Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am

16 (2007) 921–937

Family Camps: an Overview of Benefitsand Issues of Camps and Programs

for Families

Sarah Taylor Agate, MS, CFLE*,Christine Davis Covey, BS

Department of Recreation Management and Youth Leadership,

Brigham Young University, College of Health and Human Performance

Advisement Center, 203 RB, Provo, Utah 84602, USA

Families are one of the fundamental units of society and are the buildingblocks of social structures in every culture. Framo [1] stated that ‘‘Thefamily is the most vital, lasting, and influential force in the life of man.Such social contexts as the community, neighborhood, school, work, andfriendship networks can never approach the unique and powerful effectsof the family, due to the deep emotional and blood ties, the family’s person-ality-forming influence, and the special rules.which apply to familyrelationships.’’ Currently, there is a widespread belief that American mar-riages and families are weak and troubled [2]. With the apparent weakeningof families, many people are realizing the importance of strengtheningfamilies.

Theoretical framework

Family systems theory

According to the family systems theory [3,4], a family is a complex systemof individuals interacting with each other. Zabriskie and McCormick [5]stated that families are ‘‘goal-directed, self-correcting, dynamic, intercon-nected systems that both affect and are affected by their environment andby qualities within the family itself.’’ One dimension of family life that

* Corresponding author. Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management,

Clemson University, 263 Lehotsky Hall, Clemson, SC 29634.

E-mail address: staylo2@clemson.edu (S.T. Agate).

1056-4993/07/$ - see front matter � 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.chc.2007.05.007 childpsych.theclinics.com

922 AGATE & COVEY

has been found to influence family systems and impact family functioning inpositive ways is family leisure.

Family leisure

Shaw and Dawson [6] stated that family leisure is purposive in nature andthat parents consciously and deliberately plan and facilitate family leisureactivities to improve family relationships. They stated that it is often witha sense of urgency that parents try to spend time together with childrenparticipating in family activities. Over the last 70 years, researchers haveconsistently reported positive relationships between family leisure and pos-itive family outcomes when examining leisure and recreation activities infamilies [7–9].

Recent research has demonstrated that family leisure is associated withseveral family strengths, such as increased satisfaction with family life[10], improved family communication [11], and increased family functioning[12]. To further understand the nature of the relationship between family lei-sure and family functioning, the core and balance model of family leisurefunctioning was developed [5].

Core and balance model of family leisure functioning

The core and balance model of family leisure functioning holds that‘‘varying patterns of family leisure involvement contribute to family func-tioning in different ways’’ [13]. According to the model, there are two typesof family leisure patterns: core and balance. Core family leisure patterns arecommon, everyday activities that families may participate in on a regularbasis. These activities may include eating dinner together, playing a boardgame, or going on a walk together; core activities address families’ needsfor stability and produce family cohesion or closeness. Balance family lei-sure patterns are novel, out-of-the-ordinary experiences that occur less oftenand usually require a greater investment of time and resources. These activ-ities may include family vacations or attending special events; balance activ-ities address families’ needs for challenge and help families become moreflexible and adaptable to change. One type of balance activity in whichmany families choose to participate is family camps. Although a familycamp is a balance activity, some components of it may be core activities(eg, eating meals together, playing games together, attending the samecamp year after year).

Family camps

Across the country and from a variety of circumstances, many familieseach year attend family camps. Mindy [14] noted that camping is not justfor kids any longer; many outdoor family camps are letting parents in on

923FAMILY CAMPS

the fun. Hoefner [15] stated that to reach children, one must reach thefamily. Doing so in a camp setting has been found to be effective for count-less families every year.

Adventure therapy programs often take place in the wilderness and areusually geared toward troubled youth with mental health problems [16];however, such settings are starting to be used more for families. Severalyears ago, it was noticed that many children and youth (especially youthwith working parents and a full year of excellent childcare and enrichmentprogram involvement already), when given the choice of going to camp ontheir own or staying home to be with the parents for a week of vacation,chose to stay with the parents [15].

Lewicki and colleagues [17] claimed that family camps can be a ‘‘highlymotivating and empowering experience for a family’’ and found that thereare four stages of interaction with families in the family camp setting: en-gagement, participation, empowerment, and integration. Guerney and Max-son [18] found that longer programs (O12 hours) tended to yield somewhatbetter results than shorter activities for families. In recent years, the amountof camps and programs offered for families has increased dramatically,making available the benefits of attending family camps to more peopleeach year.

Silver and Boser [19] noted that baby boomers and their children areenrolling in specialized family camps in record numbers. In 1982, the Amer-ican Camp Association’s annual guide listed only 48 camps run either asfamily camps or as kids’ camps open sporadically to families. The 1991edition listed a record 201 family camps [20]. According to the AmericanCamp Association, family camps are the fastest growing program, showingan increase of more than 100% in the last 10 years [21].

