Falling+in+Love

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FallinginLove

TheProjectGutenbergEBookofFallinginLove,byGrantAllenThiseBookisfortheuseofanyoneanywhereatnocostandwithalmostnorestrictionswhatsoever.Youmaycopyit,giveitawayorre-useitunderthetermsoftheProjectGutenbergLicenseincludedwiththiseBookoronlineatwww.gutenberg.netTitle:FallinginLoveWithOtherEssaysonMoreExactBranchesofScienceAuthor:GrantAllenReleaseDate:October7,2005[EBook#16807]Language:EnglishCharactersetencoding:ISO-8859-1***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKFALLINGINLOVE***

ProducedbyClareBoothby,AnnikaFeilbachandtheOnlineDistributedProofreadingTeamathttp://www.pgdp.net

FALLINGINLOVEWITHOTHERESSAYSONMOREEXACTBRANCHESOFSCIENCEBYGRANTALLENLONDONSMITH,ELDER,&CO.,15WATERLOOPLACE1889[_Allrightsreserved_]

PREFACESomepeoplecomplainthatscienceisdry.Thatis,ofcourse,amatteroftaste.Formyownpart,IlikemyscienceandmychampagneasdryasIcangetthem.Butthepublicthinksotherwise.SoIhaveventuredtosweetenaccompanyingsamplesasfaraspossibletosuitthedemand,andtrusttheywillmeetwiththeapprobationofconsumers.Ofthespecimenshereselectedforexhibition,mytitlepieceoriginallyappearedinthe_FortnightlyReview_:'HoneyDew'and'TheFirstPotter'werecontributionsto_Longman'sMagazine_:andalltherestfoundfriendlyshelterbetweenthefamiliaryellowcoversofthegoodoldCornhill.Mythanksareduetotheproprietorsandeditorsofthosevariousperiodicalsforkindpermissiontoreproducethemhere.G.A.

THENOOK,DORKING:September,1889.

CONTENTSPAGEFALLINGINLOVE1RIGHTANDLEFT18EVOLUTION31STRICTLYINCOG.50SEVEN-YEARSLEEPERS72AFOSSILCONTINENT88AVERYOLDMASTER106BRITISHANDFOREIGN123THUNDERBOLTS137HONEY-DEW159THEMILKINTHECOCO-NUT176FOODANDFEEDING193DEBANANA216GOTOTHEANT233BIGANIMALS251FOSSILFOOD271OGBURYBARROWS287FISHOUTOFWATER302THEFIRSTPOTTER316THERECIPEFORGENIUS328DESERTSANDS341

FALLINGINLOVE

Anancientandfamoushumaninstitutionisinpressingdanger.SirGeorgeCampbellhassethisfaceagainstthetime-honouredpracticeofFallinginLove.Parentsinnumerable,itistrue,havesettheirfacesagainstitalreadyfromimmemorialantiquity;butthentheyonlyattackedtheparticularinstance,withoutventuringtoimpugntheinstitutionitselfongeneralprinciples.AnoldIndianadministrator,however,goestoworkinallthingsonadifferentpattern.HewouldalwaysliketoregulatehumanlifegenerallyasadepartmentoftheIndiaOffice;andsoSirGeorgeCampbellwouldfainhavehusbandsandwivesselectedforoneanother(perhapsonDr.Johnson'sprinciple,bytheLordChancellor)withaviewtothefuturedevelopmentoftherace,intheprocesswhichhenotveryfelici



touslyorelegantlydescribesas'man-breeding.''Probably,'hesays,asreportedinNature,'wehaveenoughphysiologicalknowledgetoeffectavastimprovementinthepairingofindividualsofthesameoralliedracesifwecouldonlyapplythatknowledgetomakefittingmarriages,insteadofgivingwaytofoolishideasaboutloveandthetastesofyoungpeople,whomwecanhardlytrusttochoosetheirownbonnets,muchlesstochooseinagravermatterinwhichtheyaremostlikelytobeinfluencedbyfrivolousprejudices.'Hewantsus,inotherwords,todiscardthedeep-seatedinnerphysiologicalpromptingsofinheritedinstinct,andtosubstituteforthemsomecalmanddispassionatebutartificialselectionofafittingpartnerasthefatherormotheroffuturegenerations.Nowthisisofcourseaserioussubject,anditoughttobetreatedseriouslyandreverently.But,itseemstome,SirGeorgeCampbell'sconclusionisexactlytheoppositeonefromtheconclusionnowbeingforceduponmenofsciencebyastudyofthebiologicalandpsychologicalelementsinthisverycomplexproblemofheredity.Sofarfromconsideringloveasa'foolishidea,'opposedtothebestinterestsoftherace,Ibelievemostcompetentphysiologistsandpsychologists,especiallythoseofthemodernevolutionaryschool,wouldregarditratherasanessentiallybeneficentandconservativeinstinctdevelopedandmaintainedinusbynaturalcauses,fortheverypurposeofinsuringjustthosepreciseadvantagesandimprovementswhichSirGeorgeCampbellthinkshecouldhimselfeffectbyaconsciousanddeliberateprocessofselection.Morethanthat,Ibelieve,formyownpart(andIfeelsuremostevolutionistswouldcordiallyagreewithme),thatthisbeneficentinheritedinstinctofFallinginLoveeffectstheobjectithasinviewfarmoreadmirably,subtly,andsatisfactorily,ontheaverageof

instances,thananyclumsyhumanselectivesubstitutecouldpossiblyeffectit.Inshort,mydoctrineissimplytheold-fashionedandconfidingbeliefthatmarriagesaremadeinheaven:withthefurthercorollarythatheavenmanagesthem,onetimewithanother,agreatdealbetterthanSirGeorgeCampbell.LetusfirstlookhowFallinginLoveaffectsthestandardofhumanefficiency;andthenletusconsiderwhatwouldbetheprobableresultofanydefiniteconsciousattempttosubstituteforitsomemoredeliberateexternalagency.FallinginLove,asmodernbiologyteachesustobelieve,isnothingmorethanthelatest,highest,andmostinvolvedexemplification,inthehumanrace,ofthatalmostuniversalselectiveprocesswhichMr.Darwinhasenabledustorecognisethroughoutthewholelongseriesoftheanimalkingdom.Thebutterflythatcirclesandeddiesinhisa?rialdancearoundhisobservantmateisendeavouringtocharmherbythedelicacyofhiscolouring,andtoovercomehercoynessbythe

displayofhisskill.Thepeacockthatstrutsaboutinimperialprideundertheeyesofhisattentivehens,isreallycontributingtothefuturebeautyandstrengthofhisracebycollectingtohimselfaharemthroughwhomhehandsdowntoposteritythevaluablequalitieswhichhavegainedtheadmirationofhismatesinhisownperson.Mr.Wallacehasshownthattobebeautifulistobeefficient;andsexualselectionisthus,asitwere,amerelateralformofnaturalselection--asurvivalofthefittestintheguiseofmutualattractivenessandmutualadaptability,producingontheaverageamaximumofthebestpropertiesoftheraceintheresultingoffspring.Ineednotdwellhereuponthisaspectofthecase,becauseitisonewithwhich,sincethepublicationofthe'DescentofMan,'alltheworldhasbeensufficientlyfamiliar.Inourownspecies,theselectiveprocessismarkedbyallthefeaturescommontoselectionthroughoutthewholeanimalkingdom;butitisalso,asmightbeexp

ected,farmorespecialised,farmoreindividualised,farmorecognisantofpersonaltraitsandminorpeculiarities.Itisfurthermoreexertedtoafargreaterextentuponmentalandmoralaswellasphysicalpeculiaritiesintheindividual.Wecannotfallinlovewitheverybodyalike.Someofusfallinlovewithoneperson,somewithanother.Thisinstinctiveanddeep-seateddifferentialfeelingwemayregardastheoutcomeofcomplementaryfeatures,mental,moral,orphysical,inthetwopersonsconcerned;andexperienceshowsusthat,inninecasesoutoften,itisareciprocalaffection,thatistosay,inotherwords,anaffectionrousedinunisonbyvaryingqualitiesintherespectiveindividuals.



Ofitseminentlyconservativeandevenupwardtendencyverylittledoubtcanbereasonablyentertained.Wedofallinlove,takingusinthelump,withtheyoung,thebeautiful,thestrong,andthehealthy;wedonotfallinlove,takingusinthelump,withtheaged,theugly,thefeeble,andthesickly.TheprohibitionoftheChurchisscarcelyneededtopreventamanfrommarryinghisgrandmother.Moralistshavealwaysborneaspecialgrudgetoprettyfaces;but,asMr.HerbertSpenceradmirablyputit(longbeforetheappearanceofDarwin'sselectivetheory),'thesayingthatbeautyisbutskin-deepisitselfbutaskin-deepsaying.'Inreality,beautyisoneoftheverybestguideswecanpossiblyhavetothedesirability,sofarasrace-preservationisconcerned,ofanymanoranywomanasapartnerinmarriage.Afineform,agoodfigure,abeautifulbust,aroundarmandneck,afreshcomplexion,alovelyface,arealloutwardandvisiblesignsofthephysicalqualitiesthatonthewholeconspiretomakeupahealthyandvigorouswifeandmother;theyimplysoundness,fertility,agoodcirculation,agooddigestion.Conversely,sallownessandpalenessareroughlyindicativeofdyspepsiaandan?mia;aflatchestisasymptomofdeficientmaternity;andwhatwecallabadfigureisreally,inonewayoranother,anunhealthydeparturefromthecentralnormaandstandardoftherace.Goodteethmeangooddeglutition;acleareyemeansanactiveliver;scrubbinessandundersizednessmeanfeeblevirility.Norareindicationsofmentalandmoralefficiencybyanymeanswantingasrecognisedelementsinpersonalbeauty.Agood-humouredfaceisinitselfalmostpretty.Apleasantsmilehalfredeemsunattractivefeatures.Low,recedingforeheadsstrikeusunfavourably.Heavy,stolid,half-idioticcountenancescanneverbebeautiful,howeverregulartheirlinesandcontours.Intelligencea

ndgoodnessarealmostasnecessaryashealthandvigourinordertomakeupourperfectidealofabeautifulhumanfaceandfigure.TheApolloBelvedereisnofool;themurderersintheChamberofHorrorsatMadameTussaud'sareforthemostpartnobeauties.Whatweallfallinlovewith,then,asarace,isinmostcasesefficiencyandability.Whatweeachfallinlovewithindividuallyis,Ibelieve,ourmoral,mental,andphysicalcomplement.Notourlike,notourcounterpart;quitethecontrary;withinhealthylimits,ourunlikeandouropposite.Thatthisissohaslongbeenmoreorlessacommonplaceofordinaryconversation;thatitisscientificallytrue,onetimewithanother,whenwetakeanextendedrangeofcases,may,Ithink,bealmostdemonstratedbysureandcertainwarrantyofhumannature.Brothersandsistershavemoreincommon,mentallyandphysically,thananyothermembersofthesameracecanpossiblyhavewithoneanother.Butnobodyfalls

inlovewithhissister.Aprofoundinstincthastaughteventhelowerracesofmen(forthemostpart)toavoidsuchunionoftheall-but-identical.Inthehigherracestheideaneversomuchasoccurstous.Evencousinsseldomfallinlove--seldom,thatistosay,incomparisonwiththefrequentopportunitiesofintercoursetheyenjoy,relativelytotheremainderofgeneralsociety.Whentheydo,andwhentheycarryouttheirperilouschoiceeffectivelybymarriage,naturalselectionsoonavengesNatureupontheoffspringbycuttingofftheidiots,theconsumptives,theweaklings,andthecripples,whooftenresultfromsuchconsanguineousmarriages.Innarrowcommunities,wherebreedingin-and-inbecomesalmostinevitable,naturalselectionhassimilarlytoexertitselfuponacrowdof_cr¨¦tins_andotherhaplessincapables.Butinwideandopenchampaigncountries,whereindividualchoicehasfreeroomforexercise,menandwomenasarule(ifnotconstrainedbyparentsandmoralists)marryforlove,andmarryonthewhole

theirnaturalcomplements.Theypreferoutsiders,freshblood,somebodywhocomesfrombeyondthecommunity,tothepeopleoftheirownimmediatesurroundings.Inmanymenthedisliketomarryingamongthefolkwithwhomtheyhavebeenbroughtupamountsalmosttoapositiveinstinct;theyfeelitasimpossibletofallinlovewithafellow-townswomanastofallinlovewiththeirownfirstcousins.Amongexogamoustribessuchaninstinct(aided,ofcourse,byotherextraneouscauses)hashardenedintocustom;andthereisreasontobelieve(fromtheuniversaltracesamongthehighercivilisationsofmarriagebycapture)thatalltheleadingracesoftheworldareultimatelyderivedfromexogamousancestors,possessingthishealthyandexcellentsentiment.



Inminormatters,itisofcourseuniversallyadmittedthatshortmen,asarule,prefertallwomen,whiletallmenadmirelittlewomen.Darkpairsbypreferencewithfair;thecommonplaceoftenrunsaftertheoriginal.Peoplehavelongnoticedthatthisattractiontowardsone'soppositetendstokeeptruethestandardoftherace;theyhavenot,perhaps,sogenerallyobservedthatitalsoindicatesroughlytheexistenceineitherindividualofadesireforitsownnaturalcomplement.Itisdifficultheretogivedefiniteexamples,buteverybodyknowshow,inthesubtlepsychologyofFallinginLove,thereareinvolvedinnumerableminorelements,physicalandmental,whichstrikeusexactlybecauseoftheirabsoluteadaptationtoformwithourselvesanadequateunion.Ofcoursewedonotdefinitelyseekoutanddiscoversuchqualities;instinctworksfarmoreintuitivelythanthat;butwefindatlast,bysubsequentobservation,howtrueandhowtrustworthywereitsimmediateindications.Thatistosay,thosemendosowhowerewiseenoughorfortunateenoughtofollowtheearliestpromptingsoftheirownhearts,andnottobeashamedofthatdivinestanddeepestofhumanintuitions,loveatfirstsight.Howverysubtlethisintuitionis,wecanonlyguessinpartbytheapparentcapriciousnessandincomprehensibilityofitsoccasionalaction.Weknowthatsomemenandwomenfallinloveeasily,whileothersareonlymovedtolovebysomeveryspecialandsingularcombinationofpeculiarities.Weknowthatonemanisreadilystirredbyeveryprettyfacehesees,whileanothermancanonlyberousedbyintellectualqualitiesorbymoralbeauty.Weknowthatsometimeswemeetpeoplepossessingeveryvirtueandgraceunderheaven,andyetforsomeunknownandincomprehensiblereasonwecouldnomorefallinlovewiththemthanwecould

fallinlovewiththeTenCommandments.Idon't,ofcourse,foramomentacceptthesillyromanticnotionthatmenandwomenfallinloveonlyonceintheirlives,orthateachoneofushassomewhereonearthhisorherexactaffinity,whomwemustsoonerorlatermeetorelsedieunsatisfied.Almosteveryhealthynormalmanorwomanhasprobablyfalleninloveoverandoveragaininthecourseofalifetime(exceptincaseofveryearlymarriage),andcouldeasilyfinddozensofpersonswithwhomtheywouldbecapableoffallinginloveagainifdueoccasionoffered.Wearenotallcreatedinpairs,liketheExchequertallies,exactlyintendedtofitintooneanother'sminoridiosyncrasies.Menandwomenasaruleverysensiblyfallinlovewithoneanotherintheparticularplacesandtheparticularsocietiestheyhappentobecastamong.AmanatAshby-de-la-Zouchdoesnothunttheworldovertofindhispre-establishedharmonyatParay-le-MonialoratDenver,Colorado.Butamongthewomenheactuallymeets,avastnumb

erarepurelyindifferenttohim;onlyoneortwo,hereandthere,strikehiminthelightofpossiblewives,andonlyoneinthelastresort(outsideSaltLakeCity)approvesherselftohisinmostnatureastheactualwifeofhisfinalselection.Nowthisveryindifferencetothevastmassofourfellow-countrymenorfellow-countrywomen,thisextremepitchofselectivepreferenceinthehumanspecies,isjustonemarkofourextraordinaryspecialisation,onestampandtokenofourhighsupremacy.Thebrutesdonotsopickandchoose,thougheventhere,asDarwinhasshown,selectionplaysalargepart(fortheverybutterfliesarecoy,andmustbewooedandwon).Itisonlyinthehumanraceitselfthatselectiondescendsintosuchminute,suchsubtle,suchindefinablediscriminations.Whyshouldauniversalandcommonimpulsehaveinourcasethesespeciallimits?Whyshouldwebebynaturesofastidiousandsodiverselyaffected?Surelyforsomegood

andsufficientpurpose.Nodeep-seatedwantofourcomplexlifewouldbesonarrowlyrestrictedwithoutalawandameaning.Sometimeswecaninpartexplainitsconditions.Here,weseethatbeautyplaysagreat_r?le_;there,werecognisetheimportanceofstrength,ofmanner,ofgrace,ofmoralqualities.Vivacity,asMr.Galtonjustlyremarks,isoneofthemostpowerfulamonghumanattractions,andoftenaccountsforwhatmightotherwiseseemunaccountablepreferences.Butafterallissaidanddone,thereremainsavastmassofinstinctiveandinexplicableelements:apowerdeeperandmoremarvellousinitsinscrutableramificationsthanhumanconsciousness.'Whatonearth,'wesay,'couldSo-and-soseeinSo-and-sotofallinlovewith?'ThisveryinexplicabilityItaketobethesi



gnandsealofaprofoundimportance.Aninstinctsoconditioned,socurious,sovague,sounfathomable,aswemayguessbyanalogywithallotherinstincts,mustbeNature'sguidingvoicewithinus,speakingforthegoodofthehumanraceinallfuturegenerations.Ontheotherhand,letussupposeforamoment(impossiblesupposition!)thatmankindcouldconceivablydivestitselfof'thesefoolishideasaboutloveandthetastesofyoungpeople,'andcouldhandoverthechoiceofpartnersforlifetoacommitteeofanthropologists,presidedoverbySirGeorgeCampbell.Wouldthecommitteemanagethings,Iwonder,verymuchbetterthantheCreatorhasmanagedthem?Wherewouldtheyobtainthatintimateknowledgeofindividualstructuresandfunctionsanddifferenceswhichwouldenablethemtojointogetherinholymatrimonyfittingandcomplementaryidiosyncrasies?Isalivingman,withallhisorgans,andpowers,andfaculties,anddispositions,sosimpleandeasyaproblemtoreadthatanybodyelsecanreadilyundertaketopickoutoff-handahelpmeetforhim?Itrownot!Amanisnotahorseoraterrier.Youcannotdiscernhis'points'bysimpleinspection.Youcannotsee_¨¤priori_whyaHanoverianbandsmanandhisheavy,ignorant,unculturedwife,shouldconspiretoproduceaSirWilliamHerschel.Ifyoutriedtoimprovethebreedartificially,eitherbychoicefromoutside,orbythecreationofanindependentmoralsentiment,irrespectiveofthatinstinctivepreferencewhichwecallFallinginLove,Ibelievethatsofarfromimprovingman,youwouldonlydooneoftwothings--eitherspoilhisconstitution,orproduceatamestereotypedpatternofamiableimbecility.Youwouldcrushoutallinitiative,allspontaneity,alldiversity,alloriginality;youwouldgetananimatedmoralcodeinsteadoflivingmenandwomen.

Lookattheanalogyofdomesticanimals.Thatistheanalogytowhichbreedingreformersalwayspointwithspecialpride:butwhatdoesitreallyteachus?Thatyoucan'timprovetheefficiencyofanimalsinanyonepointtoanyhighdegree,withoutupsettingthegeneralbalanceoftheirconstitution.Therace-horsecanrunamileonaparticulardayataparticularplace,baraccidents,withwonderfulspeed:butthatisaboutallheisgoodfor.Hishealthasawholeissosurprisinglyfeeblethathehastobetreatedwithasmuchcareasadelicateexotic.'Inregardtoanimalsandplants,'saysSirGeorgeCampbell,'wehaveverylargelymasteredtheprinciplesofheredityandculture,andthemodesbywhichgoodqualitiesmaybemaximised,badqualitiesminimised.'True,sofarasconcernsafewpointsprizedbyourselvesforourownpurposes.Butindoingthis,wehavesoloweredthegeneralconstitutionalvigouroftheplantsoranimalsthatourvinesfallaneasypreytooidiumandphylloxera,ourpotatoestothepotat

odiseaseandtheColoradobeetle;oursheeparestupid,ourrabbitsidiotic,ourdomesticbreedsgenerallythreatenedwithdangerstolifeandlimbunknowntotheirwiryancestorsinthewildstate.Andwhenonecomestodealwiththeinfinitelymorecomplexindividualityofman,whathopewouldtherebeofourimprovingthebreedbydeliberateselection?Ifwedevelopedtheintellect,wewouldprobablystuntthephysiqueorthemoralnature;ifweaimedatageneralcultureofallfacultiesalike,wewouldprobablyendbyaChineseuniformityofmediocredeadlevel.Thebalanceoforgansandfacultiesinaraceisaverydelicateorganicequilibrium.Howdelicatewenowknowfromthousandsofexamples,fromthecorrelationsofseeminglyunlikeparts,fromthewide-spreadeffectsofsmallconditions,fromtheutterdyingoutofracesliketheTasmaniansortheParaguayIndiansundercircumstancesdifferentfromthosewithwhichtheirancestorswerefamiliar.W

hatfollytointerferewithamarvellousinstinctwhichnowpreservesthisbalanceintact,infavourofanuntriedartificialsystemwhichwouldprobablywreckitashelplesslyasthemodernsystemofhighereducationforwomeniswreckingthematernalpowersofthebestclassinourEnglishcommunity!Indeed,withintheraceitself,asitnowexists,freechoice,aidedbynaturalselection,isactuallyimprovingeverygoodpoint,andisforeverweedingoutalltheoccasionalfailuresandshortcomingsofnature.Forweaklychildren,feeblechildren,stupidchildren,heavychildren,areundoubtedlybornunderthisveryr¨¦gimeoffallinginlove,whoseaverageresultsIbelievetobesohighlybeneficial.Howisthis?Well,onehastotakeintoconsiderationtwopointsinseeki



ngforthesolutionofthatobviousproblem.Inthefirstplace,noinstinctisabsolutelyperfect.Allofthemnecessarilyfailatsomepoints.Ifontheaveragetheydogood,theyaresufficientlyjustified.Nowthematerialwithwhichyouhavetostartinthiscaseisnotperfect.Eachmanmarries,eveninfavourablecircumstances,nottheabstractlybestadaptedwomanintheworldtosupplementorcounteracthisindividualpeculiarities,butthebestwomanthenandthereobtainableforhim.Theresultisfrequentlyfarfromperfect;allIclaimisthatitwouldbeasbadoragooddealworseifsomebodyelsemadethechoiceforhim,orifhemadethechoicehimselfonabstractbiologicaland'eugenic'principles.And,indeed,theveryexistenceofbetterandworseintheworldisaconditionprecedentofallupwardevolution.Withoutanoverstockedworld,withindividualvariations,someprogressive,someretrograde,therecouldbenonaturalselection,nosurvivalofthefittest.Thatisthechiefbesettingdangerofcut-and-drieddoctrinaireviews.Malthuswasaverygreatman;butifhisprincipleofprudentialrestraintwerefullycarriedout,theprudentwouldceasetoreproducetheirlike,andtheworldwouldbepeopledinafewgenerationsbythehereditarilyrecklessanddissoluteandimprudent.Evenso,ifeugenicprincipleswereuniversallyadopted,thechanceofexceptionalandelevatednatureswouldbelargelyreduced,andnaturalselectionwouldbeinsomuchinterferedwithorsensiblyretarded.Inthesecondplace,again,itmustnotbeforgottenthatfallinginlovehasneveryet,amongcivilisedmenatleast,hadafairfieldandnofavour.Manymarriagesarearrangedonverydifferentgrounds--groundsofconvenience,groundsofcupidity,groundsofreligion,groundsofsnobbishness.Inmanycasesitiscle

arlydemonstrablethatsuchmarriagesareproductiveinthehighestdegreeofevilconsequences.Takethecaseofheiresses.Anheiressisalmostbynecessitytheonelastfeebleandflickeringrelicofamoribundstock--oftenofastockreducedbythesordidpursuitofill-gottenwealthalmosttotheveryvergeofactualinsanity.Butletherbeeversougly,eversounhealthy,eversohysterical,eversomad,somebodyorotherwillbereadyandeagertomarryheronanyterms.Considerationsofthissorthavehelpedtostocktheworldwithmanyfeebleandunhealthypersons.Amongthemiddleandupperclassesitmaybesafelysaidonlyaverysmallpercentageofmarriagesiseverduetolovealone;inotherwords,toinstinctivefeeling.Theremainderhavebeeninfluencedbyvarioussideadvantages,andnaturehastakenhervengeanceaccordinglyontheunhappyoffspring.Parentsandmoralistsareeverreadytodrownhervoice,andtocounselmarriagewithinone'sownclass,amongnicepeople,withareallyreligiousgirl,a

ndsoforthadinfinitum.Bymanywell-meaningyoungpeoplethesedeadlyinterferenceswithnaturalimpulseareacceptedaspartofahigherandnoblerlawofconduct.Thewretchedbeliefthatoneshouldsubordinatethepromptingsofone'sownsoultothedictatesofamiscalculatingandmisdirectingprudencehasbeeninstilledintothemindsofgirlsespecially,untilatlastmanyofthemhavealmostcometolookupontheirnaturalinstinctsaswrong,andtheimmoral,race-destructivecounselsoftheirseniorsoradvisersasthetruestandpurestearthlywisdom.Amongcertainsmallreligioussects,again,suchastheQuakers,thedutyof'marryingin'hasbeenstrenuouslyinculcated,andonlythestronger-mindedandmoreindividualisticmembershavehadcourageandinitiativeenoughtodisregardprecedent,andtofollowtheinternaldivinemonitor,asagainsttheexternally-imposedlawoftheirparticularcommunity.EvenamongwiderbodiesitiscommonlyheldthatCatholicsmustnotmarryProtestants;andtheadmirableresu

ltsobtainedbythemixtureofJewishwithEuropeanbloodhavealmostallbeenreachedbymaleJewshavingthetemeritytomarry'Christian'womeninthefaceofoppositionandpersecutionfromtheirco-nationalists.ItisveryrarelyindeedthataJewesswillacceptaEuropeanforahusband.Insomanyways,andonsomanygrounds,doesconventioninterferewiththeplainandevidentdictatesofnature.Againstallsuchevilparentalpromptings,however,agreatsafeguardisaffordedtosocietybythewholesomeandessentiallyphilosophicalteachingofromanceandpoetry.Idonotapproveofnovels.Theyareforthemostpartafutileandunprofitableformofliterature;anditmayprofoundlyberegrettedthatthemer



eblindlawsofsupplyanddemandshouldhavedivertedsuchanimmensenumberoftheablestmindsinEngland,France,andAmerica,frommoreserioussubjectstotheproductionofsuchveryfrivolousand,onthewhole,ephemeralworksofart.Butthenovelhasthisonegreatcounterpoiseofundoubtedgoodtosetagainstallthemanifolddisadvantagesandshortcomingsofromanticliterature--thatitalwaysappealstothetrueinternalpromptingsofinheritedinstinct,andopposesthefoolishandselfishsuggestionsofinterestedoutsiders.Itistheperpetualprotestofpoorbanishedhumannatureagainsttheexpellingpitchforkofcalculatingexpediencyinthematrimonialmarket.Whileparentsandmoralistsareforeversaying,'Don'tmarryforbeauty;don'tmarryforinclination;don'tmarryforlove:marryformoney,marryforsocialposition,marryforadvancement,marryforourconvenience,notforyourown,'theromance-writerisforeverurging,ontheotherhand,'Marryforlove,andforloveonly.'Hisgreatthemeinallageshasbeentheoppositionbetweenparentalorotherexternalwishesandthetruepromptingsoftheyoungandunsophisticatedhumanheart.Hehasbeenthechiefallyofsentimentandofnature.HehasfilledtheheadsofallourgirlswithwhatSirGeorgeCampbelldescribesoff-handas'foolishideasaboutlove.'Hehaspreservedusfromthehatefulconventionsofcivilisation.Hehasexaltedtheclaimsofpersonalattraction,ofthemysteriousnativeyearningofheartforheart,oftheindefiniteandindescribableelementofmutualselection;and,insodoing,hehasunconsciouslyprovedhimselfthebestfriendofhumanimprovementandthedeadliestenemyofallthosehideous'sociallieswhichwarpusfromthelivingtruth.'HismissionistodelivertheworldfromDr.JohnsonandSirGeorgeCampbell.

For,strangetosay,itisthemoralistsandthedoctrinaireswhoarealwaysinthewrong:itisthesentimentalistsandtherebelswhoarealwaysintherightinthismatter.Ifthecommonmoralmaximsofsocietycouldhavehadtheirway--ifwehadallchosenourwivesandourhusbands,notfortheirbeautyortheirmanliness,notfortheireyesortheirmoustaches,notfortheirattractivenessortheirvivacity,butfortheir'sterlingqualitiesofmindandcharacter,'weshouldnowdoubtlessbeamiserableraceofprigsandbookworms,ofmartinetsandpuritans,ofnervousinvalidsandfeebleidiots.Itisbecauseouryoungmenandmaidenswillnothearkentothesepenny-wiseapophthegmsofshallowsophistry--becausetheyoftenpreferRomeoandJuliettothe'WholeDutyofMan,'andabeautifulfacetoaroundbalanceatCoutts's--thatwestillpreservesomevitalityandsomeindividualfeatures,inspiteofourgrindingandcrushingcivilisation.Themenwhomarrybalances,asMr.Galtonhasshown,happilydieout,leavin

gnonetorepresentthem:themenwhomarrywomentheyhavebeenweakenoughandsillyenoughtofallinlovewith,recruittheracewithfineandvigorousandintelligentchildren,fortunatelycompoundedofthecomplementarytraitsderivedfromtwofairlycontrastedandmutuallyreinforcingindividualities.Ihavespokenthroughout,forargument'ssake,asthoughtheonlyinteresttobeconsideredinthemarriedrelationweretheinterestsoftheoffspring,andsoultimatelyoftheraceatlarge,ratherthanofthepersonsthemselveswhoenterintoit.ButIdonotquiteseewhyeachgenerationshouldthusbesacrificedtothewelfareofthegenerationsthatafterwardssucceedit.Nowitisoneofthestrongestpointsinfavourofthesystemoffallinginlovethatitdoes,bycommonexperienceinthevastmajorityofinstances,assorttogetherpersonswhosubsequentlyprovethemselvesthoroughlycongenialandhelpfultooneanother.AndthisresultIlookuponasonegreatproofoftherealvalueandimportanceo

ftheinstinct.Mostmenandwomenselectforthemselvespartnersforlifeatanagewhentheyknowbutlittleoftheworld,whentheyjudgebutsuperficiallyofcharactersandmotives,whentheystillmakemanymistakesintheconductoflifeandintheestimationofchances.Yetmostofthemfindinafterdaysthattheyhavereallychosenoutofalltheworldoneofthepersonsbestadaptedbynativeidiosyncrasytomaketheirjointlivesenjoyableanduseful.Imakeeveryallowancefortheeffectsofhabit,forthegrowthofsentiment,forthegradualapproximationoftastesandsympathies;butsurely,evenso,itisacommonconsciousnesswitheveryoneofuswhohasbeenlongmarried,thatwecouldhardlyconceivablyhavemadeourselveshappywithanyofthepartnerswhomothershave



chosen;andthatwehaveactuallymadeourselvessowiththepartnerswechoseforourselvesundertheguidanceofanalmostunerringnativeinstinct.Yetadaptationbetweenhusbandandwife,sofarastheirownhappinessisconcerned,canhavehadcomparativelylittletodowiththeevolutionoftheinstinct,ascomparedwithadaptationforthejointproductionofvigorousandsuccessfuloffspring.Naturalselectionlaysalmostallthestressonthelastpoint,andhardlyanyatalluponthefirstone.If,then,theinstinctisfoundonthewholesotrustworthyintheminormatter,forwhichithasnotspeciallybeenfashioned,howfarmoretrustworthyandvaluablemustitprobablyproveinthegreatermatter--greater,Imean,asregardstheinterestsoftherace--forwhichithasbeenmainlyoralmostsolelydeveloped!Idonotdoubtthat,astheworldgoeson,adeepersenseofmoralresponsibilityinthematterofmarriagewillgrowupamongus.Butitwillnottakethefalsedirectionofignoringtheseourprofoundestandholiestinstincts.Marriageformoneymaygo;marriageforrankmaygo;marriageforpositionmaygo;butmarriageforlove,Ibelieveandtrust,willlastforever.Meninthefuturewillprobablyfeelthataunionwiththeircousinsornearrelationsispositivelywicked;thataunionwiththosetooliketheminpersonordispositionisatleastundesirable;thataunionbaseduponconsiderationsofwealthoranyotherconsiderationsaveconsiderationsofimmediatenaturalimpulse,isbaseanddisgraceful.Buttotheendoftimetheywillcontinuetofeel,inspiteofdoctrinaires,thatthevoiceofnatureisbetterfarthanthevoiceoftheLordChancellorortheRoyalSociety;andthattheinstinctivedesireforaparticularhelpmateisasurerguidefortheultimatehappiness,bothoftheraceandoftheindividua

l,thananyamountofdeliberateconsultation.Itisnotthefoolishfanciesofyouththatwillhavetobegotridof,butthefoolish,wicked,andmischievousinterferenceofparentsoroutsiders.

RIGHTANDLEFTAdultmanistheonlyanimalwho,inthefamiliarscripturalphrase,'knoweththerighthandfromtheleft.'Thisfactinhiseconomygoescloselytogetherwiththeotherfacts,thatheistheonlyanimalonthissublunaryplanetwhohabituallyusesaknifeandfork,articulatelanguage,theartofcookery,thecommonpump,andthemusicalglasses.Hisright-handedness,inshort,ispartcauseandparteffectofhisuniversalsupremacyinanimatednature.Heiswhatheis,toagreatextent,'byhisownrighthand;'andhisownrighthand,wemayshrewdlysuspect,wouldneverhavedifferedatallfromhisleftwereitnotforthema

nifoldartsandtradesandactivitieshepractises.Itwasnotalwaysso,whenwildinwoodsthenoblesavageran.Manwasonce,inhischildhoodonearth,whatCharlesReadewantedhimagaintobeinhismaturercenturies,ambidextrous.Andlestanyladyreadersofthisvolume--intheCapeofGoodHope,forexample,ortheremoterportionsoftheAustralianbush,whitherthecultureofGirtonandthefamiliarknowledgeoftheLatinlanguagehavenotyetpenetrated--shouldcomplainthatIspeakwithunknowntongues,Iwillfurtherexplainfortheirspecialbenefitthatambidextrousmeansequally-handed,usingtherightandtheleftindiscriminately.This,asMr.AndrewLangremarksinimmortalverse,'wasthemannerofPrimitiveMan.'Henevermindedtwopencewhichhandheused,aslongashegotthefruitorthescalphewanted.Howcouldhewhentwopencewasn'tyetinvented?Hismammaneversaidtohiminearlyyouth,'Why-why,'or'Tomtom,'asthecasemightbe,'that'sthewronghandtoholdy

ourflint-scraperin.'Hegrewuptoman'sestateinhappyignoranceofsuchminuteandinvidiousdistinctionsbetweenhisanteriorextremities.Enoughforhimthathishandscouldgrasptheforestboughsorchipthestoneintoshapelyarrows;andhenevereventhoughtinhisinnocentsoulwhichparticularhandhediditwith.HowcanImakethisconfidentassertion,youask,aboutagentlemanwhomIneverpersonallysaw,andwhosehabitstheinterventionoffivehundredcenturieshasprecludedmefromstudyingatclosequarters?Atfirstsight,youwouldsupposetheevidenceonsuchapointmustbepurelynegative.Thereconstructivehistorianmustsurelybeinventing_¨¤priori_facts,evolved,moreGermanico,fromhisin



nerconsciousness.Notso.Seehowclevermodernarch?ologyhasbecome!Ibasemyassertionuponsolidevidence.IknowthatPrimitiveManwasambidextrous,becausehewroteandpaintedjustasoftenwithhisleftaswithhisright,andjustassuccessfully.Thisseemsoncemoreahazardousstatementtomakeaboutaremoteancestor,intheagebeforethegreatglacialepochhadfurrowedthemountainsofNorthernEurope;but,nevertheless,itisstrictlytrueandstrictlydemonstrable.Justtry,asyouread,todrawwiththeforefingerandthumbofyourrighthandanimaginaryhumanprofileonthepageonwhichthesewordsareprinted.Doyouobservethat(unlessyouareanartist,andthereforesophisticated)younaturallyandinstinctivelydrawitwiththefaceturnedtowardsyourleftshoulder?Trynowtodrawitwiththeprofiletotheright,andyouwillfinditrequiresafargreatereffortofthethumbandfingers.Thehandmovesofitsownaccordfromwithoutinward,notfromwithinoutward.Then,again,drawwithyourleftthumbandforefingeranotherimaginaryprofile,andyouwillfind,forthesamereason,thatthefaceinthiscaselooksrightward.Existingsavages,andourownyoungchildren,whenevertheydrawafigureinprofile,beitofmanorbeast,withtheirrighthand,drawitalmostalwayswiththefaceorheadturnedtotheleft,inaccordancewiththisnaturalhumaninstinct.Theirdoingsoisatestoftheirperfectright-handedness.ButPrimitiveMan,oratanyratethemostprimitivemenweknowpersonally,thecarversofthefiguresfromtheFrenchbone-caves,drewmenandbeasts,onboneormammoth-tusk,turnedeitherwayindiscriminately.Theinferenceisobvious.Theymusthavebeenambidextrous.Onlyambidextrouspeopledrawsoatthepresen

tday;andindeedtoscrapeafigureotherwisewithasharpflintonapieceofboneortoothormammoth-tuskwould,evenforapractisedhand,becomparativelydifficult.Ihavebegunmyconsiderationofrightsandleftswiththisoneveryclearhistoricaldatum,becauseitisinterestingtobeabletosaywithtolerablecertaintythattherereallywasaperiodinourlifeasaspecieswhenmaninthelumpwasambidextrous.Whyandhowdidhebecomeotherwise?Thisquestionisnotonlyofimportanceinitself,ashelpingtoexplaintheoriginandsourceofman'ssupremacyinnature--histool-usingfaculty--butitisalsoofinterestfromthelightitcastsonthatfallacyofpoorCharlesReade'salreadyalludedto--thatweoughtallofusinthisrespecttoharkbacktotheconditionofsavages.Ithinkwhenwehaveseenthereasonswhichmakecivilisedmannowright-handed,weshallalsoseewhyitwouldbehighlyundesirableforhimtoreturn,aftersoma

nyagesofpractice,totheconditionofhisundevelopedstone-ageancestors.Theverybeginningofourmodernright-handednessgoesback,indeed,tothemostprimitivesavagery.Whydidonehandevercometobedifferentinuseandfunctionfromanother?Theansweris,becauseman,inspiteofallappearancestothecontrary,isreallyone-sided.Externally,indeed,hiscongenitalone-sidednessdoesn'tshow:butitshowsinternally.Weallofusknow,inspiteofSganarelle'sassertiontothecontrary,thattheapexoftheheartinclinestotheleftside,andthattheliverandotherinternalorgansshowagenerousdisregardforstrictandformalsymmetry.Inthisirregulardistributionofthosehumanorganswhichpolitesocietyagreestoignore,wegetthecluetotheirregularityofrightandleftinthehumanarm,andfinallyeventheparticulardirectionoftheprintedlettersnowbeforeyou.Forprimitivemandidnotbelongtopolitesociety.Hismannerswerestrikingly

deficientinthatreposewhichstampsthecasteofVeredeVere.Whenprimitivemanfeltthetenderpassionstealoverhissoul,helayinwaitinthehushforthePhyllisorDaphnewhosecharmshadinspiredhisheartwithyoungdesire;andwhenshepassedhishiding-place,inmaidenmeditation,fancyfree,hefelledherwithaclub,caughthertightbythehairofherhead,anddraggedheroffintriumphtohiscaveorhisrock-shelter.(Marriagebycapture,thelearnedcallthissimplemodeofprimevalcourtship.)WhenhefoundsomeStrephonorDamoetasrivalhimintheaffectionsoftheduskysex,heandthatrivalfoughtthematteroutliketwobullsinafield;andthevictorandhisPhyllissuppedthateveningofftheroastedremainsofthevanquishedsuitor.Idon'tsaythesehabits



andmannerswerepretty;buttheywerethecustomofthetime,andthere'snogooddenyingthem.Now,PrimitiveMan,beingthusbynatureafightinganimal,foughtforthemostpartatfirstwithhisgreatcanineteeth,hisnails,andhisfists;tillinprocessoftimeheaddedtotheseearlyandnaturalweaponsthefurtherpersuasionsofacluborshillelagh.Healsofought,asDarwinhasveryconclusivelyshown,inthemainforthepossessionoftheladiesofhiskind,againstothermembersofhisownsexandspecies.Andifyoufight,yousoonlearntoprotectthemostexposedandvulnerableportionofyourbody;or,ifyoudon't,naturalselectionmanagesitforyou,bykillingyouoffasanimmediateconsequence.Totheboxer,wrestler,orhand-to-handcombatant,thatmostvulnerableportionisundoubtedlytheheart.Ahardblow,welldeliveredontheleftbreast,willeasilykill,oratanyratestun,evenaverystrongman.Hence,fromaveryearlyperiod,menhaveusedtherighthandtofightwith,andhaveemployedtheleftarmchieflytocovertheheartandtoparryablowaimedatthatspeciallyvulnerableregion.Andwhenweaponsofoffenceanddefencesupersedemerefistsandteeth,itistherighthandthatgraspsthespearorsword,whiletheleftholdsovertheheartfordefencetheshieldorbuckler.Fromthissimpleorigin,then,thewholevastdifferenceofrightandleftincivilisedlifetakesitsbeginning.Atfirst,nodoubt,thesuperiorityoftherighthandwasonlyfeltinthematteroffighting.Butthatalonegaveitadistinctpull,andpavedtheway,atlast,foritssupremacyelsewhere.Forwhenweaponscameintouse,thehabitualemploymentoftherighthandtograspthespear,sword,orknifemadethenervesandmusclesoftherightsidefarmoreobedient

