*--/than in,&.*),&.;andin*--,)*--/ theproductionwashigherthanthatof!eeformutton andgoat"4oultryproductioncostsincreased significantly!etween*--- and *--( asaresultofanincreaseinthecostofthefeed(FAO*--(!)" #n *--,)*--/theproductionofeggswasmorethantwiceashighin developingcountries(a!out;,million @T)asindeveloped countries(a!out,&million @T)(FAO$TATOF%$*--.)"=ess landis re0uiredtoproduce poultryandeggs('"/m* year>g),and/"+m* year>g),respectively)thantoproduceotheranimalsourcefoodssuchas!eef(*-"&m*year>g),) (?er!ens)=eenesandNonhe!el*--*)"PRO&U"TIONO* *IS#OI+ AN& *IS#Thetotalproductionoffishoils is a!out ,million @T peryearanditseemstohavesta!ilisedatthis level (FAOOFisheries andA0uaculture#nformationand$tatistics $ervice*--')"#n *--.itwasestimated that('G ofall fishoil wasused!ythea0uacultureindustry to produce feed and salmon farming alone used approximately //G ofallfishoilproduced"Theremaining ,/G was processed into products forhumanconsumption mainly asfish oil capsules"Therehas!een asteadyincreaseintheproduction(capture anda0uaculture)offishsince,&+- !ut asharp decrease inproductionwasrecorded in,&&( (Figure,/",)"#n *--/thetotalworldproductionoffish (captureanda0uaculturecom!ined)was,/*"+ million @T (weightoffishandshellfishatcapture orharvest)freshwater!rac>ishwater and marine speciesoffishcrustaceansmolluscsand other a0uaticorganisms)andofthis,-;"*million @T wereavaila!leforhuman consumption *;";million @T indeveloped countriesand'&"(million @T indevelopingcountries(FoodandAgriculture$tatistics*--+)"*ATSUPP+)AN& INTA>E&ATAEner.0an-fatsuppl0-atafro*oo-:alanceS/eetsF%$donotprovideinformation onactualconsumptionwithincommunities orwithinhouseholds !utprovide dataontheper capitasupply per day of energy(>ilocalorieN >calone>ilocalorie R ;",(.>iloDoulesN >D) protein(g) andtotalfat(g) (FAO$TATOF%$*--.)"%nery#nformationfromFAOF%$showed aglo!alincrease!etween,&&+),&&' and*--,)*--/ inthepercapitasupplyperdayofenergy" #ndeveloped countries itwas../>cal(*''; >9) higher than indeveloping countries Africahavingthe lowest value(*;*'>calO,-*++>9)" =argevariations(,+*,)//;.>calO./.;),;--->9) werehoweverrecordedwithinAfrica (FAO$TATOF%$*--.)"&!'ULF 'R((!)4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $42*I9URE$'B$Totalproduction (capture and a0uaculture) offish!etween ,&+-and *--.(fishincluded intotalproductionH salmon troutsmelt herring sardine anchovy tuna!onitoand!illfish)*!DU)$ourceHF#$*--+N@ac#ntyreetal"*--*NFu etal"*--.N$hetty*--*)"Fifferences intotal fat inta>es were however alsoo!served within countries" #n3hinameantotalfatinta>esincreasedfrom,(",G6in ,&(*to**G6in ,&&*andto*&".G6 in*--*(3hen,&(.NXhai etal",&&.Nes among slumdwellers(,."'G6)($hetty*--*)" es have!een reportedinur!an uppermiddle)income men(/*G6)andwomen (//G6)from$outh#ndia(?hafoorunissa etal" *--*)"Ur!anisationplaysanimportant rolein theincreaseoffatinta>easshown!ystudiesfrom$outhAfrica3hinaand#ndia(=a!adariosetal>*--+N @ac#ntyreetal" *--*NFu etal" *--.N$hetty*--*)"Thereareindicationsthat theincreaseintheprevalenceofo!esityis ta>ingplaceatamuchfasterrateindeveloping countries than inhigh)income countries (4op>inand?ordon)=arsen *--;)"Althoughanincreaseintotalfatinta>eis o!served withur!anisation in developingcountriesthisis only oneaspectofthenutritiontransition"Otherchangesin dietandlifestyle e"g"anincreasein refinedcar!ohydrate inta>eandadecrease inphysicalactivityarealsoo!served (4op>inand ?ordon)=arsen *--;)"@oreresearch iswarrantedtounderstandtheeffectofanincreaseintheinta>eoftotal