From 2005 to 2006 alone, the number of American Camp Association–accredited family camp programs increased 8% [21]. According to Tergen-sen [22], 25% of the 2400 camps the American Camp Association accreditsnationwide have programs for families. In terms of families camping ontheir own, Kelley [23] found that more than 48 million people went campingin 2005 and stated that this number is expected to rise 20% over the next5 years as time- and budget-crunched families look for inexpensive waysto spend time together. With more camps allowing families and more fam-ilies spending time camping together, a variety of families are beingstrengthened in several ways.

Why families attend family camps

Every family is different and has different needs and reasons for partici-pating in experiences together. The reasons that most families choose toattend a family camp can be grouped into three categories, however: (1)therapeutic or interventional, (2) prevention, enrichment, or maintenance,and (3) vacation.

924 AGATE & COVEY

Therapeutic/interventional

Lewicki and colleagues [17] claimed that family camps are an effectiveintervention strategy to help families, and Clark and Kempler [24] statedthat therapeutic family camping is an adjunct to and a catalyst for familytherapy that may serve to put family problems into relief and renew sourcesof energy and initiative within a family. They also claimed that therapeuticfamily camping reduces the gap between therapy and life, rendering accessi-ble a powerful combination of clinical and life resources unavailable intherapy alone.

Berman and Davis-Berman [16] noted that camping programs havea long history of facilitating the emotional well-being of campers. Althoughthere are many general benefits of family camping, several specific therapeu-tic benefits have been found from family camping programs that have beendesigned for therapeutic purposes. Wells and colleagues [25] found thatinvolving significant others, such as parents and siblings, in treatmentmay be more beneficial in reducing problems within families that lead toat-risk behaviors in adolescents. Kierman and colleagues [26] noted thatcamping programs play an important role as a complementary interventionin facilitating adjustment to chronic illness.

Clark and Kempler [24] stated, ‘‘Therapy interspersed with natural life ac-tivities can be especially worthwhile to families.One of the crucial issues thatpsychotherapists have had to face is how to achieve generalization froma ther-apy context to the broader environment. In family therapy, rather than keep-ing the important people outside and relating to them indirectly, they becomepart of the therapeutic environment. Multiple family therapy (MFT) hasadded a further dimension of reality to treatment, providing a support systemfor the nuclear family.’’ They described one of the most beneficial aspects offamily camping as the ‘‘perspective gained by a family in a setting differentfrom the home environment.’’ Feedback occurred that normally would notoccur in a clinical setting. The family also could learn on their ownwithout re-lying on a therapist. In a camp setting, families feel less pressure than home lifeand have an ‘‘opportunity to follow through on the insights gained.’’

Clark and Kempler [24] realized that the beneficial aspects of familycamping opportunities that all families can experience may be especiallypowerful for families undergoing therapy. They stated, ‘‘Normal interac-tional needs and relationships in families can be suspended temporarily.In addition, the camping setting creates an expectation for enjoyment andrelaxation which may supercede the daily conflicts, routines, and tensionspresent in all families, but especially in dysfunctional ones’’ [24].

Prevention/enrichment/maintenance

Family camp opportunities are beneficial not only for families involved intherapy but also for families hoping to prevent issues from occurring lateron. Anderson [27] noted that a family camp has groups designed for ‘‘well

925FAMILY CAMPS

families’’ to form a supportive and sharing community, which can be usedfor early detection and prevention of family pathology. Barnhill [28] statedthat ‘‘Expanding the clinical focus to include preventative concerns.couldnot only prevent future problems, but could actually increase the level offunctioning of families.’’ Family camps are also beneficial for familieswho function well and desire to strengthen the existing healthy relationshipswithin their family. Family camps can be a short-term experience with a fam-ily preservation approach [29]. Typically, only special interest groups areresearched in family enrichment programming (ie, step-parent families)[18]. Anderson [27] feels that all families can benefit from growth as a group,however.

Smith and colleagues [30] acknowledged the importance of such pro-grams and recognized that marriage and family enrichment programs canprovide valuable skills of communication and principles of human behaviorto create better living for families who do not have a need for therapy butcan benefit from enrichment. Guerney and Maxson [18] stated that ‘‘Maritaland family enrichment comprises psychoeducational programs designed tostrengthen couples or families so as to promote a high level of presentand future family harmony and strength, and hence the long-term psycho-logical, emotional, and social well-being of family members.’’