tothecontrolofthewillthanthoseoftheleft.Thedexteritythusacquiredbytheright--seehowtheveryword'dexterity'impliesthisfact--madeitmorenaturalfortheearlyhunterandartificertoemploythesamehandpreferentiallyinthemanufactureofflinthatchets,bowsandarrows,andinalltheothermanifoldactivitiesofsavagelife.Itwasthehandwithwhichhegraspedhisweapon;itwasthereforethehandwithwhichhechippedit.Totheveryend,however,therighthandremainsespecially'thehandinwhichyouholdyourknife;'andthatisexactlyhowourownchildrentothisdaydecidethequestionwhichiswhich,whentheybegintoknowtheirrighthandfromtheirleftforpracticalpurposes.Adifferencelikethis,oncesetup,impliesthereafterinnumerableotherdifferenceswhichnaturallyflowfromit.Someofthemareextremelyremoteandderivative.Take,forexample,thecaseofwritingandprinting.Whydotheserunfrom

lefttoright?AtfirstsightsuchapracticeseemsclearlycontrarytotheinstinctivetendencyInoticedabove--thetendencytodrawfromrighttoleft,inaccordancewiththenaturalsweepofthehandandarm.And,indeed,itisafactthatallearlywritinghabituallytooktheoppositedirectionfromthatwhichisnowuniversalinwesterncountries.Everyschoolboyknows,forinstance(oratleasthewouldifhecameuptotheproperMacaulaystandard),thatHebrewiswrittenfromrighttoleft,andthateachbookbeginsatthewrongcover.Thereasonisthatwords,andletters,andhieroglyphicswereoriginallycarved,scratched,orincised,insteadofbeingwrittenwithcolouredink,andthehandwasthusallowedtofollowitsnaturalbent,andtoproceed,aswealldoinna?vedrawing,withafreecurvefromtherightleftward.Nevertheless,theverysamefact--thatweusetherighthandaloneinwriting--madethelettersruntheoppositewayintheend;andthechangewasduetotheu

seofinkandotherpigmentsforstainingpapyrus,parchment,orpaper.Ifthehandinthiscasemovedfromrighttoleftitwouldofcoursesmearwhatithadalreadywritten;andtopreventsuchuntidysmudgingofthewords,theorderofwritingwasreversedfromleftrightward.Theuseofwaxtabletsalso,nodoubt,helpedforwardtherevolution,forinthiscase,too,thehandwouldcoverandruboutthewordswritten.Thestrictdependenceofwriting,indeed,uponthematerialemployedisnowherebettershownthaninthecaseoftheAssyriancuneiforminscriptions.Theordinarysubstituteforcream-laidnoteintheEuphratesvalleyinitspalmydayswasaclayorterra-cottatablet,onwhichthewordstoberecorded--usuallyadeed



ofsaleorsomethingofthesort--wereimpressedwhileitwaswetandthenbakedin,solid.Andthemethodofimpressingthemwasverysimple;theworkmanmerelypressedtheendofhisgraverorwedgeintothemoistclay,thusgivingrisetotriangularmarkswhichwerearrangedintheshapesofvariousletters.Whenalabaster,oranyotherhardmaterial,wassubstitutedforclay,thesculptorimitatedthesenaturaldabsortriangularimprints;andthatwastheoriginofthosemysteriousandverylearned-lookingcuneiforms.This,Iadmit,isapalpabledigression;butinasmuchasitthrowsanindirectlightonthesimplereasonswhichsometimesbringaboutgreatresults,Iholditnotwhollyalientothepresentseriousphilosophicalinquiry.Printing,inturn,necessarilyfollowstheruleofwriting,sothatinfacttheorderoflettersandwordsonthispagedependsultimatelyupontheremotefactthatprimitivemanhadtousehisrighthandtodeliverablow,andhislefttoparry,ortoguardhisheart.Somecuriousandhardlynoticeableresultsflowoncemorefromthisorderofwritingfromlefttoright.Youwillfind,ifyouwatchyourselfclosely,thatinexaminingalandscape,ortheviewfromahill-top,youreyenaturallyrangesfromlefttoright;andthatyoubeginyoursurvey,asyouwouldbeginreadingapageofprint,fromtheleft-handcorner.Apparently,thenowalmostinstinctiveactofreading(forDogberrywasrightafterall,forthecivilisedinfant)hasaccustomedoureyestothisparticularmovement,andhasmadeitespeciallynaturalwhenwearetryingto'read'ortakeinataglancethemeaningofanycomplexandvariedtotal.Inthematterofpictures,Inotice,thecorrelationhasevengoneastepfarthe

r.Notonlydoweusuallytakeintheepisodesofapaintingfromlefttoright,butthepainterdefinitelyanddeliberatelyintendsussototakethemin.Forwherevertwoorthreedistinctepisodesinsuccessionarerepresentedonasingleplaneinthesamepicture--ashappensofteninearlyart--theyareinvariablyrepresentedinthepreciseorderofthewordsonawrittenorprintedpage,beginningattheupperleft-handcorner,andendingatthelowerright-handangle.Ifirstnoticedthiscuriousextensionofthecommonprincipleinthemedi?valfrescoesoftheCampoSantoatPisa;andIhavesinceverifieditbyobservationsonmanyotherpictureselsewhere,bothancientandmodern.TheCampoSanto,however,formsanexceptionallygoodmuseumofsuchstory-tellingfrescoesbyvariouspainters,asalmosteverypictureconsistsofseveralsuccessiveepisodes.ThefamousBenozzoGozzoli,forexample,ofNoah'sVineyardrepresentsonasingleplaneallthestagesinthatearliestdramaofintoxication,fromthefirstact

ofgatheringthegrapesonthetopleft,tothescandalisedlady,thevergognosadiPisa,whocoversherfacewithherhandsinshockedhorroratthepatriarch'sdisgraceinthelowerright-handcorner.Observe,too,thattheveryconditionsoftechniquedemandthisorderalmostasrigorouslyinpaintingasinwriting.Forthepainterwillnaturallysoworkasnottosmudgeoverwhathehasalreadypainted:andhewillalsonaturallybeginwiththeearliestepisodeinthestoryheunfolds,proceedingtotheothersinduesuccession.Fromwhichtwoprinciplesitnecessarilyresultsthathewillbeginattheupperleft,andendatthelowerright-handcorner.Ihaveskippedlightly,Iadmit,overaconsiderableintervalbetweenprimitivemanandBenozzoGozzoli.Butconsiderfurtherthatduringallthattimetheusesoftherightandlefthandwerebecomingbygradualdegreeseachdaystillfurtherdifferentiatedandspecialised.Innumerabletrades,occupations,andhabits

implyever-wideningdifferencesinthewayweusethem.Itisnottherighthandalonethathasundergoneaneducationinthisrespect:theleft,too,thoughsubordinate,hasstillitsownspecialfunctionstoperform.Ifthesavagechipshisflintswithablowoftheright,heholdsthecore,ormainmassofstonefromwhichhestrikesit,firmlywithhisleft.Ifonehandisspeciallydevotedtotheknife,theothergraspstheforktomakeupforit.Inalmosteveryactwedowithbothhands,eachhasaseparateofficetowhichitisbestfitted.Take,forexample,sosimpleamatterasbuttoningone'scoat,whereacuriousdistinctionbetweenthehabitsofthesexesenablesustotesttheprinciplewitheaseandcertainty.Men'sclothesarealwaysmadewiththebuttonsontherightside



andthebutton-holesontheleft.Women's,onthecontrary,arealwaysmadewiththebuttonsontheleftside,andthebutton-holesontheright.(Theoccultreasonforthiscuriousdistinction,whichhaslongengagedtheattentionofphilosophers,hasneveryetbeendiscovered,butitisprobablytobeaccountedforbytheperversityofwomen.)Well,ifamantriestoputonawoman'swaterproof,orawomantoputonaman'sulster,eachwillfindthatneitherhandisreadilyabletoperformthepartoftheother.Aman,inbuttoning,graspsthebuttoninhisrighthand,pushesitthroughwithhisrightthumb,holdsthebutton-holeopenwithhisleft,andpullsallstraightwithhisrightforefinger.Reversethesides,andbothhandsatonceseemequallyhelpless.Itiscurioustonotehowmanylittlepeculiaritiesofdressormanufactureareequallynecessitatedbythisprimedistinctionofrightandleft.Hereareaveryfewofthem,whichthereadercanindefinitelyincreaseforhimself.(Ileaveoutofconsiderationobviouscaseslikebootsandgloves:toinsultthatproverbiallyintelligentperson'sintelligencewiththoseweresurelyunpardonable.)Ascarfhabituallytiedinasailor'sknotacquiresonelongside,left,andoneshortone,right,fromthewayitismanipulatedbytherighthand;ifitweretiedbytheleft,therelationswouldbereversed.Thespiralofcorkscrewsandofordinaryscrewsturnedbyhandgoesinaccordancewiththenaturaltwistoftherighthand:trytodriveinanimaginarycorkscrewwiththerighthand,theoppositeway,andyouwillseehowutterlyawkwardandclumsyisthemotion.Thestrapoftheflapthatcoversthekeyholeintrunksandportmanteausalwayshasitsfixedsideovertotheright,anditsbuckletotheleft;inthiswayonlycanitbeconvenientlybuckledbyaright-handedperson.Thehandsofwatchesandt

henumbersofdial-facedbarometersrunfromlefttoright:thisisapeculiaritydependentuponthelefttorightsystemofwriting.Aservantoffersyoudishesfromtheleftside:youcan'tsoreadilyhelpyourselffromtheright,unlessleft-handed.SchopenhauerdespairedoftheGermanrace,becauseitcouldneverbetaughtliketheEnglishtokeeptotherightsideofthepavementinwalking.Aswordiswornatthelefthip:ahandkerchiefiscarriedintherightpocket,ifattheside;intheleft,ifinthecoat-tails:ineithercasefortherighthandtogetatitmosteasily.Awatch-pocketismadeintheleftbreast;apocketforrailwayticketshalf-waydowntherightside.Trytoreverseanyoneofthesesimpleactions,andyouwillseeatoncethattheyareimmediatelyimpliedintheveryfactofouroriginalright-handedness.Andherein,Ithink,wefindthetrueanswertoCharlesReade'smistakennotionoftheadvantagesofambidexterity.Youcouldn'tmakebothhandsdoeverythinga

likewithoutaconsiderablelossoftime,effort,efficiency,andconvenience.Eachhandlearnstodoitsownworkandtodoitwell;ifyoumadeitdotheotherhand'sintothebargain,itwouldhaveagreatdealmoretolearn,andweshouldfinditdifficulteventhentopreventspecialisation.Weshouldhavetomakethingsdeliberatelydifferentforthetwohands--tohaverightsandleftsineverything,aswehavethemnowinbootsandgloves--orelseonehandmustinevitablygainthesupremacy.Sword-handles,shears,surgicalinstruments,andhundredsofotherthingshavetobemaderight-handed,whilepalettesandafewlikesubsidiaryobjectsareadaptedtotheleft;ineachcaseforaperfectlysufficientreason.Youcan'tupsetallthiswithoutcausingconfusion.Morethanthat,thedivisionoflabourthusbroughtaboutiscertainlyagaintothosewhopossessit:forifitwerenotso,theambidextrousraceswouldhavebeatenthedextro-sinistralsinthestruggleforexistence;whereasweknowthattheexactopposit

ehasbeenthecase.Man'sspecialuseoftherighthandisoneofhispointsofsuperioritytothebrutes.Ifeverhisrighthandshouldforgetitscunning,hissupremacywouldindeedbegintototter.Dependuponit,NatureiswiserthanevenCharlesReade.Whatshefindsmostusefulinthelongrunmustcertainlyhavemanygoodpointstorecommendit.Andthislastconsiderationsuggestsanotheraspectofrightandleftwhichmustnotbepassedoverwithoutonewordinthisbriefsurveyofthephilosophyofthesubject.Thesuperiorityoftherightcauseditearlytoberegardedasthefortunate,lucky,andtrustyhand;theinferiorityoftheleftcauseditequallytobeconsideredasill-omened,unlucky,and,inoneexpressiveword,sinister.



Hencecomeinnumerablephrasesandsuperstitions.Itistherighthandoffriendshipthatwealwaysgrasp;itiswithourownrighthandthatwevindicateourhonouragainstsinistersuspicions.Ontheotherhand,itis'overtheleft'thatwebelieveadoubtfulorincrediblestatement;aleft-handedcomplimentoraleft-handedmarriagecarrytheirowncondemnationwiththem.Ontherighthandofthehostistheseatofhonour;itistotheleftthatthegoatsofecclesiasticalcontroversyareinvariablyrelegated.Theverynotionsoftherighthandandethicalrighthavegotmixedupinextricablyineverylanguage:droitandladroitedisplayitinFrenchasmuchasrightandtherightinEnglish.Buttobegaucheismerelytobeawkwardandclumsy;whiletoberightissomethingfarhigherandmoreimportant.Sounlucky,indeed,doesthelefthandatlastbecomethatmerelytomentionitisanevilomen;andsotheGreeksrefusedtousethetrueoldGreekwordforleftatall,andpreferredeuphemisticallytodescribeitaseuonymos,thewell-namedorhappy-omened.Ourownleftseemsequallytomeanthehandthatisleftaftertherighthasbeenmentioned,or,inshort,theotherone.Manythingswhichareluckyifseenontherightarefatefulomensifseentoleftward.Ontheotherhand,ifyouspillthesalt,youpropitiatedestinybytossingapinchofitovertheleftshoulder.Amurderer'slefthandissaidbygoodauthoritiestobeanexcellentthingtodomagicwith;buthereIcannotspeakfrompersonalexperience.NordoIknowwhythewedding-ringiswornonthelefthand;thoughitissignificant,atanyrate,thatthemarkofslaveryshouldbeputbythemanwithhisownrightupontheinferiormemberoftheweakervessel.Strong-mindedladiesmaygetupanagitationiftheyliketoalterthisgrossinjusticeofthe

centuries.OnecuriousminorapplicationofrightsandleftsistheruleoftheroadasitexistsinEngland.HowitaroseIcan'tsay,anymorethanIcansaywhyaladysitsherside-saddletotheleft.Coachmen,tobesure,arequiteunanimousthattheleftwardrouteenablesthemtoseehowclosetheyarepassingtoanothercarriage;but,asallcontinentalauthorityisequallyconvincedtheotherway,Imakenodoubtthisisamereillusionoflong-continuedcustom.Itiscurious,however,thattheEnglishusage,havingonceobtainedintheseislands,hasinfluencedrailways,notonlyinBritain,butoverallEurope.Trains,likecarriages,gototheleftwhentheypass;andthishabit,quitenaturalinEngland,wastransplantedbytheearlyengineerstotheContinent,whereordinarycarriages,ofcourse,gototheright.InAmerica,tobesure,thetrainsalsogorightlikethecarriages;butthen,thoseAmericanshavesuchacuriouslyun-Englishwayo

fbeingstrictlyconsistentandlogicalintheirdoings.InBritainweshouldhavecompromisedthematterbygoingsometimesonewayandsometimestheother.

EVOLUTIONEverybodynowadaystalksaboutevolution.Likeelectricity,thecholeragerm,woman'srights,thegreatminingboom,andtheEasternQuestion,itis'intheair.'Itpervadessocietyeverywherewithitssubtleessence;itinfectssmall-talkwithitsfamiliarcatchwordsanditsslangphrases;itevenpermeatesthatlaststrongholdoframpantPhilistinism,thethirdleaderinthepennypapers.Everybodybelievesheknowsallaboutit,anddiscussesitasgliblyinhiseverydayconversationashediscussesthepointsofracehorseshehasneverseen,thecharmsofpeeresseshehasneverspokento,andthedemeritsofauthorshehasneverread.Everybodyisaware,inadimandnebuloussemi-consciousfashion,thati

twasallinventedbythelateMr.Darwin,andreducedtoasystembyMr.HerbertSpencer--don'tyouknow?--andalotmoreofthosescientificfellows.Itisgenerallyunderstoodinthebest-informedcirclesthatevolutionismconsistsforthemostpartinabeliefaboutnatureatlargeessentiallysimilartothatappliedbyTopsytoherownoriginandearlyhistory.Itisconceived,inshort,thatmostthings'growed.'Especiallyisitknownthatintheopinionoftheevolutionistsasabodyweareallofusultimatelydescendedfrommenwithtails,whowerethefinaloffspringandimprovededitionofthecommongorilla.That,verybrieflyput,isthepopularconceptionofthevariouspointsinthegreatmodernevolutionaryprogramme.



Itisscarcelynecessarytoinformtheintelligentreader,whoofcoursediffersfundamentallyfromthatinferiorclassofhumanbeingsknowntoallofusinourownmindsas'otherpeople,'thatalmosteverypointinthecataloguethusbrieflyenumeratedisapopularfallacyofthewildestdescription.Mr.DarwindidnotinventevolutionanymorethanGeorgeStephensoninventedthesteam-engine,orMr.Edisontheelectrictelegraph.Wearenotdescendedfrommenwithtails,anymorethanwearedescendedfromIndianelephants.ThereisnoevidencethatwehaveanythinginparticularmorethantheremotestfiftiethcousinshipwithourpoorrelationtheWestAfricangorilla.Scienceisnotinsearchofa'missinglink';fewlinksareanywheremissing,andthoseareforthemostpartwhollyunimportantones.Ifwefoundtheimaginarylinkinquestion,hewouldnotbeamonkey,noryetinanywayatailedman.Andsoforthgenerallythroughthewholelistofpopularbeliefsandcurrentfallaciesastotherealmeaningofevolutionaryteaching.Whatevermostpeoplethinkevolutionaryisforthemostpartapureparodyoftheevolutionist'sopinion.Butamoreseriouserrorthanallthesepervadeswhatwemaycallthedrawing-roomviewoftheevolutionisttheory.SofarasSocietywithabiginitialisconcerned,evolutionismfirstbegantobetalkedabout,andthereforeknown(forSocietydoesnotread;itlistens,orratheritoverhearsandcatchesfragmentaryechoes)whenDarwinpublishedhis'OriginofSpecies.'Thatgreatbookconsistedsimplyofatheoryastothecauseswhichledtothedistinctionsofkindbetweenplantsandanimals.Withevolutionatlargeithadnothingtodo;ittookforgrantedtheoriginofsun,moon,andstars,planetsandcomets,theearthandallthatinitis,theseaandthedryland,themountainsandthevalleys,nayev

enlifeitselfinthecrudeform,everythinginfact,savetheonepointofthevarioustypesandspeciesoflivingbeings.LongbeforeDarwin'sbookappearedevolutionhadbeenarecognisedforceinthemovingworldofscienceandphilosophy.KantandLaplacehadworkedoutthedevelopmentofsunsandearthsfromwhite-hotstar-clouds.Lyellhadworkedouttheevolutionoftheearth'ssurfacetoitspresenthighlycomplexgeographicalcondition.Lamarckhadworkedoutthedescentofplantsandanimalsfromacommonancestorbyslowmodification.HerbertSpencerhadworkedoutthegrowthofmindfromitssimplestbeginningstoitshighestoutcomeinhumanthought.ButSociety,likeGallio,carednothingforallthesethings.Theevolutionaryprincipleshadneverbeenputintoasinglebigbook,askedforatMudie's,andpermittedtolieonthedrawing-roomtablesidebysidewiththelastnewnovelandthelastfatvolumeofscandalouscourtmemoirs.ThereforeSocietyignoredth

emandknewthemnot;thewordevolutionscarcelyenteredatallasyetintoitspoliteandrefineddinner-tablevocabulary.Itrecognisedonlythe'Darwiniantheory,''naturalselection,''themissinglink,'andthebeliefthatmenweremerelymonkeyswhohadlosttheirtails,presumablybysittinguponthem.TotheworldatlargethatlearnedMr.Darwinhadinventedandpatentedtheentirebusiness,includingdescentwithmodification,ifsuchnotionseveroccurredatalltotheworld-at-large'sspeculativeintelligence.Now,evolutionismisreallyathingoffardeepergrowthandolderantecedentsthanthiseasy,superficialdrawing-roomviewwouldleadustoimagine.Itisaveryancientandrespectabletheoryindeed,andithasanimmensevarietyofminordevelopments.Iamnotgoingtopushitback,inthefashionablemodernscientificmanner,tothevagueandindefinitehintsinouroldfriendLucretius.ThegreatoriginalRomanpoet--theonlyoriginalpoetintheLatinlanguage--didind

eedhitoutforhimselfaverygoodroughworkingsketchofasortofnebulousandshapelessevolutionism.Itwasbold,itwasconsistent,foritstimeitwaswonderful.ButLucretius'sphilosophy,likeallthephilosophiesoftheolderworld,wasamerespeculativeidea,afancypictureofthedevelopmentofthings,notdependentuponobservationoffactsatall,butwhollyevolved,liketheGermanthinker'scamel,outofitsauthor'sownpregnantinnerconsciousness.TheRomanpoetwouldnodoubthavebuiltanexcellentsuperstructureifhehadonlypossessedalittlestrawtomakehisbricksof.Asitwas,however,scientificbrick-makingbeingstillinitsinfancy,hecouldonlyconstructinadayashadowyAladdin'spalaceofpurefancifulEpicureanphantasms,animaginaryworldofim



aginaryatoms,fortuitouslyconcurringoutofvoidchaosintoanorderlyuniverse,asthoughbymiracle.Itisnotthusthatsystemsarisewhichregeneratethethoughtofhumanity;hewhowouldbuildforalltimemustmakesurefirstofasolidfoundation,andthenusesoundbricksinplaceoftheairynothingsofmetaphysicalspeculation.ItwasinthelastcenturythattheevolutionaryideareallybegantotakeformandshapeintheseparateconceptionsofKant,Laplace,Lamarck,andErasmusDarwin.Thesewerethetruefoundersofourmodernevolutionism.CharlesDarwinandHerbertSpencerweretheJoshuaswholedthechosenpeopleintothelandwhichmorethanoneventurousMoseshadalreadydimlydescriedafarofffromthePisgahtopoftheeighteenthcentury.KantandLaplacecamefirstintime,asastronomycomesfirstinlogicalorder.Starsandsuns,andplanetsandsatellites,necessarilyprecedeindevelopmentplantsandanimals.Youcanhavenocabbageswithoutaworldtogrowthemin.Thescienceofthestarswasthereforereducedtocomparativesystemandorder,whilethesciencesoflife,andmind,andmatterwerestillahopelessandinextricablemuddle.Itwasnowonder,then,thattheevolutionoftheheavenlybodiesshouldhavebeenclearlyapprehendedanddefinitelyformulatedwhiletheevolutionoftheearth'scrustwasstillimperfectlyunderstood,andtheevolutionoflivingbeingswasonlytentativelyandhypotheticallyhintedatinatimidwhisper.Inthebeginning,saytheastronomicalevolutionists,notonlythisworld,butalltheotherworldsintheuniverse,existedpotentially,asthepoetjustlyremarks,in'ahazeoffluidlight,'avastnebulaofenormousextentandalmostin

conceivablematerialthinness.Theworldaroseoutofasortofprimitiveworld-gruel.Thematterofwhichitwascomposedwasgas,ofsuchanextraordinaryandunimaginablegasinessthatmillionsofcubicmilesofitmighteasilybecompressedintoacommonantibiliouspill-box.Thepill-boxitself,infact,isthenetresultofaprolongedsecularcondensationofmyriadsofsuchenormouscubesofthisprim?valmatter.Slowlysettingaroundcommoncentres,however,inanticipationofSirIsaacNewton'sgravitativetheories,thefluidhazegraduallycollectedintosunsandstars,whoselightandheatispresumablyduetotheclashingtogetheroftheircomponentatomsastheyfallperpetuallytowardsthecentralmass.Justasinaburningcandletheimpactoftheoxygenatomsintheairagainstthecarbonandhydrogenatomsinthemeltedandrarefiedwaxortallowproducesthelightandheatoftheflame,soinnebulaorsuntheimpactofthevariousgravitatingatomsoneagainsttheotherproducesthelightandheatbywhose

aidweareenabledtoseeandknowthosedistantbodies.Theuniverse,accordingtothisnowfashionablenebulartheory,beganasasinglevastoceanofmatterofimmensetenuity,spreadallalikeoverallspaceasfarasnowhere,andcomparativelylittledifferentwithinitselfwhenlookedatsidebysidewithitsownfinalhistoricaloutcome.InMr.Spencer'sperspicuousphrase,evolutioninthisaspectisachangefromthehomogeneoustotheheterogeneous,fromtheincoherenttothecoherent,andfromtheindefinitetothedefinitecondition.Difficultwordsatfirsttoapprehend,nodoubt,andthereforetomanypeople,astoMr.MatthewArnold,veryrepellent,butfullofmeaning,lucidity,andsuggestiveness,ifonlyweoncetakethetroublefairlyandsquarelytounderstandthem.Everysunandeverystarthusformedisforevergatheringinthehemofitsouterrobeuponitself,foreverradiatingoffitslightandheatintosurroundingspace,andforevergrowingdenserandcolderasitsetsslowlytowardsitscent

reofgravity.Ourownsunandsolarsystemmaybetakenasgoodtypicalworkingexamplesofhowthestarsthusconstantlyshrinkintosmallerandeversmallerdimensionsaroundtheirownfixedcentre.Naturally,weknowmoreaboutourownsolarsystemthanaboutanyotherinourownuniverse,anditalsopossessesforusagreaterpracticalandpersonalinterestthananyoutsideportionofthegalaxy.NobodycanpretendtobeprofoundlyimmersedintheinternalaffairsofSiriusorofAlphaCentauri.AfieryrevolutioninthebeltofOrionwouldaffectuslessthanapassingfinger-acheinacertainsingleterrestrialbabyofourownhousehold.ThereforeIshallnotapologiseinanywayforleavingtheremainderofthesiderealuniversetoitsunknownfate,andconcentratingmyattention



mainlyontheaffairsofthatsolitarylittle,out-of-the-way,second-ratesystem,whereofweformaninappreciableportion.Thematterwhichnowcomposesthesunanditsattendantbodies(thesatellitesincluded)wasoncespreadout,accordingtoLaplace,toatleastthefurthestorbitoftheoutermostplanet--thatistosay,sofarasourpresentknowledgegoes,theplanetNeptune.Ofcourse,whenitwasexpandedtothatimmensedistance,itmusthavebeenverythinindeed,thinnerthanourclumsyhumansensescanevenconceiveof.AnAmericanwouldsay,toothin;butIputAmericansoutofcourtatonceasmereirreverentscoffers.FromtheorbitofNeptune,orsomethingoutsideit,thefaintandcloud-likemasswhichborewithinitC?sarandhisfortunes,nottomentiontheremainderoftheearthandthesolarsystem,beganslowlytoconvergeandgatheritselfin,growingdenseranddenserbutsmallerandsmallerasitgraduallyneareditsexistingdimensions.Howlongatimeittooktodoitisforourpresentpurposerelativelyunimportant:thecruelphysicistswillonlyletushaveabeggarlyhundredmillionyearsorsofortheprocess,whilethegraspingandextravagantevolutionarygeologistsbegwithtearsforatleastdoubleorevententimesthatlimitedperiod.Butatanyrateithastakenagoodlongwhile,and,asfarasmostofusarepersonallyconcerned,thedifferenceofoneortwohundredmillions,ifitcomestothat,isnotreallyatallanappreciableone.Asitcondensedandlessenedtowardsitscentralcore,revolvingrapidlyonitsgreataxis,thesolarmistleftbehindatirregularintervalsconcentricringsorbeltsofcloud-likematter,castofffromitsequator;whichbelts,oncemoreundergoingasimilarevolutionontheirownaccount,havehardenedroundtheirprivatecentresofgravityintoJupiterorSaturn,theEarthorVenus.Roundthes

eagain,minorbeltsorringshavesometimesformed,asinSaturn'sgirdleofpettysatellites;orsubsidiaryplanets,thrownoutintospace,havecircledroundtheirownprimaries,asthemoondoesaroundthissublunaryworldofours.Meanwhile,themaincentralmassofall,retreatingeverinwardasitdroppedbehindittheseoccasionallittleremindersofitstemporarystoppages,formedatlastthesunitself,themainluminaryofourentiresystem.Now,Iwon'tdenythatthisprimitiveKantianandLaplacianevolutionism,thisnebulartheoryofsuchexquisiteconcinnity,herereducedtoitssimplesttermsandmostelementarydimensions,hasreceivedmanyhardknocksfromlaterastronomers,andhasbeenagooddealbowledover,bothonmathematicalandastronomicalgrounds,byrecentinvestigatorsofnebul?andmeteors.Observationsoncometsandonthesun'ssurfacehavelatelyshownthatitcontainsinalllikelihoodaveryconsiderablefancifuladmixture.Itisn'tmorethanhalftrue;andeventhehalfnowtottersinpl

aces.Still,asavehicleofpopularexpositionthecrudenebularhypothesisinitsrawestformservesagreatdealbetterthanthetruth,sofarasyetknown,onthegoodoldGreekprincipleofthehalfbeingoftenmorethanthewhole.Thegreatpointwhichitimpressesonthemindisthecardinalideaofthesunandplanets,withtheirattendantsatellites,notasturnedoutlikemanufacturedarticles,readymade,atmeasuredintervals,inavastanddeliberatecelestialOrrery,butasduetotheslowandgradualworkingofnaturallaws,inaccordancewithwhicheachhasassumedbyforceofcircumstancesitsexistingplace,weight,orbit,andmotion.Thegrandconceptionofagradualbecoming,insteadofasuddenmaking,whichKantandLaplacethusappliedtothecomponentbodiesoftheuniverseatlarge,wasfurtherappliedbyLyellandhisschooltotheoutercrustofthisoneparticularpettyplanetofours.Whiletheastronomerswentinfortheevolutionofsun

s,stars,andworlds,Lyellandhisgeologicalbrethrenwentinfortheevolutionoftheearth'ssurface.Astheirswasstellar,sohiswasmundane.Iftheworldbeganbybeingared-hotmassofplanetarymatterinahighstateofinternalexcitement,boilinganddancingwiththeheatofitsemotions,itgraduallycooleddownwithageandexperience,forgrowingoldisgrowingcold,aseveryoneofusintime,alas,discovers.Asitpassedfromitsfieryandvolcanicyouthtoitsstaiderandsoberermiddleage,asolidcrustbegantoforminfilmyfashionuponitscoolingsurface.Theaqueousvapourthathadfloatedatfirstassteamarounditsheatedmasscondensedwithtimeintoawideoceanoverthenowhardenedshell.Graduallythisoceanshifteditsbulkintotwoorthreemainbodies



thatsankintohollowsoftheviscidcrust,theprecursorsofAtlantic,Pacific,andtheIndianSeas.Wrinklingsofthecrust,producedbythecoolingandconsequentcontraction,gaveriseatfirsttobabymountainranges,andafterwardstotheearliestroughdraughtsofthestillveryvagueandsketchycontinents.Theworldgrewdailymorecomplexandmorediverse;itprogressed,inaccordancewiththeSpencerianlaw,fromthehomogeneoustotheheterogeneous,andsoforth,asaforesaid,withdelightfulregularity.Atlast,bylongandgraduatedchanges,seasandlands,peninsulasandislands,lakesandrivers,hillsandmountains,werewroughtoutbyinternalorexternalenergiesonthecrustthusgenerallyfashioned.Evaporationfromtheoceansgaverisetocloudsandrainandhailstorms;thewaterthatfelluponthemountaintopscutoutthevalleysandriverbasins;rillsgatheredintobrooks,brooksintostreams,streamsintoprim?valNiles,andAmazons,andMississippis.VolcanicforcesupliftedhereanAlpinechain,ordepressedthereadeep-seahollow.Sedimentwashedfromthehillsandplains,orformedfromcountlessskeletonsofmarinecreatures,gatheredonthesinkingbedoftheoceanassoftooze,orcrumblingsand,orthickmud,orgravelandconglomerate.Nowupheavedintoanelevatedtable-land,nowslowlycarvedagainbyrainandrillintovalleyandwatershed,andnowworndownoncemoreintothemeredegradedstumpofaplateau,thecrustunderwentinnumerablechanges,butalmostallofthemexactlythesameinkind,andmostlyindegree,asthosewestillseeatworkimperceptiblyintheworldaroundus.Rainwashingdownthesoil;weathercrumblingthesolidrock;wavesdashingatthefootofthecliffs;riversformingdeltasattheirbarredmouths;shinglegatheringonthelowspits;floodssweepingbeforethemthecountryside

;icegrindingceaselesslyatthemountaintop;peatfillinguptheshallowlake--thesearethechieffactorswhichhavegonetomakethephysicalworldaswenowactuallyknowit.Landandsea,coastandcontour,hillandvalley,daleandgorge,earth-sculpturegenerally--allareduetotheceaselessinteractionoftheseseparatelysmallandunnoticeablecauses,aidedorretardedbythesloweffectsofelevationordepressionfromtheearth'sshrinkagetowardsitsowncentre.Geology,inshort,hasshownusthattheworldiswhatitis,notbyvirtueofasinglesuddencreativeact,norbyvirtueofsuccessiveterribleandrecurrentcataclysms,butbyvirtueoftheslowcontinuousactionofcausesstillalwaysequallyoperative.Evolutioningeologyleadsupnaturallytoevolutioninthescienceoflife.Iftheworlditselfgrew,whynotalsotheanimalsandplantsthatinhabitit?Alreadyintheeageractiveeighteenthcenturythisobviousideahadstruckintheg

ermalargenumberofzoologistsandbotanists,andinthehandsofLamarckandErasmusDarwinittookformasadistinctandelaboratesystemoforganicevolution.Buffonhadbeenthefirsttohintatthetruth;butBuffonwasaneminentlyrespectablenoblemaninthedubiousdaysofthetotteringmonarchy,andhedidnotcarepersonallyfortheBastille,viewedasaplaceofpermanentresidence.InLouisQuinze'sFrance,indeed,asthingsthenwent,amanwhooffendedtheorthodoxyoftheSorbonnewaspronetofindhimselfshortlyensconcedinfreequarters,andkeptthereforthetermofhisnaturalexistencewithoutexpensetohisheirsorexecutors.SoBuffondidnotventuretosayoutrightthathethoughtallanimalsandplantsweredescendedonefromtheotherwithslightmodifications;thatwouldhavebeenwicked,andtheSorbonnewouldhaveproveditswickednesstohiminamostconclusivefashionbypromptlygettinghimimprisonedorsilenced.Itissoeasytoconfuteyouropponentwhenyouareahundredstrongand

heisoneweakunit.Buffonmerelysaid,therefore,thatifwedidn'tknowthecontrarytobethecasebysurewarrant,wemighteasilyhaveconcluded(sofallibleisourreason)thatanimalsalwaysvariedslightly,andthatsuchvariations,indefinitelyaccumulated,wouldsufficetoaccountforalmostanyamountofultimatedifference.Adonkeymightthushavegrownintoahorse,andabirdmighthavedevelopedfromaprimitivelizard.Onlyweknowitwasquiteotherwise!AquiethintfromBuffonwasasgoodasadeclarationfrommanylessknowingorsuggestivepeople.AlloverEurope,thewisetookBuffon'shintforwhathemeantit;andtheunwiseblandlypasseditbyasamerepassinglittlefoolishvagaryofthatgreatironicalwriterandthinker.



ErasmusDarwin,thegrandfatherofhisgrandson,wasnofool;onthecontrary,hewasthemostfar-sightedmanofhisdayinEngland;hesawatoncewhatBuffonwasdrivingat;andheworkedout'Mr.Buffon's'half-concealedhinttoallitsnaturalandlegitimateconclusions.ThegreatCountwasalwaysplainMr.BuffontohisEnglishcontemporary.Life,saidErasmusDarwinnearlyacenturysince,beganinveryminutemarineforms,whichgraduallyacquiredfreshpowersandlargerbodies,soasimperceptiblytotransformthemselvesintodifferentcreatures.Man,heremarked,anticipatinghisdescendant,takesrabbitsorpigeons,andaltersthemalmosttohisownfancy,byimmenselychangingtheirshapesandcolours.Ifmancanmakeapouterorafantailoutofthecommonrunt,ifhecanproduceapiebaldlop-earfromthebrownwildrabbit,ifhecantransformDorkingsintoBlackSpanish,whycannotNature,withlongertimetoworkin,andendlesslivestotrywith,produceallthevarietiesofvertebrateanimalsoutofonesinglecommonancestor?ItwasaboldideaoftheLichfielddoctor--bold,atleast,forthetimeshelivedin--whenSamJohnsonwasheldamightysage,andphysicalspeculationwasregardedaskanceashavinginitadangeroustouchofthedevil.ButtheDarwinswerealwaysaboldfolk,andhadthecourageoftheiropinionsmorethanmostmen.SoeveninLichfield,cathedralcityasitwas,andinthepolitelysomnolenteighteenthcentury,ErasmusDarwinventuredtopointouttheprobabilitythatquadrupeds,birds,reptiles,andmenwereallmeredivergentdescendantsofasinglesimilaroriginalform,andeventhat'oneandthesamekindoflivingfilamentis,andhasbeen,thecauseoforganiclife.'Theeighteenthcenturylaughed,ofcourse.Italwayslaughedatallreformers.ItsaidDr.Darwinwasveryclever,butreallyamosteccentricman.His'Temple

ofNature,'now,andhis'BotanicGarden,'werevastlyfineandcharmingpoems--thosesweetlines,youknow,aboutpoorEliza!--buthiszoologicaltheorieswerebuiltofcourseuponamostabsurdanduncertainfoundation.Inprose,nosensiblepersoncouldevertakethedoctorseriously.Afreakofgenius--nothingmore;ameredesiretoseemcleverandsingular.ButwhataNemesisthewhirligigoftimehasbroughtaroundwithit!Byastrangeironyoffate,thoseadmiredversesarenowalmostentirelyforgotten;poorElizahassurvivedonlyasourawfulexampleofartificialpathos;andthezoologicalheresies,atwhichtheeighteenthcenturyshruggeditsfatshouldersanddimpledthecornersofitsamplemouth,havegrowntobethechiefcornerstoneofallacceptedmodernzoologicalscience.Inthefirstyearofthepresentcentury,LamarckfollowedErasmusDarwin'sleadwithanopenavowalthatinhisbeliefallanimalsandplantswerereallydesce

ndedfromoneorafewcommonancestors.Heheldthatorganismswerejustasmuchtheresultoflaw,notofmiraculousinterposition,assunsandworldsandallthenaturalphenomenaaroundusgenerally.Hesawthatwhatnaturalistscallaspeciesdiffersfromwhatnaturalistscallavariety,merelyinthewayofbeingalittlemoredistinctlymarked,alittlelesslikeitsnearestcongenerselsewhere.Herecognisedtheperfectgradationofformsbywhichinmanycasesonespeciesafteranothermergesintothenextoneithersideofit.Heobservedtheanalogybetweenthemodificationsinducedbymanandthemodificationsinducedbynature.Infact,hewasathorough-goingandconvincedevolutionist,holdingeverysalientopinionwhichSocietystillbelievestohavebeenduetotheworksofCharlesDarwin.Inonepointonly,aminorpointtooutsiders,thoughapointofcardinalimportancetotheinnerbrotherhoodofevolutionism,hedidnotanticipatehismorefamoussuccessor.Hethoughtorganicevolutionwaswhollydueto

thedirectactionofsurroundingcircumstances,totheintercrossingofexistingforms,andabovealltotheactualeffortsofanimalsthemselves.Inotherwords,hehadnotdiscoverednaturalselection,thecardinalideaofCharlesDarwin'sepoch-makingbook.Forhim,thegiraffehadacquireditslongneckbyconstantreachinguptotheboughsoftrees;themonkeyhadacquireditsopposablethumbbyconstantgraspingattheneighbouringbranches;andtheserpenthadacquireditssinuousshapebyconstantwrigglingthroughthegrassofthemeadows.CharlesDarwinimproveduponallthatbyhissuggestivehintofsurvivalofthefittest,andinsofar,butinsofaralone,hebecametherealfatherofmodernbiologicalevolutionism.