fat on the incidence ofnon)communica!lediseases indeveloping countries(4op>in *--*)"*ATT)A"I&"O(POSITIONO**OO&Fataonthenutrient composition offoodsareavaila!leinvariousfoodcompositiondata!asesandinformation onthenutrient composition ofspecificfoodscoulddifferasfactors suchasclimatesoilplant varietiesand animalhus!andry influence thenutrient compositionoffoods(?reenfieldand$outhgate*--/)";e.eta8le oilsThedifferentvegeta!le oils availa!leonthemar>etforhuman consumption differinfattyacid composition"3oconutoil andpalm>erneloil arehighin lauric (3,*H-) a!out;+gO,--goil andalsocontainsasignificantamount ofmyristic (3,;H-)andpalmiticacid(3,.H-)"4alm oil is highin saturated fattyacids ($FA)a!out+-G, whilesoy!eanoilcontains a!out +-G linoleicacid(=A)"$unflower oilishighin=A(a!out ..G=A)!utahigholeicacidsunfloweroil (a!out(/G oleicacid)is alsoavaila!leonthemar>et"Olive oil is highin oleic acid"3anolarefersto-rassica napusand-> campestrislinesofrapeseed andcontainssmallamounts oferucicacid(3**H,n)&)lessthan*Gofthetotalfattyacids(Food $tandards AustraliaNewXealand*--/)"(ar.arineThetermmargarine is onlyusedwhen theproduct containsatleast(-G fat"%readspreads havealowerfatcontentthan margarine and reduced fatspreads contain.-)'-Gfatlow)fat spreads ;-G fatand verylowfatspreads /)*+Gfat(ly (calculatedfromU$FA*--')"&air0pro-ucts:holemil> is notonlyasourceoffat!utalsoofotherimportantnutrients suchasprotein calciumandfolic acid" containsa!out ;";gfatper,--g"Thetotalfatcontent of sheepmil> ('"-gO,--g) #ndian !uffalomil> (."&gO,--g) andgoatmil> (;",gO,--g)arehigherthanthatofcowmil> (/"/gO,--g)(U$FA*--()"The$FAthatpredominatesin mil> fatis palmiticacidandtheshortchain$FA!utyricacid(3;H-) andcaproicacid(3.H-) arealsopresent (U$FA*--()"The totalfatcontentofhard)type cheesessuchascheddar is higha!out /.G whilelow)fatcottagecheeseasofttypeofcheesein tu!shasatotalfatcontent ofa!out,G(U$FA*--()"@il>is the!estsourceof3=Ain thedietandcheesealsocontains3=A(5hanal andOlson*--;)"+i!estoc6.edmeat3hanges inanimalhus!andry have!eenresponsi!le forthechanges infatcontentofmeatovertheyears"#n theU$A cattleweretypically slaughtered!efore,(+-at;)+years!ut asaresultofthe practiceoffatteningcattleinfeedlots it!ecamepossi!letoproduce asteer forslaughter (+;+>g)withmar!led fatin*;months(3ordainetal" *--+)"Feedinggraintoanimalsin feedlots!ecamecommon practice(3ordain et al"*--+)" Thereare differences inthe fatty acidcomposition offatfromfeedlot cattlecomparedtopasture)fedcattle andintheformerthea!soluteamountsof$FA @UFA and 4UFA are higher whilethe a!solute amountofn)/4UFAis lower(3ordainetal"*--*)"?amemeat hasalowera!solute $FAcontentand ahighera!solute n)/4UFAcontentthan either grain)fed orpasture)fed!eef(3ordainetal"*--*)"eandthecomposition ofdietaryfathaveresulted inefforts !ythe food industrytochangemeat0uality($collan etal" *--.)"Theanimal (genetics) nutrition (grain)fed orpasture)grazed)meat cut and fattrimminginfluencethetotalfatcontent of!eefandmutton portions($chmnfeldtand:elgemoed ,&&.NFroulez etal" *--.N$collan etal" *--.N7an edtotheintermuscular fat(#@F)contentofmeat ($collanetal"*--.)" Theamountof#@F determinesthefatcontent ofthemeatandlean!eefhasalow#@Fcontent a!out*)+G($collan etal"*--.)"etcancontainasmuchas/;Gfat($chmnfeldtand:elgemoed ,&&.)"Oleic acidis thepredominantfattyacidinthemuscleandadipose tissueofpigssheepandcattlewhile palmitic acid is themain$FA (Froulez etal" *--.N$collan etal"Chapter*30Elobal trendsin production6 inta$eandfoodcomposition $45*--.N:oodetal" *--()"There aresmall amounts of 64A andF4A presentin redmeat(Froulezetal"*--.)"