Vacation

Some families attend family camps solely for the purpose of enjoyinga family vacation together in the camp setting. Family camping trips area popular vacation activity for many families [23]. The number of familieswho camp together has increased over recent years. Many families experi-ence a lack of time and financial resources, and camping provides a fairlyinexpensive option of an enjoyable family vacation [23]. Hoefner [15] statedthat family vacation camps are helping some programs in the campingindustry reach more children than their previous full summer schedule ofchildren-only camps. With so many families wanting to participate in a fam-ily camp experience together, many programs have become available thatprovide such experiences for families. As diverse as families are and withthe variety of issues that families face, camps have been developed thataddress these different types of families and their needs.

Types of family camps

Some family camps have been developed that focus on certain types offamily structures or families who are in certain situations. A family campprogram implemented by extension staff in New Jersey is specificallydesigned to strengthen at-risk families [31]. In Oregon, there is a freecamp for low-income families [32]. Creation Vacation Camps also providesa supported family vacation for low-income families [15]. Single mothers

926 AGATE & COVEY

and their children are able to attend a camp in Pennsylvania, and camps forchildren who are adopted are offered in Georgia [21]. Grandparents andgrandchildren camp together in New York [21], and GrandCamps isa camp for grandparents and grandchildren [15]. Mom and Me/Dad andMe weekends are for parents, aunts/uncles, or other significant adult men-tors and children [15]. All Invited Family Weekend camp is for gay, lesbian,bisexual, transgender, or questioning families and allies [15].

Other camps are not based on the type of family attending but are spe-cialized according to the experience in which the family will participate whilethey are there. Family Work Weekends are opportunities for families to par-ticipate in volunteer service together at camp and in surrounding communi-ties [15]. In Wisconsin, families join children after their own campexperience for 6 days [21]. Other family camp experiences include theJean-Michel Cousteau Family Camp on Catalina Island [19], ShakespeareCamps for families with an interest in theater to take advantage of theirproximity to a noted regional theater [15], and the Wellspring FamilyCamp for weight loss and healthy lifestyle [33].

Some family camps are based on specific issues with which families maybe dealing. Kierman and colleagues [26] stated that in recent years, special-ized camping programs, based largely on the premise of therapeutic recrea-tion, have emerged as a form of intervention for children with chronicillnesses and their siblings. Various camps address an illness or situationof a family member and do so by including the other members of the family.The Barretstown Gang Camp therapeutic recreation program in Ireland isa program aimed at European children with chronic illnesses and their sib-lings in the short- and long-term [26]. Two-day camps are held for familieswith young, visually impaired children at the Utah Schools for the Deaf andthe Blind [34]. Pediatric cancer patients and their siblings attend camps inthe United States and Britain [35,36]. Camp Friendship, one of the pro-grams for children who have cancer and their families sponsored by theCarol Jean Cancer Foundation and located on a 290-acre horse farm in Lay-tonsville, Maryland, provides overnight camping for children with cancer,siblings of children with cancer, and children whose parents have canceror have died from cancer [37]. Strength for the Journey Family Camp isfor families in which one or more member is living with HIV/AIDS [15].Camp Releaf, a weekend camp in North Carolina, uses therapeutic recrea-tion to help children in kindergarten through grade 8 develop positive cop-ing skills for dealing with the recent death of a family member [38].

Studies also have been completed in which a family camp experience wasprovided for families with special needs to examine the effectiveness of suchprograms. For example, Clark and Kempler [24] examined families witha disturbed child for a weekend in a camp setting. Families with at-riskadolescents participated in one of three camp settings (wilderness survival,handcart trek, family camp setting), and researchers examined the influenceof challenge-based recreation on the collective efficacy of the families [25].

927FAMILY CAMPS

These camps represent a small percentage of the numerous programs thatare offered for families. As different as these programs are, there are alsovarious philosophies and foundations on which these camps are built, struc-tures of camps, and activities that families participate in at the camps.

Philosophies and foundations of family camps

In a study conducted by Taylor and colleagues [39], the philosophies ofseveral family camps were explored. They found that regardless of thespecific type of program, the main purpose of each of the family campsexamined was to strengthen families. Nicodemus [40] found that the basicfunction of campdto provide a safe place for fun and discoverydseemeduniversal when examining camping in Malaysia, New Zealand, England,Brazil, and the United States. Despite geographic and cultural differences,the study found that camp remains a place of safety and discovery for chil-dren and families around the world [40].

The foundations and philosophies on which camps are based are as diverseas the families who attend the camps. There is a family camp designed tostrengthen at-risk families through adventure-based counseling techniques[31]. The camp for children who have visual impairments and their familieswas based on perceived family needs and successful previous camp activities[34]. The goal of the program for children who have autism was to supportthe children in inclusive summer recreational settings and specifically targettheir social development with typically developing peers [41]. A main premiseof the camp for children who have cancer and their siblings was that havingcancer does not mean giving up all the fun things in life [37].