FromthedaysofLamarck,tothedaywhenCharlesDarwinhimselfpublishedhiswonderful'OriginofSpecies,'thisideathatplantsandanimalsmightreallyhavegrown,insteadofhavingbeenmadeallofapiece,keptbrewingeverywhereinthemindsandbrainsofscientificthinkers.ThenotionswhichtotheoutsidepublicwerestartlinglynewwhenDarwin'sbooktooktheworldbystorm,wereoldindeedtothethinkersandworkerswhohadlongbeenfamiliarwiththeprincipleofdescentwithmodificationandthespeculationsoftheLichfielddoctorortheParisphilosopher.LongbeforeDarwinwrotehisgreatwork,HerbertSpencerhadputforthinplainlanguageeveryideawhichthedrawing-roombiologistsattributedtoDarwin.Thesupportersofthedevelopmenthypothesis,hesaidsevenyearsearlier--yes,hecalleditthe'developmenthypothesis'insomanywords--'canshowthatmodificationhaseffectedandiseffectinggreatchangesinallorganisms,subjecttomodifyinginfluences.'Theycanshow,hegoeson(ifImayventuretocondensesogreatathinker),thatanyexistingplantoranimal,placedundernewconditions,beginstoundergoadaptivechangesofformandstructure;thatinsuccessivegenerationsthesechangescontinue,tilltheplantoranimalacquirestotallynewhabits;thatincultivatedplantsanddomesticatedanimalschangesofthesorthabituallyoccur;thatthedifferencesthuscaused,asforexampleindogs,areoftengreaterthanthoseonwhichspeciesinthewildstatearefounded,andthatthroughoutallorganicnaturethereisatworkamodifyinginfluenceofthesamesortasthatwhichtheybelievedtohavecausedthedifferencesofspecies--'aninfluencewhich,toallappearance,wouldproduceinthemillionsofyearsandunderthegreatvarietyofconditionswhichgeologicalrecordsimply,anyamountofchange.'WhatisthisbutpureDarwinism,asthedrawin

g-roomphilosopherstillunderstandstheword?AndyetitwaswrittensevenyearsbeforeDarwinpublishedthe'OriginofSpecies.'Thefactis,onemightdrawupquitealonglistofDarwiniansbeforeDarwin.Hereareafewofthem--Buffon,Lamarck,Goethe,Oken,Bates,Wallace,Lecoq,VonBaer,RobertChambers,Matthew,andHerbertSpencer.Dependuponit,noonemaneveryetofhimselfdiscoveredanything.AswellsaythatLuthermadetheGermanReformation,thatLionardomadetheItalianRenaissance,orthatRobespierremadetheFrenchRevolution,assaythatCharlesDarwin,andCharlesDarwinalone,madetheevolutionarymovement,evenintherestrictedfieldoflifeonly.Athousandpredecessorsworkeduptowardshim;athousandcontemporarieshelpedtodiffuseandtoconfirmhisvariousprinciples.CharlesDarwinaddedtotheprimitiveevolutionaryideathespecialnotionofnaturalselection.Thatistosay,hepointedoutthatwhileplantsandanimalsva

ryperpetuallyandvaryindefinitely,allthevarietiessoproducedarenotequallyadaptedtothecircumstancesofthespecies.Ifthevariationisabadone,ittendstodieout,becauseeverypointofdisadvantagetellsagainsttheindividualinthestruggleforlife.Ifthevariationisagoodone,ittendstopersist,becauseeverypointofadvantagesimilarlytellsintheindividual'sfavourinthatceaselessandviewlessbattle.Itwasthisadditiontotheevolutionaryconcept,fortifiedbyDarwin'spowerfuladvocacyofthegeneralprincipleofdescentwithmodification,thatwonoverthewholeworldtothe'Darwiniantheory.'BeforeDarwin,manymenofsciencewereevolutionists:afterDarwin,allmenofsciencebecamesoatonce,andtherestoftheworldisrapidlypreparingtofollowtheirleadership.Asappliedtolife,then,theevolutionaryideaisbrieflythis--thatplantsandanimalshaveallanaturaloriginfromasingleprimitivelivingcreature,whic

hitselfwastheproductoflightandheatactingonthespecialchemicalconstituentsofanancientocean.Startingfromthatsingleearlyform,theyhavegoneondevelopingeversince,fromthehomogeneoustotheheterogeneous,assumingevermorevariedshapes,tillatlasttheyhavereachedtheirpresentenormousvarietyoftree,andshrub,andherb,andseaweed,ofbeast,andbird,andfish,andcreepinginsect.Evolutionthroughouthasbeenoneandcontinuous,fromnebulatosun,fromgas-cloudtoplanet,fromearlyjelly-specktomanorelephant.Soatleastevolutionistssay--andofcoursetheyoughttoknowmostaboutit.Butevolution,accordingtotheevolutionists,doesnotevenstophere.Psychologyaswellasbiologyhasalsoitsevolutionaryexplanation:mindisconcerneda



strulyasmatter.Ifthebodiesofanimalsareevolved,theirmindsmustbeevolvedlikewise.HerbertSpencerandhisfollowershavebeenmainlyinstrumentalinelucidatingthisaspectofthecase.Theyhaveshown,ortheyhavetriedtoshow(forIdon'twanttodogmatiseonthesubject),howmindisgraduallybuiltupfromthesimplestrawelementsofsenseandfeeling;howemotionsandintellectslowlyarise;howtheactionoftheenvironmentontheorganismbegetsanervoussystemofevergreaterandgreatercomplexity,culminatingatlastinthebrainofaNewton,aShakespeare,oraMendelssohn.Stepbystep,nerveshavebuiltthemselvesupoutofthesofttissuesaschannelsofcommunicationbetweenpartandpart.Sense-organsofextremesimplicityhavefirstbeenformedontheoutsideofthebody,whereitcomesmostintocontactwithexternalnature.Useandwonthavefashionedthemthroughlongagesintoorgansoftasteandsmellandtouch;pigmentspots,sensitivetolightorshade,havegrownbyinfinitegradationsintothehumaneyeorintothemyriadfacetsofbeeandbeetle;tremulousnerve-ends,responsivesympatheticallytowavesofsound,havetunedthemselvesatlastintoaperfectgamutinthedevelopedearofmenandmammals.Meanwhilecorrespondingpercipientcentreshavegrownupinthebrain,sothatthecolouredpictureflashedbyanexternalsceneupontheeyeistelegraphedfromthesensitivemirroroftheretina,throughthemany-strandedcableoftheopticnerve,straightuptotheappropriateheadquartersinthethinkingbrain.Stagebystagethecontinuousprocesshasgoneonunceasingly,fromthejelly-fishwithitstinyblackspecksofeyes,throughinfinitestepsofprogression,inducedbyever-wideningintercoursewiththeouterworld,tothefinaloutcomeinthesensesandtheemotions,theintellectandthewill,ofcivilisedman.Mindbeginsasavag

ueconsciousnessoftouchorpressureonthepartofsomeprimitive,shapeless,softcreature:itendsasanorganisedandco-ordinatedreflectionoftheentirephysicalandpsychicaluniverseonthepartofagreatcosmicalphilosopher.Lastofall,likediners-outatdessert,theevolutioniststaketopolitics.Havingshownusentirelytotheirownsatisfactionthegrowthofsuns,andsystems,andworlds,andcontinents,andoceans,andplants,andanimals,andminds,theyproceedtoshowustheexactlyanalogousandparallelgrowthofcommunities,andnations,andlanguages,andreligions,andcustoms,andarts,andinstitutions,andliteratures.Man,theevolvingsavage,asTylor,Lubbock,andothershaveprovedforus,slowlyputtingoffhisbruteaspectderivedfromhisearlyape-likeancestors,learnedbyinfinitesimaldegreestheuseoffire,themodeofmanufacturingstonehatchetsandflintarrowheads,theearliestbeginningsoftheartofpottery.WithdrillorflinthebecamethePrometheustohisownsmallhea

pofsticksanddryleavesamongthetertiaryforests.Byhisnightlycamp-firehebeatoutgraduallyhisexcitedgesture-languageandhisoralspeech.Hetamedthedog,thehorse,thecow,thecamel.Hetaughthimselftohewsmallclearingsinthewoodland,andtoplantthebanana,theyam,thebread-fruit,andthecoco-nut.Hepickedandimprovedtheseedsofhiswildcerealstillhemadehimselffromgrass-likegrainshisbarley,hisoats,hiswheat,hisIndiancorn.Intime,hedugoutorefrommines,andlearnttheusefirstofgold,nextofsilver,thenofcopper,tin,bronze,andiron.Sidebysidewiththeselongsecularchanges,heevolvedthefamily,communalorpatriarchal,polygamicormonogamous.Hebuiltthehut,thehouse,andthepalace.Heclothedoradornedhimselffirstinskinsandleavesandfeathers;nextinwovenwoolandfibre;lastofallinpurpleandfinelinen,andfaredsumptuouslyeveryday.Hegatheredintohordes,tribes,andnations;hechosehimselfaking,gavehimselflaws,andbuiltupgr

eatempiresinEgypt,Assyria,China,andPeru.Heraisedhimaltars,StonehengesandKarnaks.Hispicture-writinggrewintohieroglyphsandcuneiforms,andfinallyemerged,byimperceptiblesteps,intoalphabeticsymbols,therawmaterialoftheartofprinting.Hisdug-outcanoeculminatesintheiron-cladandthe'GreatEastern';hisboomerangandslingstoneintheWoolwichinfant;hisboilingpipkinandhiswheeledcarinthelocomotiveengine;hispicture-messageinthetelephoneandtheAtlanticcable.Here,wherethecourseofevolutionhasreallybeenmostmarvellous,itsstepshavebeenallmoredistinctlyhistorical;sothatnobodynowdoubtsthetruedescentofItalian,French,andSpanishfromprovincialLatin,orthesuccessivegrowthofthetrireme,the'GreatHarry,'the'Vi



ctory,'andthe'Minotaur'fromthecoraclesorprausofprehistoricantiquity.Thegrandconceptionoftheuniformoriginanddevelopmentofallthings,earthlyorsidereal,thussummedupforusintheonewordevolution,belongsbyrightneithertoCharlesDarwinnortoanyothersinglethinker.Itisthejointproductofinnumerableworkers,allworkingup,thoughsomeofthemunconsciously,towardsagrandfinalunifiedphilosophyofthecosmos.Inastronomy,Kant,Laplace,andtheHerschels;ingeology,Hutton,Lyell,andtheGeikies;inbiology,Buffon,Lamarck,theDarwins,Huxley,andSpencer;inpsychology,Spencer,Romanes,Sully,andRibot;insociology,Spencer,Tylor,Lubbock,andDeMortillet--thesehavebeenthechiefevolutionaryteachersanddiscoverers.Buttheuseofthewordevolutionitself,andtheestablishmentofthegeneralevolutionarytheoryasasystemofphilosophyapplicabletotheentireuniverse,weowetoonemanalone--HerbertSpencer.Manyotherminds--fromGalileoandCopernicus,fromKeplerandNewton,fromLinn?usandTournefort,fromD'AlembertandDiderot,nay,even,inasense,fromAristotleandLucretius--hadbeenpilingtogetherthevastcollectionofrawmaterialfromwhichthatgreatandstatelysuperstructurewastobefinallyedified.Butthearchitectwhoplacedeachblockinitsproperniche,whoplannedanddesignedthewholeelevation,whoplantedthebuildingfirmlyontherockandpoisedthecoping-stoneonthetopmostpinnacle,wastheauthorofthe'SystemofSyntheticPhilosophy,'andnoneother.Itisastrangeproofofhowlittlepeopleknowabouttheirownideas,thatamongthethousandswhotalkgliblyeverydayofevolution,nottenpercent.areprobablyawarethatbothwordandconceptionarealikeduetothecommandingintelligenceandvastgeneralisingpowerofHerbertSpencer.

STRICTLYINCOG.AmongthereefsofrockupontheAustraliancoast,anexplorer'sdredgeoftenbringsuptothesurfacesometangledtressesofreddishseaweed,which,whenplacedforawhileinabucketofwater,beginslowlytouncoilthemselvesasifendowedwithanimallife,andfinallytoswimaboutwithagentletremulousmotioninamuteinquiringwayfromsidetosideofthepailthatcontainsthem.Lookedatcloselywithanattentiveeye,thecomplexmovingmassgraduallyresolvesitselfintotwoparts:onearuddyseaweedwithlongstreamingfronds;theother,astrangelymisshapenanddishevelledpipe-fish,exactlyimitatingtheweeditselfinformandcolour.Whenremovedfromthewater,thisqueerpipe-fishprovesingeneraloutlinesomewhattoresemblethewell-knownhippocampusorsea-horseoftheaquariums,whosedriedremains,inamummifiedstate,formastandingwon

derinmanytinydomesticmuseums.ButtheAustralianspecies,insteadofmerelymimickingtheknightonachess-board,looksratherlikeahippocampusinthemostadvancedstageoflunacy,withitstailandfinsandtheappendagesofitsspinesflattenedoutintolongthinstreamingfilaments,utterlyindistinguishableinhueandshapefromthefucusroundwhichthecreatureclingsforsupportwithitsprehensiletail.Onlyarudeandshapelessroughdraughtofahead,vaguelyhorse-likeincontour,andinconspicuouslyprovidedwithanunobtrusivesnoutandapairofveryunnoticeableeyes,atallsuggeststothemostmicroscopicobserveritsanimalnature.Takenasawhole,nobodycouldatfirstsightdistinguishitinanywayfromthewavingweedamongwhichitvegetates.Clearly,thiscuriousAustraliancousinoftheMediterraneansea-horseshasacquiredsomarvellousaresemblancetoabitoffucusinordertodeceivetheeyesofitsever-watchfulenemies,andtobecomeindistinguishablefromtheuneatable

weedwhosecolourandformitsosurprisinglyimitates.Protectiveresemblancesofthesortareextremelycommonamongthepipe-fishfamily,andthereasonwhytheyshouldbesoisnodoubtsufficientlyobviousatfirstsighttoanyreflectingmind--such,forexample,astheintelligentreader's.Pipe-fish,aseverybodyknows,arefarfromgiddy.Theydonotswiminthevortexofpiscinedissipation.Beingmostlysmallanddefencelesscreatures,lurkingamongthemarinevegetationoftheshoalsandreefs,theyareusuallyaccustomedtoclingforsupportbytheirsnake-liketailstothestalksorleavesofthosesubmergedforests.Theomniscientschoolboymustoftenhavewatchedinaquariumsthehabitsandmannersofthecommonsea-horses,twistedtogetherbytheirlongthinbodiesintoon



einextricablemassoflivingmatwork,oranchoredfirmlywithatrebleserpentinecoiltosomeprojectingbranchofcorallineorofquiveringsea-wrack.Badswimmersbynature,utterlyunarmed,andwhollyundefendedbyprotectivemail,thepipe-fishgenerallycanneitherfightnorrunaway:andthereforetheydependentirelyfortheirlivesupontheirpeculiarskulkingandlurkinghabits.Theironemodeofdefenceisnottoshowthemselves;discretionisthebetterpartoftheirvalour;theyhideasmuchaspossibleamongthethickestseaweed,andtrusttoProvidencetoescapeobservation.Now,withanyanimalsthusconstituted,cowardsbyhereditarypredilection,itmustnecessarilyhappenthatthemorebrightlycolouredorobtrusiveindividualswillmostreadilybespottedandmostunceremoniouslydevouredbytheirsharp-sightedfoes,thepredatoryfishes.Ontheotherhand,justinproportionasanyparticularpipe-fishhappenstodisplayanychanceresemblanceincolourorappearancetothespecialseaweedinwhosefoldsitlurks,tothatextentwillitbelikelytoescapedetection,andtohandonitspeculiaritiestoitsfuturedescendants.Along-continuedcourseofthesimpleprocessthusroughlydescribedmustofnecessityresultatlastintheeliminationofallthemostconspicuouspipe-fish,andthesurvivalofallthoseunobtrusiveandretiringindividualswhichinanyrespecthappentoresemblethefucusorcorallineamongwhichtheydwell.Hence,inmanyplaces,variouskindsofpipe-fishexhibitanextraordinaryamountofimitativelikenesstothesargassoorseaweedtowhosetagstheycling;andinthethreemosthighlydevelopedAustralianspeciesthelikenessbecomessoridiculouslyclosethatitiswithdifficultyonecanpersuadeoneselfoneisreallyandtrulylookingatafish,andnotatapieceofstrangelyanimatedand

locomotivefucus.Ofcourse,theplayfulpipe-fishisbynomeansaloneinhisassumptionofsoneatandeffectiveadisguise.Protectiveresemblancesofjustthesamesortasthatthusexhibitedbythisextraordinarylittlecreaturearecommonthroughoutthewholerangeofnature;instancesaretobefoundinabundance,notonlyamongbeasts,birds,reptiles,andfishes,butevenamongcaterpillars,butterflies,andspiders,ofspecieswhichpreservethestrictestincognito.Everywhereintheworld,animalsandplantsareperpetuallymasqueradinginvariousassumedcharacters;andsometimestheirmake-upissoexceedinglygoodastotakeinforawhilenotmerelytheuninstructedordinaryobserver,buteventhescientificandsystematicnaturalist.Afewselectedinstancesofsuchsuccessfulmasqueradingwillperhapsbestservetointroducethegeneralprinciplesuponwhichallanimalmimicryultimatelyde

pends.Indeed,naturalistsoflateyearshavebeenlargelyemployedinfishingupexamplesfromtheendsoftheearthandfromthedepthsoftheseafortheelucidationofthisverysubject.ThereisacertainbutterflyintheislandsoftheMalayArchipelago(itslearnedname,ifanybodywishestobeformallyintroduced,is_Kallimaparalekta_)whichalwaysrestsamongdeadordryleaves,andhasitselfleaf-likewings,allspottedoveratintervalswithweespecklestoimitatethetinyspotsoffungionthefoliageitresembles.Thewell-knownstickandleafinsectsfromthesamerichneighbourhoodinlikemannerexactlymimicthetwigsandleavesoftheforestamongwhichtheylurk:someofthemlookforalltheworldlikelittlebitsofwalkingbamboo,whileothersappearinallvarietiesofhue,asifopeningbudsandfull-blownleavesandpiecesofyellowfoliagesprinkledwiththetintsandmouldsofdecayhadofasuddenraisedthemselveserectuponsixlegs,andbegunincontinentlytoperambulatetheMalayanwoodlan

dslikevegetableFrankensteinsinalltheirglory.Thelarvaofonesuchdeceptiveinsect,observedinNicaraguabysharp-eyedMr.Belt,appearedatfirstsightlikeamerefragmentofthemossonwhichitrested,itsbodybeingallprolongedintolittlethread-likegreenfilaments,preciselyimitatingthefoliagearoundit.Oncemore,therearecommonflieswhichsecureprotectionforthemselvesbygrowingintothecounterfeitpresentmentofwaspsorhornets,andsoobtainingimmunityfromtheattacksofbirdsoranimals.Manyofthesecuriouslymimeticinsectsarebandedwithyellowandblackintheveryimageoftheirstingingoriginals,andhavetheirtailssharpened,interrorem,intoapretendedsting,togivepointandverisimilitudetothedeceptiveresemblance.Morecuriousstill



,certainSouthAmericanbutterfliesofaperfectlyinoffensiveandediblefamilymimicineveryspotandlineofcoloursundryotherbutterfliesofanutterlyunrelatedandfundamentallydissimilartype,butofsodisagreeableatasteasnevertobeeatenbybirdsorlizards.TheoriginofthesecuriousresemblancesIshallendeavourtoexplain(afterMessrs.BatesandWallace)alittlefartheron:forthepresentitisenoughtoobservethattheextraordinaryresemblancesthusproducedhaveoftendeceivedtheveryelect,andhavecausedexperiencednaturalistsforatimetosticksomedeceptivespecimenofaflyamongthewaspsandhornets,orsomemasqueradingcricketintothemidstofacabinetfullofsaw-fliesorichneumons.Letuslookbrieflyattheotherinstancesofprotectivecolorationinnaturegenerallywhichleaduptothesefinalbizarreexemplificationsofthemasqueradingtendency.Whereveralltheworldaroundisremarkablyuniformincolourandappearance,alltheanimals,birds,andinsectsalikenecessarilydisguisethemselvesinitsprevailingtinttoescapeobservation.Itdoesnotmatterintheleastwhethertheyarepredatoryordefenceless,thehuntersorthehunted:iftheyaretoescapedestructionorstarvation,asthecasemaybe,theymustassumethehueofalltherestofnatureaboutthem.Inthearcticsnows,forexample,allanimals,withoutexception,mustneedsbesnow-white.Thepolarbear,ifhewerebrownorblack,wouldimmediatelybeobservedamongtheunvariedice-fieldsbyhisexpectedprey,andcouldnevergetachanceofapproachinghisquarryunperceivedatclosequarters.Ontheotherhand,thearcticharemustequallybedressedinasnow-whitecoat,orthearcticfoxwouldtooreadilydiscoverhimandpouncedown

uponhimoff-hand;while,conversely,thefoxhimself,ifredorbrown,couldnevercreepupontheunwaryharewithoutpreviousdetection,whichwoulddefeathispurpose.Forthisreason,theptarmiganandthewillowgrousebecomeaswhiteinwinterasthevastsnow-fieldsunderwhichtheyburrow;theerminechangeshisduskysummercoatfortheexpensivewintrysuitbelovedofBritishThemis;thesnow-buntingacquireshismilk-whiteplumage;andeventheweaselassimilateshimselfmoreorlessinhuetotheunvaryinggarbofarcticnature.Tobeoutofthefashionistherequiteliterallytobeoutoftheworld:nohalf-measureswillsuitthesterndecreeofpolarbiology;strictcompliancewiththelawofwinterchangeisabsolutelynecessarytosuccessinthestruggleforexistence.Now,howhasthiscuriousuniformityofdressinarcticanimalsbeenbroughtabout?Why,simplybythatunyieldingprincipleofNaturewhichcondemnsthelessadaptedforevertoextinction,andexaltsthebetteradaptedtothehighplaces

ofherhierarchyintheirstead.Theptarmiganandthesnow-buntingsthatlookmostlikethesnowhaveforagesbeenleastlikelytoattracttheunfavourableattentionofarcticfoxorprowlingermine;thefoxorerminethatcamemostsilentlyandmostunperceivedacrosstheshiftingdriftshasbeenmostlikelytostealunawaresupontheheedlessflocksofptarmiganandsnow-bunting.Intheonecaseprotectivecolouringpreservestheanimalfromhimselfbeingdevoured;intheothercaseitenableshimthemoreeasilytodevourothers.Andsince'Eatorbeeaten'istheshrillsentenceofNatureuponallanimallife,thefinalresultistheunbrokenwhitenessofthearcticfaunainallitsdevelopmentsoffurorfeather.Wherethecolouringofnatureisabsolutelyuniform,asamongthearcticsnowsorthechillymountaintops,thecolouringoftheanimalsisuniformtoo.Whereitisslightlydiversifiedfrompointtopoint,asinthesandsofthedesert,th

eanimalsthatimitateitarespeckledordiversifiedwithvarioussoftneutraltints.Allthebirds,reptiles,andinsectsofSahara,saysCanonTristram,copycloselythegreyorisabellinecolouroftheboundlesssandsthatstretcharoundthem.LordGeorgeCampbell,inhisamusing'LogLettersfromthe"Challenger,"'mentionsabutterflyontheshoreatAmboynawhichlookedexactlylikeabitofthebeach,untilitspreaditswingsandflutteredawaygailytoleeward.Solesandotherflat-fishsimilarlyresemblethesandsorbanksonwhichtheylie,andaccommodatethemselvesspecificallytotheparticularcolouroftheirspecialbottom.Thustheflounderimitatesthemuddybarsatthemouthsofrivers,wherehelovestohalfburyhimselfinthecongenialooze;thesole,whoratheraffe



ctscleanhardsand-banks,issimplysandyandspeckledwithgrey;theplaice,whogoesinbypreferenceforabedofmixedpebbles,hasredandyellowspotsscatteredupanddownirregularlyamongthebrown,tolookasmuchaspossiblelikeagatesandcarnelians:thebrill,whohugsastillrougherledge,hasgonesofarastoacquireraisedlumpsortuberclesonhisuppersurface,whichmakehimseemlikeamerebitoftheshingle-strewnrockonwhichhereposes.Inshort,wheretheenvironmentismostuniformthecolouringfollowssuit:justinproportionastheenvironmentvariesfromplacetoplace,thecolouringmustvaryinordertosimulateit.Thereisadeepbiologicaljoyintheterm'environment';italmostrivalsthewell-knownconsolatorypropertiesofthatsweetword'Mesopotamia.''Surroundings,'perhaps,wouldequallywellexpressthemeaning,butthen,asMr.Wordsworthjustlyobserves,'thedifferencetome!'BetweenEnglandandtheWestIndies,aboutthetimewhenonebeginstorecoverfromthefirstboutofsea-sickness,wecomeuponacertainsluggishtractofocean,uninvadedbyeitherGulfStreamorarcticcurrent,butslowlystagnatinginasortofendlesseddyofitsown,andknowntosailorsandbooksofphysicalgeographyastheSargassoSea.Thesargassoorfloatingseaweedfromwhichittakesitspoeticalnameisaprettyyellowrootlessalga,swimminginvastquantitiesonthesurfaceofthewater,andcoveredwithtinybladder-likebodieswhichatfirstsightmighteasilybemistakenforamberberries.Ifyoudropabucketovertheship'ssideandpullupatangledmassofthisbeautifulseaweed,itwillseematfirsttobeallplantalike;but,whenyoucometoexamineitstanglesclosely,youwillfindthatitsimplyswarmswithtinycrabs,fishes,andshrimps,allcolouredsopreciselytoshadethattheylookexactlylikethesargasso

itself.Herethecolouraboutislessuniformthaninthearcticsnows,but,sofarasthesargasso-hauntinganimalsareconcerned,itcomesprettymuchtothesamething.Thefloatingmassofweedistheirwholeworld,andtheyhavehadtoaccommodatethemselvestoitstawnyhueunderpainofdeath,immediateandviolent.Caterpillarsandbutterfliesoftenshowusafurtherstepinadvanceinthedirectionofminuteimitationofordinarysurroundings.Dr.Weismannhaspublishedaverylongandlearnedmemoir,fraughtwiththebestGermaneruditionandprolixity,uponthishighlyinterestingandobscuresubject.AsEnglishreaders,however,notunnaturallyobjecttotrudgingthroughastoutvolumeonthelarvaofthesphinxmoth,conceivedinthespiritofthosepatriarchalagesofHilpaandShalum,whenmanlivedtoninehundredandninety-nineyears,anddevotedastraycenturyorsowithoutstinttotheworkofeducation,Ishallnotreferthemto

Dr.Weismann'soriginaltreatise,aswelltranslatedandstillfurtherenlargedbyMr.RaphaelMeldola,butwillpresenttheminsteadwithabrief_r¨¦sum¨¦_,boileddwnandcondensedintoapatentroyalelixiroflearning.Yourcaterpillar,then,runsmanyseriousrisksinearlylifefromtheannoyingpersistenceofsundryevil-disposedbirds,whoinsistatinconvenienttimesinpickinghimofftheleavesofgooseberrybushesandotherhischosenplacesofresidence.Hisinfantmortality,indeed,issomethingsimplyappalling,anditisonlybylayingtheeggsthatproducehiminenormousquantitiesthathisfondmotherthebutterflyeversucceedsinrearingonanaveragetwoofherbroodtoreplacetheimagogenerationjustdeparted.Accordingly,thecaterpillarhasbeenforcedbyadversecircumstancestoassumethemostridiculousandimpossibledisguises,appearingnowintheshapeofaleaforstem,nowasabundleofdark-greenpineneedles,andnowagainasabudorflower,allfortheinnocentpurposeofconcealinghiswher

eaboutsfromtheinquisitivegazeofthebirdshisenemies.Whenthecaterpillarlivesonaplantlikeagrass,theribsorveinsofwhichrunupanddownlongitudinally,heisusuallystripedorstreakedwithdarkerlinesinthesamedirectionasthoseonhisnativefoliage.When,onthecontrary,helivesuponbroaderleaves,providedwithamidribandbranchingveins,hisstripesandstreaks(nottobeoutofthefashion)runtransverselyandobliquely,atexactlythesameangleasthoseofhiswontedfood-plant.Veryoften,ifyoutakeagreencaterpillarofthissortawayfromhisnaturalsurroundings,youwillbesurprisedattheconspicuousnessofhispalelilacormauvemarkings;surely,youwillthinktoyourself,suchverydistinctvariegationasthatmustbet



rayhiminstantlytohiswatchfulenemies.Butno;ifyoureplacehimgentlywhereyoufirstfoundhim,youwillseethatthelinesexactlyharmonisewiththejointsandshadingofhisnativeleaf:theyaredelicaterepresentationsofthesoftshadowcastbyariborvein,andthelocalcolourispreciselywhatapainterwouldhavehadtouseinordertoproducethecorrespondingeffect.Theshadowofyellowishgreenis,ofcourse,alwayspurplishorlilac.Itmayatfirstsightseemsurprisingthatacaterpillarshouldpossesssomuchartisticsenseanddexterity;butthenthepenaltyforbunglingorinharmoniousworkissoverysevereasnecessarilytostimulatehisimitativegenius.Birdsareforeverhuntinghimdownamongthegreenleaves,andonlythosecaterpillarswhicheffectuallydeceivethembytheiradmirableimitationscaneverhopetosurviveandbecomethebutterflieswhohandontheirlarvalpeculiaritiestoafterages.NeedIaddthatthevariationsare,ofcourse,unconscious,andthataccidentinthefirstplaceisultimatelyanswerableforeachfreshstepinthedirectionofstillclosersimulation?Thegeometricmothshavebrowncaterpillars,whichgenerallystanderectwhenatrestonthebranchesoftreesandsoresemblesmalltwigs;and,inorderthattheresemblancemaybethemorestriking,theyareoftencoveredwithtinywartswhichlooklikebudsorknotsuponthesurface.Thelarvaofthatfamiliarandmuch-dreadedinsect,thedeath's-headhawk-moth,feedsasaruleonthefoliageofthepotato,anditsveryvariedcolouring,asSirJohnLubbockhaspointedout,sobeautifullyharmoniseswiththebrownoftheearth,theyellowandgreenoftheleaves,andthefaintpurplishblueoftheluridflowers,thatitcanonlybedistinguishedwhentheeyehappensaccidentallytofocusitselfexactlyupon

thespotoccupiedbytheunobtrusivecaterpillar.Otherlarv?whichfrequentpinetreeshavetheirbodiescoveredwithtuftsofgreenhairsthatservetoimitatethepeculiarpinefoliage.Onequeerlittlecaterpillar,whichlivesuponthehoaryfoliageofthesea-buckthorn,hasagrey-greenbody,justlikethebuckthornleaves,relievedbyaveryconspicuousredspotwhichreallyrepresentsinsizeandcolouroneoftheberriesthatgrowaroundit.Finallythelarvaoftheelephanthawk-moth,whichgrowstoaverylargesize,hasapairofhugespotsthatseemlikegreateyes;anddirectexperimentestablishesthefactthatsmallbirdsmistakeitforayoungsnake,andstandinterribleaweofitaccordingly,thoughitisinrealityaperfectlyharmlessinsect,andalso,asIamcrediblyinformed(forIcannotspeakuponthepointfrompersonalexperience),averytastyandwell-flavouredinsect,and'quitegoodtoeat'too,saysaneminentauthority.Oneofthesebigsnake-likecaterpillarsoncefrightenedMr.Bateshimsel

fonthebanksoftheAmazon.Now,Iknowthatcantankerousperson,theuniversalobjector,hasallalongbeenburstingtointerruptmeanddeclarethathehimselffrequentlyfindsnoendofcaterpillars,andhasnottheslightestdifficultyatallindistinguishingthemwiththenakedeyefromtheleavesandplantsamongwhichtheyarelurking.Butobservehowpromptlywecrushanddemolishthisveryinconvenientanddisconcertingcritic.Thecaterpillarshefindsarealmostallhairyones,veryconspicuousandeasytodiscover--'woollybears,'andsuchlikecommonanduncleancreatures--andthereasontheytakenopainstoconcealthemselvesfromhisunobservanteyesissimplythis:nobodyonearthwantstodiscoverthem.Foreithertheyareprotectivelyencasedinhorridhairs,whichgetdownyourthroatandchokeyouandbotheryou(Ispeakasabird,fromthepointofviewofaconfirmedcaterpillareater),orelsetheyarebitterandnastytothetaste,likethelarvao

fthespurgemothandthemachaonbutterfly.Thesearetheordinarybrownandredandbandedcaterpillarsthatthecriticalobjectorfindsinhundredsonhisperegrinationsabouthisowngarden--commonplacethingswhichtheexperiencednaturalisthaslongsincegotutterlytiredof.Buthasyourrashobjectoreverlighteduponthatrarelarvawhichlivesamongtheperiwinkles,andexactlyimitatesaperiwinklepetal?Hasheeverdiscoveredthosedeceptivecreatureswhichpretendforalltheworldtobeleavesoflady's-bedstraw,ordressthemselvesupasflowersofbuttonweed?Hasheeverhituponthoseimmoralcaterpillarswhichwrigglethroughlifeuponthefalsepretencethattheyareonlytheshadowsofprojectingribsontheundersurfaceofafull-grownlimeleaf?No,nothe;hepass



esthemallbywithoutonesingleglanceofrecognition;andwhenthepainstakingnaturalistwhohashuntedthemeveryonedownwithlensandbutterflynetventurestentativelytodescribetheirpersonalappearance,hecomesupsmilingwithhisgreatrussetwoollybearcomfortablynestlinguponagreencabbageleaf,andasksyouinavoiceoftriumphantdemonstration,whereisthetraceofconcealmentordisguiseinthatamiablebutveryinedibleinsect?Goto,SirCritic,Iwillhavenoneofyou;Ionlyuseyouforametaphoricalmarionettetosetupandknockdownagain,asMr.Punchinthestreetshowknocksdownthepolicemanwhocomestoarresthim,andthegrimyblackpersonageofsulphurousantecedentswhopopsupwithafizzthroughthefloorofhisapartment.QueererstillthanthecaterpillarswhichpretendtobeleavesorflowersforthesakeofprotectionarethosetrulydiabolicalandperfidiousBrazilianspiderswhich,asMr.Batesobserved,arebrilliantlycolouredwithcrimsonandpurple,but'doublethemselvesupatthebaseofleaf-stalks,soastoresembleflowerbuds,andthusdeceivetheinsectsuponwhichtheyprey.'Thereissomethinghideouslywickedandcruelinthislowestdepthofimitativeinfamy.Aflower-budissomethingsoinnocentandchildlike;andtodisguiseoneselfassuchforpurposesofmurderandrapinearguesthefinalabyssofarachnoidperfidy.ItremindsoneofthatcharmingandamiableyoungladyinMr.RobertLouisStevenson's'Dynamiter,'whoamusedherselfinmomentsoftemporarygaietybyblowingupinhabitedhouses,inmatesandall,outofpurelightnessofheartandgirlishfrivolity.AnIndianmantisorprayinginsect,alittlelesswicked,thoughnolesscruelthanthespiders,deceivestheflieswhocometohisarmsunderthefalsepretenceofbeingaquietleaf,uponwhichtheymaylightinsafetyforrestandref

reshment.Yetanotherabandonedmemberofthesamefamily,relyingboldlyupontheresourcesoftropicalnature,getsitselfupasacompleteorchid,theheadandfangsbeingmouldedintheexactimageofthebeautifulblossom,andthearmsfoldingtreacherouslyaroundtheunhappyinsectwhichventurestoseekforhoneyinitsdeceptivejaws.Happily,however,thetyrantsandmurderersdonotalwayshavethingsalltheirownway.Sometimestheinoffensivepreyturnthetablesupontheirtorturerswithdistinguishedsuccess.Forexample,Mr.Wallacenoticedakindofsand-wasp,inBorneo,muchgiventodevouringcrickets;buttherewasonespeciesofcricketwhichexactlyreproducedthefeaturesofthesand-wasps,andmixedamongthemonequaltermswithoutfearofdetection.Mr.Beltsawagreenleaf-likelocustinNicaragua,overrunbyforagingantsinsearchofmeatfordinner,butremainingperfectlymotionlessallthetime,andevidentlymistakenbythehungryforage

rsforarealpieceofthefoliageitmimicked.Sothoroughlydidthisinnocentlocustunderstandthenecessityforremainingstill,andpretendingtobealeafunderalladvances,thatevenwhenMr.Belttookitupinhishandsitneverbudgedaninch,butstrenuouslypreserveditsrigidleaf-likeattitude.Asotherinsects'shamdead,'thisingeniouscreatureshammedvegetable.Inordertounderstandhowcaseslikethesebegintoarise,wemustrememberthatfirstofalltheystartofnecessityfromveryslightandindefiniteresemblances,whichsucceedasitwerebyaccidentinoccasionallyeludingthevigilanceofenemies.Thus,therearestickinsectswhichonlylooklikelongroundcylinders,notobviouslystick-shaped,butrudelyresemblingabitofwoodinoutlineonly.Theseimperfectlymimeticinsectsmayoftenobtainacasualimmunityfromattackbybeingmistakenforatwigbybirdsorlizards.Thereareothers,again,inwhichnaturalselectionhasgoneastepfurther,soastoproduceuponthei

rbodiesbark-likecolouringandroughpatcheswhichimitateknots,wrinkles,andleaf-buds.Inthesecasestheprotectiongivenisfarmoremarked,andthechancesofdetectionareproportionatelylessened.Butsharp-eyedbirds,withsensesquickenedbyhunger,thetruemotherofinvention,mustlearnatlasttopiercesuchflimsydisguises,andsuspectastickinsectinthemostinnocent-lookingandapparentlyrigidtwigs.Thefinalstep,therefore,consistsintheproductionofthatextraordinaryactor,theXeroxyluslaceratus,whoseformidablenamemeansnomorethan'raggeddry-stick,'andwhichreallymimicsdowntotheminutestparticularabrokentwig,overgrownwithmosses,liverworts,andlichens.Take,ontheotherhand,thewell-knowncaseofthatpredaceousmantiswhichexa



ctlyimitatesthewhiteants,and,mixingwiththemlikeoneoftheirownhorde,quietlydevoursastrayfattermiteorso,fromtimetotime,asoccasionoffers.Herewemustsupposethattheancestralmantishappenedtobesomewhatpalerandsmallerthanmostofitsfellow-tribesmen,andsoattimesmanagedunobservedtominglewiththewhiteants,especiallyintheshadeorunderaduskysky,muchtotheadvantageofitsownappetite.Butthetermiteswouldsoonbegintoobservethevisitsoftheirsuspiciousfriend,andtonotetheircoincidencewiththefrequentmysteriousdisappearanceofafellow-townswoman,evaporatedintospace,likethemissingyoungwomeninneatclothjacketswhoperiodicallyvanishfromtheLondonsuburbs.Inproportionastheirreasonablesuspicionsincreased,thetermiteswouldcarefullyavoidalldoubtfullookingmantises;but,atthesametime,theywouldonlysucceedinmakingthemantiseswhichsurvivedtheirinquisitiongrowmoreandmorecloselytoresemblethetermitepatterninallparticulars.Foranymantiswhichhappenedtocomealittlenearerthewhiteantsinhueorshapewouldtherebybeenabledtomakeamoresecuremealuponhisunfortunatevictims;andsotheveryvigilancewhichtheantsexertedagainsthisviledeceptionwoulditselfreactintimeagainsttheirownkind,byleavingonlythemostruthlessandindistinguishableoftheirfoestobecometheparentsoffuturegenerationsofmantises.Oncemore,thebeetlesandfliesofCentralAmericamusthavelearnedbyexperiencetogetoutofthewayofthenimbleCentralAmericanlizardswithgreatagility,cunning,andalertness.Butgreenlizardsarelesseasytonoticebeforehandthanbrownorredones;andsothelizardsoftropicalcountriesarealmostalwaysbrightgreen,withcomplementaryshadesofyellow,grey,andpurple,justt

ofittheminwiththefoliagetheylurkamong.Everybodywhohaseverhuntedthegreentree-toadsontheleavesofwatersideplantsontheRivieramustknowhowdifficultitistodiscriminatethesebrilliantleaf-colouredcreaturesfromthealmostidenticalbackgroundonwhichtheyrest.Now,justinproportionasthebeetlesandfliesgrowstillmorecautious,eventhegreenlizardsthemselvesfailtopickupasatisfactorylivelihood;andsoatlastwegetthatmostremarkableNicaraguanform,deckedallroundwithleaf-likeexpansions,andlookingsolikethefoliageonwhichitreststhatnobeetleonearthcanpossiblydetectit.Themorecunningyougetyourdetectives,themorecunningdothethievesbecometooutwitthem.Look,again,atthecuriouslife-historyoftheflieswhichdwellasunbiddenguestsorsocialparasitesinthenestsandhivesofwildhoney-bees.Theseburglariousfliesarebeltedandbeardedintheveryself-samepatternasthebumble-b

eesthemselves;buttheirlarv?liveupontheyounggrubsofthehive,andrepaytheunconscioushospitalityofthebusyworkersbydevouringthefuturehopeoftheirunwillinghosts.Obviously,anyflywhichenteredabee-hivecouldonlyescapedetectionandexterminationatthehands(orstings)ofitsoutragedinhabitants,provideditsofarresembledtherealhouseholdersastobemistakenatafirstglancebytheinvadedcommunityforoneofitsownnumerousmembers.Thusanyflywhichshowedtheslightestsuperficialresemblancetoabeemightatfirstbeenabledtorobhoneyforatimewithcomparativeimpunity,andtolayitseggsamongthecellsofthehelplesslarv?.Butwhenoncethevileattemptwasfairlydiscovered,theburglarscouldonlyescapefataldetectionfromgenerationtogenerationjustinproportionastheymoreandmorecloselyapproximatedtotheshapeandcolourofthebeesthemselves.For,asMr.Belthaswellpointedout,whilethemimickingspecieswouldbecomenaturallymorenumerousfromage

toage,thesensesofthemimickedspecieswouldgrowsharperandsharperbyconstantpracticeindetectingandpunishingtheunwelcomeintruders.Itisonlyinexternalmatters,however,thattheappearanceofsuchmimeticspeciescaneverbealtered.Theirunderlyingpointsofstructureandformativedetailalwaysshowtotheveryend(ifonlyonehappenstoobservethem)theirproperplaceinascientificclassification.Forinstance,thesesameparasiticflieswhichsocloselyresemblebeesintheirshapeandcolourhaveonlyonepairofwingsapiece,likealltherestoftheflyorder,whilethebeesofcoursehavethefullcomplementoftwopairs,anupperandanunder,possessedbythemincommonwithallotherwell-conductedmembersofthehymenopterousfamily.So,too



,thereisacertaincuriousAmericaninsect,belongingtotheveryunsavourytribewhichsuppliesLondonlodging-houseswithoneoftheirmostfamiliarentomologicalspecimens;andthiscleverlydisguisedlittlecreatureisbandedandstripedineverypartexactlylikealocalhornet,forwhomitevidentlywishesitselftobemistaken.IfyouweretravellinginthewilderpartsofColoradoyouwouldfindacloseresemblancetoBuffaloBillwasnomeanpersonalprotection.Hornets,infact,areinsectstowhichbirdsandotherinsectivorousanimalsprefertogiveaverywideberth,andthereasonwhytheyshouldbeimitatedbyadefencelessbeetlemustbeobvioustotheintelligentstudent.Butwhilethevibratingwing-casesofthisdeceptivemasqueraderaremadetolookasthinandhornet-likeaspossible,inallunderlyingpointsofstructureanycompetentnaturalistwouldseeatoncethatthecreaturemustreallybeclassedamongthenoisomeHemiptera.IseldomtroublethepublicwithaGreekorLatinname,butonthisoccasionItrustImaybepardonedfornotindulginginalltheingenuousbluntnessofthevernacular.Sometimesthiseffectivemimicryofstinginginsectsseemstobeevenconsciouslyperformedbythetinyactors.Manycreatures,whichdonotthemselvespossessstings,neverthelessendeavourtofrightentheirenemiesbyassumingthecharacteristichostileattitudesofwaspsorhornets.EverybodyinEnglandmustbewellacquaintedwiththosecommonBritishearwig-lookinginsects,popularlyknownasthedevil'scoach-horses,which,whenirritatedorinterferedwith,cockuptheirtailsbehindtheminthemostaggressivefashion,exactlyreproducingthethreateningactionofanangryscorpion.Now,asamatteroffact,thedevil'scoach-horseisquiteharmless,butIhaveoftenseen,notonlylittleboysandgirls

,butalsochickens,smallbirds,andshrew-mice,evidentlyalarmedathisminatoryattitude.So,too,thebumble-beeflies,whichareinoffensiveinsectsgotupinsedulousimitationofvariousspeciesofwildbee,flitaboutandbuzzangrilyinthesunlight,quiteafterthefashionoftheinsectstheymimic;andwhendisturbedtheypretendtogetexcited,andseemasiftheywishedtoflyintheirassailant'sfaceandroundlystinghim.Thiscuriousinstinctmaybeputsidebysidewiththeparallelinstinctofshammingdead,possessedbymanybeetlesandothersmalldefencelessspecies.Certainbeetleshavealsobeenmodifiedsoasexactlytoimitatewasps;andinthesecasesthebeetlewaist,usuallysosolid,thick,andclumsy,growsasslenderandgracefulasiftheinsectshadbeensuppliedwithcorsetsbyafashionableWestEndhouse.Butthegreatestrefinementofallisperhapsthatnoticedincertainalliedspecieswhichmimicbees,andwhichhaveacquireduselesslittle

tuftsofhairontheirhindshankstorepresentthedilatedandtuftedpollen-gatheringapparatusofthetruebees.Ihavelefttothelastthemostmarvellouscasesofmimicryofall--thosenoticedamongSouthAmericanbutterfliesbyMr.Bates,whofoundthatcertainediblekindsexactlyresembledahandsomeandconspicuousbutbitter-tastedspecies'ineveryshadeandstripeofcolour.'SeveraloftheseSouthAmericanimitativeinsectslongdeceivedtheveryentomologists;anditwasonlybyacloseinspectionoftheirstructuraldifferencesthattheutterdistinctnessofthemimickersandthemimickedwassatisfactorilysettled.ScarcelylesscuriousisthecaseofMr.Wallace'sMalayanorioles,twospeciesofwhichexactlycopytwopugnacioushoney-suckersineverydetailofplumageandcoloration.Asthehoney-suckersareavoidedbybirdsofprey,owingtotheirsurprisingstrengthandpugnacity,theoriolesgainimmunityfromattackbytheircloseresemblancetotheprotected

species.WhenDr.Sclater,thedistinguishedornithologist,wasexaminingMr.Forbes'scollectionsfromTimorlaut,evenhisexperiencedeyewassotakeninbyanotherofthesedeceptivebird-mimicriesthatheclassifiedtwobirdsoftotallydistinctfamiliesastwodifferentindividualsofthesamespecies.Evenamongplantsafewinstancesoftruemimicryhavebeenobserved.InthestonyAfricanKaroo,whereeveryplantiseagerlysoughtoutforfoodbythescantylocalfauna,therearetuberswhichexactlyresemblethepebblesaroundthem;andIhavelittledoubtthatourperfectlyharmlessEnglishdead-nettlesecuresitselffromtheattacksofbrowsinganimalsbyitscloselikenesstothewhollyunrelated,butwell-protected,stinging-nettle.