#n cattlethelong)chainn).andn)/4UFAarefoundinmusclephospholipids !utnotin adiposetissueormuscleneutrallipids" #n pigsandsheepthelong)chainn).andn)/4UFAareinadditiontotheirpresence inphospholipids alsofound inmuscleneutral lipidsandadipose tissue(:oodetal"*--()" es!efore slaughterweightis reachedis a!out halfthetimeittoo>fifty yearsago(meatis a!out ,-G fatandwhitemeat a!out ;G fat($ayedetal",&&&)"3hic>enfatcontains/-G $FA ;+G@UFAand*,G 4UFA (U$FA*--()"&esi.ner e..s6ggsarenothighintotalfat!utareanimportantsourceofcholesterol inthediet(a!out *,- mgper+-gegg)"Todaydesigner eggs can!eproducedinwhichthen)/4UFAcontentis increased !yfeedingfishoil (increase64AandFe of+-- mg64A plusFeyecoo>ed ,,"--"+/- -"'--,"*/-@ac>erelAtlanticcoo>ed ,'"(-"+-; -".&&,"*-/ed,'"'-".'; -"+-;,",'(Trout 1ain!owfarmedcoo>ed'"*-"//; -"(*-,",+;Trout 1ain!owwildcoo>ed +"(-";.( -"+*--"&(($wordfishcoo>ed+",-",/( -".(,-"(,&ed *"&-"-&, -"/';-";.+$hrimpmixedspeciescoo>ed ,",-",', -",;;-"/,+Tuna lightcanned in water -"(-"-;' -"**/-"*'-?roupermixedspeciescoo>ed ,"/-"-/+ -"*,/-"*;(coo>ed -"&-"-'. -",.*-"*/(3atfish3hannelwild coo>ed*"&-",-- -",/'-"*/'3atfish3hannelfarmedcoo>ed ("--"-;& -",*(-",''3odAtlanticcoo>ed-"&-"--; -",+;-",+(a1an>edfromhighesttolowest64A_F *--(NU$FA*--'As aresultofthedanger ofmercurypoisoning theconsumption of>ingmac>erel(mercuryconcentration-"'/- ppm)shar>(-"&(( ppm)swordfish(-"&'. ppm)andtilefish(,";+-ppm)is notrecommendedforyoungchildrenpregnantandlactatingwomen(FFAO64A*--;NU$ FFA*--.)"*astfoo-sFastfoodconsumptioncontri!utestoanincreaseinenergyandtotalfatinta>eandalsohasanegativeeffectondietary0uality(4aerata>uletal"*--/)"#n addition fastfoodsarealsoasourceoftransfattyacidsinthediet"Oneofthecriticalissuesinstudyingtheassociation !etweentransfattyacidsandadverseeffectsonhealth is alac> of detailedinformationonthetrans fattyacid content of foodin foodcompositiondata!ases"Thereare large variationsinthe transfatty acidcontentofsnac> andconvenience foods(#nnis etal" ,&&&N$tenderetal" *--.)"Fifferentfatsandoils aresometimes mixede"g" partiallyhydrogenatedand non)hydrogenatedvegeta!le oilssuchascoconut oil andpalm>erneloil forpreparationpurposes andthisdeterminesthetransfattyacidcontent oftheproduct (#nnis etal" ,&&&)"Chapter*30Elobal trendsin production6 inta$eandfoodcomposition $47"ON"+USIONSAglo!alincrease intotal fatsupplyand total fatinta>e isevident" Thesignificantincreasein production andper capitasupply per day of fat from vegeta!leoils especiallyindeveloping countries arepro!a!lycontri!uting totheincreaseintotalfatinta>e"Fatinta>esremainhighindeveloped countries !uttheincreaseintotalfatinta>eindeveloping countries is ofconcern asitmay!eafactorcontri!uting totheincreaseinnon)communica!lediseases"?uidelinesforfatinta>eshouldnotonlyconcentrateonhighfatinta>es!utalsoensure that enoughfatis providedinthediettomeetessentialfattyacidsandenergyre0uirements"Thetypeoffatconsumedis ofspecialimportance" 6xpandinginformationin country)specificfoodcompositiondata!ases onthefattyacidcomposition offoodisessentialforstudyingtherelationship !etweenfatespeciallythetypeoffatinta>eandhealthanddiseaseandtomonitorchangesovertimein thefattyacidcompositionoffood"RE*EREN"ES:roes6a2 RB*--'" Theglo!al oilsWfats mar>et Scurrent driversfuture prospects"OF# @iddle6ast3onference3airoH*-)*, @arch" (ww w "iasc)oils"orgOwo rdG*-docsOTheG*-glo!alG*-oilsG*-G*-fatsG*-mar>et"doc JAccessedon*;O-(O*--(K)":usiness-stan-ar-BcoB *--&"#ndiaH 7eg oil pricestorise *-G in C-&"(ww w "f reshplaza"comOnewssdetail"aspZidR/+&*' JAccessedon-+O-,O*--&K)""/en2"B(B,&(." Thenational nutrition surveyin3hina,&(*H summaryresults"4ood;utr",*(,)H+().