Taylor and colleagues [39] also examined principles on which various fam-ily camps were based. Some of the camps promoted values, building commu-nity, environmental stewardship, and choice. Camps studied reportedfoundational principles of honesty, respect, responsibility, caring, sense ofcommunity, healthy living through camping, personal growth and develop-ment, and appreciation of wildlife and family. Bond [42] found that Adiron-dack camps always have been oriented toward nature. With such variety inthe foundations and philosophies of camps, it can be assumed that the activ-ities and structures of family camps are as differentdperhaps more sodthanthe philosophies onwhich they are built. The activities and structures of manyfamily camps depend on their purpose, philosophy, and foundation.

Structures of family camps

The structures of camps differ greatly depending on their purposes andgoals. Therapeutic programs have different approaches to the family campexperience than do other programs. Sorensen and King [38] indicated thatalong with education and recreational activities, therapeutic recreation helps

928 AGATE & COVEY

people with illnesses, disabilities, and other conditions enhance their health,independence, and well-being. Berman and Davis-Berman [16] noted thattherapy programs intentionally build emotional growth into their programstructure.

Family camps whose focus is to address a certain issue or population cantake various approaches. For example, a family camp for at-risk familiesfocused on building skills such as trust, communication, and positive self-concepts through activities, games, and discussions [31]. At a camp forchildren who have cancer and their siblings, the children are allowed andencouraged to participate in all activities [37]. For persons at a camp forchildren who have diabetes, children meet peers and counselors withdiabetes [43]. At a camp for children who have recently experienced thedeath of a family member, the availability of understanding staff memberswho are willing to listen, peers in a similar situation, and coping activitiesprovide a valuable step toward healing [38].

A main component for the structure of other camps is to give the familieswho attend an opportunity to relax. In the study conducted by Taylor andcolleagues [39], providing families with an opportunity to relax was one ofthe main goals of several of the camps they examined. Clark and Kempler[24] found that such a format served useful purposes; relief from dailyroutines, relaxation, and play seemed to facilitate review of interpersonalproblems. They found that the opportunity for play and participation invarious tension-reducing yet stimulating activities was helpful. ‘‘Peopleneed leisure; it energizes, relaxes, and renews them.’’

Some camps are more unstructured and allow families to participate inthe planning process for their time at camp. Lewicki and colleagues [17]reported that families were assisted by staff members but ultimatelyplanned the camp and defined their own family goals. They stated thatthis autonomous planning set the groundwork for a successful familyexperience. Clark and Kempler [24] also stated that no specific structurehad been established, because it seemed important to include families inplanning the weekend schedule. Lewicki and colleagues [17] also notedthat flexibility was imperative in the scheduling of family camp activitiesand that successful camps allowed families to choose what activities in whichto participate.

The benefits of such a structure were addressed by Anderson [27] when itwas stated that the unstructured camping environment away from routineenables family members to gain a new perspective on their lives and tryout new behavior. Orthner [44] also acknowledged the importance ofunstructured activities at family camps: ‘‘This spontaneity and reductionin inhibition is very important in developing interpersonal understanding.Camping.allow persons to explore their environment with greater freedomand to test themselves in new situations. Family roles are less clearly definedin such activity and role exchange becomes possible: the husband mightcook, the wife pitch the ball or the children control the rules.’’

929FAMILY CAMPS

Activities of family camps

Gene [45] pointed out that most family camps offer traditional activities,such as arts and crafts, nature hikes, canoeing, archery, and horseback rid-ing; however, a growing number of family camps are specializing in specificactivities, from golf to foreign languages to space exploration. Many campsplan activities and prepare meals so that parents are freed from vacationchores and are given more quality time with their children [20]. Mindy[14] noted that family camps offer campfires, talent shows, treasure hunts,and archery butdmore importantlydalso give families an opportunity toreconnect with each other. Other activities may provide families with an op-portunity not only to spend time together but also to teach concepts orskills. Stegmann [46] pointed out that exploring local waterways is a greatway to teach children about fishing and strengthen bonds between familymembers. Campgrounds located near local attractions can be a great wayfor families to learn about the surrounding area’s history.

Family camps that are geared toward specific types of families or focuson special issues have activities that address the needs of the families inattendance. For example, the agenda for the camp for children who havevisual impairments and their families included lectures by professionals,workshops to learn specific skills, recreational activities, and leisure timefor families to interact with each other [34]. A camp focused on helping fam-ilies learn to live a healthy lifestyle offered nutrition and behavior manage-ment classes and daily activity goals. Counselors offered training sessions ongrocery shopping, including a group field trip to a nearby store, and order-ing healthy food at restaurants [33]. Hoefner [15] related a ‘‘Dad’s StoryTime’’: 30 minutes when moms could gather for tea/coffee and conversationin the dining room while dads (or grandpas or other male role models) readbedtime stories, noting it was a wonderful modification to the usual ‘‘quietcabin time before lights out.’’