Finally,wemustnotforgetthedeviceofthoseanimalswhichnotmerelyassimilatethemselvesincolourtotheordinaryenvironmentinageneralway,buthavealsothepowerofadaptingthemselvesatwilltowhateverobjecttheymayhappentolieagainst.Caseslikethatoftheptarmigan,whichinsummerharmoniseswiththebrownheatherandgreyrock,whileinwinteritchangestothewhiteofthesnow-fields,leadusupgraduallytosuchultimateresultsofthemasqueradingtendency.Thereisatinycrustacean,thechameleonshrimp,whichcanalteritshuetothatofanymaterialonwhichithappenstorest.Onasandybottomitappearsgreyorsand-coloured;whenlurkingamongseaweeditbecomesgreen,orred,orbrown,accordingtothenatureofitsmomentarybackground.Probablytheeffectisquiteunconscious,oratleastinvoluntary,likeblushingwithourselves--andnobodyeverblushesonpurpose,thoughtheydosayadistinguishedpoetoncecomplainedthataneminentactordidnotfollowhisstagedirectionsbecauseheomittedtoobeytherubricalremark,'HereHaroldpurpleswithanger.'Thechangeisproducedbycertainautomaticmuscleswhichforceupparticularpigmentcellsabovetheothers,greencomingtothetoponagreensurface,redonaruddyone,andbrownorgreywherethecircumstancesdemandthem.Manykindsoffishsimilarlyaltertheircolourtosuittheirbackgroundbyforcingforwardorbackwardcertainspecialpigment-cellsknownaschromatophores,whosevariouscombinationsproduceatwillalmostanyrequiredtoneorshade.Almostallreptilesandamphibianspossessthepowerofchangingtheirhueinaccordancewiththeirenvironmentinaveryhighdegree;andamongcertaintree-toadsandfrogsitisdifficulttosaywhatisthenormalcolouring,astheyvaryindefinitelyfrombuffanddove-colourtochocolate-brown,rose,andevenlilac.

Butofalltheparticolouredreptilesthechameleonisbyfarthebestknown,andonthewholethemostremarkableforhisinconstancyofcoloration.LikealacertineVicarofBray,hevariesincontinentlyfrombufftoblue,andfrombluebacktoorangeagain,understressofcircumstances.Themechanismofthiscuriouschangeisextremelycomplex.Tinycorpusclesofdifferentpigmentsaresometimeshiddeninthedepthsofthechameleon'sskin,andsometimesspreadoutonitssurfaceinaninterlacingnetworkofbrownorpurple.Inadditiontothisprimecolouringmatter,however,theanimalalsopossessesanormalyellowpigment,andabluishlayerintheskinwhichactsliketheiridiumglasssolargelyemployedbyDr.Salviati,beingseenasstraw-colouredwithatransmittedlight,butassumingafaintlilactintagainstanopaqueabsorbentsurface.Whilesleepingthechameleonbecomesalmostwhiteintheshade,butiflightfallsuponhimheslowlydarkensbyanautomaticprocess.Themovementsofthecorpusclesaregove

rnedbyoppositenervesandmuscles,whicheithercausethemtoburythemselvesunderthetrueskin,ortoformanopaquegroundbehindthebluelayer,ortospreadoutinaramifyingmassontheoutersurface,andsoproduceasdesiredalmostanynecessaryshadeofgrey,green,black,oryellow.Itisaninterestingfactthatmanychrysalidsundergopreciselysimilarchangesofcolourinadaptationtothebackgroundagainstwhichtheysuspendthemselves,beinggreyonagreysurface,greenonagreenone,andevenhalfblackandhalfredwhenhungupagainstpiecesofparticolouredpaper.Nothingcouldmorebeautifullyprovethenoblesuperiorityofthehumanintellectthanthefactthatwhileourgrousearerusset-browntosuitthebrackenandheather,andourcaterpillarsgreentosuitthelettuceandthecabbageleaves,ourBritishsoldiershouldbewiselycoatedinbrilliantscarlettoformaneffectivemarkfortheriflesofanenemy.Redistheeasiestofallcoloursatwhich

toaimfromagreatdistance;anditsselectionbyauthorityfortheuniformofunfortunateTommyAtkinsremindsmeofnothingsomuchasMr.McClelland'sexquisitesuggestionthatthepeculiarbrilliancyoftheIndianrivercarpsmakesthemserve'asabettermarkforkingfishers,terns,andotherbirdswhicharedestinedtokeepthenumberofthesefishesincheck.'TheideaofProvidenceandtheHorseGuardsconspiringtorenderanycreatureaneasiertargetfortheattacksofenemiesisworthyofthedecadentschoolofnaturalhistory,andcannotforamomentbedispassionatelyconsideredbyajudiciouscritic.Nowadaysweallknowthatthecarparedeckedincrimsonandbluetopleasetheirpartners,andthatsoldiersaredressedinbrilliantredtopleasethe?stheticauthoritieswh



ocommandthemfromadistance.

SEVEN-YEARSLEEPERSFormanygenerationspastthatproblematicalanimal,thetoad-in-a-hole(literal,notculinary)hasbeenoneofthemostfamiliarandinterestingpersonagesofcontemporaryfolk-loreandpopularnaturalhistory.Fromtimetotimeheturnsupafresh,withhisownwontedperennialvigour,onpaperatleast,incompanywiththegreatsea-serpent,thebiggooseberry,theshoweroffrogs,thetwo-headedcalf,andalltheothercommonobjectsofthecountryortheseasideinthesillyseason.Noextraordinarynaturalphenomenononearthwaseverbettervouchedfor--inthefashionrenderedfamiliartousbytheTichborneclaimant--thatistosay,noothercouldevergetalargernumberofunprejudicedwitnessestoswearpositivelyandunreservedlyinitsfavour.Unfortunately,however,swearingalonenolongersettlescausesoff-hand,asifbyshowofhands,'theAyeshaveit,'afterthefashionprevalentinthegoodolddayswhenthewholeHundredusedtotestifythatofitscertainknowledgeJohnNokesdidnotcommitsuchandsuchamurder;whereuponJohnNokeswasforthwithacquittedaccordingly.Nowadays,bothjusticeandsciencehavebecomemoreexacting;theyinsistupontheunpleasantanddiscourteoushabitofcross-examiningtheirwitnesses(asiftheydoubtedthem,forsooth!),insteadofacceptingthewitnesses'ownsimpleassertionthatit'sallright,andthere'snoneedformakingafussaboutit.Didyouyourselfseetheblockofstoneinwhichthetoadissaidtohavebeenfound,beforethetoadhimselfwasactuallyextracted?Didyouexamineitallroundtomakequitesuretherewasnohole,orcrack,orpassageinitanywhere?Didyousatisfy

yourselfafterthetoadwasreleasedfromhisclosequartersthatnosuchhole,orcrack,orpassagehadbeendexterouslyclosedup,withintenttodeceive,byplaster,cement,orotherartificialcomposition?Didyoueveroffertheworkmenwhofounditanominalreward--sayfiveshillings--forthefirstperfectlyunanswerablespecimenofagenuineunadulteratedantediluviantoad?Haveyougotthetoadnowpresent,andcanyouproducehimhereincourt(onwritofhabeascorpusorotherwise),togetherwithallthefragmentsofthestoneortreefromwhichhewasextracted?Thesearethedisagreeable,prying,inquisitorial,Imayevensayinsulting,questionswithwhichamodernmanofscienceisreadytoassailthetruthfulandreputablegentlemenwhoventuretoasserttheirdiscovery,inthesedegeneratedays,oftheancientandunsophisticatedtoad-in-a-hole.Now,theworstofitisthatthegentlemeninquestion,beingunfamiliarwithwhatistechnicallydescribedasscientificmethodsofinvestigation,areveryapt

tolosetheirtemperwhenthuscross-questioned,andtoreply,afterthefashionusuallyattributedtothefemalemind,withanotherquestion,whetherthescientificpersonwishestoaccusethemofdownrightlying.Andasnothingonearthcouldbefurtherfromthescientificperson'smindthansuchanimputation,heisusuallyfainintheendtogiveupthesocialpursuitofpostprandialnaturalhistory(thesubjectgenerallycropsupaboutthesametimeastheafter-dinnercoffee),andtolettheprehistorictoadgoonhisowntriumphantway,unheeded.Asamatteroffact,nobodyevermakeslargerallowancesforotherpeople,intheestimateoftheirveracity,thanthescientificinquirer.Knowinghimself,bypainfulexperience,howextremelydifficultamatteritistomakeperfectlysureyouhaveobservedanythingonearthquitecorrectly,andhaveeliminatedallpossiblechancesoferror,heacquiresthefixedhabitofdoubtingaboutone-halfofwhateverhisfellow-creaturestellhiminordinaryconversation,withoutfor

asinglemomentventuringtosuspectthemofdeliberateuntruthfulness.Childrenandservants,iftheyfindthatanythingtheyhavebeentoldiserroneous,immediatelyjumpattheconclusionthatthepersonwhotoldthemmeantdeliberatelytodeceivethem;intheirownsimpleandcategoricalfashiontheyanswerplumply,'That'salie.'Butthemanofscienceisonlytoowellacquaintedinhisownpersonwiththeexceedingdifficultyofevergettingattheexacttruth.Hehasspenthoursoftoil,himself,inwatchingandobservingthebehaviourofsomeplant,oranimal,orgas,ormetal;andafterrepeatedexperiments,carefullydesignedtoexcludeallpossibilityofmistake,sofarashecanforeseeit,heatlastbelieveshehasreallysettledsomemootpoint,andtriumphantlypublishes



hisfinalconclusionsinascientificjournal.Tentoone,theverynextnumberofthatsamejournalcontainsadozensuperciliouslettersfromadozenlearnedandhigh-salariedprofessors,eachpointingoutadozendistinctandseparateprecautionswhichthepainstakingobserverneglectedtotake,andanyoneofwhichwouldbequitesufficienttovitiatethewholebodyofhisobservations.Theremighthavebeengermsinthetubeinwhichheboiledthewater(germsareveryfashionablejustatpresent);orsomeofthegermsmighthavesurvivedandratherenjoyedtheboiling;ortheymighthaveadheredtotheundersurfaceofthecork;orthemixturemighthavebeentamperedwithduringtheexperimenter'stemporaryabsencebyhisson,agedtenyears(scientificobservershavenoright,apparently,tohavesonsoftenyearsold,exceptperhapsforpurposesofpsychologicalresearch);andsoforth,adinfinitum.Andtheworstofitallisthattheunhappyexperimenterisboundhimselftoadmitthateveryoneoftheobjectionsisperfectlyvalid,andthatheverylikelyneverreallysawwhatwithperfectconfidencehethoughtandsaidhehadseen.Thisbeinganunbelievingage,then,wheneventhebookofDeuteronomyis'criticallyexamined,'letusseehowmuchcanreallybesaidforandagainstouroldfriend,thetoad-in-a-hole;andfirstletusbeginwiththeantecedentprobability,orotherwise,ofanyanimalbeingabletoliveinamoreorlesstorpidcondition,withoutairorfood,foranyconsiderableperiodoftimetogether.AcertainfamoushistoricaldesertsnailwasbroughtfromEgypttoEnglandasaconchologicalspecimenintheyear1846.Thisparticularmollusk(theonlyoneofhisrace,probably,whoeverattainedtoindividualdistinction),atthetimeofhisarrivalinLondon,wasreallyaliveandvigorous;butastheauthorities

oftheBritishMuseum,towhosetendercarehewasconsigned,wereignorantofthisimportantfactinhiseconomy,hewasgummed,mouthdownward,ontoapieceofcardboard,anddulylabelledanddatedwithscientificaccuracy,'Helixdesertorum,March25,1846.'Beingasnailofaretiringandcontenteddisposition,however,accustomedtolongdroughtsandcorrespondingnapsinhisnativesand-wastes,ourmolluskthereuponsimplycurledhimselfupintothetopmostrecessesofhisownwhorls,andwentplacidlytosleepinperfectcontentmentforanunlimitedperiod.Everyconchologisttakesitforgranted,ofcourse,thattheshellswhichhereceivesfromforeignpartshavehadtheirinhabitantsproperlyboiledandextractedbeforebeingexported;foritisonlythemereoutershellorskeletonoftheanimalthatwepreserveinourcabinets,leavingtheactualfleshandmusclesofthecreaturehimselftowitherunobserveduponitsnativeshores.AttheBritishMuseumthedesertsnailmighthavesnoozedawayhisingloriousex

istenceunsuspected,butforahappyaccidentwhichattractedpublicattentiontohisremarkablecaseinamostextraordinarymanner.OnMarch7,1850,nearlyfouryearslater,itwascasuallyobservedthatthecardonwhichhereposedwasslightlydiscoloured;andthisdiscoveryledtothesuspicionthatperhapsalivinganimalmightbetemporarilyimmuredwithinthatpaperytomb.TheMuseumauthoritiesaccordinglyorderedourfriendawarmbath(whoshallsayhereafterthatscienceisunfeeling!),uponwhichthegratefulsnail,wakingupatthetouchofthefamiliarmoisture,puthisheadcautiouslyoutofhisshell,walkeduptothetopofthebasin,andbegantotakeacursorysurveyofBritishinstitutionswithhisfoureye-bearingtentacles.Sostrangearecoveryfromalongtorpidcondition,onlyequalledbythatoftheSevenSleepersofEphesus,deservedanexceptionalamountofscientificrecognition.Thedesertsnailatonceawokeandfoundhimselffamous.Nay,heactuallysatforhisportraittoaneminentzoologi

calartist,Mr.Waterhouse;andawoodcutfromthesketchthusprocured,withahistoryofhislifeandadventures,maybefoundevenuntothisdayinDr.Woodward's'ManualoftheMollusca,'towitnessifIlie.Imentionthiscuriousinstancefirst,becauseitisthebestauthenticatedcaseonrecord(sofarasmyknowledgegoes)ofanyanimalexistinginastateofsuspendedanimationforanylongperiodoftimetogether.Butthereareothercasesofencystedorimmuredanimalswhich,thoughlessstrikingasregardsthelengthoftimeduringwhichtorpidityhasbeenobserved,aremuchmorecloselyanalogoustotherealormythicalconditionsofthetoad-in-a-hole.ThatcuriousWestAfricanmud-fish,theLepidosiren(familiartoallreadersofevolutionarylite



ratureasoneofthemostsingularexistinglinksbetweenfishandamphibians),livesamongtheshallowpoolsandbroadsoftheGambia,whicharedriedupduringthegreaterpartofthetropicalsummer.Toprovideagainstthisannualcontingency,themud-fishretiresintothesoftclayatthebottomofthepools,whereitformsitselfasortofnest,andtherehibernates,orrather?stivates,formonthstogether,inatorpidcondition.Thesurroundingmudthenhardensintoadryball;andtheseballsaredugoutofthesoiloftherice-fieldsbythenatives,withthefishinsidethem,bywhichmeansmanyspecimensoflepidosirenhavebeensentalivetoEurope,embeddedintheirnaturalcovering.Herethestrangefishischieflyprizedasazoologicalcuriosityforaquariums,becauseofitspossessinggillsandlungstogether,tofititforitsdoubleexistence;buttheunsophisticatedWestAfricansgrubitupontheirownaccountasadelicacy,regardlessofitsclaimstoscientificconsiderationastheearliestknownancestorofallexistingterrestrialanimals.Now,thetorpidstateofthemud-fishinhishardenedballofclaycloselyresemblestherealorsupposedconditionofthetoad-in-a-hole;butwithoneimportantexception.Themud-fishleavesasmallcanalorpipeopeninhiscellateitherendtoadmittheairforbreathing,thoughhebreathes(asIshallproceedtoexplain)inaveryslightdegreeduringhis?stivation;whereaseverypropertoad-in-a-holeoughtbyallaccountstoliveentirelywithouteitherfeedingorbreathinginanyway.However,thisisameredetail;andindeed,iftoads-in-a-holedoreallyexistatall,wemustinallprobabilityultimatelyadmitthattheybreathetosomeextent,thoughperhapsveryslightly,duringtheirlongimmurement.Andthisleadsusontoconsiderwhatinrealityhibernationis.Everybodyknows

nowadays,Isuppose,thatthereisaverycloseanalogybetweenananimalandasteam-engine.Foodisthefuelthatmakestheanimalenginego;andthisfoodactsalmostexactlyascoaldoesintheartificialmachine.Butcoalalonewillnotdriveanengine;afreedraughtofopenairisalsorequiredinordertoproducecombustion.Justinlikemannerthefoodweeatcannotbeutilisedtodriveourmusclesandotherorgansunlessitissuppliedwithoxygenfromtheairtoburnitslowlyinsideourbodies.Thisoxygenistakenintothesystem,inallhigheranimals,bymeansoflungsorgills.Now,whenweareworkingatallhard,werequireagreatdealofoxygen,asmostofushavefamiliarlydiscovered(especiallyifwearesomewhatstout)intheactofclimbinghillsorrunningtocatchatrain.Butwhenwearedoingverylittleworkindeed,asinoursleepinghours,duringwhichmuscularmovementissuspended,andonlythegeneralorganiclifecontinues,webreathemuchmoreslowlyandatlongerintervals.However,the

reisthisimportantdifference(generallyspeaking)betweenananimalandasteam-engine.Youcanlettheenginerunshortofcoalsandcometoadeadstandstill,withoutimpairingitsfuturepossibilitiesofsimilarmotion;youhaveonlytogetfreshcoals,afterweeksormonthsofinaction,andlightupafreshfire,whenyourenginewillimmediatelybegintoworkagain,exactlythesameasbefore.Butifananimalorganismoncefairlyrunsdown,eitherfromwantoffoodoranyothercause--inshort,ifitdies--itveryseldomcomestolifeagain.Isay'veryseldom'onpurpose,becausethereareafewcasesamongtheextremeloweranimalswhereawater-hauntingcreaturecanbetakenoutofthewaterandcanbethoroughlydriedanddesiccated,orevenkeptforanapparentlyunlimitedperiodwrappedupinpaperorontheslideofamicroscope;andyet,themomentadropofwaterisplacedontopofit,itbeginstomoveandliveagainexactlyasbefore.Thissortofthorough-goingsuspendedanimationisthekindweough

ttoexpectfromanywell-constitutedandproper-mindedtoad-in-a-hole.Whetheranythinglikeiteverreallyoccursinthehigherranksofanimallife,however,isadifferentquestion;buttherecanbenodoubtthattosomeslightextentabodytoallintentsandpurposesquitedead(physicallyspeaking)bylongimmersioninwater--adrownedman,forexample--mayreallyberesuscitatedbyheatandstimulants,appliedimmediately,providednopartoftheworkingorganismhasbeenseriouslyinjuredordecomposed.Suchpeoplemaybesaidtobe_protem._functionally,thoughnotstructurally,dead.Thehearthaspracticallyceasedtobeat,thelungshaveceasedtobreathe,andphysicallifeinthebodyistemporarilyextinct.Thefire,inshort,hasgoneout.Butifonlyitcanbelightedag



ainbeforeanyseriouschangeinthesystemtakesplace,allmaystillgoonpreciselyasofold.Manyanimals,however,finditconvenienttoassumeastateoflesscompletesuspendedanimationduringcertainspecialperiodsoftheyear,accordingtothecircumstancesoftheirpeculiarclimateandmodeoflife.Amongtheveryhighestanimals,themostfamiliarexampleofthissortofsemi-torpidityistobefoundamongthebearsandthedormice.ThecommonEuropeanbrownbearisacarnivorebydescent,whohasbecomeavegetarianinpractice,thoughwhetherfromconscientiousscruplesormerepracticalconsiderationsofexpediency,doesnotappear.Hefeedschieflyonroots,berries,fruits,vegetables,andhoney,allofwhichhefindsitcomparativelydifficulttoprocureduringwinterweather.Accordingly,aseveryoneknows,heeatsimmoderatelyinthesummerseason,tillhehasgrownfatenoughtosupplybear'sgreasetoallChristendom.Thenhehuntshimselfoutahollowtreeorrock-shelter,curlshimselfupquietlytosleep,andsnoresawaythewholelivelongwinter.Duringthisperiodofhibernation,theactionoftheheartisreducedtoaminimum,andthebearbreathesbutveryslowly.Still,hedoesbreathe,andhisheartdoesbeat;andinperformingthoseindispensablefunctions,allhisstoreofaccumulatedfatisgraduallyusedup,sothathewakesinspringasthinasalathandashungryasahunter.Themachinehasbeenworkingatverylowpressureallthewinter:butithasbeenworkingforallthat,andthecontinuityofitsactionhasneveronceforamomentbeeninterrupted.Thisisthecentralprincipleofallhibernation;itconsistsessentiallyofaverylongandprofoundsleep,duringwhichallmuscularmotion,exceptthatoftheheartandlungs,iscompletelysuspended,whileeventheselastarereduce

dtotheverysmallestamountcompatiblewiththefinalrestorationoffullanimalactivity.Thus,evenamongwarm-bloodedanimalslikethebearsanddormice,hibernationactuallyoccurstoaveryconsiderabledegree;butitisfarmorecommonandmorecompleteamongcold-bloodedcreatures,whosebodiesdonotneedtobekeptheatedtothesamedegree,andwithwhom,accordingly,hibernationbecomesalmostacompletetorpor,thebreathingandtheactionoftheheartbeingstillfurtherreducedtoverynearlyzero.Mollusksinparticular,likeoystersandmussels,leadverymonotonousanduneventfullives,onlyvariedasarulebythewelcomechangeofbeingcutoutoftheirshellsandeatenalive;andtheirpowersoflivingwithoutfoodunderadversecircumstancesarereallyveryremarkable.Freshwatersnailsandmussels,incoldweather,burythemselvesinthemudofpondsorrivers;andland-snailshidethemselvesinthegroundorundermossandleaves.The

heartthenceasesperceptiblytobeat,butrespirationcontinuesinaveryfaintdegree.Thecommongardensnailclosesthemouthofhisshellwhenhewantstohibernate,withaslimycovering;butheleavesaverysmallholeinitsomewhere,soastoallowalittleairtogetin,andkeepuphisbreathingtoaslightamount.Myexperiencehasbeen,however,thatagreatmanysnailsgotosleepinthisway,andneverwakeupagain.Eithertheygetfrozentodeath,orelsetherespirationfallssolowthatitneverpicksitselfupproperlywhenspringreturns.Inwarmclimates,itisduringthesummerthatmollusksandothermud-hauntingcreaturesgotosleep;andwhentheygetwellplasteredroundwithclay,theyalmostapproachintenacityoflifethemildestrecordedspecimensofthetoad-in-a-hole.Forexample,takethefollowingcases,whichIextract,withneedfulsimplifications,fromDr.Woodward.

'InJune1850,alivingpondmussel,whichhadbeenmorethanayearoutofwater,wassenttoMr.Gray,fromAustralia.ThebigpondsnailsofthetropicshavebeenfoundaliveinlogsofmahoganyimportedfromHonduras;andM.CaillaudcarriedsomefromEgypttoParis,packedinsawdust.Indeed,itisn'teasytoascertainthelimitoftheirendurance;forMr.Laidlay,havingplacedanumberinadrawerforthisverypurpose,foundthemaliveafter_fiveyears'_torpidity,althoughinthewarmclimateofCalcutta.Theprettysnailscalledcyclostomas,whichhavealidtotheirshells,arewellknowntosurviveimprisonmentsofmanymonths;butintheordinaryopen-mouthedland-snailssuchcasesareevenmoreremarkable.Severaloftheenormoustropicalsnailsoftenusedtodecoratecottag



emantelpieces,broughtbyLieutenantGreavesfromValparaiso,revivedafterbeingpacked,someforthirteen,othersfortwentymonths.In1849,Mr.PickeringreceivedfromMr.WollastonabasketfulofMadeirasnails(oftwentyorthirtydifferentkinds),three-fourthsofwhichprovedtobealive,afterseveralmonths'confinement,includingaseavoyage.Mr.WollastonhashimselfrecordedthefactthatspecimensoftwoMadeirasnailssurvivedafastandimprisonmentinpill-boxesoftwoyearsandahalfduration,andthatlargenumbersofasmallspecies,broughttoEnglandatthesametime,werealllivingafterbeinginclosedinadrybagforayearandahalf.'Whetherthesnailsthemselveslikedtheirlongdeprivationoffoodandmoisturewearenotinformed;theirpersonaltastesandinclinationswereverylittleconsultedinthematter;butastheyandtheirancestorsformanygenerationsmusthavebeenaccustomedtosimilarlongfastsduringtropicaldroughts,inalllikelihoodtheydidnotmuchmindit.Therealquestion,then,aboutthehistoricaltoad-in-a-holenarrowsitselfdownintheendmerelytothis--howlongisitcrediblethatacold-bloodedcreaturemightsustainlifeinatorpidorhibernatingcondition,withoutfood,andwithaverysmallquantityoffreshair,supplied(letussay)fromtimetotimethroughanalmostimperceptiblefissure?Itiswellknownthatreptilesandamphibiansareparticularlytenaciousoflife,andthatsometurtlesinparticularwillliveformonths,orevenforyears,withouttastingfood.ThecommonGreektortoise,hawkedonbarrowsaboutthestreetsofLondonandboughtbyaconfidingBritishpublicunderthemistakenimpressionthatitschieffareconsistsofslugsandcockroaches(itisreallyfarmorelikelytofeeduponitspurchaser'schoi

cestseakaleandasparagus),buriesitselfinthegroundatthefirstapproachofwinter,andsnoozesawayfivemonthsoftheyearinamostcomfortableanddignifiedtorpidity.AsnakeattheZoohasevenbeenknowntoliveeighteenmonthsinavoluntaryfast,refusingallthemosttemptingoffersofbirdsandrabbits,merelyoutofpiqueatherforcibleconfinementinastrangecage.Asthiswasaladysnake,however,itispossiblethatsheonlywentonlivingoutoffeminineobstinacy,sothatthiscasereallycountsforverylittle.Toadsthemselvesarewellknowntopossessallthequalitiesofmindandbodywhichgotomakeupthecareerofasuccessfulandenduringanchorite.Atthebestoftimestheyeatseldomandsparingly,whileafortydays'fast,likeDr.Tanner's,wouldseemtothembutanordinaryincidentintheireverydayexistence.Inthewintertheyhibernatebyburyingthemselvesinthemud,orbygettingdowncracksintheground.Itisalsoundoubtedlytruethattheycreepintoholeswh

erevertheycanfindone,andthatintheseholestheylietorpidforaconsiderableperiod.Ontheotherhand,thereiseveryreasontobelievethattheycannotliveformorethanacertainfixedandrelativelyshorttimeentirelywithoutfoodorair.Dr.Bucklandtriedanumberofexperimentsupontoadsinthismanner--experimentswhollyunnecessary,consideringthetrivialnatureofthepointatissue--andhisconclusionwasthatnotoadcouldgetbeyondtwoyearswithoutfeedingorbreathing.Therecanbeverylittledoubtthatinthisconclusionhewaspracticallycorrect,andthattherealfineoldcrustedantediluviantoad-in-a-holeisreallyasnareandadelusion.That,however,doesnotwhollysettlethequestionaboutsuchtoads,because,eventhoughtheymaynotbeallthattheiradmirersclaimforthem,theymayyetpossessaveryrespectableantiquityoftheirown,andmaybeveryfarfromthecategoryofmerevulgarcheatsandimpostors.BecauseatoadisnotasoldasMet

huselah,itneednotfollowthathemaynotbeasoldasOldParr;becausehedoesnotdatebacktotheFlood,itneednotfollowthathecannotrememberQueenElizabeth.Therearesometoads-in-a-hole,indeed,which,howeverwemayaccountfortheoriginoftheirlegend,areontheveryfaceofitutterlyincredible.Forexample,thereisthefavouriteandimmenselypopulartoadwhowasextractedfromaperfectlyclosedholeinamarblemantelpiece.Theimplicationofthelegendclearlyisthatthetoadwascoevalwiththemarble.Butmarbleislimestone,alteredintexturebypressureandheat,tillithasassumedacrystallinestructure.Inotherwordsweareaskedtobelievethatthattoadlivedthroughanamountoffieryheatsufficienttoburnhimupintofinepowder,andyetremains



totellthetale.Suchatoadasthisobviouslydeservesnocredit.Hisdiscoverersmayhavebelievedinhimthemselves,buttheywillhardlygetotherpeopletodoso.Still,thereareagreatmanywaysinwhichitisquiteconceivablethattoadsmightgetintoholesinrocksortreessoastogiverisetothecommonstoriesaboutthem,andmightevenmanagetolivethereforaconsiderabletimewithverysmallquantitiesoffoodorair.Itmustberememberedthatfromtheverynatureoftheconditionstheholecanneverbeproperlyexaminedandinspecteduntilafterithasbeensplitopenandthetoadhasbeenextractedfromit.Now,ifyousplitopenatreeorarock,andfindatoadinsideit,withacavitywhichheexactlyfills,itisextremelydifficulttosaywhethertherewasorwasnotafissurebeforeyoubrokethethingtopieceswithyourhatchetorpickaxe.Averysmallfissureindeedwouldbequitesufficienttoaccountforthewholedelusion;forifthetoadcouldgetalittleairtobreatheslowlyduringhistorpidperiod,andcouldfindafewdeadfliesorwormsamongthewaterthattrickledscantilyintohishole,hecouldmanagetodragoutapeacefulandmonotonousexistencealmostindefinitely.Hereareafewpossiblecases,anyoneofwhichwillquitesufficetogiverisetoatleastasgoodatoad-in-the-holeasninety-nineoutofahundredpublishedinstances.Anadulttoadburieshimselfinthemudbyadrypond,andgetscoatedwithahardsolidcoatofsun-bakedclay.Hisnoduleisbrokenopenwithaspade,andthetoadhimselfisfoundinside,almostexactlyfillingthespacewithinthecavity.Hehasonlybeenthereforafewmonthsattheoutside;buttheclayisashardasastone,andtothebucolicmindlooksasifitmighthavebeenthereever

sincetheDeluge.Goodblueliasclay,whichdriesassolidaslimestone,wouldperformthistricktoperfection;andthetoadmighteasilyberelegatedaccordinglytothesecondaryagesofgeology.Observe,however,thattheactualtoadssofoundarenotthegeologicaltoadsweshouldnaturallyexpectundersuchremarkablecircumstances,butthecommoneverydaytoadsofmodernEngland.Thisshowsawantofaccuratescientificknowledgeonthepartofthetoadswhichistrulylamentable.Atoadwhoreallywishedtoqualifyhimselfforthepostoughtatleasttoavoidpresentinghimselfbeforeacriticaleyeinthefoolishguiseofanembodiedanachronism.HeremindsoneoftheRomanmotherinapopularburlesque,whosuspectshersonofsmoking,andvehementlydeclaresthatshesmellstobacco,but,afteramoment,recollectsthehistoricalproprieties,andmutterstoherself,apologetically,'No,nottobacco;that'snotyetinvented.'Awould-besilurianortriassictoadought,inlikemanner,torememberthatintheagest

owhosehonoursheaspireshisownamphibiankindwasnotyetdeveloped.Heoughtrathertocomeoutinthecharacterofaceratodusoralabyrinthodon.Again,anotheradulttoadcrawlsintothehollowofatree,andtherehibernates.Thebarkpartiallyclosesovertheslitbywhichheentered,butleavesalittlecrackbywhichaircanenterfreely.Thegrubsinthebarkandotherinsectssupplyhimfromtimetotimewithafrugalrepast.Thereisnogoodreasonwhy,undersuchcircumstances,aplacidandcontentedtoadmightnotmanagetoprolonghisexistenceforseveralconsecutiveseasons.Oncemore,thespawnoftoadsisverysmall,asregardsthesizeoftheindividualeggs,comparedwiththesizeofthefull-grownanimal.Nothingwouldbeeasierthanforapieceofspawnoratinytadpoletobewashedintosomeholeinamineorcave,wheretherewassufficientwaterforitsdevelopement,andwherethetricklingdropsbroughtdownminuteobjectsoffood,enoughtokeepupitssim

pleexistence.Atoadbroughtupundersuchpeculiarcircumstancesmightpassalmostitsentirelifeinastateoftorpidity,andyetmightgrowandthriveinitsownsleepyvegetativefashion.Inshort,whileitwouldbedifficultinanygivencasetoprovetoacertaintyeitherthattheparticulartoad-in-a-holehadorhadnotaccesstoairandfood,theordinaryconditionsoftoadlifeareexactlythoseunderwhichthedelusiveappearanceofvenerableantiquitywouldbealmostcertainfrequentlytoarise.Thetoadisanocturnalanimal;itlivesthroughthedaytimeindarkanddampplaces;itshowsadecidedlikingforcranniesandcrevices;itiswonderfullytenaciousoflife;itpossessesthepowerofhibernation;itcanliveonextremely



smallquantitiesoffoodforverylongperiodsoftimetogether;itburiesitselfinmudorclay;itpassestheearlypartofitslifeasawater-hauntingtadpole;andlast,notleast,itcanswelloutitsbodytonearlydoubleitsnaturalsizebyinflatingitself,whichfullyaccountsforthestoriesoftoadsbeingtakenoutofholeseverybitasbigasthemselves.Consideringallthesethings,itwouldbewonderfulindeediftoadswerenotoftenfoundinplacesandconditionswhichwouldnaturallygiverisetothefamiliarmyth.Throwinalittleallowanceforhumancredulity,humanexaggeration,andhumanloveofthemarvellous,andyouhavealltheelementsofaveryexcellenttoad-in-the-holeinthehighestidealperfection.AtthesametimeIthinkitquitepossiblethatsometoads,undernaturalcircumstances,doreallyremaininatorpidorsemi-torpidconditionforaperiodfarexceedingthetwenty-fourmonthsallowedasthemaximuminDr.Buckland'sunpleasantexperiments.Iftheamountofairsuppliedthroughacrackorthroughthetextureofthestonewereexactlysufficientforkeepingtheanimalaliveintheveryslightestfashion--theengineworkingatthelowestpossiblepressure,shortofabsolutecessation--Iseenoreasononearthwhyatoadmightnotremaindormant,inamoistplace,withperhapsaveryoccasionalwormorgrubforbreakfast,foratleastaslongatimeasthedesertsnailsleptcomfortablyintheBritishMuseum.Altogether,whileitisimpossibletobelievethestoriesabouttoadsthathavebeenburiedinamineforwholecenturies,andstillmoreimpossibletobelieveintheirbeingdisentombedfrommarblemantelpiecesorveryancientgeologicalformations,itisquiteconceivablethatsometoads-in-a-holemayreallybefarfrommerevulgarimpostors,andmayhavepassedthetraditionalseve

nyearsoftheIndianphilosophersinsolitarymeditationonthesyllableOm,orontheequallysignificantKo-ax,Ko-axoftheirreverentAtticdramatist."Certainlynotacentenarian,butperhapsagoodseven-yearsleeperforallthat,"isthefinalverdictwhichthecourtisdisposedtoreturn,afterdueconsiderationofalltheprobabilitiesinrethetoad-in-a-hole.