-""or-ain2 +B2Eaton2 SB:B2 Se8astian2AB2 (ann2 NB2 +in-e8er.2SB2 Dat6ins2 :BA2OQ>eefe2 LB#BJ:ran--(iller2 LB*--+" Originsand evolution ofthe :estern dietHhealthimplicationsforthe*,stcentury"#m>?> Clin> ;utr"(,(*)H/;,)/+;""or-ain2+B2 Dat6ins2 :BAB2*lorant29B+B2 >el/er2(B2Ro.ers2 +B J +i2 )B*--*" Fattyacidanalysis ofwild ruminanttissuesHevolutionaryimplicationsforreducingdiet)relatedchronicdisease"%?C;+.(/)H,(,),&,"&en.2 KB)B2K/ou2AB=B2#uan.2 )B#BJ +iu2&B(B*--(" #nvestigationofdietaryfattyacidsinta>esof3hinesepeopleduringtwentyyears"?> 4ood 3ci> -iotech"*'(,)H'),&"&rouleC2;B2Dillias2PB9B2+e!029B2Stro8aus2TBJSinclair2AB*--."3ompositionofAustralianredmeat *--*"*"Fattyacidprofile"4ood#ustralia+((')H//+)/;,"(www" ro"uow"edu"auOh!spapersO, JAccessedon&O-&O*--(K)"Ela-fa2 IB2Deic/sel8au2EB2>oeni.2LB2Reaut -e Dinter2 A-(B2 Trolle2EB2#aapala2IB2Uusitalo2UB2(ennen2+B2#erc8er.2SB2Dolfra29B2Tric/olopoulou2AB2 Nas6a2AB2;assili6i2:B2 &ritsellis2EB2 Ro-ler2IB2 KaE6Ts2 9B2 :ranca2*B2 &QAcapito2PB2>lepp2>-IB2Ali-(a-ar2AB2 &eAlei-a2(B&B;B2Al!es2EB2Ro-ri.ues2SB2Serra-(aEe2+B2Roan2:B2SEOstrO2(B2Poort!liet2EBJ(ar.etts2:B*--;"6uropean Nutritionandproducts" 4ood1utloo$> (ww w "fao"orgOdocrepO-,-Oai;..eOai;..e-&"htmJAccessed*-O,-O*--(K)"*AOB*--(!" ?lo!al@ar>etAnalysis" @eatandmeatproducts" 4ood1utloo$(ww w "fao"orgOdocrepO-,-Oai;..eOai;..e-("htmJAccessed*-O,-O*--(K)"*&A?EPA 3En!ironentalProtectionA.enc04B*--;" :hatyouneed to>nowa!outmercuryin fish andshellfish" (ww w "fda"govOfoodOfoodsafetyOp roduct)specificinformationOseafoodOfood!ornepathogencontaminantsOmethylmercuryOucm,,+..*"htmJAccessedon**O-(O*--(K)"*AOSTAT?*:SB*--."Food%alance$heetslastupdated /@arch*--."3F)1om"*errier2+B>B2 "aston2 +BLB2 +eeson2 SB2S1uires2 LB2Dea!er2:BLB J #olu82 :BLB ,&&+"E)=inolenicacid) and docosahexaenoicacid)enrichedeggs from hens fed flaxseedHinfluenceon!loodlipids andplatelet phospholipid fattyacidsinhumans"#m>?> Clin>;utr".*(,)H(,)(."*IS#STAT PlusB *--(" Totalfisheryproduction,&+-)*--."F#$assessment"Technicalreport seriesno *," (ww w "foodstanda rds"gov"auOssrcfilesO6rucicG*-acidG*-monograph"pdfJAccessed**O,-O*--(K)"*u2LB2Dan.2 KBJDan.2 :B*--." Transitionsoffood groups and nutrients inthenortheastof3hinaHA/)year)intervalCsfollow)upstudy"2he)nternet?ournalof;utrition andCellness2M*(*) pp",,"9/afoorunissa2;ani2AB2+axi2R J Sesi6eran2:B*--*" 6ffectsofdietaryE)linolenicacid from!lendedoils on!iochemicalindices of coronaryheartdiseasein #ndians" Lipids/'(,,)H,-''),-(."9er8ens-+eenes2PBDBJNon/e8el2SB*--*"3onsumptionpatternsandtheireffectson landre0uiredforfood"%col> %con";*(,)H,(+),&&"9reenfiel-2#BJSout/.ate2&BABTB*--/"4oodComposition!ata>Production6Manaement and5se"*nd6dition"FAO1ome"#all2"B J San-ilan-s2;BNotdated" 4u!lic Attitudes tothewelfareof!roilerchic>ens"=and 6conomy :or>ing 4aper $eries" Num!er,/"(ww w "ageconsea r ch"umn"eduO!itstreamO;+&&(O*O:or>,/B,&&&"7aria!ilityinthetransfattyacidcontent offoods withinafood categoryH#mplicationsforestimation ofdietarytransfattyacid inta>es"?> #m>Coll> ;utr",((/)H*++)*.-"ISS*A+3 InternationalSociet0 for t/e Stu-0 of *att0 Aci-s an- +ipi-s4" *--;"1ecommendationsforinta>e of4olyunsaturatedFattyAcidsinO)JAccessed*+O-'O*--(K)"Lones2RB+B ,&(."Nutritionalinfluencesoncarcasscompositionin the!roiler chic>en"Proc>;utr>3oc";+H*')/*">an-/ro2AB2S/eraCi2 SBTB#B2(a/esar2 SBAB2:/an.er2 (BIB2Talpur2(B)BJ Rauf2AB*--(" ?3)@$0uantificationof fatty acid profile including trans FA in the locallymanufactured margarinesof4a>istan"4ood Chem",-&(,)H*-')*,,">ara8ulut2IB J Turan2 SB *--."