Benefits of family camps

The benefits of attending family camps are as numerous and diverse asthe families who attend the camps. The positive changes many familiesexperience can be categorized into four areas: improving family interaction,nurturing relationships, providing social benefits, and addressing specificissues.

Improving family interaction

Rosenberg [47] noted that family camp is an excellent opportunity forfamilies to learn new ways to communicate and relate to each other byworking and living together outside their usual setting. Therapeutic familycamping offers the glimpse of a new freedom within families and the intro-duction of avenues of satisfaction that have been dormant or undiscovered

930 AGATE & COVEY

[24]. Anderson [27] observed that another benefit of family group learning isthat it ‘‘facilitates family change and growth by focusing upon the develop-ment of family potential.’’ Lewicki and colleagues [17] recognized that fam-ily camp is an ideal setting for families to change and stated, ‘‘Parents andchildren alike have come away from the camping experience with a greaterunderstanding of the roles, dynamics and interactions at work within theirfamily.’’

Many specific benefits to family interaction and functioning result fromfamily camp experiences. An evaluation of the family camp program forat-risk families revealed that from the youth’s perspective, parents becamemore understanding, nurturing, and enthusiastic with their children and be-came better role models. Torretta [31] also reported that after the familycamp experience, youth felt that they were more aware of family members’feelings, family patterns of communicating, and obstacles that detercommunication.

Sharing new experiences is more likely to open communication betweenparents and children, especially when children are allowed more exclusiveparental attention [44]. Wells and colleagues [25] found that collective familyrecreation efficacy and conflict resolution efficacy increased for families inthree recreational contexts (families in the study participated in three differ-ent types of family camp experiences). Wells and colleagues stated that fam-ily recreation activities likely stimulate family interaction, which may serveas a mechanism for reducing family conflict. This finding may be true, espe-cially in a camp setting in which families interact with each other for ex-tended periods of time.

Nurturing relationships

Rosenberg [47] identified that quality time and creative experiences atfamily camp help nurture relationships and noted that the family camp ex-perience leaves lasting memories for family members. Fullerton and col-leagues [32] reported that half of the families examined at a family campsetting learned new things about family members that they had not knownbefore and that 37% of the families commented that eating meals togetherwas a practice they had experienced at camp that they planned to continueat home. Family camp also provides the opportunity for families and friendsto reconnect, enjoy quality time together, explore the outdoors [47], andmeet new people from their communities [32].

Providing social benefits

Not only is it beneficial for family members to be at camp with one an-other but also there are benefits that come from meeting and interactingwith other families who are attending the camp. Participants at a camp fo-cusing on living a healthy lifestyle noted that one of the highlights of the

931FAMILY CAMPS

camp was meeting families from across the country who understood whatthey were going through on the road to a healthier life [33]. Fullerton [32]indicated that 74% of the families reported that they had met or befriendednew individuals or families who lived in their housing community, and 63%noted that when people met each other on the street or in the buildings theywere more comfortable saying ‘‘hi’’ and talking to one another.

Addressing specific issues

Families who attend camps that focus on a certain issue experience manybenefits that help them in that particular area of their lives. For example,children who participated in a camp for cancer patients and their siblingsexperienced increases in physical and social activities and knowledge aboutcancer and its treatment and decreases in self-engaged activities [35]. Mosher[37] noted that camp helps children remember that they can do practicallyanything and can have fun in the face of cancer. For children strugglingwith chronic illnesses, benefits were noted in their experience of physicalsymptoms and quality of life [26]. At a camp for children who have diabetes,kids learned how to take better care of themselves and could test the latesttechnology for patients who have diabetes [43]. Although many of thesebenefits were experienced immediately during and after the family camp,some benefits experienced by family members are more long-term.

Long-term benefits

Day and Kleinschmidt [34] observed that families continued to benefitfrom the camp experience after they returned to their daily routines, statingthat the ‘‘overwhelming majority of the responses were in favor of the campexperience. In addition, it was interesting to note that there were continuedbenefits for the families six months after the camp.’’ They reported that 71%of the parents reported that they had contacted or interacted with otherfamilies with children who were visually impaired after the camp experienceand that 57% of parents used at least one community resource after thecamp experience that they had learned about at camp [34]. Benefits of qual-ity of life in short- and long-term were reported for children with chronicillnesses and their siblings [26]. Positive changes were also noted in relationto self-esteem as it pertained to global self-worth and physical attractiveness,although they were, for the most part, in the longer term only and were pre-ceded by adverse effects in the short-term [26]. Wellisch and colleagues [36]reported that for campers who had cancer, some changes in affective symp-toms were not present immediately after camp but were significant whenmeasured 4 to 6 months later. (These changes were not shown by siblingcampers.) Patient and sibling campers reflected the same positive memoriesand pleasure in camp activities over time, and for neither group did memo-ries or pleasure fade over time [36].