AFOSSILCONTINENTIfanintelligentAustraliancolonistweresuddenlytobetranslatedbackwardfromCollinsStreet,Melbourne,intotheflourishingwoodsofthesecondarygeologicalperiod--sayabouttheprecisemomentoftimewhentheEnglishchalkdownswereslowlyaccumulating,speckbyspeck,onthesilentfloorofsomelong-forgottenMediterranean--theintelligentcolonistwouldlookaroundhimwithasweetsmileofcheerfulrecognition,andsaytohimselfinsomesurprise,'Why,thisis

justlikeAustralia.'Theanimals,thetrees,theplants,theinsects,wouldallmoreorlessvividlyremindhimofthosehehadleftbehindhiminhishappyhomeofthesouthernseasandthenineteenthcentury.Thesunwouldhavemovedbackonthedialofagesforafewmillionsummersorso,indefinitely(ingeologywerefusetobeboundbydates),andwouldhavelandedhimatlast,tohisimmenseastonishment,prettymuchattheexactpointwhencehefirststarted.Inotherwords,withafewneedfulqualifications,tobemadehereafter,Australiais,sotospeak,afossilcontinent,acountrystillinitssecondaryage,asurvivingfragmentoftheprimitiveworldofthechalkperiodorearlierages.Isolatedfromalltheremainderoftheearthaboutthebeginningofthetertiaryepoch,longbeforethemammothandthemastodonhadyetdreamtofappearinguponthestageofexistence,longbeforethefirstshadowyancestorofthehorsehadturnedtailonnature'sroughdraftofthestillundevelopedandunspecialised

lion,longbeforetheextinctdinotheriumsandgiganticIrishelksandcolossalgiraffesoflatetertiarytimeshadevenbeguntoruntheirraceonthebroadplainsofEuropeandAmerica,theAustraliancontinentfounditselfatanearlyperiodofitsdevelopmentcutoffentirelyfromallsocialintercoursewiththeremainderofourplanet,andturneduponitself,liketheGermanphilosopher,toevolveitsownplantsandanimalsoutofitsowninnerconsciousness.ThenaturalconsequencewasthatprogressinAustraliahasbeenabsurdlyslow,andthatthecountryasawholehasfallenmostwoefullybehindthetimesinallmatterspertainingtotheexistenceoflifeuponitssurface.EverybodyknowsthatAustraliaasawholeisaverypeculiarandoriginalcontinent;itspeculiarity,however



,consists,atbottom,forthemostpartinthefactthatitstillremainsatverynearlythesameearlypointofdevelopmentwhichEuropehadattainedacoupleofmillionyearsagoorthereabouts."Advance,Australia,"saysthenationalmotto;and,indeed,itisquitetimenowadaysthatAustraliashouldadvance;for,sofar,shehasbeenleftoutoftherunningforsomefourmundaneagesorsoataroughcomputation.Example,saysthewisdomofourancestors,isbetterthanprecept;soperhaps,ifItakeasingleexampletostartwith,IshallmaketheprincipleIwishtoillustrateatrifleclearertotheEuropeancomprehension.InAustralia,whenCookorVanDiemenfirstvisitedit,therewerenohorses,cows,orsheep;norabbits,weasels,orcats;noindigenousquadrupedsofanysortexceptthepouchedmammalsormarsupials,familiarlytypifiedtoeveryoneofusbythemammakangarooinRegent'sPark,whocarriesthebabykangaroosaboutwithher,neatlydepositedinthesacorpouchwhichnaturehasprovidedfortheminsteadofacradle.Tothisroughgeneralisation,tobesure,twospecialexceptionsmustneedsbemade;namely,thenobleAustralianblack-fellowhimself,andthedingoorwilddogwhoseancestorsnodoubtcametothecountryinthesameshipwithhim,asthebrownratcametoEnglandwithGeorgeI.ofblessedmemory.ButofthesetwosolitaryrepresentativesofthelaterandhigherAsiaticfauna'moreanon';forthepresentwemayregarditasapproximatelytruethataboriginalandunsophisticatedAustraliainthelumpwaswhollygivenover,onitsfirstdiscovery,tokangaroos,phalangers,dasyures,wombats,andotherquaintmarsupialanimals,withnamesasstrangeandclumsyastheirforms.Now,whoandwhatarethemarsupialsasafamily,viewedinthedrylightofmod

ernscience?Well,theyaresimplyoneoftheveryoldestmammalianfamilies,andtherefore,Ineedhardlysay,inthelevellingandtopsy-turvyviewofevolutionarybiology,theleastentitledtoconsiderationorrespectfromrationalobservers.Forofcourseinthekingdomofsciencethelastshallbefirst,andthefirstlast;itistheoldestfamiliesthatareaccountedtheworst,whilethebestfamiliesmeanalwaysthenewest.Now,theearliestmammalstoappearonearthwerecreaturesofdistinctlymarsupialtype.AslongagoasthetimewhentheredmarlofDevonshireandtheblueliasofLymeRegiswerelaiddownonthebedofthemuddyseathatoncecoveredthesurfaceofDorsetandtheEnglishChannel,alittlecreaturelikethekangarooratsofSouthernAustralialivedamongtheplainsofwhatisnowthesouthofEngland.IntheagessucceedingthedepositionoftheredmarlEuropeseemstohavebeenbrokenupintoanarchipelagoofcoralreefsandatolls;andtheislandsofthisancientooliticoceanweretenante

dbynumbersoftinyancestralmarsupials,someofwhichapproachedinappearancethepouchedant-eatersofWesternAustralia,whileothersresembledratherthephalangersandwombats,orturnedintoexcellentimitationcarnivores,likeourmodernfriendtheTasmaniandevil.UptotheendofthetimewhenthechalkdepositsofSurrey,Kent,andSussexwerelaiddown,indeed,thereisnoevidenceoftheexistenceanywhereintheworldofanymammalsdifferingintypefromthosewhichnowinhabitAustralia.Inotherwords,sofarasregardsmammalianlife,thewholeoftheworldhadthenalreadyreachedprettynearlythesamepointofevolutionthatpoorAustraliastillsticksat.Aboutthebeginningofthetertiaryperiod,however,justafterthechalkwasalldeposited,andjustbeforethecomparativelymodernclaysandsandstonesoftheLondonbasinbegantobelaiddown,anarmoftheseabrokeuptheconnectionwhichoncesubsistedbetweenAustraliaandtherestoftheworld,probablybya

landbridge,_via_Java,Sumatra,theMalaypeninsula,andAsiagenerally.'Buthowdoyouknow,'asksthecandidinquirer,'thatsuchaconnectioneverexistedatall?'Simplythus,mostlaudableinvestigator--becausetherearelargelandmammalsinAustralia.Now,largelandmammalsdonotswimacrossabroadocean.TherearenoneinNewZealand,noneintheAzores,noneinFiji,noneinTahiti,noneinMadeira,noneinTeneriffe--none,inshort,inanyoceanicislandwhichneveratanytimeformedpartofagreatcontinent.Howcouldtherebe,indeed?Themammalsmustnecessarilyhavegottherefromsomewhere;andwheneverwefindislandslikeBritain,orJapan,orNewfoundland,orSicily,possessinglargeandabundantindigenousquadrupeds,ofthesamegeneraltypeasadjacentcontinen



ts,weseeatoncethattheislandmustformerlyhavebeenamerepeninsula,likeItalyorNovaScotiaatthepresentday.TheveryfactthatAustraliainclosesalargegroupofbiggishquadrupeds,whosecongenersonceinhabitedEuropeandAmerica,sufficesinitselftoprovebeyondquestionthatuninterruptedlandcommunicationmustoncehaveexistedbetweenAustraliaandthosedistantcontinents.Infact,tothisdayabeltofverydeepsea,knownasWallace'sLine,fromthegreatnaturalistwhofirstpointedoutitsfar-reachingzoologicalimportance,separateswhatiscalledbyscience'theAustralianprovince'onthesouthwestfrom'theIndo-Malayanprovince'tothenorthandeastofit.ThisbeltofdeepseadividesoffsharplytheplantsandanimalsoftheAustraliantypefromthoseofthecommonIndianandBurmesepattern.SouthofWallace'sLinewenowfindseveralislands,bigandsmall,includingNewGuinea,Australia,Tasmania,theMoluccas,Celebes,Timor,Amboyna,andBanda.Alltheselands,whoseprecisegeographicalpositiononthemapmustofcoursebereadilyremembered,inthisageofschoolboardsanduniversalexamination,byeverypupil-teacherandeveryGirtongirl,arenowdividedbyminorstraitsofmuchshallowerwater;buttheyallstandonagreatsubmarinebank,andobviouslyformedatonetimepartsofthesamewideAustraliancontinent,becauseanimalsoftheAustraliantypearestillfoundineveryoneofthem.NoIndianorMalayananimal,however,ofthelargersort(otherthanbirds)istobediscoveredanywheresouthofWallace'sLine.Thatnarrowbeltofdeepsea,inshort,formsanoceanbarrierwhichhassubsistedtherewithoutalterationeversincetheendofthesecondaryperiod.Fromthattimetothis,astheevidenceshowsus,therehasneverbeenanydirectlandcommun

icationbetweenAustraliaandanypartoftheouterworldbeyondthatnarrowlineofdivision.Someyearsago,infact,acleverhoaxtooktheworldbysurpriseforamoment,undertheaudacioustitleof'CaptainLawson'sAdventuresinNewGuinea.'Thegallantcaptain,orhisunknowncreatorinsomeLondonlodging,pretendedtohaveexploredthePapuanjungles,andtheretohavemetwithmarvellousescapesfromterriblebeastsofthecommontropicalAsiaticpattern--rhinoceroses,tigers,monkeys,andleopards.EverybodybelievedthenewMunchausenatfirst,exceptthezoologists.Thosecannyfolkssawthroughthewickedhoaxontheveryfirstblushofit.IftherewererhinocerosesinPapua,theymusthavegottherebyanoverlandroute.IftherehadeverbeenalandconnectionbetweenNewGuineaandtheMalayregion,then,sinceAustraliananimalsrangeintoNewGuinea,MalayananimalswouldhaverangedintoAustralia,andweshouldfindVictoriaandNewSouth

Walesatthepresentdaypeopledbytapirs,orang-outangs,wildboars,deer,elephants,andsquirrels,likethosewhichnowpeopleBorneo,insteadof,orsidebysidewith,thekangaroos,wombats,andothermarsupials,which,asweknow,actuallyformthesoleindigenousmammalianpopulationofGreaterBritainbeneaththeSouthernCross.Ofcourse,intheend,themysteriousandtremendousCaptainLawsonprovedtobeamyth,anairynothinguponwhomimaginationhadbestowedalocalhabitation(inNewGuinea)andaname(nottobefoundintheArmyList).Wallace'sLinewassavedfromreproach,andtheintrusiverhinoceroswasbanishedwithoutappealfromthesoilofPapua.AfterthedeepbeltofopenseawasthusestablishedbetweenthebiggerAustraliancontinentandtheMalayanregion,however,themammalsofthegreatmainlandscontinuedtodevelopontheirownaccount,inaccordancewiththestrictestDarwinianprinciples,amongthewiderplainsoftheirownhabitats.Thecompetition

therewasfiercerandmoregeneral;thestruggleforlifewasbloodierandmorearduous.Hence,whiletheold-fashionedmarsupialscontinuedtosurviveandtoevolveslowlyalongtheirownlinesintheirownrestrictedsouthernworld,theircollateraldescendantsinEuropeandAsiaandAmericaorelsewherewentonprogressingintofarhigher,stronger,andbetteradaptedforms--thegreatcentralmammalianfauna.Inplaceofthepettyphalangersandpouchedant-eatersoftheooliticperiod,ourtertiarystratainthelargercontinentsshowusarapidandextraordinarydevelopmentofthemammalianraceintomonstrouscreatures,someofthemnowquiteextinct,andsomestillholdingtheirownundisturbedinIndia,Africa,andtheAmericanprairies.Thepal?otheriumandthedeinoceras,thema



stodonandthemammoth,thehugegiraffesandantelopesofsunniertimes,succeedtotheancestralkangaroosandwombatsofthesecondarystrata.Slowlythehorsesgrowmorehorse-like,theshadowycamelbeginstocamelisehimself,thebuffaloesacquiretherudimentsofhorns,thedeerbranchoutbytentativestepsintostillmorecomplicatedandmorecomplicatedantlers.Sidebysidewiththiswonderfuloutgrowthofthemammaliantype,inthefirstplasticityofitsvigorousyouth,theoldermarsupialsdieawayonebyoneinthegeologicalrecordbeforethefacesoftheirmoresuccessfulcompetitors;thenewcarnivoresdevourthemwholesale,thenewruminantseatuptheirpastures,thenewrodentsoutwittheminthemodernisedforests.Atlastthepouchedcreaturesalldisappearutterlyfromalltheworld,saveonlyAustralia,withthesolitaryexceptionofasingleadvancedmarsupialfamily,thefamiliaropossumofplantationmelodies.Andthehistoryoftheopossumhimselfissoverysingularthatitalmostdeservestoreceivethepoliteattentionofaseparateparagraphforitsownproperelucidation.FortheopossumsformtheonlymembersofthemarsupialclassnowlivingoutsideAustralia;andyet,whatisatleastequallyremarkable,noneoftheopossumsarefoundpercontrainAustraliaitself.Theyare,infact,thehighestandbestproductoftheolddyingmarsupialstock,speciallyevolvedinthegreatcontinentsthroughthefiercecompetitionofthehighermammalsthenbeingdevelopedoneverysideofthem.Therefore,beinglaterinpointoftimethantheseparation,theycouldnomoregetovertoAustraliathantheelephantsandtigersandrhinocerosescould.Theyarethelastbidforlifeofthemarsupialraceinitshopelessstruggleagainstitsmoredevelopedmammaliancousins.InEuropeandAsia

theopossumslivedonlustily,inspiteofcompetition,duringthewholeoftheEoceneperiod,sidebysidewithhog-likecreaturesnotyetperfectlypiggish,withnondescriptanimals,halfhorsehalftapir,andwithhornlessformsofdeerandantelopes,unprovided,sofar,withthefirstrudimentofbuddingantlers.Butinthesucceedingagetheyseemtodisappearfromtheeasterncontinent,thoughinthewestern,thankstotheirhand-likefeet,opposablethumb,andtree-hauntinglife,theystilldragoutaprecariousexistenceinmanyformsfromVirginiatoChili,andfromBraziltoCalifornia.Itisworthwhiletonotice,too,thatwhereasthekangaroosandotherAustralianmarsupialsareproverbiallytheverystupidestofmammals,theopossums,onthecontrary,arewellknowntothoseaccurateobserversofanimalpsychology,theplantationnegroes,tobetheverycleverest,cunningest,andslyestofAmericanquadrupeds.InthefiercestruggleforlifeofthecrowdedAmericanlowlands,theopossumwasabsolutelyforcedt

oacquireacertainamountofYankeesmartness,orelsetobeimprovedoffthefaceoftheearthbythekeencompetitionofthepouchlessmammals.Uptotheday,then,whenCaptainCookandSirJosephBanks,landingforthefirsttimeonthecoastofNewSouthWales,sawananimalwithshortfrontlimbs,hugehindlegs,amonstroustail,andacurioushabitofhoppingalongtheground(calledbythenativesakangaroo),theopossumsofAmericaweretheonlypouchedmammalsknowntotheEuropeanworldinanypartoftheexploredcontinents.Australia,severedfromalltherestoftheearth--_penitustotoorbedivisa_--eversincetheendofthesecondaryperiod,remainedasyet,sotospeak,inthesecondaryagesofarasitslargerlife-elementswereconcerned,andpresentedtothefirstcomersacertainvagueandindefinitepictureofwhat'theworldbeforetheflood'musthavelookedlike.Onlyitwasaveryremoteflood;anantediluvianageseparatedfromourownnotbythousands,butbymillions,ofseasons.

Tothisroughapproximatestatement,however,sundryneedfulqualificationsmustbemadeattheveryoutset.Nostatementiseverquitecorrectuntilyouhavecontradictedinminutedetailabouttwo-thirdsofit.InthefirstplacethereareagoodmanymodernelementsintheindigenouspopulationofAustralia;butthentheyareelementsofthestrayandcasualsortonealwaysfindseveninremoteoceanicislands.Theyarewaifswaftedbyaccidentfromotherplaces.Forexample,thefloraisbynomeansexclusivelyanancientflora,foraconsiderablenumberofseedsandfruitsandsporesoffernsalwaysgetblownbythewind,orwashedbythesea,orcarriedonthefeetorfeathersofbirds,fromonepartoftheworldtoanother.Inallthesevariousways,nodo



ubt,modernplantsfromtheAsiaticregionhaveinvadedAustraliaatdifferenttimes,andalteredtosomeextentthecharacterandaspectofitsoriginalnativevegetation.Nevertheless,eveninthematterofitsplantsandtrees,Australiamuststillbeconsideredaveryold-fashionedandstick-in-the-mudcontinent.Thestrangepuzzle-monkeys,thequaint-jointedcasuarinas(likehorsetailsgrownintobigwillows),andthepark-likeforestsofbluegum-trees,withtheirsmoothstemsrobbedoftheirouterbark,impartamarvellouslyantiquatedandunfamiliartonetothegeneralappearanceofAustralianwoodland.Allthesetypesbelongbybirthtoclasseslongsinceextinctinthelargercontinents.Thescrubshowsnoturfygreensward;grasses,whichelsewherecarpettheground,werealmostunknowntillintroducedfromEurope;inthewildlands,bushes,andundershrubsofancientaspectcoverthesoil,remarkablefortheirstiff,dry,wiryfoliage,theirverticallyinsteadofhorizontallyflattenedleaves,andtheirgeneraldeadblue-greenorglaucouscolour.Altogether,thevegetationitself,thoughitcontainsafewmoremodernformsthantheanimalworld,isstillessentiallyantiqueintype,astrangesurvivalfromtheforgottenfloraofthechalkage,theoolite,andeventhelias.Again,towingedanimals,suchasbirdsandbatsandflyinginsects,theoceanformsfarlessofabarrierthanitdoestoquadrupeds,toreptiles,andtofresh-waterfishes.HenceAustraliahas,tosomeextent,beeninvadedbylatertypesofbirdsandotherflyingcreatures,wholiveontheresidebysidewiththeancientanimalsofthesecondarypattern.Warblers,thrushes,flycatchers,shrikes,andcrowsmustallbecomparativelyrecentimmigrantsfromtheAsiaticmainland.Eveninthisrespect,however,theAustralianlife-regionstillbearsanantiq

uatedandundevelopedaspect.Nowhereelseintheworlddowefindthoseveryoldesttypesofbirdsrepresentedbythecassowaries,theemus,andthemoorukofNewBritain.Theextremeterminthisexceedinglyancientsetofcreatureisgivenusbythewinglessbird,theapteryxorkiwiofNewZealand,whosefeathersnearlyresemblehair,andwhosegrotesqueappearancemakesitasmuchawonderinitsownclassasthepuzzle-monkeyandthecasuarinaareamongforesttrees.Nofeatheredcreaturessocloselyapproachthelizard-tailedbirdsoftheooliteorthetoothedbirdsofthecretaceousperiodasdotheseAustralianandNewZealandemusandapteryxes.Again,whilemanycharacteristicOrientalfamiliesarequiteabsent,likethevultures,woodpeckers,pheasantsandbulbuls,theAustralianregionhasmanyotherfairlyancientbirds,foundnowhereelseonthesurfaceofourmodernplanet.Sucharetheso-calledbrushturkeysandmoundbuilders,theonlyfeatheredthingsthatneversitupontheirowneggs,butallowthemto

behatched,afterthefashionofreptiles,bytheheatofthesandoroffermentingvegetablematter.Thepipingcrows,thehoney-suckers,thelyre-birds,andthemore-porksareallpeculiartotheAustralianregion.Soarethewonderfuland?stheticbower-birds.Brush-tonguedlories,blackcockatoos,andgorgeouslycolouredpigeons,thoughsomewhatlessantique,perhaps,intype,giveaspecialcharactertothebird-lifeofthecountry.AndinNewGuinea,anisolatedbitofthesameoldcontinent,thebirdsofparadise,foundnowhereelseinthewholeworld,seemtorecallsomeforgottenEdenoftheremotepast,somegoldenageofSaturniansplendour.Poetryapart,intowhichIhavedroppedforamomentlikeMr.SilasWegg,thebirdsofparadiseare,infact,gorgeouslydressedcrows,speciallyadaptedtoforestlifeinarichfruit-bearingtropicalcountry,wherefoodisabundantandenemiesunknown.Lastofall,acertainsmallnumberofmodernmammalshavepassedovertoAustra

liaatvarioustimesbypurechance.Theyfallintotwoclasses--theratsandmice,whodoubtlessgottransportedacrossonfloatinglogsorbalksoftimber;andthehumanimportations,includingthedog,whocame,perhapsontheirowners'canoes,perhapsonthewreckand_d¨¦bris_ofinundations.Yeteveninthesecasesagain,Australiastillmaintainsitsproudpre-eminenceasthemostantiquatedandunprogressiveofcontinents.FortheAustralianblack-fellowmusthavegotthereaverylongtimeagoindeed;hebelongstoanextremelyancienthumantype,andstrikinglyrecallsinhisjawsandskulltheNeanderthalsavageandotherearlyprehistoricraces;whilethewoolly-headedTasmanian,amemberofatotallydistincthumanfamily,andperhapstheverylowestsampleofhumanitythathassu



rvivedtomoderntimes,musthavecrossedovertoTasmaniaevenearlierstill,hisbrethrenonthemainlandhavingnodoubtbeenexterminatedlateronwhenthestone-ageAustralianblack-fellowsfirstgotcastashoreuponthecontinentinhabitedbytheyetmorebarbaricandhelplessnegritorace.Asforthedingo,orAustralianwilddog,onlyhalfdomesticatedbythesavagenatives,herepresentsalowancestraldogtype,halfwolfandhalfjackal,incapableofthehighercaninetraits,andwithasuspicious,ferocious,glaringeyethatbetraysatoncehisuncivilisabletendencies.Omittingtheselaterimportations,however--themodernplants,birds,andhumanbeings--itmaybefairlysaidthatAustraliaisstillinitssecondarystage,whiletherestoftheworldhasreachedthetertiaryandquaternaryperiods.Hereagain,however,adeductionmustbemade,inordertoattainthenecessaryaccuracy.EveninAustraliatheworldneverstandsstill.ThoughtheAustraliananimalsarestillatbottomtheEuropeanandAsiaticanimalsofthesecondaryage,theyarethoseanimalswithadifference.Theyhaveundergoneanevolutionoftheirown.Ithasnotbeentheevolutionofthegreatcontinents;butithasbeenevolutionallthesame;slower,morelocal,narrower,morerestricted,yetevolutioninthetruestsense.OnemightcomparethedifferencetothedifferencebetweenthecivilisationofEuropeandthecivilisationofMexicoorPeru.TheMexicans,whenCortezblottedouttheirindigenousculture,werestill,tobesure,intheirstoneage;butitwasaverydifferentstoneagefromthatofthecave-dwellersormoundbuildersinBritain.Evenso,thoughAustraliaisstillzoologicallyinthesecondaryperiod,itisasecondaryperiodagooddealalteredandadaptedindetailtomeetthewantsofspecialsituations.

TheoldesttypesofanimalsinAustraliaaretheornithorhynchusandtheechidna,the'beastwithabill,'andthe'porcupineant-eater'ofpopularnaturalhistory.Thesecuriouscreatures,genuinelivingfossils,occupyinsomerespectsanintermediateplacebetweenthemammalsontheonehandandthebirdsandlizardsontheother.Theechidnahasnoteeth,andaverybird-likeskullandbody;theornithorhynchushasabilllikeaduck's,webbedfeet,andagreatmanyquaintanatomicalpeculiaritieswhichcloselyallyittothebirdsandreptiles.Both,infact,areearlyarrestedstagesinthedevelopmentofmammalsfromtheoldcommonvertebrateancestor;andtheycouldonlyhavestruggledontoourowndayinacontinentfreefromtheseverecompetitionofthehighertypeswhichhavesincebeenevolvedinEuropeandAsia.EveninAustraliaitselftheornithorhynchusandechidnahavehadtoputupperforcewiththelowerplacesinthehierarchyofnature.Thefirstisaburrowingandaquaticcreature,specialisedinath

ousandminutewaysforhisamphibiouslifeandqueersubterraneanhabits;thesecondisaspinyhedgehog-likenocturnalprowler,whoburieshimselfintheearthduringtheday,andlivesbynightoninsectswhichhelicksupgreedilywithhislongribbon-liketongue.Apartfromthespecialisationsbroughtaboutbytheirnecessaryadaptationtoaparticularnicheintheeconomyoflife,thesetwoquaintandveryancientanimalsprobablypreserveforusintheirgeneralstructurethefeaturesofanextremelyearlydescendantofthecommonancestorfromwhommammals,birds,andreptilesalikeareoriginallyderived.TheordinaryAustralianpouchedmammalsbelongtofarlessancienttypesthanornithorhynchusandechidna,buttheytooareveryoldinstructure,thoughtheyhaveundergoneanextraordinaryseparateevolutiontofitthemforthemostdiversepositionsinlife.Almosteverymainformofhighermammal(exceptthebiggestones)has,asitwere,itsanalogueorrepresentativeamongthemarsupialfaun

aoftheAustralasianregionfittedtofillthesamenicheinnature.Forinstance,inthebluegumforestsofNewSouthWalesasmallanimalinhabitsthetrees,informandaspectexactlylikeaflyingsquirrel.NobodywhowasnotastructuralandanatomicalnaturalistwouldeverforamomentdreamofdoubtingitscloseaffinitytotheflyingsquirrelsoftheAmericanwoodlands.Ithasjustthesamegeneraloutline,justthesamebushytail,justthesamerougharrangementofcolours,andjustthesameexpandedparachute-likemembranestretchingbetweentheforeandhindlimbs.Whyshouldthisbeso?Clearlybecausebothanimalshaveindependentlyadaptedthemselvestothesamemodeoflifeunderthesamegeneralcircumstances.Naturalselection,actinguponunlikeoriginaltypes,butin



likeconditions,hasproducedintheendverysimilarresultsinbothcases.Still,whenwecometoexaminethemoreintimateunderlyingstructureofthetwoanimals,aprofoundfundamentaldifferenceatonceexhibitsitself.Theoneisdistinctlyatruesquirrel,arodentoftherodents,externallyadaptedtoanarborealexistence;theotherisequallyatruephalanger,amarsupialofthemarsupials,whichhasindependentlyundergoneonhisownaccountverymuchthesameadaptation,forverymuchthesamereasons.Justsoadolphinlooksexternallyverylikeafish,inheadandtailandformandmovement;itsflipperscloselyresemblefins;andnothingaboutitseemstodifferverymarkedlyfromtheouteraspectofasharkoracodfish.Butinrealityithasnogillsandnoswim-bladder;itlaysnoeggs;itdoesnotownonetrulyfish-likeorgan.Itbreathesair,itpossesseslungs,ithaswarmblood,itsucklesitsyoung;inheartandbrainandnervesandorganisationitisathorough-goingmammal,withanacquiredresemblancetothefishyform,dueentirelytomeresimilarityinplaceofresidence.Runninghastilythroughthechiefmarsupialdevelopments,onemaysaythatthewombatsarepouchedanimalswhotaketheplaceofrabbitsormarmotsinEurope,andresemblethembothinburrowinghabitsandmoreorlessinshape,whichcloselyapproachesthefamiliarandungracefulguinea-pigoutline.Thevulpinephalangerdoesdutyforafox;thefatandsleepylittledormousephalangertakestheplaceofaEuropeandormouse.Botharesoridiculouslyliketheanalogousanimalsofthelargercontinentsthatthecolonistsalwayscallthem,inperfectgoodfaith,bythefamiliarnamesoftheold-countrycreatures.Thekoalaposesasasmallbear;thecuscusanswerstotheracoonsofAmerica.Thepouchedbadgersexplainthemselvesatoncebytheirveryname,likethePlyants,thePinchwifes,t

heBrainsicks,andtheCarelessesoftheRestorationcomedy.The'nativerabbit'ofSwanRiverisarabbit-likebandicoot;thepouchedant-eatersimilarlytakestheplaceofthetrueant-eatersofothercontinents.Bywayofcarnivores,theTasmaniandevilisafierceandsavagemarsupialanalogueoftheAmericanwolverine;asmallerspeciesofthesametypeusurpsthenameandplaceofthemarten;andthedog-headedThylacinusisinformandfigurepreciselylikeawolforajackal.Thepouchedweaselsareveryweasel-like;thekangarooratsandkangaroomicerunthetrueratsandmiceacloseraceineveryparticular.Anditisworthnotice,inthisconnection,thattheonemarsupialfamilywhichcouldcompetewithhigherAmericanlife,theopossums,arereally,sotospeak,themonkeydevelopmentofthemarsupialrace.Theyhaveopposablethumbs,whichmaketheirfeetalmostintohands;theyhaveprehensiletails,bywhichtheyhangfrombranchesintruemonkeyfashion;theyleadanarborealomnivorousexistence;theyfee

dofffruits,birds'eggs,insects,androots;andaltogethertheyarejustactive,cunning,intelligent,tree-hauntingmarsupialspider-monkeys.Australiahasalsoonestillmoreancientdenizenthananyofthese,alivingfossiloftheveryoldestsort,acreatureofwhollyimmemorialandprimitiveantiquity.Thestoryofitsdiscoveryteemswiththestrangestromanceofnaturalhistory.TothosewhocouldappreciatethefactsofthecaseitwasjustascuriousandjustasinterestingasthoughwewerenowtodiscoversomewhereinanunknownislandoranAfricanoasissomesurvivingmammoth,somebelatedmegatherium,orsomegiganticandmisshapenliassicsaurian.ImaginetheextinctanimalsoftheCrystalPalacegroundssuddenlyappearingtoourdazzledeyesinatropicalramble,andyoucanfaintlyconceivethedelightandastonishmentofnaturalistsatlargewhenthebarramundafirst'swamintotheirken'intheriversofQueensland.Tobesure,insizeandshapethis'extinctfish,'stilllivingandgrunt

ingquietlyinourmidst,iscomparativelyinsignificantbesidethe'dragonsoftheprime'immortalisedinafamousstanzabyTennyson:but,tothetrueenthusiast,sizeisnothing;andthebarramundaisjustasmuchamarvelandamonsterastheAtlantosaurushimselfwouldhavebeenifhehadsuddenlywalkeduponthestageoftime,draggingfiftyfeetoflizard-liketailinatrainbehindhim.Andthisistheplainstoryofthatmarvellousdiscoveryofa'missinglink'inourownpedigree.IntheoldestsecondaryrocksofBritainandelsewherethereoccurinabundancetheteethofagenusofganoidfishesknownastheCeratodi.(Iapologiseforganoid,thoughitisnotaswear-word).Theseteethreappearfromtimetotimein



severalsubsequentformations,butatlastslowlydieoutaltogether;andofcourseallnaturalistsnaturallyconcludedthatthecreaturetowhichtheybelongedhaddiedoutalso,andwaslongsincenumberedwiththedodoandthemastodon.TheideathataCeratoduscouldstillbeliving,farlessthatitformedanimportantlinkinthedevelopmentofallthehigheranimals,couldneverforamomenthaveoccurredtoanybody.Aswellexpecttofindapal?olithicmanquietlychippingflintsonaPacificatoll,ortodiscovertheancestorofallhorsesontheisolatedandcrag-encircledsummitofRoraima,astouneartharealliveCeratodusfromamodernestuary.In1870,however,Mr.KreffttookawaythebreathofscientificEuropebyinformingitthathehadfoundtheextinctganoidswimmingaboutaslargeaslife,andsixfeetlong,withoutthefaintestconsciousnessofitsownscientificimportance,inariverinQueenslandatthepresentday.Theunsophisticatedaboriginesknewitasbarramunda;thealmostequallyignorantwhitesettlerscalleditwithirreverentandunfilialcontempttheflat-head.Onfurtherexamination,however,thedespisedbarramundaprovedtobeaconnectinglinkofprimaryrankbetweentheoldestsurvivinggroupoffishesandthelowestair-breathinganimalslikethefrogsandsalamanders.Thoughatruefish,itleavesitsnativestreamsatnight,andsetsoutonaforagingexpeditionaftervegetablefoodintheneighbouringwoodlands.Thereitbrowsesonmyrtleleavesandgrasses,andotherwisebehavesitselfinamannerwhollyunbecomingitspiscineantecedentsandaquaticeducation.Tofititforthisstrangeamphibiouslife,thebarramundahasbothlungsandgills;itcanbreatheeitherairorwateratwill,or,ifitchooses,thetwotogether.Thoughcoveredwithscales,andmostfish-likeinoutline,itpresentspointsofanatomicalresemblancebothtosala

mandersandlizards;and,asaconnectingbondbetweentheNorthAmericanmud-fishontheonehandandthewonderfullepidosirenontheother,itformsatruememberofthelongseriesbywhichthehigheranimalsgenerallytracetheirdescentfromaremoteraceofmarineancestors.Itisveryinteresting,therefore,tofindthatthislivingfossillinkbetweenfishandreptilesshouldhavesurvivedonlyinthefossilcontinent,Australia.Everywhereelseithaslongsincebeenbeatenoutofthefieldbyitsownmoredevelopedamphibiandescendants;inAustraliaaloneitstilldragsonalonelyexistenceasthelastrelicofanotherwiselong-forgottenandextinctfamily.

AVERYOLDMASTERTheworkofartwhichliesbeforemeisold,unquestionablyold;agooddealolder,infact,thanArchbishopUssher(whoinventedalloutofhisownarchiepisco

palheadthedatecommonlyassignedforthecreationoftheworld)wouldbyanymeanshavebeenreadytoadmit.Itisabas-reliefbyanoldmaster,considerablymoreantiqueinoriginthanthemostarchaicgemorintagliointheMuseoBorbonicoatNaples,themildlydecorousLouvreinParis,ortheeminentlyrespectableBritishMuseum,whichisthegloryofourownsmokyLondoninthespectacledeyesofGermanprofessors,allputtogether.WhenAssyriansculptorscarvedinfreshwhitealabastertheflowingcurlsofSennacherib'shair,justlikeamoderncoachman'swig,thisworkofprim?valartwasalreadyhoarywiththerimeofages.WhenMemphianartistswerebusyinthemorningtwilightoftimewiththetoweringcoiffureofRamsesorSesostris,thisfarmoreancientrelicofplastichandicraftwaslying,alreadyfossilandforgotten,beneaththeconcretedfloorofacaveintheDordogne.Ifweweretodividetheperiodforwhichwepossessauthenticrecordsofman'sabodeuponthisoblatespheroidintotenepochs--anepo

chbeingagoodhigh-soundingwordwhichdoesn'tcommitonetoanydefinitechronologyinparticular--thenitisprobablethatallknownart,fromtheEgyptianonward,wouldfallintothetenthoftheepochsthuslooselydemarcated,whilemyoldFrenchbas-reliefwouldfallintothefirst.Toputthedatequitesuccinctly,Ishouldsayitwasmostlikelyabout244,000yearsbeforethecreationofAdamaccordingtoUssher.Theworkoftheoldmasterislightlyincisedonreindeerhorn,andrepresentstwohorses,ofaveryearlyandheavytype,followingoneanother,withheadsstretchedforward,asifsniffingtheairsuspiciouslyinsearchofenemies.ThehorseswouldcertainlyexciteunfavourablecommentatNewmarket.Their'points'ar



eundoubtedlycoarseandclumsy:theirheadsarebig,thick,stupid,andungainly;theirmanesarebushyandill-defined;theirlegsaredistinctlyfeebleandspindle-shaped;theirtailsmorecloselyresemblethetailofthedomesticpigthanthatofthenobleanimalbelovedwithalovepassingtheloveofwomenbytheEnglisharistocracy.Neverthelessthereislittle(ifany)reasontodoubtthatmyveryoldmasterdid,onthewhole,accuratelyrepresenttheancestralsteedofhisownexceedinglyremoteperiod.TherewereoncehorsesevenasisthehorseoftheprehistoricDordonianartist.Suchclumsy,big-headedbrutes,duninhueandstripeddownthebacklikemoderndonkeys,didactuallyonceroamoverthelowplainswhereParisnowstands,andbrowseofflushgrassandtallwater-plantsaroundthequaysofBordeauxandLyons.Notonlydothebonesofthecontemporaryhorses,dugupincaves,provethis,butquiterecentlytheRussiantravellerPrjevalsky(whosenameissomucheasiertospellthantopronounce)hasdiscoveredasimilarlivinghorse,whichdragsonanobscureexistencesomewhereinthehightable-landsofCentralAsia.Prjevalsky'shorse(yousee,asIhaveonlytowritetheword,withoututteringit,Idon'tmindhowoftenorhowintrepidlyIuseit)issosingularlyliketheclumsybrutesthatsat,orratherstood,fortheirportraitstomyoldmasterthatwecan'tdobetterthanbeginbydescribinghiminpropriapersona.Thehorsefamilyofthepresentdayisdivided,likemostotherfamilies,intotwofactions,whichmaybedescribedforvariety'ssakeasthoseofthetruehorsesandthedonkeys,theselatterincludingalsothezebras,quaggas,andvariousotherunfamiliarcreatureswhosenames,inverychoiceLatin,areonlyknowntothemorediligentvisitorsattheSundayZoo.Noweverybodymusthavenoticedt

hatthechiefbroaddistinctionbetweenthesetwogreatgroupsconsistsinthefeatheringofthetail.Thedomesticdonkey,withhisnearcongeners,thezebraandco.,havesmoothshort-hairedtails,endinginasinglebunchorfly-whiskoflonghairscollectedtogetherinatuftedbundleattheextremetip.Thehorse,ontheotherhand,besideshavinghornypatchesorcallositiesonbothforeandhindlegs,whilethedonkeyshavethemontheforelegsonly,hasahairytail,inwhichthelonghairsarealmostequallydistributedfromtoptobottom,thusgivingititspeculiarlybushyandbrushyappearance.ButPrjevalsky'shorse,asonewouldnaturallyexpectfromanearlyintermediateform,standshalf-wayinthisrespectbetweenthetwogroups,andactsthethanklesspartofafamilymediator;forithasmostofitslongtail-hairscollectedinafinalflourish,likethedonkey,butseveralofthemspringfromthemiddledistance,asinthegenuineArab,thoughneverfromtheverytop,thusshowinganapproachtothetrue

horseyhabitwithoutactuallyattainingthatfinalpinnacleofequineglory.SofarasonecanmakeoutfromthesomewhatrudehandicraftofmyprehistoricPhidiasthehorseofthequaternaryepochhadmuchthesamecaudalpeculiarity;histailwasbushy,butonlyinthelowerhalf.Hewasstillintheintermediatestagebetweenhorseanddonkey,anaturalmulestillstrugglingupaspiringlytowardperfecthorsehood.Inallothermattersthetwocreatures--thecaveman'shorseandPrjevalsky's--closelyagree.Bothdisplaylargeheads,thicknecks,coarsemanes,andageneraldisregardof'points'whichwouldstrikedisgustanddismayintothestoutbreastsofMessrs.Tattersall.InfactoveraT.Y.C.itmaybeconfidentlyasserted,inthepureSaxonofthesportingpapers,thatPrjevalsky'sandthecaveman'slotwouldn'tbeinit.Neverthelessacandidcriticwouldbeforcedtoadmitthat,inspiteofclumsiness,theybothmeanstaying.Somuchforthetwositters;nowletusturntotheartistwhosketchedthem.Wh

owashe,andwhendidhelive?Well,hisname,likethatofmanyotheroldmasters,isquiteunknowntous;butwhatdoesthatmattersolongashisworkitselflivesandsurvives?LiketheComtistshehasmanagedtoobtainobjectiveimmortality.Thework,afterall,isforthemostpartallweeverhavetogoupon.'IhavemyowntheoryabouttheauthorshipoftheIliadandOdyssey,'saidLewisCarroll(of'AliceinWonderland')onceinChristChurchcommonroom:'itisthattheyweren'treallywrittenbyHomer,butbyanotherpersonofthesamename.'ThereyouhavetheIliadinanutshellasregardstheauthenticityofgreatworks.AllweknowaboutthesupposedHomer(ifanything)isthathewasthereputedauthorofthetwounapproachableGreekepics;andallweknowdirectlyaboutm



yoldmaster,viewedpersonally,isthatheoncecarvedwitharudeflintflakeonafragmentofreindeerhornthesetwoclumsyprehistorichorses.Yetbyputtingtwoandtwotogetherwecanmake,notfour,asmightbenaturallyexpected,butafairlyconnectedhistoryoftheoldmasterhimselfandwhatMr.HerbertSpencerwouldnodoubtplayfullyterm'hisenvironment.'TheworkofartwasdugupfromunderthefirmconcretedfloorofacaveintheDordogne.Thatcavewasonceinhabitedbythenamelessartisthimself,hiswife,andfamily.Ithadbeenpreviouslytenantedbyvariousotherearlyfamilies,aswellasbybears,whoseemtohavelivedthereintheintervalsbetweenthedifferenthumanoccupiers.Probablythebearsejectedthemen,andthemeninturnejectedthebears,bythesummaryprocessofeatingoneanotherup.InanycasethefreeholdofthecavewasatlastsettleduponourearlyFrenchartist.Butthedateofhisoccupancyisbynomeansrecent;forsincehelivedtherethelongcoldspellknownastheGreatIceAge,orGlacialEpoch,hassweptoverthewholeofNorthernEurope,andsweptbeforeittheshiveringdescendantsofmypoorprehistoricoldmaster.Now,howlongagowastheGreatIceAge?Asarule,ifyouaskageologistforadefinitedate,youwillfindhimverycharyofgivingyouadistinctanswer.HeknowsthatthechalkisolderthantheLondonclay,andtheoolitethanthechalk,andtheredmarlthantheoolite;andheknowsalsothateachofthemtookaverylongtimeindeedtolaydown,butexactlyhowlonghehasnonotion.Ifyousaytohim,'Isitamillionyearssincethechalkwasdeposited?'hewillanswer,liketheoldladyofPrague,whoseideaswereexcessivelyvague,'Perhaps.'Ifyousuggestfivemillions,hewillansweroracularlyoncemore,'Perhaps';andifyougoontotwentymillions,'Perhaps,'withab

roadsmile,isstilltheonlyconfessionoffaiththattorturewillwringoutofhim.ButinthematteroftheGlacialEpoch,acomparativelylateandalmosthistoricalevent,geologistshavebrokenthroughtheirusualreserveonthischronologicalquestionandcondescendedtogiveusanumericaldetermination.AndhereishowDr.Crollgetsatit.Everynowandagain,geologicalevidencegoestoshowus,alongcoldspelloccursinthenorthernorsouthernhemisphere.Duringtheselongcoldspellstheicecapatthepolesincreaseslargely,tillitspreadsoveragreatpartofwhatarenowthetemperateregionsoftheglobe,andmakesiceameredruginthemarketasfarsouthasCoventGardenortheHallesatParis.Duringthegreatestextensionofthisicesheetinthelastglacialepoch,infact,allEnglandexceptasmallsouth-westerncorner(aboutTorquayandBournemouth)wascompletelycoveredbyoneenormousmassofglaciers,asisstillthecasewithalmostthewhole