$omepropertiesof margarinesandshortenings mar>etedin Tur>ey" ?> 4ood Compos>#nal",&(,)H++)+(">/anal2RB"B J Olson2>B"B *--;"Factors affectingconDugated linoleic acid(3=A)contentin mil> meatandeggHA 1eview" Pa$istan ?> ;utr"/(*)H (*)&("+a8a-arios2 &B2 Ste0n2 NBPB2(aun-er2EB2(acInt0re2 UB29eric6e2 9B2Seefe2LB#B2 +a!ie2"BLB2 (arc/ioli2RB J #arris2 DBSB*--(" Omega)/ fattyacidsforcardioprotection" MayoClin> Proc" (/(/)H/*;)//*"+eaitre2RBNB2 >in.2IB:B2 (oCaffarian2&B2Sotoo-e/nia2 NB2Rea2TB&B2>uller2+B#B2Trac02RBPBJSisco!ic62&BSB*--."4lasmaphospholipidtransfattyacidsfatalischemicheart diseaseandsuddencardiacdeathinolderadultsHthecardiovascularhealthstudy" Circulation ,,;(/)H*-&)*,+"(acInt0re2UBEB2>ru.er2#BSB2;enter2"BSB J;orster2#B#B*--*"Fietaryinta>esofan Africanpopulation indifferentstagesoftransition inthe North:est 4rovince$outh AfricaH theT products"4resentation tothe#nternationalAgriculturalTrade$ymposium"Auc>landNewXealand ,&)*- 9anuary"(ww w "ageconsea rch"umn"eduO!itstreamO,;++;O,Ocp-,mi-,"pdfJAccessedon-/O-&O*--(K)"4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $50O/2SB)B2R0ue2LB2 #sie/2"-#B J :ell2&BEB ,&&," 6ggsenriched in)/ fattyacidsandalterationsin lipid concentrations in plasmaandlipoproteinsandin !loodpressure"#m>?> Clin> ;utr"+;(;)H.(&).&+"Paerata6ul2 SB2*er-inan-2 &BPB2"/apa.ne2"B(B2R0an2&B#BJ :ra029BAB*--/"Fast)food consumptionamong U$adults and childrenH Fietaryand nutrient inta>e profile"?> #m>!iet>#ssoc",-/(,-)H,//*),//("Paton2 &"*--(" 7egeta!le oilpricessettostayhighU$ warns" (ww w "foodnavigator"comOFinancial)#ndustryO7egeta!le)oil)prices)set)to)stay)high)U$)warnsJAccessedon,*O-(O*--(K)"Ponte2PBIBPB2 Al!es2SBPB2:essa2 RBLB:B2*erreira2(BAB29aa2+BTB2:rTs2LB+BAB2 *ontes2"B(B9BABJPrates2LBAB(B*--("#nfluenceofpasture inta>eonthefattyacid composition andcholesterol tocopherolsandtocotrienols contentinmeatfromfree) range!roilers"Poult>3ci> ('(,)H(-)(("Pop6in2:B(B*--*" 4art##":hatisuni0ue a!out theexperience inlower)andmiddle)incomeless)industrialisedcountries comparedwiththevery)high)income industrialisedcountriesZ Theshiftinstagesofthenutritiontransition inthedeveloping worlddiffersfrompastexperiencesZPublic /ealth;utr"+(,A)H *-+)*,;"Pop6in2:B(BJ 9or-on-+arsen2PB*--;"Thenutrition transitionH worldwide o!esitydynamicsandtheirdeterminants" )nt>?> 1besity*(H$*)$&"Sa0e-2 NB2*rans2)BJSc/Onfel-t2#B"B,&&&" 3omposition of$outh AfricanFoods"@il> andmil> products 6ggs@eatandmeatproducts" $upplementtothe@13 Food3omposition Ta!les,&&," 4arow7alley 3apeTownH$outhAfrican@edical1esearch3ouncil"Scollan2 NB2 #oc1uette2L-*B2 Nuern8er.2>B2&annen8er.er2&B2Ric/ar-son2 IBJ(olone02 AB *--."#nnovationsin !eefproduction systemsthatenhance thenutritionalandhealthvalueof!eeflipids andtheirrelationshipwithmeat0uality"Meat3ci> ';(,)H,')//"Sc/Onfel-t2#B"B J Del.eoe-2"B,&&." 3omposition of$outh African%eef"$outhAfrican @eat%oard4retoria"S/ett02 PBSB *--*"Nutritiontransitionin #ndia"Public /ealth;utr"+(,A)H ,'+),(*"Spee-02 ABDB*--/"?lo!alproduction andconsumption ofanimalsourcefoods"?> ;utr",//(,,)H;-;($);-+/$"Sten-er2 SB2 &0er8er.2 LB2 :0ste-2AB2 +et/2 TB J Astrup2AB *--."A transworldDourney"#therosclerosis3upp>'H;')+*"Tarra.o-Trani2 (BTB2 P/illips2>B(B2 +ear2 +BEBJ #ol-en2 LB(B *--."Newand6xistingOils andFats usedin productswithreducedtrans)fattyacidcontent" ?