932 AGATE & COVEY

Jones [48] noted that if campers are guided to think, cope with and solveproblems, and exercise self-discipline, camp can be an environment that al-lows growth and positive long-term behavior. Such long-term benefits alsohave been recognized by others. Fullerton and colleagues [32] stated thatoutdoor programs seem to produce positive outcomes that continue afterthe experience, and Cottrell and Cottrell [49] claimed that participation inoutdoor activities as a youth carries over into adult leisure-time activities.

Issues associated with family camps

Programming involving all family members

Because family camps provide a program for various age groups, severalfactors are involved to offer meaningful experiences for all family members.Tergensen [22] stated that family camps allow for programming for thewhole family as individuals and group activities. Some family camps havemany activities for the entire family, whereas others separate family mem-bers into various age groups for most of the experience. Tergensen observedthat camps emphasize family activities, although some offer separate coun-selor-led activities for children. Orthner [44] noted that most recreationprograms are geared toward a separation of family members, but some pro-grams have found it more beneficial to include several or all family membersin activities. For example, including young children along with their parentsyielded better results in a parenting skills training program [18].

Another issue to be considered when providing a program for all familymembers is that participants are from different age groups and respond todifferent activities in different ways. Wellisch and colleagues [36], when ex-amining participants in a camp for patients who have cancer and their sib-lings, noted that the camping experience seemed to impact different groupsdifferently, with [cancer] patient campers impacted in ways not experiencedby sibling campers. Kierman and colleagues [26] had a similar finding andstated that although some of the positive changes experienced by partici-pants were global, there were group differences based mostly on children’sage and patient/sibling status. Sorensen and King [38] examined a camphelping children deal with the loss of a family member; they observed thateach child grieves differently depending on the age and developmental stageof the child.

Staffing

As with any program, staff members play an integral role in the successof the camp. Lewicki and colleagues [17] acknowledged the importance ofstaff members to the experience of families at the family camp and notedthat the goals of the camp were met through the staff members fulfillingtheir responsibility to guide the family toward higher family functioning.

933FAMILY CAMPS

Staff members in the family camp setting face issues and challenges not ex-perienced in other camp settings because of the fact that the parentsdnotjust childrendare participants. Jones [48] recognized the importance ofcamp staff understanding why campers misbehave; such issues may bemore complex when parents are also participants. Ample training mustbe provided for staff working at camps that address special issues. Sorensenand King [38] stated that at the camp helping children cope with the loss ofa family member, all staff members were given training in how to supportbereaved children and how children greave in general. Such training in-creases the effectiveness of the program in general and the benefits experi-enced by individual participants.

Retention of families

Day and Kleinschmidt [34] found that all parents participating in a campfor children with visual impairments and their families reported that theyhad a positive camp experience. They expressed plans to attend the campthe following year or a desire for a similar camp for their older children.Mindy [14] noted that many families return to the same camp on thesame week each year so children and their friends grow up together.Although many families see the importance of camps and enjoy participat-ing in them regularly, some camps may have problems helping families rec-ognize the value in repeated attendance to their program. Nicodemus [40]reported that Brazilian camp directors share the challenge of convincingparents that camp offers a unique experiential opportunity for children tolearn new concepts, improve social skills, and increase self-esteem.

Issue-based camp

Although many benefits to family camps are based on helping familiesdeal with a specific issue, Balen [35] indicated that potential harmful effectsmay come from extensive focus on the issue, such as a disease. Brookmanand colleagues [41] recognized that with such a program, there are severalareas to address to provide a beneficial program: recruiting appropriateaides, providing aides with ongoing training and support, creating individ-ualized social and behavioral goals for the campers, developing inter-ventions that were contextually appropriate to the camp settings, andcommunicating with families during their participation in the program.

Call for theoretical-based programs and research

Recommendations for programs

Anderson [27] stated that ‘‘Evaluation of program events and exercises isessential to improving the program and enriching the families.’’ Cottrell and

934 AGATE & COVEY

Cottrell [49] recognized that continual effort is necessary to monitor andassess user participant patterns, program interests, trends, and campersatisfaction. With the evaluation of programs provided along with theknowledge of participant interests and needs, more beneficial programsmay be made available for families. For camps that address specific needs,Brookman and colleagues [41] emphasized the importance of educating thegeneral camp staff on issues dealing with whatever focus the camp isaddressing. Balen [35] also suggested that with the inclusion of psychologicaltesting, future camps will provide the opportunity to further assess the needfor psychosocial rehabilitation for children who have cancer.

Taylor and colleagues [39] recognized the need for making family campsmore accessible to families from various backgrounds. Many families wouldbenefit from attending a family camp but are unable to do so because offinancial restraints. Some camps focus on providing programs to single-par-ent families and low-income families. As more camps make their programsaccessible to families in various situations, parents and children alike willbenefit from family camp participation.