ofGreenland.Theicesheet,grindingslowlyoverthehillsandrocks,smoothedandpolishedandstriatedtheirsurfacesinmanyplacestilltheyresembledthe_rochesmoutonn¨¦es_similarlygrounddowninourowndaybythemovingiceriversofChamouniandGrindelwald.Now,sincethesegreatglaciationshaveoccurredatvariousintervalsintheworld'spasthistory,theymustdependuponsomefrequentlyrecurringcause.Suchacause,therefore,Dr.Crollbeganingeniouslytohuntaboutfor.Hefounditatlastintheeccentricityoftheearth'sorbit.Thisworldofours,thoughusuallysteadyenoughinitsmovements,isattimesdecidedlyeccentric.NotthatImeantoimputetoouroldandexceedinglyrespectableplanetanyoccasionalaberrationsofintellect,orstilllessofmorals(suchasmightbeexpectedfromMarsandVenus);thewordisheretobeacceptedstrictlyinitsscientificorPickwickiansenseasimplyingmerelyanirregularityofmovement,asl

ightwobblingoutoftheestablishedpath,adeviationfromexactcircularity.Owingtoacombinationofastronomicalrevolutions,theprecessionoftheequinoxesandthemotionoftheaphelion(Iamnotgoingtoexplainthemhere;thenamesalonewillbequitesufficientformostpeople;theywilltaketherestontrust)--owingtothecombinationoftheseprofoundlyinterestingcauses,Isay,thereoccurcertainperiodsintheworld'slifewhenforaverylongtimetogether(10,500years,tobequiteprecise)thenorthernhemisphereiswarmerthanthesouthern,orviceversa.Now,Dr.Crollhascalculatedthatabout250,000yearsagothiseccentricityoftheearth'sorbitwasatitshighest,sothatacycleofrecurringcoldandwarmepochsineitherhemispherealternatelythensetin;an



dsuchcoldspellsitwasthatproducedtheGreatIceAgeinNorthernEurope.Theywentontillabout80,000yearsago,whentheystoppedshortforthepresent,leavingtheclimateofBritainandtheneighbouringcontinentwithitsexistinginconvenientLaodiceantemperature.And,astherearegoodreasonsforbelievingthatmyoldmasterandhiscontemporarieslivedjustbeforethegreatestcoldoftheGlacialEpoch,andthathisimmediatedescendants,withtheanimalsonwhichtheyfeasted,weredrivenoutofEurope,oroutofexistence,bytheslowapproachoftheenormousicesheet,wemay,Ithink,fairlyconcludethathisdatewassomewhereaboutB.C.248,000.Inanycasewemustatleastadmit,withMr.AndrewLang,thelaureateofthetwenty-fivethousandthcentury,thatHelivedinthelonglongagoes;'Twasthemannerofprimitiveman.Theoldmaster,then,carvedhisbas-reliefinpre-GlacialEurope,justatthemomentbeforethetemporaryextinctionofhisraceinFrancebythecomingonoftheGreatIceAge.Wecaninferthisfactfromthecharacterofthefaunabywhichhewassurrounded,afaunainwhichspeciesofcoldandwarmclimatesareattimesquitecapriciouslyintermingled.Wegetthereindeerandthemammothsidebysidewiththehippopotamusandthehyena;wefindthechillycavebearandtheNorwaylemming,themusksheepandtheArcticfoxinthesamedepositswiththelionandthelynx,theleopardandtherhinoceros.Thefactis,asMr.AlfredRusselWallacehaspointedout,weliveto-dayinazoologicallyimpoverishedworld,fromwhichallthelargest,fiercest,andmostremarkableanimalshavelatelybeenweededout.AnditwasinallprobabilitythecomingonoftheIceAgethatdidtheweeding.OurZoocanboastnomammothandnomastodon.Thesabre-toothedlionhasgonethewayofallflesh;thedeinotheriumandthecolossalrumin

antsofthePlioceneAgenolongerbrowsebesidethebanksofSeine.Butouroldmastersawthelastofsomeatleastamongthosegiganticquadrupeds;itwashishandorthatofoneamonghisfellowsthatscratchedthefamousmammothetchingontheivoryofLaMadelaineandcarvedthefigureoftheextinctcavebearonthereindeer-hornornamentsofLaugerieBasse.Probably,therefore,helivedintheperiodimmediatelyprecedingtheGreatIceAge,orelseperhapsinoneofthewarminterglacialspellswithwhichthelongsecularwinterofthenorthernhemispherewasthenfromtimetotimeagreeablydiversified.Andwhatdidtheoldmasterhimselflooklike?Well,paintershavealwaysbeenfondofreproducingtheirownlineaments.HavewenotthefamiliaryoungRaffael,paintedbyhimself,andtheRembrandt,andtheTitian,andtheRubens,andahundredotherself-drawnportraits,allflatteringandallfamous?Evensoprimitivemanhasdrawnhimselfmanytimesover,notindeedonthisparticularpieceof

reindeerhorn,butonseveralothermediatobeseenelsewhere,intheoriginaloringoodcopies.OneofthebestportraitsisthatdiscoveredintheoldcaveatLaugerieBassebyM.ElieMass¨¦nat,whereaveryearlypre-Glacialmanisrepresentedintheactofhuntinganaurochs,atwhichheiscastingaflint-tippedjavelin.Inthis,asinallotherpicturesofthesameepoch,IregrettosaythattheancienthunterisrepresentedinthecostumeofAdambeforethefall.Ouroldmaster'sstudies,infact,areallinthenude.Primitivemanwasevidentlyunacquaintedasyetwiththeuseofclothing,thoughprimitivewoman,whilestillunclad,hadalreadylearnthowtoheightenhernaturalcharmsbythesimpleadditionofanecklaceandbracelets.Indeed,thoughdresseswerestillwhollyunknown,rougewaseventhenextremelyfashionableamongFrenchladies,andlumpsoftheruddlewithwhichprimitivewomanmadeherselfbeautifulforeverarenowtobediscoveredinthecornerofthecavewhereshehadherlittleprehistoric

boudoir.Toreturntoourhunter,however,whoforaughtweknowtothecontrarymaybeouroldmasterhimselfinperson,heisarathercrouchingandsemi-erectsavage,withanarchedback,recallingsomewhatthatofthegorilla,aroundhead,longneck,pointedbeard,andweak,shambling,ill-developedlegs.Ifearwemustadmitthatpre-Glacialmancut,onthewhole,averysorryandawkwardfigure.Washeblack?Thatwedon'tcertainlyknow,butallanalogywouldleadonetoanswerpositively,Yes.Whitemenseem,onthewhole,tobeaveryrecentandnovelimprovementontheoriginalevolutionarypattern.Atanyratehewasdistinctlyhairy,liketheAinos,oraboriginesofJapan,inourownday,ofwhomMissIs



abellaBirdhasdrawnsostartlingandsensationalapicture.Severalofthepre-Glacialsketchesshowuslankandgawkysavageswiththebodycoveredwithlongscratches,answeringexactlytothescratcheswhichrepresentthehanginghairofthemammoth,andsuggestingthatmanthenstillretainedhisoldoriginalhairycovering.ThefewskullsandotherfragmentsofskeletonsnowpreservedtousalsoindicatethatouroldmasterandhiscontemporariesmuchresembledinshapeandbuildtheAustralianblackfellows,thoughtheirforeheadswerelowerandmorereceding,whiletheirfrontteethstillprojectedinhugefangs,faintlyrecallingtheimmensecaninesofthemalegorilla.Quiteapartfromanytheoreticalconsiderationsastoourprobabledescent(orascent)fromMr.Darwin'shypothetical'hairyarborealquadrumanousancestor,'whoseexistencemayormaynotbereallytrue,therecanbenodoubtthattheactualhistoricalremainssetbeforeuspre-Glacialmanasevidentlyapproachinginseveralimportantrespectsthehighermonkeys.ItisinterestingtonotetoothatwhiletheMenoftheTimestillretained(tobefranklyevolutionary)manytracesoftheoldmonkey-likeprogenitor,thehorseswhichouroldmasterhassocleverlydelineatedforusonhisscrapofhornsimilarlyretainedmanytracesoftheearlierunitedhorse-and-donkeyancestor.ProfessorHuxleyhasadmirablyreconstructedforusthepedigreeofthehorse,beginningwithalittlecreaturefromtheEocenebedsofNewMexico,withfivetoestoeachhindfoot,andendingwiththemodernhorse,whosehoofisnowpracticallyreducedtoasingleandsolid-nailedtoe.IntermediatestagesshowusanUpperEoceneanimalasbigasafox,withfourtoesonhisfrontfeetandthreebehind;aMiocenekindasbigasasheep,withonlythreetoesonthefrontfoot,

thetwoouterofwhicharesmallerthanthebigmiddleone;andfinallyaPlioceneform,asbigasadonkey,withonestoutmiddletoe,therealhoof,flankedbytwosmallerones,tooshortbyfartoreachtheground.Inourownhorsetheselateraltoeshavebecomereducedtowhatareknownbyveterinariesassplintbones,combinedwiththecanoninasinglesolidlymorticedpiece.Butinthepre-Glacialhorsesthesplintbonesstillgenerallyremainedquitedistinct,thuspointingbacktothestillearlierperiodwhentheyexistedastwoseparateandindependentsidetoesintheancestralquadruped.Inafewcavespecimens,however,thesplintsarefoundunitedwiththecanonsinasinglepiece,whileconverselyhorsesaresometimes,thoughveryrarely,bornatthepresentdaywiththree-toedfeet,exactlyresemblingthoseoftheirhalf-forgottenancestor,thePliocenehipparion.Thereasonwhyweknowsomuchaboutthehorsesofthecaveperiodis,Iamboun

dtoadmit,simplyandsolelybecausethemanoftheperiodatethem.HippophagyhasalwaysbeenpopularinFrance;itwaspractisedbypre-GlacialmaninthecavesofP¨¦rigord,andrevivedwithimmenseenthusiasmbythegourmetsoftheBoulevardsafterthesiegeofParisandthehungeroftheCommune.Thecavemenhuntedandkilledthewildhorseoftheirowntimes,andoneofthebestoftheirremainingworksofartrepresentsanakedhunterattackingtwohorses,whileahugesnakewindsitselfunperceivedbehindclosetohisheel.Inthisroughprehistoricsketchoneseemstocatchsomefaintantiqueforeshadowingoftherudehumourofthe'PetitJournalpourRire.'Somearch?ologistsevenbelievethatthehorsewasdomesticatedbythecavemenasasourceoffood,andarguethatthefamiliaritywithitsformshowninthedrawingscouldonlyhavebeenacquiredbypeoplewhoknewtheanimalinitsdomesticatedstate;theydeclarethatthecavemanwasobviouslyhorsey.Butalltheindicationsseemtometoshowthattameanim

alswerequiteunknownintheageofthecavemen.Themammothcertainlywasneverdomesticated;yetthereisafamoussketchofthehugebeastuponapieceofhisownivory,discoveredinthecaveofLaMadelainebyMessrs.LartetandChristy,andengravedahundredtimesinworksonarch?ology,whichformsoneofthefinestexistingrelicsofpre-Glacialart.Inanothersketch,lesswellknown,butnotunworthyofadmiration,theearlyartisthasgivenuswithafewrapidbutadmirablestrokeshisownreminiscenceoftheeffectproduceduponhimbythesuddenonslaughtofthehairybrute,tuskserectandmouthwideopen,aperfectglimpseofelephantinefury.Itformsacapitalexampleofearlyimpressionism,respectfullyrecommendedtothefavourableattentionofMr.J.M.Whistler.



Thereindeer,however,formedthefavouritefoodandfavouritemodelofthepre-Glacialartists.Perhapsitwasabettersitterthanthemammoth;certainlyitismuchmorefrequentlyrepresentedontheseearlyprehistoricbas-reliefs.Thehigh-watermarkofpal?olithicartisundoubtedlytobefoundinthereindeerofthecaveofThayngen,inSwitzerland,acapitalandspiritedrepresentationofabuckgrazing,inwhichtheperspectiveofthetwohornsisbettermanagedthanaChineseartistwouldmanageitatthepresentday.Anotherdrawingoftworeindeerfighting,scratchedonafragmentofschistoserockandunearthedinoneofthecavesofP¨¦rigord,thoughfarinferiortotheSwissspecimeninspiritandexecution,isyetnotwithoutrealmerit.Theperspective,however,displaysonemarkedinfantiletrait,fortheheadandlegsofonedeerareseendistinctlythroughthebodyofanother.Cavebears,fish,musksheep,foxes,andmanyotherextinctorexistinganimalsarealsofoundamongthearchaicsculptures.Probablyallthesecreatureswereusedasfood;anditisevendoubtfulwhethertheartistictroglodyteswerenotalsoconfirmedcannibals.ToquoteMr.AndrewLangoncemoreonprimitiveman,'helivedinacavebytheseas;heliveduponoystersandfoes.'Theoystersarequiteundoubted,andthefoesmaybeinferredwithconsiderablecertainty.Ihavespokenofouroldmastermorethanonceunderthisratherquestion-beggingstyleandtitleofprimitiveman.Inreality,however,theveryfactswhichIhaveherebeendetailingservethemselvestoshowhowextremelyfarourherowasfrombeingtrulyprimitive.Youcan'tspeakofadistinguishedartist,whodrawstheportraitsofextinctanimalswithgraceandaccuracy,asinanypropersenseprimordial.Grantthatourgoodtroglodyteswereindeedlight-heartedcanniba

ls;neverthelesstheycoulddesignfarbetterthanthemodernEsquimauxorPolynesians,andcarvefarbetterthanthecivilisedbeingwhoisnowcalmlydiscoursingabouttheirpersonalpeculiaritiesinhisownstudy.Betweenthecavemenofthepre-Glacialageandthehypotheticalhairyquadrumanousancestoraforesaidtheremusthaveintervenedinnumerablegenerationsofgraduallyimprovingintermediateforms.Theoldmaster,whenhefirstmakeshisbowtous,nakedandnotashamed,inhisSwissorFrenchgrotto,flintscalpelinhandandneckletofbear'steethdroppinglooselyonhishairybosom,isneverthelessinallessentialsacompletelyevolvedhumanbeing,withawholepastofslowlyacquiredculturelyingdimlyandmysteriouslybehindhim.Alreadyhehadinventedthebowwithitsflint-tippedarrow,theneatlychippedjavelin-head,theboneharpoon,thebarbedfish-hook,theaxe,thelance,thedagger,andtheneedle.Alreadyhehadlearnthowtodecoratehisimplementswithartisticskill,andtocarvethehandles

ofhiskniveswiththefiguresofanimals.Ihavenodoubtthatheevenknewhowtobrewandtodistil;andhewasprobablyacquaintedwiththenobleartofcookeryasappliedtothepersonsofhishumanfellowcreatures.Suchapersonagecannotreasonablybecalledprimitive;cannibalism,assomebodyhasrightlyremarked,isthefirststepontheroadtocivilisation.No,ifwewanttogetatgenuine,unadulteratedprimitivemanwemustgomuchfurtherbackintimethanthemeretrifleof250,000yearswithwhichDr.Crollandthecosmicastronomerssogenerouslyprovideusforpre-Glacialhumanity.Wemustturnawaytotheimmeasurablyearlierfire-splitflintswhichtheAbb¨¦Bourgeois--undauntedmortal!--venturedtodiscoveramongtheMiocenestrataofthecalcairedeBeauce.Thoseflints,ifofhumanoriginatall,werefashionedbysomenakedandstillmorehairycreaturewhomightfairlyclaimtobeconsideredasgenuinelyprimitive.Sorudearetheythat,thoughevidentlyartificial,onedisti

nguishedarch?ologistwillnotadmittheycanbeinanywayhuman;hewillhaveitthattheywerereallythehandiworkofthegreatEuropeananthropoidapeofthatearlyperiod.This,however,isnothingmorethanverydelicatehair-splitting;forwhatdoesitmatterwhetheryoucalltheanimalthatfashionedtheseexceedinglyroughandfire-markedimplementsaman-likeapeoranape-likehumanbeing?Thefactremainsquiteunaltered,whichevernameyouchoosetogivetoit.Whenyouhavegottoamonkeywhocanlightafireandproceedtomanufacturehimselfaconvenientimplement,youmaybesurethatman,nobleman,withallhisgloriousandadmirablefaculties--cannibalorotherwise--islurkingsomewhereveryclosejustroundthecorner.Themoreweexaminetheworkofouroldmaster,



infact,themoredoestheconvictionforceitselfuponusthathewasveryfarindeedfrombeingprimitive--thatwemustpushbacktheearlyhistoryofourracenotfor250,000wintersalone,butperhapsfortwoorthreemillionyearsintothedimpastofTertiaryages.Butifpre-Glacialmanisthusseparatedfromtheoriginoftheracebyaverylongintervalindeed,itisnonethelesstruethatheisseparatedfromourowntimebytheinterventionofavastblankspace,thespaceoccupiedbythecomingonandpassingawayoftheGlacialEpoch.Agreatgapcutshimofffromwhatwemayconsiderastherelativelymodernageofthemound-builders,whosegrassybarrowsstillcapthesummitsofoursouthernchalkdowns.Whenthegreaticesheetdroveawaypal?olithicman--themanofthecavesandtheunwroughtflintaxes--fromNorthernEurope,hewasstillnothingmorethananakedsavageinthehuntingstage,divinelygiftedforart,indeed,butarmedonlywithroughlychippedstoneimplements,andwhollyignorantoftaminganimalsoroftheveryrudimentsofagriculture.Heknewnothingoftheuseofmetals--_aurumirrepertumspernerefortior_--andhehadnotevenlearnthowtogrindandpolishhisrudestonetomahawkstoafinishededge.Hecouldn'tmakehimselfabowlofsun-bakedpottery,and,ifhehaddiscoveredthealmostuniversalartofmanufacturinganintoxicatingliquorfromgrainorberries(for,asByron,withtoogreatanthropologicaltruth,justlyremarks,'man,beingreasonable,mustgetdrunk'),heatleastdrankhisaboriginalbeerortoddyfromthecapacioushornofaslaughteredaurochs.ThatwasthekindofhumanbeingwhoaloneinhabitedFranceandEnglandduringthelaterpre-Glacialperiod.Ahundredandseventythousandyearselapse(astheplay-billsputit),andthen

thecurtainrisesafreshuponneolithicEurope.Manmeanwhile,loiteringsomewherebehindthescenesinAsiaorAfrica(asyetimperfectlyexploredfromthispointofview),hadacquiredtheimportantartsofsharpeninghistomahawksandproducinghand-madepotteryforhiskitchenutensils.WhenthegreaticesheetclearedawayhefollowedthereturningsummerintoNorthernEurope,anotherman,physically,intellectually,andmorally,withalltheslowaccumulationsofnearlytwothousandcenturies(howeasilyonewritesthewords!howhardtorealisethem!)uponhismaturershoulders.Thencomestheageofwhatolderantiquariesusedtoregardasprimitiveantiquity--theageoftheEnglishbarrows,oftheDanishkitchenmiddens,oftheSwisslakedwellings.Themenwholivedinithaddomesticatedthedog,thecow,thesheep,thegoat,andtheinvaluablepig;theyhadbeguntosowsmallancestralwheatandundevelopedbarley;theyhadlearnttoweaveflaxandweardecentclothing:inaword,theyhadpassedfromthesavage

huntingconditiontothestageofbarbaricherdsmenandagriculturists.Thatisacomparativelymodernperiod,andyetIsupposewemustconcludewithDr.JamesGeikiethatitisn'ttobemeasuredbymerecalculationsoftenortwentycenturies,butoftenortwentythousandyears.Theperspectiveofthepastisopeninguprapidlybeforeus;whatlookedquitecloseyesterdayisshownto-daytolieawayoffsomewhereinthedimdistance.Likeourpaleolithicartists,wefailtogetthereindeerfairlybehindtheoxintheforeground,asweoughttodoifwesawthewholesceneproperlyforeshortened.OnthetablewhereIwritetherelietwopaper-weights,preservingfromthefateofthesibyllineleavesthesheetsoffoolscaptowhichthisessayisnowbeingcommitted.Oneofthemisaveryrudeflinthatchet,producedbymerelychippingoffflakesfromitssidebydexterousblows,andutterlyunpolishedorungroundinanyway.Itbelongstotheageoftheveryoldmaster(orpossiblyevento

aslightlyearlierepoch),anditwassentmefromIghtham,inKent,bythatindefatigableuneartherofprehistoricmemorials,Mr.BenjaminHarrison.Thatflint,whichnowservesmeintheofficeofapaper-weight,isfarruder,simpler,andmoreineffectivethananyweaponorimplementatpresentinuseamongthelowestsavages.Yetwithit,Idoubtnot,somenakedblackfellowbythebanksoftheThameshashuntedthemammothamongunbrokenforesttwohundredthousandyearsagoandmore;withithehasfacedtheangrycavebearandtheoriginalandonlygenuineBritishlion(foreverybodyknowsthattheexistingmongrelheraldicbeastisnothingbetterthanabastardmodificationoftheleopardofthePlantagenets).Nay,Ihaveverylittledoubtinmyownmindthatwithitsome?sthetic



ancestorhasbrainedandcutupforhisusehisnext-doorneighbourinthenearestcavern,andthencarveduponhiswell-pickedbonesaninterestingsketchoftheentireperformance.TheDuMauriersofthatremoteage,infact,habituallydrewtheirsocietypicturesuponthepersonalremainsofthemammothorthemanwhomtheywishedtocaricatureindeathlessbone-cuts.Theotherpaper-weightisapolishedneolithictomahawk,belongingtotheperiodofthemound-builders,whosucceededtheGlacialEpoch,anditmeasuresthedistancebetweenthetwolevelsofcivilisationwithgreataccuracy.Itisthemilitaryweaponofatrainedbarbaricwarriorasopposedtotheuniversalimplementandutensilofarude,solitary,savagehunter.Yethowcuriousitisthateveninthemidstofthis'so-callednineteenthcentury,'whichperpetuallyproclaimsitselfanageofprogress,menshouldstillprefertobelievethemselvesinferiortotheiroriginalancestors,insteadofbeingsuperiortothem!Theideathatmanhasrisenisconsideredbase,degrading,andpositivelywicked;theideathathehasfallenisconsideredtobeimmenselyinspiring,ennobling,andbeautiful.Formyself,IhavesomehowalwayspreferredtheboastoftheHomericGlaucusthatweindeedmaintainourselvestobemuchbettermenthaneverwereourfathers.

BRITISHANDFOREIGNStrictlyspeaking,thereisnothingreallyandtrulyBritish;everybodyandeverythingisanaturalisedalien.ViewedasBritons,weallofus,humanandanimal,differfromoneanothersimplyinthelengthoftimeweandourancestorshavecontinuouslyinhabitedthisfavouredandfoggyisleofBritain.Look,forexample,atthemenandwomenofus.Someofus,nodoubt,aremoreorlessremotely

ofNormanblood,andcameover,likethatnoblefamilytheSlys,withRichardConqueror.Othersofus,perhaps,areinthemainScandinavian,anddatebackacoupleofgenerationsearlier,tothebare-leggedfollowersofCanuteandGuthrum.Yetothers,oncemore,aretrueSaxonEnglishmen,descendantsofHengest,ifthereeverwasaHengest,orofHorsa,ifagenuineHorsaeveractuallyexisted.Noneofthese,itisquiteclear,haveanyjustrightortitletobeconsideredinthelastresortastrue-bornBritons;theyareallofthemjustasmuchforeignersatbottomastheSpitalfieldsHuguenotsorthePembrokeshireFlemings,theItalianorgan-boyandtheHindooprincedisguisedasacrossing-sweeper.ButsurelytheWelshmanandtheHighlandScotatleastareundeniableBritishers,sprungfromthesoilandtothemannerborn!Notabitofit;inexorablemodernscience,divingbackremorselesslyintotheremoterpast,tracestheCymryacrossthefaceofGermany,andfixesinshadowyhypotheticalnumberstheexactdate,toa

fewcenturies,ofthefirstprehistoricGaelicinvasion.EventhestillearlierbrownEuskariansandyellowMongolians,whoheldthelandbeforetheadventoftheancientBritons,werethemselvesimmigrants;theveryAutochthonesinpersonturnout,oncloseinspection,tobevagabondsandwanderersandforeigncolonists.Inshort,manasawholeisnotanindigenousanimalatallintheBritishIsles.Behewhohemay,whenwepushhispedigreebacktoitsprimeoriginal,wefindhimalwaysarrivingintheendbytheDoversteamerortheHarwichpacket.Fiveyears,infact,arequitesufficienttogivehimalegaltitletolettersofnaturalisation,unlessindeedhebeaGermangrand-duke,inwhichcasehecanalwaysbecomeanEnglishmanoff-handbyActofParliament.ItisjustthesamewithalltheotheranimalsandplantsthatnowinhabittheseislesofBritain.Iftherebeanythingatallwithaclaimtobeconsideredreallyindigenous,itistheScotchptarmiganandtheAlpinehare,thenorthernhol

ygrassandthemountainflowersoftheHighlandsummits.Alltherestaresojournersandwayfarers,broughtacrossascasuals,likethegipsiesandtheOrientalplane,atvarioustimestotheUnitedKingdom,someofthemrecently,someofthemlongago,butnotoneofthem(itseems),excepttheoyster,atruenative.Thecommonbrownrat,forinstance,aseverybodyknows,cameover,not,itistrue,withWilliamtheConqueror,butwiththeHanoveriandynastyandKingGeorgeI.ofblessedmemory.Thefamiliarcockroach,or'blackbeetle,'ofourlowerregions,isanOrientalimportationofthelastcentury.Thehumofthemosquitoisnowjustbeginningtobeheardintheland,especiallyinsomebigLondonhotels.TheColoradobeetleishourlyexpectedbyCunardsteamer.TheCanadianroads



ideerigeroniswellestablishedalreadyintheremotersuburbs;thephylloxerabattensonourhothousevines;theAmericanriver-weedstopsthenavigationonourprincipalcanals.TheGangesandtheMississippihavelongsincefloodedthetawnyThames,asJuvenal'scynicalfrienddeclaredtheSyrianOronteshadfloodedtheTiber.Andwhathasthusbeengoingonslowlywithinthememoryofthelastfewgenerationshasbeengoingonconstantlyfromtimeimmemorial,andpeoplingBritaininallitspartswithitsnowexistingfaunaandflora.Butifalltheplantsandanimalsinourislandsarethusultimatelyimported,thequestionnaturallyarises,WhatwasthereinGreatBritainandIrelandbeforeanyoftheirpresentinhabitantscametoinheritthem?Theansweris,succinctly,Nothing.Orifthisbealittletooextreme,thenletusimitatethemodestyofMr.Gilbert'sheroandmodifythestatementintoHardlyanything.InEngland,asinNorthernEuropegenerally,modernhistorybegins,notwiththereignofQueenElizabeth,butwiththepassingawayoftheGlacialEpoch.DuringthatgreatageofuniversaliceourBritain,fromendtoend,wascoveredatvarioustimesbyseaandbyglaciers;itresembledonthewholethecheerfulaspectofSpitzbergenorNovaZemblaatthepresentday.Afewreindeerwanderednowandthenoveritsfrozenshores;ascantyvegetationofthecorrelativereindeer-mossgrewwithdifficultyunderthesheetsanddriftsofendlesssnow;astraywalrusoranoccasionalsealbaskedinthechillysunshineontheice-boundcoast.ButduringthegreatestextensionoftheNorth-Europeanice-sheetitisprobablethatlifeinLondonwascompletelyextinct;themetropolitanareadidnotevenvegetate.Snowandsnowandsnowandsnowwasthentheshortsum-totalofBritishscenery.Murray'sGuideswererenderedquiteunnecessary,andpennyiceswereadrug

inthemarket.Englandwasgivenuptooneunchanginguniversalwinter.Slowly,however,timesaltered,astheyaremuchgiventodoing;andaneweradawneduponBritain.Thethermometerroserapidly,oratleastitwouldhaverisen,witheffusion,ifithadyetbeeninvented.Thelandemergedfromthesea,andsouthernplantsandanimalsbegantoinvadetheareathatwasafterwardstobeEngland,acrossthebroadbeltwhichthenconnecteduswiththeContinentalsystem.Butinthosedayscommunicationswereslowandlandtransitdifficult.Youhadtofootit.TheEuropeanfaunaandfloramovedbutgraduallyandtentativelynorth-westward,andbeforeanylargepartofitcouldsettleinEnglandourislandwasfinallycutofffromthemainlandbythelongandgradualwearingawayofthecliffsatDoverandCalais.ThataccountsforthecomparativepovertyofanimalandvegetablelifeinEngland,andstillmoreforitsextremepaucityandmeagrenessinIrelandandtheHighlands.Ithasbeenerroneouslyasserted,fore

xample,thatSt.Patrickexpelledsnakesandlizards,frogsandtoads,fromthesoilofErin.Thisdetail,astheFrenchnewspaperspolitelyphraseit,isinexact.St.Patrickdidnotexpelthereptiles,becausetherewereneveranyreptilesinIreland(exceptdynamiters)forhimtoexpel.Thecreaturesnevergotsofarontheirlongandtoilsomenorth-westwardmarchbeforeSt.George'sChannelintervenedtopreventtheirpassageacrosstoDublin.Itisreally,therefore,toSt.George,ratherthantoSt.Patrick,thattheabsenceoftoadsandsnakesfromthesoilofIrelandisultimatelydue.ThedoubtfulCappadocianprelateiswellknowntohavebeenalwaysdeathondragonsandserpents.Aslongagoasthesixteenthcentury,indeed,VerstegantheantiquaryclearlysawthattheexistenceofbadgersandfoxesinEnglandimpliedtheformerpresenceofabeltoflandjoiningtheBritishIslandstotheContinentofEurope;for,asheacutelyobserved,nobody(beforefox-hunting,atleast)wouldeverhaveta

kenthetroubletobringthemover.Stillmoredoesthepresenceinourislandsofthereddeer,andformerlyofthewildwhitecattle,thewolf,thebear,andthewildboar,tosaynothingofthebeaver,theotter,thesquirrel,andtheweasel,provethatEnglandwasonceconterminouswithFranceorBelgium.Attheverybestoftimes,however,beforeSirEwenCameronofLochielhadkilledpositivelythelast'lastwolf'inBritain(severalother'lastwolves'havingpreviouslybeendespatchedbyvariousearlierintrepidexterminators),ourEnglishfaunawasfarfromarichone,especiallyasregardsthelargerquadrupeds.Inbats,birds,andinsectswehavealwaysdonebetter,becausetosuchcreaturesabeltofseaisnotbyanymeansaninsuperablebarrier;whereasinreptilesandamphi



bians,onthecontrary,wehavealwaysbeenweak,seeingthatmostreptilesarebadswimmers,andveryfewcanrivalthelatelamentedCaptainWebbinhisfeatofcrossingtheChannel,asLeanderandLordByrondidtheHellespont.Onlyonegood-sizedanimal,sofarasknown,isnowpeculiartotheBritishIsles,andthatisourfamiliarfriendtheredgrouseoftheScotchmoors.Idoubt,however,whetherevenheisreallyindigenousinthestrictestsenseoftheword:thatistosay,whetherhewasevolvedinandfortheseislandsexclusively,asthemoaandtheapteryxwereevolvedforNewZealand,andtheextinctdodoforMauritiusalone.ItisfarmoreprobablethattheredgrouseistheoriginalvarietyofthewillowgrouseofScandinavia,whichhasretainedthroughouttheyearitsoldplumage,whileitsmorenortherncousinsamongthefiordsandfjeldshavetaken,understressofweather,todonningacompletewhitedressinwinter,andagreyorspeckledtouristsuitforthesummerseason.EvensincetheinsulationofBritainagreatmanynewplantsandanimalshavebeenaddedtoourpopulation,bothbyhumandesignandinseveralothercasualfashions.ThefallowdeerissaidtohavebeenintroducedbytheRomans,anddomesticatedeversinceinthesuccessiveparksofCeltandSaxon,DaneandNorman.Theediblesnail,stillscatteredthinlyoveroursoutherndowns,andabundantatBoxHillandafewotherspotsinSurreyorSussex,wasbroughtover,theytellus,bythesameluxuriousItalianepicures,andisevennowconfined,imaginativenaturalistsdeclare,totheimmediateneighbourhoodofRomanstations.Themedi?valmonks,inlikemanner,introducedthecarpfortheirFridaydinners.OneofourcommonestrivermusselsatthepresentdaydidnotexistinEnglandatallacenturyago,butwasferriedhitherfromtheVolga,clingingtothebottomso

fvesselsfromtheBlackSea,andhasnowspreaditselfthroughallourbrooksandstreamstotheveryheartandcentreofEngland.Thus,fromdaytoday,asinsocietyatlarge,newintroductionsconstantlytakeplace,andoldfriendsdieoutforever.ThebrownratreplacestheoldEnglishblackrat;strangeweedskillofftheweedsofancientdays;freshfliesandgrubsandbeetlescropup,anddisturbtheprimitiveentomologicalbalance.ThebustardisgonefromSalisburyPlain;thefenlandbutterflieshavedisappearedwiththedrainageofthefens.Intheirplacethered-leggedpartridgeinvadesNorfolk;theAmericanblackbassismakinghimselfquiteathome,withYankeeassurance,inoursluggishrivers;andthespoonbillisnestingofitsownaccordamongthewarmercornersoftheSussexdowns.Intheplantworld,substitutionoftentakesplacefarmorerapidly.Idoubtwhetherthestingingnettle,whichrenderspicnickinganuisanceinEngland,istru

lyindigenous;certainlythetwoworstkinds,thesmallernettleandtheRomannettle,arequiterecentdenizens,neverstraying,evenatthepresentday,farfromtheprecinctsoffarmyardsandvillages.Theshepherd's-purseandmanyothercommongardenweedsofcultivationareofEasternorigin,andcametousatfirstwiththeseed-cornandthepeasfromtheMediterraneanregion.Corn-cocklesandcorn-flowersareequallyforeignandequallyartificial;eventhescarletpoppy,seldomfoundexceptinwheat-fieldsoraroundwasteplacesinvillages,hasprobablyfollowedthecourseoftillagefromsomeremoteandancientEasternorigin.ThereisaprettyblueveronicawhichwasunknowninEnglandsomethirtyyearssince,butwhichthenbegantospreadingardens,andisnowoneofthecommonestandmosttroublesomeweedsthroughoutthewholecountry.Otherfamiliarwildplantshavefirstbeenbroughtoverasgardenflowers.Thereisthewall-flower,forinstance,nowescapedfromcultivationineverypartofBritain,andman

tlingwithitsyellowbunchesbotholdchurchesandhousesandalsothecranniesofthelimestonecliffsaroundhalftheshoresofEngland.Thecommonstockhassimilarlyoverrunthesea-frontoftheIsleofWight;themonkey-plant,originallyaChilianflower,hasrunwildinmanyboggyspotsinEnglandandWales;andaNorthAmericanbalsam,seldomcultivatedevenincottagegardens,hasmanagedtoestablishitselfinprofuseabundancealongthebanksoftheWeyaboutGuildfordandGodalming.Onelittlegardenlinaria,atfirstemployedasanornamentforhanging-baskets,hasbecomesocommononoldwallsandbanksastobenowconsideredamereweed,andexterminatedaccordinglybyfashionablegardeners.Sucharetheunaccountablereversesoffortune,thatoneagewillpayfiftyguineas



abulbforaplantwhichthenextagegrubsupunanimouslyasavulgarintruder.WhiteofSelbornenoticedwithdelightinhisownkitchenthatrareinsect,theOrientalcockroach,latelyimported;andMr.BrewerobservedwithjoyinhisgardenatReigatetheblueBuxbaumspeedwell,whichisnowtheacknowledgedandhatedpestoftheSurreyagriculturist.ThehistoryofsomeofthesewaifsandstrayswhichgotomakeupthewiderpopulationofBritainisindeedsufficientlyremarkable.Likeallislands,Englandhasafragmentaryfaunaandflora,whosemembershaveoftendriftedtowardsitinthemostwonderfulandvariedmanner.Sometimestheybearwitnesstoancientlandconnections,asinthecaseofthespottedPortugueseslugwhichProfessorAllmanfoundcalmlydisportingitselfonthebaskingcliffsintheKillarneydistrict.Informerdays,whenSpainandIrelandjoinedhandsinthemiddleoftheBayofBiscay,theancestorsofthisplacidLusitanianmolluskmusthaveranged(goodwordtoapplytoslugs)fromthegrovesofCintratotheCoveofCork.But,astimerolledon,thecruelcrawlingsearolledonalso,andcutawayallthewesternworldfromthefootoftheAsturiastoMacgillicuddy'sReeks.Sothespottedslugcontinuedtosurviveintwodistinctanddividedbodies,alargeoneinSouth-westernEurope,andasmallisolatedcolony,allalonebyitself,aroundtheKerrymountainsandtheLakesofKillarney.AtothertimespureaccidentaccountsforthepresenceofaparticularspeciesinthemainlandsofBritain.Forexample,theBermudagrass-lily,acommonAmericanplant,isknowninawildstatenowhereinEuropesaveataplacecalledWoodford,incountyGalway.Nobodyeverplanteditthere;ithassimplysprungupfromsomesingleseed,carriedover,perhaps,onthefeetofabird,orcastashorebytheGulfStreamonthehosp

itablecoastofWesternIreland.Yetthereithasflourishedandthriveneversince,anaturalisedBritishsubjectofundoubtedorigin,withouteverspreadingtonorthorsouthaboveafewmilesfromitsadoptedhabitat.ThereareseveraloftheseunconsciousAmericanimportationsinvariouspartsofBritain,someofthem,nodoubt,broughtoverwithseed-cornoramongthestrawofpacking-cases,butothersunconnectedinanywaywithhumanagency,andowingtheirpresenceheretonaturalcauses.ThatprettylittleYankeeweed,theclaytonia,nowcommoninpartsofLancashireandOxfordshire,firstmadeitsappearanceamongstus,Ibelieve,byitsseedsbeingaccidentallyincludedwiththesawdustinwhichWenhamLakeiceispackedfortransport.TheCanadianriver-weedisknownfirsttohaveescapedfromthebotanicalgardensatCambridge,whenceitspreadrapidlythroughthecongenialdykesandsluicesofthefencountry,andsointotheentirenavigablenetworkoftheMidlandcounties.Butthereareoth

eraliensofoldersettlementamongstus,aliensofAmericanoriginwhichneverthelessarrivedinBritain,inallprobability,longbeforeColumbuseversetfootonthelowbaskingsandbankofCatIsland.Suchisthejointedpond-sedgeoftheHebrides,awater-weedfoundabundantlyinthelakesandtarnsoftheIsleofSkye,MullandColl,andthewestcoastofIreland,butoccurringnowhereelsethroughoutthewholeexpanseofEuropeorAsia.Howdiditgetthere?Clearlyitsseedswereeitherwashedbythewavesorcarriedbybirds,andthusdepositedonthenearestEuropeanshorestoAmerica.ButifMr.AlfredRusselWallacehadbeenaliveinpre-Columbandays(which,asEuclidremarks,isabsurd),hewouldreadilyhaveinferred,fromthefrequentoccurrenceofsuchunknownplantsalongthewesternvergeofBritain,thatagreatcontinentlayunexploredtothewestward,andwouldpromptlyhaveproceededtodiscoverandannexit.AsMr.Wallacewasnotyetborn,however,Columbustookameanadvantageoverhim,anddiscove

reditfirstbymererightofprimogeniture.Inothercases,thecircumstancesunderwhichaparticularplantappearsinEnglandareoftenverysuspicious.Taketheinstanceofthebelladonna,ordeadlynightshade,anextremelyrareBritishspecies,foundonlyintheimmediateneighbourhoodofoldcastlesandmonasticbuildings.Belladonna,ofcourse,isadeadlypoison,andwasmuchusedinthehalf-magical,half-criminalsorceriesoftheMiddleAges.Didyouwishtoremoveatroublesomerivaloranelderbrother,youtreatedhimtoadoseofdeadlynightshade.Yetwhyshouldit,incompanywithmanyotherpoisonousexotics,befoundsofrequentlyaroundtheruinsofmonasteries?Didtheholyfathers--butno,thethoughtistooirreverent.Letuskeepou



rillusions,andforgetthefriarandtheapothecaryin'RomeoandJuliet.'BelladonnahasneverfairlytakenrootinEnglishsoil.Itremains,liketheRomansnailandthePortugueseslug,amerecasualstraggleraboutitsancienthaunts.Butthereareotherplantswhichhavefairlyestablishedtheirclaimtobeconsideredasnative-bornBritons,thoughtheycametousatfirstasaliensandcolonistsfromforeignparts.Such,totakeasinglecase,isthehistoryofthecommonalexanders,nowafamiliarweedaroundvillagesandfarmyards,butonlyintroducedintoEnglandasapot-herbabouttheeighthorninthcentury.Itwaslonggrownincottagegardensfortablepurposes,buthasforagesbeensupersededinthatwaybycelery.Nevertheless,itcontinuestogrowallaboutourlanesandhedges,sidebysidewithanotherquaintly-namedplant,bishop-weedorgout-weed,whoseverytitlesinthemselvesbearcuriouswitnesstoitsoriginalusesinthisisleofBritain.Idon'tknowwhy,butitisanhistoricalfactthattheearlyprelatesoftheEnglishChurch,saintlyorotherwise,werepeculiarlyliabletothatveryepiscopaldisease,thegout.Whethertheirfrequentfastingproducedthiseffect;whether,astheythemselvespiouslyalleged,itwasduetoconstantkneelingonthecoldstonesofchurches;orwhether,astheirenemiesratherinsinuated,itwasdueingreatermeasuretotheexcellentwinespresentedtothembytheirItalian_confr¨¨res_,isaminutequestiontobedecidedbyMr.Freeman,notbythepresenthumbleinquirer.Butthefactremainsthatbishopsandgoutgotindeliblyassociatedinthepublicmind;thattheepiscopaltoeswerelookeduponasespeciallysubjecttothatinsidiousdiseaseuptotheveryendofthelastcentury;andthattheydosaythebishopsevennow--butIrefrainfromthecommissionofscandalummagnatum.Anyhow,thisparticularweedwasheldto

beaspecificforthebishop'sevil;and,beingintroducedandcultivatedforthepurpose,itcametobeknownindifferentlytoherbalistsasbishop-weedandgout-weed.IthasnowlongsinceceasedtobearecognisedmemberoftheBritishPharmacopoeia,but,havingoverrunourlanesandthicketsinitsflushperiod,itremainstothisdayavisiblebotanicalandetymologicalmementoofthepasttwingesofepiscopalremorse.Takenasawhole,onemayfairlysaythatthetotalpopulationoftheBritishIslesconsistsmainlyofthreegreatelements.Thefirstandoldest--theonlyonewithanyrealclaimtobeconsideredastrulynative--isthecoldNorthern,AlpineandArcticelement,comprisingsuchanimalsasthewhitehareofScotland,theptarmigan,thepinemarten,andthecapercailzie--thelastonceextinct,andnowreintroducedintotheHighlandsasagamebird.Thisveryancientfaunaandflora,leftbehindsoonaftertheGlacialEpoch,andperhapsinpartarelicoft

hetypewhichstillstruggledoninfavouredspotsduringthatterribleperiodofuniversaliceandsnow,nowsurvivesforthemostpartonlyintheextremenorthandonthehighestandchilliestmountain-tops,whereithasgraduallybeendriven,liketouristsinAugust,bytheincreasingwarmthandsultrinessofthesouthernlowlands.ThesummitsoftheprincipalScotchhillsareoccupiedbymanyArcticplants,nowslowlydyingout,butlingeringyetaslastrelicsofthatoldnativeBritishflora.TheAlpinemilkvetchthusloitersamongtherocksofBraemarandClova;theArcticbrook-saxifrageflowersbutsparinglynearthesummitofBenLawers,BenNevis,andLochnagar;itsstillmorenorthernally,thedroopingsaxifrage,isnowextinctinallBritain,saveonasinglesnowyScotchheight,whereitnowrarelyblossoms,andwillsoonbecomealtogetherobsolete.ThereareothernorthernplantsofthisfirstandoldestBritishtype,liketheUraloxytrope,thecloudberry,andthewhitedryas,whichremainasyetevenint

hemoorsofYorkshire,oroverconsiderabletractsintheScotchHighlands;thereareothersrestrictedtoasinglespotamongtheWelshhills,anisolatedskerryamongtheouterHebrides,orasolitarysummitintheLakeDistrict.Butwherevertheylinger,thesetrue-bornBritonsoftheoldrockarenowbutstrangersandoutcastsintheland;theintrusiveforeignerhasdriventhemtodieonthecoldmountain-tops,astheCeltdrovetheMongoliantothehills,andtheSaxon,inturn,hasdriventheCelttotheHighlandsandtheislands.Yetaslateasthetwelfthcenturyitself,eventhetruereindeer,theArcticmonarchoftheGlacialEpoch,wasstillhuntedbyNorwegianjarlsofOrkneyonthemainlandofCaithnessandSutherlandshire.