> #m>!iet> #ssoc",-.(.)H(.')((-"T/oenes2 PB*--." %iofuels andcommoditymar>ets S4almoil focus"FAO3ommoditiesandTradeFivision" (ww w "rlc"fao"orgOesOescOcommonOecgO.*&OenOfullspapers6nglish"pdfJAccessedon-+O-,O*--&K)"Chapter*30Elobal trendsin production6 inta$eandfoodcomposition $5$US&A 3Unite-States &epartent ofA.riculture4B*--'"Agricultural 1esearch$ervice"U$FA NationalNutrient Fata!ase for$tandard 1eference 1elease*-" Nutrient Fata=a!oratoryagingandstorage"(ANIPU+ATIONO* P#)SIO"#E(I"A+PROPERTIES O* OI+SAN& *ATSThreeprocessesareusedtomanipulate thephysico)chemicalpropertiesoffoodlipidsHhydrogenationinteresterification andfractionation"#0-ro.enationThisisthe addition ofhydrogen toafatinthe presence ofacatalystinorder too!tain different degrees of hardness"ingonnewproperties"fTailored fatsC (fats withspecific nutritionalor texturalproperties)areeasily o!tained duringthis phase"The rawmaterialsandprocessingconditionscan!econtrolledormanipulated toproduceafatthathasspecific desiredcharacteristics"The mostwidely usedclass of interesterificationin thefoodindustryis trans)esterificationwheretheester!ondslin>ing thefattyacidstotheglycerol moleculeare!ro>entoreleasethefattyacids"The li!eratedfattyacidsarethenrandomlyshuffledin a fattyacid poolandre)esterifiedin newpositionseitherin thesameorin adifferentglycerol molecule"*ractionationFatfractionationinvolves theseparationoffatintodifferentfractionsdependingonthemeltingpointmolecularstructure sizeandsolu!ility indifferent solvents"Thesimplestmethod usedforfractionationis controlledcooling"The meltedfatis slowlycooled until the high melting triacylglycerolsselectivelycrystallise"Theseparatedcrystalsarethenremoved!yfiltration"#n theprocessingstepofA:interisationBof4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $54rapeseed(3anola)cottonseedorsunflower oilsmallamountsofhigher meltingtriacylglycerolsorwaxesareremoved that would otherwise cause tur!idityduringrefrigeration"(AR9ARINE- PRO"ESSIN9Thereiscurrentlyalargevarietyofmargarine products availa!lethat aremil>)freeand made using sophisticatedflavours such as lactones" @argarine manufactureessentially consists of threecontinuous!asic stepsH the emulsification of waterwithinthe continuousoilphase chillingand mechanical handling ofthe emulsionandcrystallizationpreservingthetypeofwaterOoilemulsion!yefficientremovalofreleasedheatofcrystallization"Therearefive typesofmargarines andspreads)ta!lemargarine industrialmargarines for!a>ingreduced fatspreadslowfatspreadsandvery lowfatspreads"STRU"TURE&+IPI&S$tructured lipids($=) orstructuredtriacylglycerols($T) may!e !roadly defined astriacylglycerols that have!eenalteredorrestructuredusingnaturaloils andfats"Theearliestexampleof$Tis thedevelopment ofmediumchaintriglycerides(@3T)"Usingcoconutandpalm>erneloil caprylic acid 3(H-andcapric 3,-H-areli!erated"@3T areproduced !y esterificationofthesefattyacidswithglycerol"The mostwidely availa!le@3T havea3(H-H3,-H- ratioof,-H/-" @3T alsohavethe trade name 3aptrint"Oneoftheearliestusesof$=wasinenteralandparenteralnutritionfollowed!yitsapplicationin arangeofclinical settingsincludingpreventionofthrom!osisimprovednitrogen !alanceandenhanced immunefunction"*at replacers3onsumer demandforreduced)fatfoodproducts withtheappearancetexture andflavouroffull)fatcounterparts hasgenerated considera!leinterestin thedevelopmentoffatreplacers"Approaches toreducethehigh)energyproperties offatsin foodsare!asedononeormoreofthefollowingprinciplesH1eplace fats with com!inationsof