Theoretical programming for family camps is another area that may belacking for many programs. There are programs whose aim is to helpfamilies have fun rather than teach skills and principles that can strengthenfamily relationships at the same time. Taylor and colleagues [39] found thatof the programs they examined, only 13% intentionally taught the funda-mental principles on which their camp was based; others stated that theprinciples were implied. Although each of the programs in their study statedthat it was the goal to strengthen families, they were not talking about orteaching this to participants. By intentionally teaching families the principleson which the camp is based, family camps may be more effective in actuallystrengthening family relationships and improving family functioning.

Taylor and colleagues [39] also found that none of the family camps intheir sample helped families apply what they had learned at camp afterreturning home. For lasting change to occur in families, the conceptslearned at camp must be applied after leaving the camp setting. Familycamps must consider how they can assist families in applying what theyhave learned and experienced at camp after they return home. By doingso, the changes that families experience at camp may be more lasting andpowerful once they have resumed their normal lives.

Recommendations for future research

There is a scarcity of empirical research regarding family camps, andseveral studies are needed to examine how family camps strengthen familiesand how they may be more effective in doing so. It would be beneficial toconduct a qualitative study examining what family members feel familycamps are doing for them and how family camps can be more effective instrengthening family relationships. Such a study including multiple

935FAMILY CAMPS

perspectives from families (parents and children) would provide researchersand professionals who provide family camp experiences a more completeidea of what is happening at camp and what can be changed to make it amore beneficial experience for families. It would also be valuable to performpre-tests and post-tests with families attending family camps and quantita-tively measure changes that occur during their time together at camp. Con-ducting a follow-up study with these families a few months later to examineif the changes that occurred at camp have been lasting also would be bene-ficial. If the changes are not lasting, perhaps a qualitative study could beperformed to explore what camps can do to help sustain the change. Exam-ining different types of families attending family camps and performingneeds assessments for the types of families also would be advantageous.Because family camps are able to tailor their programming to address theneeds of particular family types, family needs can be addressed and familyrelationships can be strengthened.

Summary

More families are choosing to participate in family camps for various rea-sons. To meet this need, many camps are offering programs for families.Types of family camps are as diverse as the families attending them andare based on various philosophies. These camps have been found to havenumerous benefits, both immediate and long-term. Although they face dif-ferent issues than other camps, family camps have the powerful potential toinfluence family members’ lives and relationships in countless positive ways.As camps who offer programs for families and researchers who studyfamilies and these types of camps realize the importance of theory-basedprogram planning and research methodology, family camps can take advan-tage of the opportunity to strengthen families and continue to make a posi-tive impact not only on individuals who participate in their programs butalso on society as a whole.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Shellese Nelson and Emilee Barrett for theirassistance on this project.

References

[1] Framo JL. Symptoms from a family transactional viewpoint. In: Sager CJ, Kaplan HS, ed-

itors. Progress in group and family therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1972. p. 271–308.

[2] Nock S. Marriage in men’s lives. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998.

[3] Steinglass P. A systems view of family interaction in psychopathology. In: Jacob T, editor.

Family interaction and psychopathology. New York: Plenum Press; 1987. p. 25–65.

936 AGATE & COVEY

[4] WhitchurchGG, Constantine LL, et al. Systems theory. In: Boss PG, DohertyWJ, LaRossa

R, editors. Sourcebook of family theories and methods: a contextual approach. New York:

Plenum Press; 1993. p. 325–49.

[5] Zabriskie RB, McCormick BP. The influences of family leisure patterns on perceptions of

family functioning. Fam Relat 2001;50:281–9.

[6] Shaw SM, Dawson D. Purposive leisure: examining parental discourses on family activities.

Leisure Sciences 2001;23:217–31.

[7] Hawks SR.Recreation in the family. In: Bahr SJ, editor. Family research: a sixty year review,

1930–1990. New York: Lexington Books; 1991. p. 387–433.

[8] Holman TB, Epperson A. Family and leisure: a review of the literature with recommenda-

tions. Journal of Leisure Research 1984;16:277–94.

[9] Orthner DK, Mancini JA. Benefits of leisure for family bonding. In: Driver BL, Brown PJ,

Peterson GL, editors. Benefits of leisure. State College (PA): Venture; 1991. p. 215–301.

[10] Zabriskie RB, McCormick BP. Parent and child perspectives of family leisure involvement

and satisfaction with family life. Journal of Leisure Research 2003;35:163–89.

[11] Huff C, Widmer M, McCoy K, et al. The influence of challenging outdoor recreation on

parent-adolescent communication. Ther Recreation J 2003;37:18–37.