Secondinageisthewarmwesternandsouth-westerntype,thetyperepresentedbythePortugueseslug,thearbutustreesandMediterraneanheathsoftheKillarneydistrict,thefloraofCornwallandtheScillyIsles,andthepeculiarwildflowersofSouthWales,Devonshire,andthewestcountrygenerally.ThisclassbelongsbyorigintothesubmergedlandofLyonesse,thewarmchampaigncountrythatoncespreadwestwardovertheBayofBiscay,andderivedfromtheGulfStreamthegenialclimatestillpreservedbyitslastremnantsatTrescoandSt.Mary's.TheanimalsbelongingtothissecondarystratumofourBritishpopulationarefewandrare,butofitsplantstherearenotafew,someofthemextendingoverthewholewesternshoresofEngland,Wales,Scotland,andIreland,wherevertheyarewashedbytheGulfStream,andothersnowconfinedtoparticularspots,oftenwiththeoddestapparentcapriciousness.Thus,twoorthreesoutherntypesofcloverarepeculiartotheLizardPoint,inCornwall;alittleSpanishandItalianrestharrowhasgotstrandedintheChannelIslandsandontheMullofGalloway;thespottedrock-roseoftheMediterraneangrowsonlyinKerry,Galway,andAnglesea;whileotherplantsofthesamewarmhabitareconfinedtosuchspotsasTorquay,Babbicombe,Dawlish,Cork,Swansea,Axminster,andtheScillyIsles.Ofcourse,allpeninsulasandislandsarewarmerintemperaturethaninlandplaces,andsotheserelicsofthelostLyonessehavesurvivedhereandthereinCornwall,Carnarvonshire,Kerry,andotherveryprojectingheadlandslongaftertheyhavediedoutaltogetherfromthemaincentralmassofBritain.South-westernIrelandinparticularisalmostPortugueseinthegeneralaspectofitsfaunaandflora.Thirdandlatestofallintime,thoughalmostcontemporarywiththesouthernty

pe,isthecentralEuropeanorGermanicelementinourpopulation.Sadasitistoconfessit,thetruthmustneverthelessbetold,thatourbeastsandbirds,ourplantsandflowers,areforthemostpartofpurelyTeutonicorigin.Evenastherudeandhard-headedAnglo-Saxonhasdriventhegentle,poetical,andimaginativeCelteverwestwardbeforehimintothehillsandthesea,sotherudeandvigorousGermanicbeastsandweedshavedriventhegentlerandsoftersoutherntypesintoWalesandCornwall,GallowayandConnemara.ItistothecentralEuropeanpopulationthatweoweorowedthereddeer,thewildboar,thebear,thewolf,thebeaver,thefox,thebadger,theotter,andthesquirrel.ItistothecentralEuropeanflorathatweowethelargerpartofthemostfamiliarplantsinalleasternandsoutheasternEngland.TheycrossedinbandsovertheoldlandbeltbeforeBritainwasfinallyinsulated,andtheyhavegoneonsteadilyeversince,withtrueTeutonicpersistence,overrunningthelandandpushingslowlywes

tward,likeallotherGermanbandsbeforeorsince,tothedetrimentanddiscomfortofthepreviousinhabitants.Letushumblyrememberthatweareallofusatbottomforeignersalike,butthatitistheTeutonicEnglish,thepeoplefromtheoldLowDutchfatherlandbytheElbe,whohavefinallygiventothisisleitsnameofEngland,andtoeveryoneofus,CeltorTeuton,theirownTeutonicnameofEnglishmen.Weareatbest,asanirateTeutononceremarked,'nozzingbutsegond-handChermans.'Inthewordsofadistinguishedmodernphilologistofourownblood,'EnglishisDutch,spokenwithaWelshaccent.'

THUNDERBOLTSThesubjectofthunderboltsisaveryfascinatingone,andallthemoresobecausetherearenosuchthingsinexistenceatallasthunderboltsofanysort.LikethesnakesofIceland,theirwholehistorymight,fromthepositivepointofv

iewatleast,besummedupinthesimplestatementoftheirutternonentity.Butdoesthatdoawayintheleast,Ishouldliketoknow,withtheirintrinsicinterestandimportance?Notabitofit.Itonlyaddstothemysteryandcharmofthewholesubject.Doesanyonefeelaskeenlyinterestedinanyreallivingcobraoranacondaasinthenon-existentgreatsea-serpent?Areghostsandvampireslessattractiveobjectsofpopularstudythancatsanddonkeys?CanthepresentKingofAbyssinia,interviewedbyourowncorrespondent,equaltheromanticcharmofPresterJohn,orthebutcherinthenextstreetrivalthepersonalityofSirRogerCharlesDoughtyTichborne,Baronet?No,therealfactisthis:iftherewerethunderbolts,thequestionoftheirnatureandactionwouldbeawhollydul



l,scientific,andpriggishone;itistheirunrealityalonethatinveststhemwithallthemysteriousweirdnessofpurefiction.Lightning,now,isacommonthingthatonereadsaboutwearilyinthebooksonelectricity,amereordinarymatterofpositiveandnegative,densityandpotential,tobemeasuredinohms(whatevertheymaybe),andpartiallyimitatedwithLeydenjarsandredsealing-waxapparatus.Why,didnotBenjaminFranklin,afatoldgentlemaninill-fittingsmallclothes,bringitdownfromthecloudswithasimpledoor-key,somewherenearPhiladelphia?anddoesnotMr.RobertScott(oftheMeteorologicalOffice)calmlypredictitsprobableoccurrencewithinthenexttwenty-fourhoursinhisdailyreport,aspublishedregularlyinthemorningpapers?Thisislightning,merevulgarlightning,asimpleresultofelectricalconditionsintheupperatmosphere,inconvenientlyconnectedwithalgebraicalformulasinx,y,z,withhorridsymbolsinterspersedinGreekletters.ButtherealthunderboltsofJove,theweaponsthattheangryZeus,orThor,orIndrahurlsdownupontheheadofthetremblingmalefactor--howinfinitelygrander,morefearsome,andmoremysterious!Andyetevennowadays,Ibelieve,therearealargenumberofwell-informedpeople,whohavepassedthesixthstandard,takenprizesattheOxfordLocal,andattendedthedullestlecturesoftheSocietyforUniversityExtension,butwhoneverthelessinsomevagueanddimcorneroftheirconsciousnessretainsomehowalingeringfaithintheexistenceofthunderbolts.Theyhavenotyetgraspedinitsentiretythesimpletruththatlightningistherealityofwhichthunderboltsarethemythical,orfanciful,orverbalrepresentation.Weallofusknownowthatlightningisamereflashofelectriclightandheat;thatithasnosolidexistenceorcoreofanysort;inshort,thatitisdynamicalratherthanmateria

l,astateormovementratherthanabodyorthing.Tobesure,localnewspapersstilltalkwithmuchshowoflearningabout'theelectricfluid'whichdidsuchremarkabledamagelastweekupontheslatedsteepleofPeddlingtonTorpidaChurch;butthewell-crammedschoolboyofthepresentdayhaslongsincelearnedthattheelectricfluidisanexplodedfallacy,andthatthelightningwhichpulledthetenslatesoffthesteepleinquestionwasnothingmoreinitsrealnaturethanaverybigimmaterialspark.However,thewordthunderbolthassurvivedtousfromthedayswhenpeoplestillbelievedthatthethingwhichdidthedamageduringathunderstormwasreallyandtrulyagiganticwhite-hotboltorarrow;and,asthereisanaturaltendencyinhumannaturetofitanexistencetoeveryword,peopleevennowcontinuetoimaginethattheremustbeactuallysomethingorothersomewherecalledathunderbolt.Theydon'tfigurethisthingtothemselvesasbeingidenticalwiththelightning;onthecontrary,theyseemtoregard

itassomethinginfinitelyrarer,moreterrible,andmoremystic;buttheyfirmlyholdthatthunderboltsdoexistinreallife,andevensometimesassertthattheythemselveshavepositivelyseenthem.But,ifseeingisbelieving,itisequallytrue,asallwhohavelookedintothephenomenaofspiritualismand'psychicalresearch'(modernEnglishforghost-hunting)knowtoowell,thatbelievingisseeingalso.Theoriginofthefaithinthunderboltsmustbelookedfor(liketheoriginofthefaithinghostsand'psychicalphenomena')farbackinthehistoryofourrace.Thenoblesavage,atthatearlyperiodwhenwildinwoodsheran,naturallynoticedtheexistenceofthunderandlightning,becausethunderandlightningarethingsthatforciblyobtrudethemselvesupontheattentionoftheobserver,howeverlittlehemaybynaturebescientificallyinclined.Indeed,thenoblesavage,sleepingnakedonthebareground,intropicalcountrieswherethunderoccursalmosteverynightonana

verage,wassuretobeprettyoftenawakedfromhispeacefulslumbersbythetorrentsofrainthathabituallyaccompanythunderstormsinthehappyrealmsofeverlastingdog-days.Primitivemanwasthereuponcompelledtodoalittlephilosophisingonhisownaccountastothecauseandoriginoftherumblingandflashingwhichhesawsoconstantlyaroundhim.Naturallyenough,heconcludedthatthesoundmustbethevoiceofsomebody;andthatthefieryshaft,whoseeffectshesometimesnotedupontrees,animals,andhisfellow-man,mustbethesomebody'sarrow.Itisimmaterialfromthispointofviewwhether,asthescientificanthropologistshold,hewasledtohisconceptionofthesesupernaturalpersonagesfromhispriorbeliefinghostsandspirits,orwhether,asProfessorMaxM¨¹llerwi



llhaveit,hefeltadeepyearninginhisprimitivesavagebreasttowardtheInfiniteandtheUnknowable(whichhewoulddoubtlesshavespelt,liketheProfessor,withacapitalinitial,hadhebeenacquaintedwiththeintricaciesoftheyetuninventedalphabet);butthismuchatleastisprettycertain,thathelookeduponthethunderandthelightningasinsomesensethevoiceandthearrowsofana?rialgod.Now,thisideaaboutthearrowsisitselfverysignificantofthementalattitudeofprimitiveman,andofthewaythatmentalattitudehascolouredallsubsequentthinkingandsuperstitionuponthisverysubject.Curiouslyenough,tothepresentdaytheconceptionofthethunderboltisessentiallyoneofa_bolt_--thatistosay,anarrow,oratleastanarrowhead.Allexistingthunderbolts(andthereareplentyofthemlyingaboutcasuallyincountryhousesandlocalmuseums)aremoreorlessarrow-likeinshapeandappearance;someofthem,indeed,asweshallseeby-and-by,aretheactualstonearrowheadsofprimitivemanhimselfinperson.Ofcoursethenoblesavagewashimselfintheconstanthabitofshootingatanimalsandenemieswithabowandarrow.When,then,hetriedtofiguretohimselftheangrygod,seatedinthestorm-clouds,whospokewithsuchaloudrumblingvoice,andkilledthosewhodispleasedhimwithhisfierydarts,henaturallythoughtofhimasusinginhiscloudyhomethefamiliarbowandarrowofthisnetherplanet.Tousnowadays,ifweweretobeginformingtheideaforourselvesalloveragaindenovo,itwouldbefarmorenaturaltothinkofthethunderasthenoiseofabiggun,ofthelightningastheflashofthepowder,andofthesupposed'bolt'asashellorbullet.Thereisreallyaridiculousresemblancebetweenathunderstormandadischargeofartillery.Buttheoldconcep

tionderivedfromsomanygenerationsofprimitivemenhashelditsownagainstsuchmeremoderndevicesasgunpowderandrifleballs;andnoneoftheobjectscommonlyshownasthunderboltsareeverround:theyaredistinguished,whatevertheirorigin,bythecommonpeculiaritythattheymoreorlesscloselyresembleadartorarrowhead.Letusbegin,then,byclearlydisembarrassingourmindsofanylingeringbeliefintheexistenceofthunderbolts.Thereareabsolutelynosuchthingsknowntoscience.Thetworealphenomenathatunderliethefablearesimplythunderandlightning.Athunderstormismerelyaseriesofelectricaldischargesbetweenonecloudandanother,orbetweencloudsandtheearth;andthesedischargesmanifestthemselvestooursensesundertwoforms--totheeyeaslightning,totheearasthunder.Allthatpassesineachcaseisahugespark--acommotion,notamaterialobject.Itisinprinciplejustlikethesparkfromanelectricalmachine

;butwhilethemostpowerfulmachineofhumanconstructionwillonlysendasparkforthreefeet,theenormouselectricalapparatusprovidedforusbynaturewillsendoneforfour,five,oreventenmiles.Thoughlightningwhenittouchestheearthalwaysseemstoustocomefromthecloudstotheground,itisbynomeanscertainthattherealcoursemaynotatleastoccasionallybeintheoppositedirection.Allweknowisthatsometimesthereisaninstantaneousdischargebetweenonecloudandanother,andsometimesaninstantaneousdischargebetweenacloudandtheearth.Butthisideaofamerepassageofhighlyconcentratedenergyfromonepointtoanotherwasfartooabstract,ofcourse,forprimitiveman,andisfartooabstractevennowfornineoutoftenofourfellow-creatures.Thosewhodon'tstillbelieveinthebodilythunderbolt,afearsomea?rialweaponwhichburiesitselfdeepinthebosomoftheearth,lookuponlightningasatleastanembodimentof

theelectricfluid,alongspoutorlineofmoltenfire,whichisusuallyconceivedofasstrikingthegroundandthenproceedingtohideitselfundertherootsofatreeorbeneaththefoundationsofatotteringhouse.Primitivemannaturallytooktothegrosserandmorematerialconception.Hefiguredtohimselfthethunderboltasabarbedarrowhead;andtheforkedzigzagcharacterofthevisibleflash,asitdartsrapidlyfrompointtopoint,seemedalmostinevitablytosuggesttohimthebarbs,asoneseesthemrepresentedonalltheGreekandRomangems,intheredrighthandoftheangryJupiter.Thethunderboltbeingthusanacceptedfact,itfollowednaturallythatwheneveranydart-likeobjectofunknownoriginwasdugupoutoftheground,itwasat



oncesetdownasbeingathunderbolt;and,ontheotherhand,thefrequentoccurrenceofsuchdart-likeobjects,preciselywhereonemightexpecttofindtheminaccordancewiththetheory,necessarilystrengthenedthebeliefitself.Socommonlyarethunderboltspickeduptothepresentdaythattodisbelieveinthemseemstomanycountrypeopleapieceofridiculousandstubbornscepticism.Why,they'veploughedupdozensofthemthemselvesintheirtime,andjustabouttheveryplacewherethethunderboltstrucktheoldelm-treetwoyearsago,too.Themostfavouriteformofthunderboltisthepolishedstonehatchetor'celt'ofthenewerstoneagemen.Ihaveneverheardtheveryrudechippedandunpolishedaxesoftheolderdriftmenorcavemendescribedasthunderbolts:theyaretooroughandshapelessevertoattractattentionfromanyexceptprofessedarch?ologists.Indeed,thewickedhavebeenknowntoscoffatthemfreelyasmereaccidentallumpsofbrokenflint,andtoderidethenotionoftheirbeingdueinanywaytodeliberatehumanhandicraft.Thesearethesortofpeoplewhowouldregardagrandpianoasafortuitousconcourseofatoms.Buttheshapelystonehatchetofthelaterneolithicfarmerandherdsmanisusuallyabeautifullypolishedwedge-shapedpieceofsolidgreenstone;anditsedgehasbeengroundtosuchadelicatesmoothnessthatitseemsratherlikeabitofnature'sexquisiteworkmanshipthanasimplerelicofprehistoricman.Thereissomethingveryfascinatingaboutthena?fbeliefthattheneolithicaxeisagenuineunadulteratedthunderbolt.Youdigitupinthegroundexactlywhereyouwouldexpectathunderbolt(ifthereweresuchthings)tobe.Itisheavy,smooth,wellshaped,andneatlypointedatoneend.Ifitcouldreallydescendinared-hotstatefromthedepthsofthesky,launchedforthlikeacannon-ballbysomefiercedischargeofheav

enlyartillery,itwouldcertainlyproveaveryformidableweaponindeed;andonecouldeasilyimagineitscoringthebarkofsomeagedoak,ortearingoffthetilesfromaprojectingturret,exactlyasthelightningissowellknowntodointhisprosaicworkadayworldofours.Inshort,thereisreallynothingonearthagainstthetheoryofthestoneaxebeingatruethunderbolt,exceptthefactthatitunfortunatelyhappenstobeaneolithichatchet.ButthecourseofreasoningbywhichwediscoverthetruenatureofthestoneaxeisnotonethatwouldinanycaseappealstronglytothefancyortheintelligenceoftheBritishfarmer.Itisnousetellinghimthatwheneveroneopensabarrowofthestoneageoneisprettysuretofindaneolithicaxeandafewbrokenpiecesofpotterybesidethemoulderingskeletonoftheoldnamelesschiefwholiesthereburied.TheBritishfarmerwilldoubtlessstolidlyretortthatthunderboltsoftenstrikethetopsofhills,whicharejusttheplaceswherebarrows

andtumuli(tumps,hecallsthem)mostdocongregate;andthatastotheskeleton,isn'titjustaslikelythatthemanwaskilledbythethunderboltasthatthethunderboltwasmadebyaman?Ay,andasightlikelier,too.Alltheworldover,thissimpleandeasybelief,thattheburiedstoneaxeisathunderbolt,existsamongEuropeansandsavagesalike.IntheWestofEngland,thelabourerswilltellyouthatthethunder-axestheydigupfellfromthesky.InBrittany,saysMr.Tylor,theoldmanwhomendsumbrellasatCarnac,besidethemysteriousstoneavenuesofthatgreatFrenchStonehenge,inquiresonhisroundsforpierresdetonnerre,whichofcoursearefoundwithsuspiciousfrequencyintheimmediateneighbourhoodofprehistoricremains.IntheChineseEncyclop?diawearetoldthatthe'lightningstones'havesometimestheshapeofahatchet,sometimesthatofaknife,andsometimesthatofamallet.Andthen,byacuriousmisapprehension,thesapientauthorofthatworkgoesontoobservethatth

eselightningstonesareusedbythewanderingMongolsinsteadofcopperandsteel.ItneverseemstohavestruckhiscelestialintelligencethattheMongolsmadethelightningstonesinsteadofdiggingthemupoutoftheearth.Sodeeplyhadtheideaofthethunderboltburieditselfintherecessesofhissoul,thatthoughaneighbouringpeoplewerestillactuallymanufacturingstoneaxesalmostunderhisveryeyes,hereversedmentallytheentireprocess,andsupposedtheydugupthethunderboltswhichhesawthemusing,andemployedthemascommonhatchets.Thisisoneofthefinestinstancesonrecordofthepopularfigurewhichgrammarianscallthehysteronproteron,andordinaryfolkdescribeasputtingthecartbeforethehorse.Justso,whileinsomepartsofBraziltheIndiansare



stilllaboriouslypolishingtheirstonehatchets,inotherpartstheplantersarediggingupthepreciselysimilarstonehatchetsofearliergenerations,andreligiouslypreservingthemintheirhousesasundoubtedthunderbolts.Ihavemyselfhadpresseduponmyattentionasgenuinelightningstones,intheWestIndies,theexquisitelypolishedgreenstonetomahawksoftheoldCaribmarauders.Butthen,inthismatter,Iamprettymuchinthepositionofthatphilosophicscepticwho,whenhewasaskedbyaladywhetherhebelievedinghosts,answeredwisely,'No,madam,Ihaveseenbyfartoomanyofthem.'OneofthefinestaccountsevergivenofthenatureofthunderboltsisthatmentionedbyAdrianusTolliusinhiseditionof'BoethiusonGems.'Hegivesillustrationsofsomeneolithicaxesandhammers,andthenproceedstostatethatintheopinionofphilosopherstheyaregeneratedintheskybyafulgureousexhalation(whateverthatmaylooklike)conglobedinacloudbyacircumfixedhumour,andbakedhard,asitwere,byintenseheat.Theweapon,itseems,thenbecomespointedbythedampmixedwithitflyingfromthedrypart,andleavingtheotherenddenser;whiletheexhalationspressitsohardthatitbreaksoutthroughthecloud,andmakesthunderandlightning.Averylucidexplanationcertainly,butrenderedalittledifficultofapprehensionbytheeffortnecessaryforrealisinginamentalpicturetheconglobationofafulgureousexhalationbyacircumfixedhumour.Onewouldliketoseeadrawingoftheprocess,thoughthesketchwouldprobablymuchresemblethepictureofamuchness,soadmirablydescribedbythemockturtle.TheexcellentTolliushimself,however,whiledemurringonthewholetothishypothesisofthephilosophers,baseshisobjectionmainlyonthegroundthat,

ifthiswereso,thenitisoddthethunderboltsarenotround,butwedge-shaped,andthattheyhaveholesinthem,andthoseholesnotequalthroughout,butwidestattheends.Asamatteroffact,Tolliushasherehittherightnailontheheadquiteaccidentally;fortheholesarereallythere,ofcourse,toreceivethehaftoftheaxeorhammer.Butiftheyweretrulythunderbolts,andiftheboltswereshafted,thentheholeswouldhavebeenlengthwise,asinanarrowhead,notcrosswise,asinanaxeorhammer.Whichisacompletereductioadabsurdumofthephilosophicopinion.Someofthecerauni?,saysPliny,arelikehatchets.Hewouldhavebeennearerthemarkifhehadsaid'arehatchets'outright.Butthis_aper?u_,whichwastoPlinymerelyastraysuggestion,becametothenorthernpeoplesafirmarticleofbelief,andcausedthemtorepresenttothemselvestheirgodThororThunorasarmed,notwithabolt,butwithanaxeorhammer.EtymologicallyThor,Thunor,

andthunderaretheself-sameword;butwhilethesouthernraceslookeduponZeusorIndraaswieldinghisforkeddartsinhisredrighthand,thenorthernraceslookedupontheThunder-godashurlingdownanangryhammerfromhisseatintheclouds.TherecanbebutlittledoubtthattheverynotionofThor'shammeritselfwasderivedfromtheshapeofthesupposedthunderbolt,whichtheScandinaviansandTeutonsrightlysawatoncetobeanaxeormallet,notanarrowhead.The'fieryaxe'ofThunorisacommonmetaphorinAnglo-Saxonpoetry.Thus,Thor'shammerisitselfmerelythepicturewhichournorthernancestorsformedtothemselves,bycompoundingtheideaofthunderandlightningwiththeideaofthepolishedstonehatchetstheydugupamongthefieldsandmeadows.Flintarrowheadsofthestoneagearelessoftentakenforthunderbolts,nodoubtbecausetheyaresomuchsmallerthattheylookquitetooinsignificantfortheweaponsofanangrygod.Theyaremorefrequentlydescribedasfairy-dartsor

fairy-bolts.Still,Ihaveknownevenarrowheadsregardedasthunderbolts,andpreservedsuperstitiouslyunderthatbelief.InFinland,stonearrowsareuniversallysoviewed;andtherainbowislookeduponasthebowofTiermes,thethunder-god,whoshootswithittheguiltysorcerers.Butwhyshouldthunderbolts,whetherstoneaxesorflintarrowheads,bepreserved,notmerelyascuriosities,butfrommotivesofsuperstition?Thereasonisasimpleone.Everybodyknowsthatinallmagicalceremoniesitisnecessarytohavesomethingbelongingtothepersonyouwishtoconjureagainst,inordertomakeyourspellseffectual.Abone,beitbutajointofthelittlefinger,issufficienttoraisetheghosttowhichitoncebelonged;cuttingsofhairorclippi



ngsofnailsareenoughtoputtheirownermagicallyinyourpower;andthatisthereasonwhy,ifyouareaprudentperson,youwillalwaysburnallsuchoff-castingsofyourbody,lesthaplyanenemyshouldgetholdofthem,andcasttheevileyeuponyouwiththeirpotentaid.Inthesameway,ifyoucanlayhandsuponanythingthatoncebelongedtoanelf,suchasafairy-boltorflintarrowhead,youcangetitsformerpossessortodoanythingyouwishbysimplyrubbingitandcallinguponhimtoappear.Thisisthesecretofhalfthecharmsandamuletsinexistence,mostofwhichareeitherrealoldarrowheads,orcarnelianscutinthesameshape,whichhasnowmostlydegeneratedfromthebarbtotheconventionalheart,andbeenmistakenlyassociatedwiththeideaoflove.Thisisthesecret,too,ofalltherings,lamps,gems,andboxes,possessionofwhichgivesamanpoweroverfairies,spirits,gnomes,andgenii.Allmagicproceedsupontheprimebeliefthatyoumustpossesssomethingbelongingtothepersonyouwishtocontrol,constrain,orinjure.And,failinganythingelse,youmustatleasthaveawaximageofhim,whichyoucallbyhisname,anduseashissubstituteinyourincantations.Onthisprimitiveprinciple,possessionofathunderboltgivesyousomesortofhold,asitwere,overthethunder-godhimselfinperson.Ifyoukeepathunderboltinyourhouseitwillneverbestruckbylightning.InShetland,stoneaxesarereligiouslypreservedineverycottageasacheapandsimplesubstituteforlightning-rods.InCornwall,thestonehatchetsandarrowheadsnotonlyguardthehousefromthunder,butalsoactasmagicalbarometers,changingcolourwiththechangesoftheweather,asifinsympathywiththetemperofthethunder-god.InGermany,thehousewhereathunderboltiskeptissafefromthestorm;andt

heboltitselfbeginstosweatontheapproachoflightning-clouds.Nay,sopotentistheprotectionaffordedbyathunderboltthatwherethelightninghasoncestruckitneverstrikesagain;theboltalreadyburiedinthesoilseemstopreservethesurroundingplacefromtheangerofthedeity.Oldandpaganintheirnatureasarethesebeliefs,theyyetsurvivesothoroughlyintoChristiantimesthatIhaveseenastonehatchetbuiltintothesteepleofachurchtoprotectitfromlightning.Indeed,steepleshavealwaysofcourseattractedtheelectricdischargetoasingulardegreebytheirheightandtaperingform,especiallybeforetheintroductionoflighting-rods;anditwasasoretrialoffaithtomedi?valreasonerstounderstandwhyheavenshouldhurlitsangrydartssooftenagainstthetowersofitsveryownchurches.IntheAbruzzitheflintaxehasactuallybeenChristianisedintoSt.Paul'sarrows--saettideSanPaolo.Familieshanddownthemiraculousstonesfromfathertosonasapreciouslegacy;andmother

shangthemontheirchildren'sneckssidebysidewithmedalsofsaintsandmadonnas,whichthemselvesarehardlysohighlyprizedasthestonesthatfallfromheaven.Anotherandverydifferentformofthunderboltisthebelemnite,acommonEnglishfossiloftenpreservedinhousesinthewestcountrywiththesamesuperstitiousreverenceastheneolithichatchets.Theveryformofthebelemniteatoncesuggeststhenotionofadartorlance-head,whichhasgainedforititsscientificname.Atthepresentday,whenallourgirlsgotoGirtonandenterfortheclassicaltripos,Ineedhardlytranslatethewordbelemnite'forthebenefitoftheladies,'aspeopleusedtodointhedarkandunemancipatedeighteenthcentury;butasourboyshaveleftofflearningGreekjustastheirsistersarebeginningtoactthe'Antigone'atprivatetheatricals,ImayperhapsbepardonedifIexplain,'forthebenefitofthegentlemen,'thatthewordispracticallyequi

valenttojavelin-fossil.Thebelemnitesaretheinternalshellsofasortofcuttle-fishwhichswamaboutinenormousnumbersintheseaswhosesedimentformsourmodernlias,oolite,andgault.AgreatmanydifferentspeciesareknownandhaveacquiredcharmingnamesinverydoubtfulAtticatthehandsofprofoundlylearnedgeologicalinvestigators,butalmostallareequallygoodrepresentativesofthemythicalthunderbolt.Thefinestspecimensarelong,thick,cylindrical,andgraduallytapering,withaholeatoneendasifonpurposetoreceivetheshaft.Sometimestheyhavepetrifiedintoironpyritesorcoppercompounds,shininglikegold,andthentheymakeverynoblethunderboltsindeed,heavyaslead,andcapableofdoingprofoundmischiefifproperlydirected.Atothertimesth



eyhavecrystallisedintransparentspar,andthentheyformverybeautifulobjects,assmoothandpolishedasthebestlapidarycouldpossiblymakethem.Belemnitesaregenerallyfoundinimmensenumberstogether,especiallyinthemarlstonequarriesoftheMidlands,andintheliascliffsofDorsetshire.YetthequarrymenwhofindthemneverseemtohavetheirfaithshakenintheleastbytheenormousquantitiesofthunderboltsthatwouldappeartohavestruckasinglespotwithsuchextraordinaryfrequencyThislittlefactalsotellsratherhardlyagainstthetheorythatthelightningneverfallstwiceuponthesameplace.Onlythelargestandheaviestbelemnitesareknownasthunderstones;thesmalleronesaremorecommonlydescribedasagatepencils.InShakespeare'scountrytheirconnectionwiththunderiswellknown,sothatinallprobabilityabelemniteistheoriginalofthebeautifullinesin'Cymbeline':--Fearnomorethelightningflash,Northeall-dreadedthunderstone,wherethedistinctionbetweenthelightningandthethunderboltisparticularlywellindicated.IneverypartofEuropebelemnitesandstonehatchetsarealikeregardedasthunderbolts;sothatwehavethecuriousresultthatpeopleconfuseunderasinglenameanaturalfossilofimmenseantiquityandahumanproductofcomparativelyrecentbutstillprehistoricdate.Indeed,Ihavehadtwothunderboltsshownmeatonce,oneofwhichwasalargebelemnite,andtheotheramodernIndiantomahawk.Curiouslyenough,Englishsailorsstillcallthenearestsurvivingrelativesofthebelemnites,thesquidsorcalamariesoftheAtlantic,bytheappropriatenameofsea-arrows.Manyothernaturalorartificialobjectshaveaddedtheirtittletothebeliefinthunderbolts.IntheHimalayas,forexample,whereawfulthunderstormsarealw

aysoccurringascommonobjectsofthecountry,thetorrentswhichfollowthemtearoutoftheloosesoilfossilbonesandtusksandteeth,whichareuniversallylookeduponaslightning-stones.Thenodulesofpyrites,oftenpickeduponbeaches,withtheirfalseappearanceofhavingbeenmeltedbyintenseheat,passmustereasilywithchildrenandsailorfolkforthegenuinethunderbolts.Butthegrandupholderofthebelief,theonetrueundeniablerealitywhichhaskeptalivethethunderbolteveninawickedandscepticalage,is,beyondallquestion,theoccasionalfallingofmeteoricstones.Yourmeteorisanincontrovertiblefact;thereisnogettingoverhim;intheBritishMuseumitselfyouwillfindhimdulyclassifiedandlabelledandcatalogued.Here,surely,wehavetheultimatesubstratumofthethunderboltmyth.Tobesure,meteorshavenokindofnaturalconnectionwiththunderstorms;theymayfallanywhereandatanytime;buttoobjectthusistobehypercritical.Astonethatfallsfromheaven,nomatterho

worwhen,isquitegoodenoughtobeconsideredasathunderbolt.Meteors,indeed,mightveryeasilybeconfoundedwithlightning,especiallybypeoplewhoalreadyhavethefull-blownconceptionofathunderboltfloatingaboutvaguelyintheirbrains.Themeteorleapsupontheearthsuddenlywitharushingnoise;itisusuallyred-hotwhenitfalls,byfrictionagainsttheair;itismostlycomposedofnativeironandotherheavymetallicbodies;anditdoesitsbesttoburyitselfinthegroundinthemostorthodoxandrespectablemanner.Themanwhoseesthisparlousmonstercomewhizzingthroughthecloudsfromplanetaryspace,makingafierytracklikeagreatdragonasitmovesrapidlyacrossthesky,andfinallyploughingitswayintotheearthinhisownbackgarden,maywellbeexcusedforregardingitasafinespecimenofthetrueantiquethunderbolt.Thesamevirtueswhichbelongtotheburiedstoneareinsomeotherplacesclaimedformeteoriciron,smallpiecesofwhicharewornascharms,speciall

yusefulinprotectingtheweareragainstthunder,lightning,andevilincantations.Inmanycasesmiraculousimageshavebeenhewnoutofthestonesthathavefallenfromheaven;andinothersthemeteoriteitselfiscarefullypreservedorworshippedastheactualrepresentativeofgodorgoddess,saintormadonna.TheimagethatfelldownfromJupitermayitselfhavebeenamassofmeteoriciron.Bothmeteoritesandstonehatchets,aswellasallotherformsofthunderbolt,areinexcellentreputeasamulets,notonlyagainstlightning,butagainsttheevileyegenerally.InItalytheyprotecttheownerfromthunder,epidemics,andcattledisease,thelasttwoofwhicharewellknowntobecausedbywitchcraft;



whileProsperointhe'Tempest'isasurvivingproofhowthunderstorms,too,canbemagicallyproduced.Thetonguesofsheep-bellsoughttobemadeofmeteoricironorofelf-bolts,inordertoinsuretheanimalsagainstfoot-and-mouthdiseaseordeathbystorm.Builtintowallsorplacedonthethresholdofstables,thunderboltsarecapitalpreventivesoffireorotherdamage,thoughnotperhapsinthisrespectquiteequaltoarustyhorseshoefromaprehistoricbattlefield.Thrownintoawelltheypurifythewater;andboiledinthedrinkofdiseasedsheeptheyrenderacurepositivelycertain.InCornwallthunderboltsareasovereignremedyforrheumatism;andinthepopularpharmacopoeiaofIrelandtheyhavebeenemployedwithsuccessforophthalmia,pleurisy,andmanyotherpainfuldiseases.Iffinelypowderedandswallowedpiecemeal,theyrenderthepersonwhoswallowstheminvulnerablefortherestofhislifetime.Buttheycannotconscientiouslyberecommendedfordyspepsiaandotherformsofindigestion.Asifonpurposetoconfuseouralreadyveryvagueideasaboutthunderbolts,thereisonespecialkindoflightningwhichreallyseemsintentionallytosimulateameteorite,andthatisthekindknownasfire-ballsor(morescientifically)globularlightning.Afire-ballgenerallyappearsasasphereoflight,sometimesonlyasbigasaDutchcheese,sometimesaslargeasthreefeetindiameter.Itmovesalongveryslowlyanddemurelythroughtheair,remainingvisibleforawholeminuteortwotogether;andintheenditgenerallyburstsupwithgreatviolence,asifitwereaLondonrailwaystationbeingexperimenteduponbyIrishpatriots.AtMilanonedayafire-ballofthisdescriptionwalkeddownoneofthestreetssoslowlythatasmallcrowdwalkedafteritadmiringly,toseewhereitwasgoing.Itmadestraightforachurchsteeple,afterthecommonbutsacri

legiousfashionofalllightning,struckthegildedcrossonthetopmostpinnacle,andthenimmediatelyvanished,likeaVirgilianapparition,intothinair.Afewyearsago,too,Dr.Tripewaswatchingaveryseverethunderstorm,whenhesawafire-ballcomequietlyglidinguptohim,apparentlyrisingfromtheearthratherthanfallingtowardsit.Insteadofrunningaway,likeapracticalman,theintrepiddoctorheldhisgroundquietlyandobservedthefierymonsterwithscientificnonchalance.Aftercontinuingitscourseforsometimeinapeacefulandregularfashion,however,withoutattemptingtoassaulthim,itfinallydartedoffatatangentinanotherdirection,andturnedapparentlyintoforkedlightning.Afire-ball,noticedamongtheGlendowanMountainsinDonegal,behavedevenmoreeccentrically,asmightbeexpectedfromitsIrishantecedents.Itfirstskirtedtheearthinaleisurelywayforseveralhundredyardslikeacannon-ball;thenitstrucktheground,ricochetted,andoncemoreboundedalongforano

thershortspell;afterwhichitdisappearedintheboggysoil,asifitwerecompletelyfinishedanddonefor.Butinanothermomentitroseagain,nothingdaunted,withCelticirrepressibility,severalyardsaway,pursueditsghostlycourseacrossarunningstream(whichshows,atleast,therecouldhavebeennowitchcraftinit),andfinallyrantoearthforgoodintheoppositebank,leavingaroundholeintheslopingpeatatthespotwhereitburieditself.Whereitfirststruck,itcutupthepeatasifwithaknife,andmadeabroaddeeptrenchwhichremainedafterwardsasawitnessofitseccentricconduct.Ifthepersonwhoobservedithadbeenofasuperstitiousturnofmindweshouldhavehadhereoneofthefinestandmostterrifyingghoststoriesontheentirerecord,whichwouldhavemadeanexceptionallysplendidshowinthe'TransactionsoftheSocietyforPsychicalResearch.'Unfortunately,however,hewasonlyamanofscience,ungiftedwiththepreciousdowerofpoeticalimagination;sohestupidlycalled

itaremarkablefire-ball,measuredthegroundcarefullylikeacommonengineer,andsentanaccountofthephenomenontothatfarmoreprosaicperiodical,the'QuarterlyJournaloftheMeteorologicalSociety.'Anothersplendidapparitionthrownawayrecklessly,forever!Thereisacuriousformofelectricaldischarge,somewhatsimilartothefire-ballbutonasmallerscale,whichmayberegardedastheexactoppositeofthethunderbolt,inasmuchasitisalwaysquiteharmless.ThisisSt.Elmo'sfire,abrushoflambentlight,whichplaysaroundthemastsofshipsandthetopsoftrees,whencloudsarelowandtensiongreat.Itis,infact,theequivalentinnatureofthebrushdischargefromanelectricmachine.TheGreeksandRomanslooke



duponthislambentdisplayasasignofthepresenceofCastorandPollux,'fratresHelen?,lucidasidera,'andheldthatitsappearancewasanomenofsafety,aseverybodywhohasreadthe'LaysofAncientRome'mustsurelyremember.Themodernname,St.Elmo'sfire,isitselfacuriouslytwistedandperverselyChristianisedreminiscenceofthegreattwinbrethren;forSt.ElmoismerelyacorruptionofHelena,mademasculineandcanonisedbythegratefulsailors.ItwasasHelen'sbrothersthattheybestknewtheDioscuriinthegoodolddaysoftheupperempire;andwhenthenewreligionforbadethemanylongertoworshipthosevainheathendeities,theymanagedtohandovertheflamesatthemastheadtoanimaginarySt.Elmo,whoseprotectionstoodtheminjustasgoodsteadasthatoftheoriginalalternateimmortals.Finally,theeffectsoflightningitselfaresometimessuchastoproduceuponthemindofanimpartialbutunscientificbeholderthefirmideathatabodilythunderboltmustnecessarilyhavedescendedfromheaven.Insandorrock,wherelightninghasstruck,itoftenformslonghollowtubes,knowntothecalmlydiscriminatinggeologicalintelligenceasfulgurites,andlookingforalltheworldlikegiganticdrillssuchasquarrymenmakeforputtinginablast.Theyareproduced,ofcourse,bythemeltingoftherockundertheterrificheatoftheelectricspark;andtheygrownarrowerandnarrowerastheydescendtilltheyfinallydisappear.Buttoacasualobserver,theyirresistiblysuggestthenotionthatamaterialweaponhasstrucktheground,andburieditselfatthebottomofthehole.ThesummitofLittleArarat,thatweather-beatenandmany-fabledpeak(whereanenterprisingjournalistnotlongagodiscoveredtheremainsofNoah'sArk),hasbeenriddledthroughandthroughbyfrequentlightnings,tilltherockisn

owamerehoneycombedmassofdrillsandtubes,likeanoldtargetattheendofalongday'sconstantriflepractice.Piecesoftheredtrachytefromthesummit,afootlong,havebeenbroughttoEurope,perforatedalloverwiththesenaturalbulletmarks,eachofthemlinedwithblackglass,duetothefusionoftherockbythepassageofthespark.Specimensofsuchthunder-drilledrockmaybeseeninmostgeologicalmuseums.OnsomewhichHumboldtcollectedfromapeakinMexico,thefusedslagfromthewallofthetubehasoverflowedontothesurroundingsurface,thusconclusivelyproving(ifproofwerenecessary)thattheholesareduetomeltingheatalone,andnottothepassageofanysolidthunderbolt.Butitwastheintroductionandgeneralemploymentoflightning-rodsthatdealtafinaldeathblowtothethunderbolttheory.Alightning-conductorconsistsessentiallyofalongpieceofmetal,pointedattheendwhosebusinessitis,nots

omuch(asmostpeopleimagine)tocarryofftheflashoflightningharmlessly,shouldithappentostrikethehousetowhichtheconductorisattached,butrathertopreventtheoccurrenceofaflashatall,bygraduallyandgentlydrawingofftheelectricityasfastasitgathersbeforeithashadtimetocollectinsufficientforceforadestructivedischarge.Itresemblesineffectanoverflowpipewhichdrainsoffthesurpluswaterofapondassoonasitrunsin,insuchamannerastopreventthepossibilityofaninundation,whichmightoccurifthewaterwereallowedtocollectinforcebehindadamorembankment.Itisaflood-gate,notamoat:itcarriesawaytheelectricityoftheairquietlytotheground,withoutallowingittogatherinsufficientamounttoproduceaflashoflightning.Itmightthusbebettercalledalightning-preventerthanalightning-conductor:itconductselectricity,butitpreventslightning.Atfirst,alllightning-rodsusedtobemadewithknobsonthetop,andthentheelectricityu

sedtocollectatthesurfaceuntiltheelectricforcewassufficienttocauseaspark.Inthosehappydays,youhadthepleasureofseeingthatthelightningwasactuallybeingdrawnofffromyourneighbourhoodpiecemeal.Knobs,itwasheld,mustbethebestthings,becauseyoucouldincontestablyseethesparksstrikingthemwithyourowneyes.Butastimewenton,electriciansdiscoveredthatifyoufixedafinemetalpointtotheconductorofanelectricmachineitwasimpossibletogetupanyappreciablechargebecausetheelectricitykeptalwaysleakingoutbymeansofthepoint.Thenitwasseenthatifyoumadeyourlightning-rodspointedattheend,youwouldbeableinthesamewaytodissipateyourelectricitybeforeiteverhadtimetocometoaheadintheshapeoflightning.