water and surface)active lipidsor non)lipidadditiveswithsmallerenergy contri!utionssuchasproteins andOor polysaccharidesutilizecompoundssuchasmedium)chain triacylglycerolsthat contri!utelessenergypergram and replace fatswithcompoundsthat significantlydifferinstructure totriacylglycerols"*at Su8stitutesThesearemacromolecules thatphysically andchemically resem!letriacylglycerols andcanreplaceoils andfatsonagram)to)gram !asis"%asic strategies fordevelopingthisgroupoffatreplacersareessentially!asedononeofthefollowingapproachesH3ucrose polyesters+3P%,Thisisamixtureofhexa) hepta)and octaestersofsucrose withlong)chain fattyacidsisolatedfromedi!lefatsandoils andis nowrecognized asOlestratorOleant"Thelipasesinthehuman !odyareuna!le tometa!olize $46 andhence itprovidesno calories(?erstoff ,&&+N 5insella,&(()" TheFFA has concluded the followingwithrespect toOlestrai)itis nottoxiccarcinogenic genotoxicorteratogenicii)allsafetyissueshave!eenaddressedandiii)thereis reasona!lecertaintythat noharmwill resultfromtheuseofOlestratinsavourysnac>s"calJ*,>gK)Og)"Unli>epolyolestersitcan!eincludedinlowmoisturefoods"The principles!ehindtheproperties of$alatrimtarethatstearicacidisonlypartiallya!sor!edinthe !odyand short)chain fattyacidsproviderelativelyfewercalories"#t is produced!yreplacingthelong)chainfattyacidsinhydrogenatedoilswithshortchains(acetic!utyricpropionic)andredistri!uting fattyacidsintheglycerolmolecule" 3aprenint ismade upof!ehenic caprylicandcapricacids"#tisrecommended foruseasacocoa!utter su!stitute" $imilarly to$alatrimtthe!ehenicacidin 3aprenintis only partially a!sor!ed !y the!odywhilethemedium)chain fattyacidsaremeta!olized in asimilar mannertocar!ohydrates" $alatrimtand3arpenintcannot!eusedforfrying duetothegeneration ofintenseoff)flavours"OT#ERAPPROA"#ES 3(U+TIP+E E(U+SIONS4Theseinvolve replacingsomeofthefatinsidefatglo!ules(in anoilOfatemulsion)withwater droplets" Asaresultthe fatcontentand the su!se0uentenergy densityarereduced"Thephysico)chemicalproperties ofamultipleemulsionareexpected to!esimilar tothoseofanormaloil)in)wateremulsion"epttoaminimum"As 4UFAarelostduringthefryingprocessthisaffectsthenutritionalvalueofafrying oil rich in 4UFA"*AT-"AR:O#)&RATEINTERA"TIONSIN *OO& S)STE(S Starc/-lipi-interactions#tiswellrecognized that the amylopectin fraction ofstarch islargelyinvolvedinswellingand hydration leading tothe thic>ening properties ofcoo>ed starch" Thepresenceof fatsandoils inhi!its hydrationleadingtoa reducedviscosity andimprovedmouth feel"?lycaemicindexmeasures theeffectofacar!ohydrate)!asedfood on!loodsugar" Ahighglycaemicindexfood will raise!loodsugar0uic>lyandhigherthan alowglycaemicfood" @oreover the !lood sugar valueisli>ely tofallto or!elowthe!aselinevaluemuchfasterin su!Dectsconsuminghigh)?# food"3omplexesChapter*40Processin6 manufacturin6 usesandlabellin offatsin thefoodsupply $57formed!etween amyloseandlong)chainsaturated monoglyceridesaregenerallymoreresistanttoin vitro digestionthancomplexeswithshorterchainsormoreunsaturatedmonoglycerides(?urayaetal" ,&&')"Roleoffatsan-oilsininfantfee-in.