[12] Agate ST, Zabriskie RB, Eggett DL. Praying, playing and successful families: an exami-

nation of family religiosity, family leisure, and family functioning. Marriage Fam Rev,

in press.

[13] Freeman P, Zabriskie RB. Leisure and family functioning in adoptive families: implications

for therapeutic recreation. Ther Recreation J 2003;37:73–93.

[14] Mindy P. Pass the smores. Telegraph Herald 2006.

[15] Hoefner LJ. Camp gives families a world of good. Camping Magazine 2006;79:20–3.

[16] Berman DS, Davis-Berman J. Therapeutic uses of outdoor education. Charleston (WV):

Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools; 2000.

[17] Lewicki J, Goyette A, Marr K. Family camp: a multimodal treatment strategy for linking

process and content. Journal of Child and Youth Care 1995;10:51–66, 16.

[18] Guerney B, Maxson P. Marital and family enrichment research: a decade review and look

ahead. J Marriage Fam 1990;52:1127–35.

[19] Silver M, Boser U. Smarty camps. US News World Rep 2002;132:70.

[20] Popkin J. Summer camp is for parents, too. US News World Rep 1991;110:68.

[21] Nicodemus T. Camp for all: expanding the tradition. Camping Magazine 2006;79:1–6.

[22] Tergensen A. Back to the woods, with the kids. Bus Week 2006;84–5.

[23] Kelley R. Camping with your kids. Newsweek 2006;148:65–6.

[24] Clark J, Kempler HL. Therapeutic family camping: a rationale. FamCoord 1973;22:437–42.

[25] Wells MS, Widmer MA, McCoy JK. Grubs and grasshoppers: challenge-based recreation

and the collective efficacy of families with at-risk youth. Fam Relat 2004;53:326–33.

[26] KiermanG, GormleyM,MacLachlanM. Outcomes associated with participation in a ther-

apeutic recreation camping program for children from 15 European countries. Soc Sci Med

2004;59:903–13.

[27] Anderson DA. The family growth group: guidelines for an emerging means of strengthening

families. Fam Coord 1974;23:7–13.

[28] Barnhill LR. Healthy family systems. Fam Coord 1979;28:94–100.

[29] Kinney J, Haapala D, Booth C. Keeping families together: the homebuilder’s model. New

York: Aldine De Gruyter; 1991.

[30] SmithRM, Shoffner SM, Scott JP.Marriage and family enrichment: a newprofessional area.

Fam Coord 1979;28:87–93.

[31] TorrettaA. Family camp: strengthening at-risk families through adventure-based initiatives.

Journal of Extension 2004;42.

[32] Fullerton A, Hulbert T, Pierson P, et al. Creation vacation brings low-income families to

camp. Camping Magazine 2002;75:43–6.

[33] Cecilia O. Steps to wellness. Detroit Free Press; 2006. p. 1–6.

937FAMILY CAMPS

[34] Day JN, Kleinschmidt J. The efficacy of family camp experiences for families who have chil-

dren with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairments and Blindness 2005;99:775–9.

[35] Balen R. Activity camps for children with cancer. Children and Society 1996;10:317–23.

[36] Wellisch DK, Crater B, Wiley FM, et al. Psychological impacts of a camping experience for

children with cancer and their siblings. Psychooncology 2006;15:56–65.

[37] Mosher RB. This is the best life yet: life at camp friendship. Pediatr Nurs 2006;32:84–7.

[38] Sorensen B, King K. Play and healing: therapeutic recreation’s role in coping with grief.

Camping Magazine 1999;72:29–33.

[39] Taylor S, Covey JF, Covey CD. Family camps: strengthening family relationships at camp

and at home. Camping Magazine 2006;79:29–35.

[40] Nicodemus T. It’s a small world, after all: a look at camp around the world. CampingMag-

azine 2000;73:16–8.

[41] Brookman L, Boettcher M, Klein E, et al. Facilitating social interactions in a community

summer camp setting for children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions

2003;5:249.

[42] Bond HE. Children’s camps in the Adirondacks. Camping Magazine 2003;76:14–9.

[43] Lewinson R. Attention campers!. Countdown 2004;25:8–11.

[44] Orthner DK. Family ludens: reinforcing the leisure component in family life. Fam Coord

1975;24:175–83.

[45] Gene S. Parents trailing along to camp. USA Today 2005;1:D4.

[46] Stegmann EC. Camping þ family ¼ fun. New York State Conservationist 1999;54:21.

[47] Rosenberg R. Family camp: share the summer magic. Camping Magazine 2006;79.

[48] Jones E. Program for positive behavior: working with misbehaving campers. Camping

Magazine 1997;70:23–5.

[49] Cottrell S, Cottrell R. Happy campers: fun-filled programs as management intervention in

family camping. Parks & Recreation 2003;38:36–40.