#n manydeveloping countries weaning foodsarestarch!asedandarecharacterized!yalowenergydensityandanunpalata!leviscosity" Oils andfatscanplayacriticalroleinreducing the viscosity and improvingthe energy densityofweaning foods" contains;-)++G ofitsenergyintheformoffat"6nergydensitycan!edefined astheamountofenergystored inaspecificfoodperunitvolumeormass(usually in ,--g)"Ener.0-ensit0 an-!iscosit0 offoo-sOneway toincreaseenergydensity withoutincreasingviscosityis toaddnon)gelatinouscar!ohydrates suchas simple sugarsor fatstothediet"The additionof oneta!lespoonofvegeta!le oil toatypicalweaning food(,--g)wouldincreasetheenergydensityfrom-"/-to-"'->calOg!utdecrease thepercentage asprotein!y +G(Ta!le,;"*)"#fthisweaning food(pap)wereconsumedatsufficientlevels tosatisfythechildrenCsenergyre0uirements it wouldnotmeetthechildrenCs proteinre0uirements" Ta!le ,;"*providesanexampleofhowtheenergydensityandproteindensityarealtered!y thesimpleadditionofoil"TA:+E$4B26ffectsofadded oilonenergy protein and irondensity ofmaizeTraditional maize pap Oil)fortified maize papAmountofcereal(gO,--g) ( (Amountofoil (gO,--g) - +6nergy density(5calOg) -"/* -"''4roteindensity(Genergy) &"- /";Oilsand fats playamaDor roleinmeeting the energy re0uirementofinfantschildrenandadultsliving inthedeveloping world"3ar!ohydraterichfoodsinmanydevelopingcountriesaredifficult toconsumein large0uantitiesduetotheir!ul>inessthic>viscous texturepoorpalata!ilityandlowenergydensity"The additionofasmallamount ofoil orfattocar!ohydrate rich foodsnotonly improvespalata!ility!utalsoreducesits !ul>inessandenhances its energydensity"+A:E++IN9$ince thepu!licationofthelastexpertconsultation reportondietaryfats(FAO,&&;)nosignificantchanges intherecommendationsonla!ellinghaveemerged exceptforthela!ellingoftransfattyacids"NationallegislationintheU$A ontransfattyacidsdeclarationsvaries considera!lyasshownin Ta!le ,;"/"TheFFAre0uiresthat theamountoftransfatinaservingis listedonaseparatelineundersaturatedfatsonthenutritionalfactspanel"from*--/thecontent oftransfattyacidsshouldnotexceed*g), per,--g), ofoil orfat"#n products thatclaimAfreeoftransfattyacidsBthecontent oftransfattyacidsshould!eless than,g), per,--g), oftheoil orfat"4ats andfattyacids in human nutrition0.eportofane=pertconsultation $55TA:+E$4B'Fietary recommendationsfortrans fatty acidsU$ organizations 2ransfattyacidsAmericane inpeoples livinginthe :estern hemispherewiththe concomitantdrivetoincreasefatconsumption modestlyin thedevelopingworld":eaningfoodsconsumed!ychildrenliving inAsiaAfricaand$outhAmericaareofverylowenergydensity"@oreover car!ohydrate)richfoods inthese countries areapoor source ofenergy)richfoods" Theaddition ofoilsand fatstosuchfoodswill ma>ethese foodsmorepalata!le and ena!le the consumer tomeet energy re0uirementsmore effectively"Findinginnovativemethodstoincreasetheenergydensityoffoodsconsumedinthedevelopingworldwiththeuseof fatsandoils remainsachallengingareaforresearch"RE*EREN"ES9ers/off2SBNB,&&+" Nutritional6valuationofFietaryFat$u!stitutes" ;utr>.eviews+/H/-+)/,/"9ura0a2#BSB2 >a-an2RBSB J "/apa.ne2 EBTB ,&&'"6ffect of rice starch)lipidcomplexesonin vitro digesti!ilitycomplexingindexandviscosity" Cereal Chem"';H+.,)+.+"#aalat/a2 SBJ 9/afoorunissa2 "B *--'" $esameligandsenhance thethermalsta!ilityofedi!levegeta!leoil" 4ood Chem",-+H,-'.),-(+"#unter2LBEB*--("$afetyandhealth effects oftransfattyacids")n3how3"5"ed"4atty #cidsin4oodsand2heir /ealth)mplications(/rded)pp"'+')'&-" =ondon3134ress (Taylor Francis ?roup)">insella2LBEB ,&((" Foodlipids andfattyacidsHimportance infood0ualitynutritionandhealth"4ood 2echnol";*(,-)H,*;"Dillet2DB"B2Stapfer2(B*B2(anson2LBEB2"ol-itC29B2SpeiCer2*BEB2Posser2:BAB2Sapson2IBJ #enne6eeoftransfattyacidand ris>ofcoronary heartdiseaseamong women" Lancet>/;,H+()(+"#nne=0List ofparticipantsandcontributors $7$Annex%+ist ofparticipants an-contri8utorsPARTI"IPANTSProfessor LB T/oas:renna4rofessorof United$tatesofAmericaProfessor (ic/aelAB"ra