Fromthatmomentthethunderboltwassafelydeadandburied.Itwasurged,indeed,thattheattemptthustorobHeavenofitsthunderswaswickedandimpious;butthecommon-senseofmankindrefusedtobelievethatabsoluteomnipotencecouldbesensiblydefiedbytwentyyardsofcylindricalirontubing.Thenceforththethunderboltceasedtoexist,saveinpoetry,countryhouses,andthemostruralcircles;eventheelectricfluidwasgenerallyrelegatedtotheprovincialpress,whereitstillkeepscompanyharmoniouslywithcaloric,thedevouringelement,nature'sabhorrenceofavacuum,andmanyotherlikephilosophicalfossils:whilelightningitself,shornofitsformerglories,couldnolongerwageimpiouswaragainstcathedraltowers,butwascompelledtorestrictitselftoblastingasolitaryridernowandagainintheopenfields,ordrillingmoreholesinthealreadycrumblingsummitofMountArarat.Yetitwillbeathousandyearsmore,inallprobability,beforethelastthunderboltceasestobeshownasacuriosityhereandtheretomarvellingvisitors,andtakesitsproperplaceinsomevillagemuseumasabelemnite,ameteoricstone,orapolishedaxe-headofourneolithicancestors.Eventhen,nodoubt,theoriginalboltwillstillsurviveasarecognisedpropertyinthestock-in-tradeofeverywell-equippedpoet.

HONEY-DEWPlace,thegarden.Time,summer.Dramatisperson?,acoupleofsmallbrowngarden-ants,andalazyclusteringcolonyofweegreen'plant-lice,'or'blight,'oraphides.Theexactsceneisusuallyontheyoungandsucculentbranchesofaluxuriantrose-bush,intowhosesoftshootstheaphideshavedeeplyburiedtheirlongtrunk-likesnouts,insearchofthesapoffwhichtheylivesocontentedlyth

roughtheirbrieflifetime.Tothem,enterthetwosmallbrownants,theirlawfulpossessors;forants,too,thoughabsolutelyunrecognisedbyEnglishlaw('deminimisnoncuratlex,'saysthelegalaphorism),areneverthelessintheirowncommonwealthdulyseisedofmanyandvariousgoodsandchattels;andthesesameaphides,aseverybodyhasheard,standtotheminprettymuchthesamepositionascowsstandtohumanherdsmen.Throwinforsolespectatoraloiteringnaturalist,andyougettheentire_mise-en-sc¨¨ne_ofaquaintlittledramathatworksitselfoutadozentimesamongthewiltedrose-treesbeneaththelatticedcottagewindowseverysummermorning.Itisadelightfulsighttowatchthetwolittlelilliputianproprietorsapproachingandmilkingthesetheirweegreenmotionlesscattle.Firstofall,theantsquicklyscenttheirwaywithprotrudedantenn?(fortheyareasgoodasblind,poorthings!)upthepricklystemoftherose-bush,guided,nodoubt,bythefai

ntperfumeexhaledfromthenectarabovethem.Smellingtheirroadcautiouslytotheendsofthebranches,theysoonreachtheirownparticularaphides,whosebodiestheyproceedgentlytostrokewiththeiroutstretchedfeelers,andthenstandbyquietlyforamomentinhappyanticipationofthecomingdinner.Presently,theobedientaphis,consciousofitslawfulmaster'sfriendlypresence,beginsslowlytoemitfromtwolonghorn-liketubesnearthecentreofitsbackacoupleoflimpiddropsofastickypaleyellowfluid.Honey-dewourEnglishrusticsstillcallit,because,whentheaphidesarenotmilkedoftenenoughbyants,theydischargeitawkwardlyoftheirownaccord,andthenitfallsasasweetclammydewuponthegrassbeneaththem.Theant,approachingthetwotubeswithcautioustenderness,removesthesweetdropswithoutinjuringinanywayhislittle_prot¨¦g¨¦_,andthenpassesontothenextinorderofhistinycattle,leavingtheahisapparentlyasmuchrelievedbytheprocessasacowwithafullhangingudde

risrelievedbythetimelyattentionofthehumanmilkmaid.Evidently,thisisacaseofmutualaccommodationinthepoliticaleconomyoftheantsandaphides:afreeinterchangeofservicesbetweentheantasconsumerandtheaphisasproducer.Whytheaphidesshouldhaveacquiredthecuriousnecessityforgettingridofthissweet,sticky,andnutritioussecretionnobodyknowswithcertainty;butitisatleastquiteclearthattheliquidisaconsiderablenuisancetothemintheirverysedentaryandmonotonousexistence--awasteproductofwhichtheyareanxioustodisembarrassthemselvesaseasilyaspossible--andthatwhiletheythemselvesstandtotheantsintherelationofpurveyorsoffoodsupply,theantsinreturnstandtothemintherelationofscavengers,



orcontractorsfortheremovalofuselessaccumulations.Everybodyknowstheaphideswellbysight,inoneoftheirformsatleast,thefamiliarroseaphis;butprobablyfewpeopleeverlookatthemcloselyandcriticallyenoughtoobservehowverybeautifulandwonderfulistheorganisationoftheirtinylimbsinallitsexquisitedetail.Ifyoupickoffonegood-sizedwinglessinsect,however,fromablightedrose-leaf,andputhimonaglassslideunderalowpowerofthemicroscope,youwillmostlikelybequitesurprisedtofindwhatalovelylittlecreatureitisthatyouhavebeenpoisoningwholesaleallyourlifelongwithdilutedtobacco-juice.Hisbodyissotransparentthatyoucanseethroughitbytransmittedlight:adaintyglassglobe,youwouldsay,ofemeraldgreen,setuponsixtapering,jointed,hairylegs,andprovidedinfrontwithtwolargeblackeyesofmanyfacets,andapairoflongandveryflexibleantenn?,easilymovedinanydirection,butusuallybentbackwardwhenthecreatureisatrestsoastoreachnearlytohistailashestandsateaseuponhisnativerose-leaf.Thereare,however,twootherfeaturesabouthimwhichspeciallyattractattention,asbeingverycharacteristicoftheaphidesandtheiralliesamongallotherinsects.Inthefirstplace,hismouthisprovidedwithaverylongsnoutorproboscis,classicallydescribedasarostrum,withwhichhepiercestheouterskinoftherose-shootwherehelives,andsucksupincessantlyitssweetjuices.Thisorganiscommontotheaphiswithalltheotherbugsandplant-lice.Inthesecondplace,hehashalf-waydownhisback(oralittlemore)apairofverypeculiarholloworgans,thehoneytubes,fromwhichexudesthatsingularsecretion,thehoney-dew.Thesetubesarenotfoundinquiteallspeciesofaphides,buttheyareverycommonamongtheclass,andtheyformbyfarth

emostconspicuousandinterestingorgansinallthoseaphideswhichdopossessthem.Thelife-historyoftherose-aphis,smallandfamiliarasistheinsectitself,formsoneofthemostmarvellousandextraordinarychaptersinallthefairytalesofmodernscience.Nobodyneedwonderwhytheblightattackshisrosessopersistentlywhenoncehehaslearnttheunusualprovisionforexceptionalfertilityinthereproductionoftheseinsectplagues.Thewholestoryistoolongtogiveatfulllength,buthereisabriefrecapitulationofayear'sgenerationsofcommonaphides.Inthespring,theeggsoflastyear'scrop,whichhavebeenlaidbythemothersinnooksandcranniesoutofreachofthefrost,arequickenedintolifebythefirstreturnofwarmweather,andhatchouttheirbroodofinsects.Allthisbroodconsistsofimperfectfemales,withoutasinglemaleamongthem;andtheyal

lfastenatonceupontheyoungbudsoftheirnativebush,wheretheypassasluggishanduneventfulexistenceinsuckingupthejuicefromtheveinsontheonehand,andsecretinghoney-dewupontheother.Fourtimestheymoulttheirskins,thesemoultsbeinginsomerespectsanalogoustothemetamorphosisofthecaterpillarintochrysalisandbutterfly.Afterthefourthmoult,theyoungaphidesattainmaturity;andthentheygiveorigin,parthenogenetically,toasecondbrood,alsoofimperfectfemales,allproducedwithoutanyfathers.Thissecondbroodbringsforthinlikemannerathirdgeneration,asexual,asbefore;andthesameprocessisrepeatedwithoutintermissionaslongasthewarmweatherlasts.Ineachcase,theyoungsimplybudoutfromtheovariesofthemothers,exactlyasnewcropsofleavesbudoutfromtherose-branchonwhichtheygrow.Elevengenerationshavethusbeenobservedtofollowoneanotherrapidlyinasinglesummer;andindeed,bykeepingtheaphidesinawarmroom,onemayevenmakethemc

ontinuetheirreproductioninthispurelyvegetativefashionforasmanyasfouryearsrunning.Butassoonasthecoldweatherbeginstosetin,perfectmaleandfemaleinsectsareproducedbythelastswarmofparthenogeneticmothers;andthesetruefemales,afterbeingfertilised,laytheeggswhichremainthroughthewinter,andfromwhichthenextsummer'sbroodshavetobeginafreshthewonderfulcycle.Thus,onlyonegenerationofaphides,outoftenoreleven,consistsoftruemalesandfemales:alltherestarefalsefemales,producingyoungbyaprocessofbudding.SettingasideforthepresentcertainspecialmodificationsofthisstrangecyclewhichhavebeenlatelydescribedbyM.JulesLichtenstein,letusconsiderfor



amomentwhatcanbetheoriginandmeaningofsuchanunusualandcuriousmodeofreproduction.Theaphidesareonthewholethemostpurelyinactiveandvegetativeofallinsects,unlessindeedweexceptafewverydebasedanddegradedparasites.Theyfastenthemselvesearlyinlifeontoaparticularshootofaparticularplant;theydrinkinitsjuices,digestthem,grow,andundergotheirincompletemetamorphoses;theyproducenewgenerationswithextraordinaryrapidity;andtheyvegetate,infact,almostasmuchastheplantitselfuponwhichtheyareliving.Theirexistenceisdullerthanthatoftheverydullestcathedralcity.Theyarethusessentiallydegeneratecreatures:theyhavefoundtheconditionsoflifetooeasyforthem,andtheyhaverevertedtosomethingsolowandsimplethattheyarealmostplant-likeinsomeoftheirhabitsandpeculiarities.Theancestorsoftheaphideswerefreewingedinsects;and,incertainstagesoftheirexistence,mostlivingspeciesofaphidespossessatleastsomewingedmembers.Ontherose-bush,youcangenerallypickoffafewsuchlargerwingedforms,sidebysidewiththeweegreenwinglessinsects.Butcreatureswhichhavetakentopassingmostoftheirlifeuponasinglespotonasingleplanthardlyneedtheluxuryofwings;andso,inninecasesoutoften,naturalselectionhasdispensedwiththoseneedlessencumbrances.Eventhelegsarecomparativelylittlewantedbyourmodernaphides,whichonlyrequirethemtowalkawayinastatelysleepymannerwhenrudelydisturbedbyman,lady-birds,orotherenemies;andindeedthelegsarenowveryweakandfeeble,andincapableofwalkingformorethanashortdistanceatatimeunderexceptionalprovocation.Theeyesremain,itistrue;butonlythebigones:thelittleocelliatthetopofthehead,f

oundamongstsomanyoftheirallies,arequitewantinginalltheaphides.Inshort,theplant-licehavedegeneratedintomeremouthsandsacksforsuckingandstoringfoodfromthetissuesofplants,providedwithlargehoney-tubesforgettingridofthewastesugar.Now,thegreatertheamountoffoodanyanimalgets,andthelesstheamountofexpenditureitperformsinmuscularaction,thegreaterwillbethesurplusithasleftoverforthepurposesofreproduction.Eggsoryoung,infact,representtheamountthusleftoverafterallthewantsofthebodyhavebeenprovidedfor.Butintherose-aphisthewantsofthebody,whenoncetheinsecthasreacheditsfullgrowth,areabsolutelynothing;anditthereforethenbeginstobudoutnewgenerationsinrapidsuccessionasfastaseveritcanproducethem.Thisisstrictlyanalogoustowhatweseeeverydaytakingplaceinalltheplantsaroundus.Newleavesareproducedoneafteranother,asfastasmaterialcanbes

uppliedfortheirnutrition,andeachofthesenewleavesisknowntobeaseparateindividual,justasmuchastheindividualaphis.Atlast,however,atimecomeswhenthereproductivepoweroftheplantbeginstofail,andthenitproducesflowers,thatistosaystamens(male)andpistils(female),whoseunionresultsinfertilisationandthesubsequentoutgrowthoffruitandseeds.Thusayear'scycleoftheplant-liceexactlyanswerstothelife-historyofanordinaryannual.Theeggscorrespondtotheseeds;thevariousgenerationsofaphidesbuddingoutfromoneanotherbyparthenogenesiscorrespondtotheleavesbuddedoutbyoneanotherthroughoutthesummer;andthefinalbroodofperfectmalesandfemalesanswerstotheflowerwithitsstamenandpistils,producingtheseeds,astheyproducetheeggs,forsettingupafreshthenextyear'scycle.Thisconsideration,Ifancy,suggeststousthemostprobableexplanationofthehoney-tubesandhoney-dew.Creaturesthateatsomuchandreproducesofastas

theaphidesarerapidlysuckingupjuicesallthetimefromtheplantonwhichtheyfasten,andconvertingmostofthenutrimentsoabsorbedintomaterialforfreshgenerations.Thatishowtheyswarmsofastoverallourshrubsandflowers.Butifthereisanyonekindofmaterialintheirfoodinexcessoftheirneeds,theywouldnaturallyhavetosecreteitbyaspecialorgandevelopedorenlargedforthepurpose.Idon'tmeanthattheorganwouldorcouldbedevelopedallatonce,byasuddeneffort,butthatasthehabitoffixingthemselvesuponplantsandsuckingtheirjuicesgrewfromgenerationtogenerationwiththesedescendantsoforiginallywingedinsects,anorganforpermittingthewasteproducttoexudemustnecessarilyhavegrownsidebysidewithit.Sugarseemstohaveb



eensuchawasteproduct,containedinthejuicesoftheplanttoanextentbeyondwhattheaphidescouldassimilateoruseupintheproductionofnewbroods;andthissugaristhereforesecretedbyspecialorgans,thehoney-tubes.Onecanreadilyimaginethatitmayatfirsthaveescapedinsmallquantities,andthattwoporesontheirlastsegmentbuttwomayhavebeengraduallyspecialisedintoregularsecretingorgans,perhapsunderthepeculiaragencyoftheants,whohaveregularlyappropriatedsomanykindsofaphidesasminiaturemilchcows.Socompletelyhavesomespeciesofantscometorecognisetheirownproprietaryinterestinthepersonsoftheaphides,thattheyprovidethemwithfencesandcow-shedsonthemostapprovedhumanpattern.Sometimestheybuildupcoveredgalleriestoprotecttheirtinycattle;andthesegalleriesleadfromthenesttotheplacewheretheaphidesarefixed,andcompletelyenclosethelittlecreaturesfromallchanceofharm.Ifintruderstrytoattackthefarmyard,theantsdrivethemawaybybitingandlaceratingthem.SirJohnLubbock,whohaspaidgreatattentiontothemutualrelationsofantsandaphides,hasevenshownthatvariouskindsofantsdomesticatevariousspeciesofaphis.Thecommonbrowngarden-ant,oneofthedarkestskinnedamongourEnglishraces,'devotesitselfprincipallytoaphideswhichfrequenttwigsandleaves';especially,sofarasIhavemyselfobserved,thebrightgreenaphisoftherose,andthecloselyalliedlittleblackaphisofthebroadbean.Ontheotherhandanearlyrelatedreddishantpaysattentionchieflytothoseaphideswhichliveonthebarkoftrees,whiletheyellowmeadow-ants,afarmoresubterraneanspecies,keepflocksandherdsofthelike-mindedaphideswhichfeedupontherootsofherbsandgrasses.SirJohnLubbock,indeed,evensuggests--andhowthesuggestionwouldhavecharm

ed'Civilisation'Buckle!--thattothisdifferenceoffoodandhabitthedistinctivecoloursofthevariousspeciesmayveryprobablybedue.Thegroundwhichheadducesforthisingeniousideaisacapitalexampleoftheexcellentusetowhichout-of-the-wayevidencemaybecleverlyputbyacompetentevolutionarythinker.'TheBalticamber,'hesays,'containsamongtheremainsofmanyotherinsectsaspeciesofantintermediatebetweenoursmallbrowngarden-antsandthelittleyellowmeadow-ants.Thisispossiblythestockfromwhichtheseandotheralliedspeciesaredescended.Oneistemptedtosuggestthatthebrownspecieswhichlivesomuchintheopenair,andclimbuptreesandbushes,haveretainedandevendeepenedtheirdarkcolour;whileothers,suchastheyellowmeadow-ant,whichlivesalmostentirelybelowground,havebecomemuchpaler.'Hemighthaveadded,asconfirmatoryevidence,thefactthattheperfectwingedmalesandfemalesoftheyellowspecies,whichflyaboutfreelyduringthebriefhoneymoon

intheopenair,areevendarkerinhuethanthebrowngarden-ant.Buthowthelightcolouroftheneuterworkersgetstransmittedthroughtheseduskyparentsfromonegenerationtoanotherispartofthatmostinsolublecruxofallevolutionaryreasoning--thetransmissionofspecialqualitiestoneutersbyparentswhohaveneverpossessedthem.Thislast-mentionedyellowmeadow-anthascarriedthesystemofdomesticationfurtherinallprobabilitythananyotherspeciesamongitscongeners.Notonlydotheyellowantscollecttheroot-feedingaphidesintheirownnests,andtendthemascarefullyastheirownyoung,buttheyalsogatherandguardtheeggsoftheaphides,which,tilltheycometomaturity,areofcoursequiteuseless.SirJohnLubbockfoundthathisyellowantscarriedthewintereggsofaspeciesofaphisintotheirnest,andtheretookgreatcareofthem.Inthespring,theeggshatchedout;andtheantsactuallycarriedtheyoungaphidesoutofthenest

again,andplacedthemontheleavesofadaisygrowingintheimmediateneighbourhood.Theythenbuiltupawallofearthoverandroundthem.Theaphideswentonintheirusuallazyfashionthroughoutthesummer,andinOctobertheylaidanotherlotofeggs,preciselylikethoseoftheprecedingautumn.Thiscase,asthepractisedobserverhimselfremarks,isaninstanceofprudenceunexampled,perhaps,intheanimalkingdom,outsideman.'TheeggsarelaidearlyinOctoberonthefood-plantoftheinsect.Theyareofnodirectusetotheants;yettheyarenotleftwheretheyarelaid,exposedtotheseverityoftheweatherandtoinnumerabledangers,butbroughtintotheirnestsbytheants,andtendedbythemwiththeutmostcarethroughthelongwintermonthsuntilthefollowingMarc



h,whentheyoungonesarebroughtoutagainandplacedontheyoungshootsofthedaisy.'Mr.WhiteofStonehousehasalsonotedanexactlysimilarinstanceofformicanprovidence.Theconnectionbetweensomanyantsandsomanyspeciesoftheaphidesbeingsocloseandintimate,itdoesnotseemextravaganttosupposethatthehoney-tubesintheirexistingadvancedformatleastmaybeduetothedeliberateselectiveactionofthesetinyinsect-breeders.Indeed,whenweconsiderthattherearecertainspeciesofbeetleswhichhaveneverbeenfoundanywhereexceptinants'nests,itappearshighlyprobablethatthesedomesticatedformshavebeenproducedbytheantsthemselves,exactlyasthedog,thesheep,andthecow,intheirexistingtypes,havebeenproducedbydeliberatehumanselection.Ifthisbeso,thenthereisnothingveryout-of-the-wayintheideathattheantshavealsoproducedthehoney-tubesofaphidesbytheirlongselectiveaction.Itmustberememberedthatants,inpointofantiquity,dateback,underoneformoranother,nodoubttoaveryremoteperiodofgeologicaltime.Theirimmensevarietyofgeneraandspecies(overathousanddistinctkindsareknown)showthemtobeaveryancientfamily,orelsetheywouldnothavehadtimetobespeciallymodifiedinsuchawonderfulmultiformityofways.EvenaslongagoasthetimewhenthetertiarydepositsofOeningenandRadobojwerelaiddown,Dr.HeerofZurichhasshownthatatleasteighty-threedistinctspeciesofantsalreadyexisted;andthenumberthathaveleftnotracebehindismostprobablyfargreater.Someofthebeetlesandwoodlicewhichantsdomesticateintheirnestshavebeenkeptundergroundsolongthattheyhavebecomequiteblind--thatistosay,haveceasedaltogethertoproduceeyes,whichwouldbeofnousetothemintheirsubterra

neangalleries;andonesuchblindbeetle,knownasClaviger,hasevenlostthepoweroffeedingitself,andhastobefedbyitsmastersfromtheirownmandibles.Dr.Taschenbergenumerates300speciesoftrueants'-nestinsects,mostlybeetles,inGermanyalone;andM.Andr¨¦givesalistof584kinds,habituallyfoundinassociationwithantsinonecountryoranother.Comparedwiththesesingularresultsofformicanselection,themereproductionorfurtherdevelopmentofthehoney-tubesappearstobeaverysmallmatter.Butwhatgooddotheaphidesthemselvesderivefromthepowerofsecretinghoney-dew?Forweknownowthatnoanimalorplantiseverprovidedwithanyorganorpartmerelyforthebenefitofanothercreature:theadvantagemustatleastbemutual.Well,inthefirstplace,itislikelythat,inanycase,theamountofsugarymatterinthefoodoftheaphidesisquiteinexcessoftheirneeds;theyassimilatethenitrogenousmaterialofthesap,andsecreteitssaccharinemat

erialashoney-dew.That,however,wouldhardlyaccountforthedevelopmentofspecialsecretoryducts,likethehoney-tubes,inwhichyoucanactuallyseethelittledropsofhoneyrolling,underthemicroscope.Buttheantsareusefulalliestotheaphides,inguardingthemfromanotherverydangeroustypeofinsect.Theyaresubjecttotheattacksofanichneumonfly,whichlaysitseggsinthem,meaningitslarv?tofeedupontheirlivingbodies;andtheantswatchovertheaphideswiththegreatestvigilance,drivingofftheichneumonswhenevertheyapproachtheirlittle_prot¨¦g¨¦s_.Manyotherinsectsbesidesants,however,arefondofthesweetsecretionsoftheaphides,anditisprobablethatthehoney-dewthusactstosomeextentasapreservativeofthespecies,bydivertingpossiblefoesfromtheinsectsthemselves,tothesugaryliquidwhichtheydistilfromtheirfood-plants.Havingmorethanenoughandtospareforalltheirownneeds,andtheneedsoftheiroffsprin

g,theplant-licecanaffordtoemployalittleoftheirnutrimentasabribetosecurethemfromtheattacksofpossibleenemies.Suchcompensatorybribesarecommonenoughintheeconomyofnature.ThusourcommonEnglishvetchsecretesalittlehoneyonthestipulesorwing-likeleafletsonthestem,andsodistractsthievingantsfromcommittingtheirdepredationsuponthenectariesintheflowers,whichareintendedfortheattractionofthefertilisingbees;andaSouthAmericanacacia,asMr.Belthasshown,bearshollowthornsandproduceshoneyfromaglandineachleaflet,inordertoalluremyriadsofsmallantswhichnestinthethorns,eatthehoney,andrepaytheplantbydrivingawaytheirleaf-cuttingcongeners.Indeed,astheystingviolently,andissueforthinenormouss



warmswhenevertheplantisattacked,theyareevenabletofrightenoffbrowsingcattlefromtheirownpeculiaracacia.Aphides,then,areessentiallydegradedinsects,whichhavebecomealmostvegetativeintheirhabits,andevenintheirmodeofreproduction,butwhichstillretainafewmarksoftheiroriginaldescentfromhigherandmorelocomotiveancestors.Theirwings,especially,areusefultotheperfectformsinfindingoneanother,andtotheimperfectonesinmigratingfromoneplanttoitsnearestneighbours,wheretheysoonbecometheparentsoffreshhordesinrapidsuccession.Hencevariouskindsofaphidesareamongthemostdreadedplaguesofagriculturists.The'fly,'whichKentishfarmersknowsowellonhops,isanaphisspecialisedforthatparticularbine;and,whenonceitappearsinthegardens,itspreadswithstartlingrapidityfromoneendofthelongrowstotheother.ThephylloxerawhichhasspoilttheFrenchvineyardsisaroot-feedingformthatattacksthevine,andkillsormaimstheplantterribly,bysuckingthevitaljuicesontheirwayupintothefresh-formingfoliage.The'Americanblight'onappletreesisyetanothermemberofthesamefamily,aweecreepingcottonycreaturethathidesamongthefissuresofthebark,anddrivesitsverylongbeakfardownintothegreensappylayerunderlyingthedeadoutercovering.Infact,almostallthebest-known'blights'andbladder-forminginsectsareaphidesofonekindoranother,affectingleaves,orstalks,orroots,orbranches.ItisoneofthemostremarkableexamplesofthelimitationofhumanpowersthatwhilewecaneasilyexterminatelargeanimalslikethewolfandthebearinEngland,orthepumaandthewolverineinthesettledStatesofAmerica,weshouldbesocomparativelyweakagainsttheColoradobeetleorthefourteen-yearlocust

,andsoabsolutelypowerlessagainstthehop-fly,theturnip-fly,andthephylloxera.Thesmallerandthemoreinsignificantourenemy,viewedindividually,themoredifficultishetocopewithinthemass.Alltheelephantsintheworldcouldhavebeenhunteddownandannihilated,inallprobability,withfarlesslabourthanhasbeenexpendedupononesinglelittleallbutmicroscopicparasiteinFrancealone.Theenormousrapidityofreproductioninthefamilyofaphidesisthetruecauseofourhelplessnessbeforethem.Ithasbeencalculatedthatasingleaphismayduringitsownlifetimebecometheprogenitorof5,904,900,000descendants.Eachimperfectfemaleproducesaboutninetyyoungones,andliveslongenoughtoseeitschildren'schildrentothefifthgeneration.Now,ninetymultipliedbyninetyfourtimesovergivesthenumberabovestated.Ofcourse,thismakesnoallowanceforcasualtieswhichmustbeprettyfrequent:butevenso,thesum-totalofaphidesproducedwithinasmallgardeninasinglesummermu

stbesomethingveryextraordinary.Itiscurious,too,thataphidesonthewholeseemtoescapethenoticeofinsect-eatingbirdsverytolerably.Icannot,infact,discoverthatbirdsevereatthem,theirchiefrealenemybeingthelittlelizard-likelarvaofthelady-bird,whichdevoursthemeverywheregreedilyinimmensenumbers.Indeed,aphidesformalmostthesolefoodoftheentirelady-birdtribeintheirearlierstagesofexistence;andthereisnobetterwayofgettingridofblightonrosesandothergardenplantsthantobringinagoodboxfuloftheseactiveandvoraciouslittlegrubsfromthefieldsandhedges.Theywillpounceupontheaphidesforthwithasacatpouncesuponthemiceinawell-stockedbarnorfarmyard.Thetwo-spottedlady-birdinparticularisthedeterminedexterminatorofthedestructivehop-fly,andismuchbelovedaccordinglybyKentishfarmers.Nodoubt,onereasonwhybirdsdonotreadilyseetheaphisoftheroseandmostotherspeciesisbec

auseoftheirprevailinggreentint,andtheclosewayinwhichtheysticktotheleavesorshootsonwhosejuicestheyarepreying.Butinthecaseofmanyblackandvioletspecies,thisprotectionofimitativecolouriswanting,andyetthebirdsdonotseemtocarefortheveryconspicuouslittleinsectsonthebroadbean,forexample,whoseduskyhuemakesthemquitenoticeableinlargemasses.Heretheremayverylikelybesomespecialprotectionofnauseoustasteintheaphidesthemselves(IwillconfessthatIhavenotventuredtotrytheexperimentinperson),asinmanyotherinstancesweknowthatconspicuously-colouredinsectsadvertisetheirnastiness,asitwere,tothebirdsbytheirowninteguments,andsoescapebeingeateninmistakeforanyoftheirlessprotectedrelativ



es.Ontheotherhand,itseemsprettyclearthatcertainplantshaveefficientlyarmedthemselvesagainsttheaphides,inturn,bysecretingbitterorotherwiseunpleasantjuices.SofarasIcandiscover,thelittleplunderersseldomtouchthepungent'nasturtiums'ortrops?lumsofourflower-gardens,evenwhenthesegrowsidebysidewithotherplantsonwhichtheaphidesareswarming.Often,indeed,Ifindwingedformsupontheleaf-stemofanasturtium,havingcomethereevidentlyinhopesofstartinganewcolony;butusuallyinadeadordyingcondition--thepungentjuiceseemstohavepoisonedthem.So,too,spinachandlettucemaybecoveredwithblight,whilethebitterspurges,thewoolly-leavedarabis,andthestrong-scentedthymeclosebyareutterlyuntouched.Plantsseemtohaveacquiredallthesedevices,suchasclosenetworksofhairupontheleaves,strongessences,bitterorpungentjuices,andpoisonousprinciples,mainlyasdeterrentsforinsectenemies,ofwhichcaterpillarsandplant-licearebyfarthemostdestructive.Itwouldbeunpardonable,ofcourse,towriteabouthoney-dewwithoutmentioningtobacco;andImayaddparentheticallythataphidesaredeterminedanti-tobacconists,nicotine,infact,beingadeadlypoisontothem.Smokingwithtobacco,orsprinklingwithtobacco-water,arefamiliarmodesofgettingridoftheunwelcomeintrudersingardens.Doubtlessthispeculiarpropertyofthetobaccoplanthasbeendevelopedasaprophylacticagainstinsectenemies:andifso,wemayperhapsowetheweeditself,asasmokableleaf,tothelittleaphides.Grantingthishypotheticalconnection,thenameofhoney-dewwouldindeedbeapeculiarlyappropriateone.Imaymentioninpassingthattobaccoisquitefataltoalmostallinsects,afactwhichIpresentgratuitouslytotheblower

sofcounterblasts,whoareatlibertytomakewhateverusetheychooseofit.Quassiaandaloesarealsowell-knownpreventivesofflyorblightingardens.Themostcompletelife-historyyetgivenofanymemberoftheaphisfamilyisthatwhichM.JulesLichtensteinhasworkedoutwithsomuchcareinthecaseofthephylloxeraoftheoak-tree.InApril,thewintereggsofthisspecies,laidinthebarkofanoak,eachhatchoutawinglessimperfectfemale,whichM.Lichtensteincallsthefoundress.Aftermoultingfourtimes,thefoundressproduces,byparthenogenesis,anumberoffalseeggs,whichitfastenstotheleaf-stalksandundersideofthefoliage.Thesefalseeggshatchoutalarvalform,wingless,butbiggerthananyofthesubsequentgenerations;andthelarv?soproducedthemselvesoncemoregiveorigintomorelarv?,whichacquirewings,andflyawayfromtheoakonwhichtheywereborntoanotherofadifferentspeciesinthesameneighbourhood.Theretheselarv?ofthesecondcroponcemorelayfalseegg

s,fromwhichthethirdlarvalgenerationisdeveloped.Thisbroodisagainwingless,anditproceedsatoncetobudoutseveralgenerationsmore,byinternalgemmation,aslongasthewarmweatherlasts.AccordingtoM.Lichtenstein,allpreviousobservationshavebeenmadeonlyonaphidesofthisthirdtype;andhemaintainsthateveryspeciesinthewholefamilyreallyundergoesananalogousalternationofgenerations.Atlast,whenthecoldweatherbeginstosetin,afourthlarvalformappears,whichsoonobtainswings,andfliesbacktothesamekindofoakonwhichthefoundresseswerefirsthatchedout,alltheinterveninggenerationshavingpassedtheirlivesinsuckingthejuicesoftheotheroaktowhichthesecondlarvalformmigrated.Thefourthtypehereproduceperfectmaleandfemaleinsects,whicharewingless,andhavenosuckingapparatus.Thefemales,afterbeingimpregnated,layasingleeggeach,whichtheyhideinthebark,whereitremainsduringthewinter,tillinspringitoncemorehatchesoutint

oafoundress,andthewholecyclebeginsoveragain.Whetheralltheaphidesdoordonotpassthroughcorrespondingstagesisnotyetquitecertain.ButKentishfarmersbelievethatthehop-flymigratestohop-binesfromplum-treesintheneighbourhood;andM.Lichtensteinconsidersthatsuchmigrationsfromoneplanttoanotherarequitenormalinthefamily.Weknow,indeed,thatmanygreatplaguesofourcropsarethuspropagated,sometimesamongcloselyrelatedplants,butsometimesalsoamongthemostwidelyseparatedspecies.Forexample,turnip-fly(whichisnotanaphis,butasmallbeetle)alwaysbeginsitsravages(asMissOrmerodhasabundantlyshown)uponaplotofcharlock,andthenspreadsfrompatchesofthatweedtotheneighbouringturnips,whichareslightlydiversemem



bersofthesamegenus.But,ontheotherhand,ithaslongbeenwellknownthatrustinwheatisspeciallyconnectedwiththepresenceofthebarberrybush;andithasrecentlybeenprovedthatthefunguswhichproducesthediseasepassesitsearlystagesonthebarberryleaves,andonlymigratesinlatergenerationstothegrowingwheat.Thislastcasebringsevenmoreprominentlyintolightthanevertheessentialresemblanceoftheaphidestoplant-parasites.

THEMILKINTHECOCO-NUTFormanycenturiestheoccultproblemhowtoaccountforthemilkinthecoco-nuthasawakenedtheprofoundestinterestalikeofingenuousinfancyandofmaturerscientificage.Thoughitcannotbetruthfullyaffirmedofit,asofthecosmogonyorcreationoftheworld,inthe'VicarofWakefield,'thatit'haspuzzledthephilosophersofallages'(forSanchoniathonwascertainlyignorantoftheveryexistenceofthatdeliciousjuice,andManethodoubtlesswenttohisgravewithouteverhavingtasteditfreshfromthenutunderatropicalverandah),yetitmaybesafelyassertedthatforthelastthreehundredyearsthephilosopherwhohasnotatsometimeorotherofhislifemeditateduponthatabstrusequestionisunworthyofsuchanexaltedname.Thecosmogonyandthemilkinthecoco-nutare,however,agreatdealclosertogetherinthoughtthanSanchoniathonorManetho,ortheroguewhoquotedthemsoglibly,iseveratalllikely,inhiswildestmoments,tohaveimagined.Thecoco-nut,infact,isasubjectwelldeservingofthemostsympathetictreatmentatthegentlehandsofgratefulhumanity.Nootherplantisusefultousinsomanydiverseandremarkablemanners.Ithasbeentrulysaidofthatfriendo

fman,thedomesticpig,thatheisallgood,fromtheendofhissnouttothetipofhistail;buteventhepig,thoughhefurnishesuswithsomanynecessariesorluxuries--fromtooth-brushestosausages,fromhamtolard,frompepsinewinetoporkpies--doesnotnearlyapproach,inthemultiplicityandvarietyofhisvirtues,theall-sufficingandworld-supplyingcoco-nut.AChineseproverbsaysthatthereareasmanyusefulpropertiesinthecoco-nutpalmastherearedaysintheyear;andaPolynesiansayingtellsusthatthemanwhoplantsacoco-nutplantsmeatanddrink,hearthandhome,vesselsandclothing,forhimselfandhischildrenafterhim.LikethegreatMr.Whiteley,theinvaluablepalm-treemightmodestlyadvertiseitselfasauniversalprovider.Thesolidpartofthenutsuppliesfoodalmostalonetothousandsofpeopledaily,andthemilkservesthemfordrink,thusactingasanefficientfiltertothewaterabsorbedbytherootsinthemostpollutedormalariousregions.Ifyoutaptheflowerstalkyou

getasweetjuice,whichcanbeboileddownintothepeculiarsugarcalled(inthecharmingdialectofcommerce)jaggery;oritcanbefermentedintoaverynastyspiritknownaspalm-wine,toddy,orarrack;oritcanbemixedwithbitterherbsandrootstomakethatdelectablecompound'nativebeer.'Ifyousqueezethedrynutyougetcoco-nutoil,whichisasgoodaslardforfryingwhenfresh,andis'anexcellentsubstituteforbutteratbreakfast,'ontropicaltables.Underthemysteriousnameofcopra(whichmostofushaveseenwithawedescribedinthemarketreportsas'firm'or'weak,''receding'or'steady')itformsthemainoronlyexportofmanyOceanicislands,andislargelyimportedintothisrealmofEngland,wherethethickerportioniscalledstearine,andusedformakingsundrycandleswithfancifulnames,whiletheclearoilisemployedforburninginordinarylamps.Intheprocessofpurification,ityieldsglycerine;anditenterslargelyintothemanufactureofmostbetter-classsoaps.Thefibrethat

surroundsthenutmakesuptheothermysteriousarticleofcommerceknownascoir,whichistwistedintostoutropes,orwovenintococo-nutmattingandordinarydoor-mats.Brushesandbroomsarealsomadeofit,anditisused,notalwaysinthemosthonestfashion,inplaceofrealhorse-hairinstuffingcushions.Theshell,cutinhalf,suppliesgoodcups,andisartisticallycarvedbythePolynesians,Japanese,Hindoos,andotherbenightedheathen,whohavenotyetlearntthetruemethodsofcivilisedmachine-madeshoddymanufacture.Theleavesserveasexcellentthatch;ontheflatblades,preparedlikepapyrus,themostfamousBuddhistmanuscriptsarewritten;thelongmid-ribsorbranches(strictlyspeaking,theleaf-stalks)answeradmirablyforrafters,posts,orfencing;thefibr



oussheathatthebaseisaremarkablenaturalimitationofcloth,employedforstrainers,wrappers,andnativehats;whilethetrunk,orstem,passesincarpentryunderthenameofporcupinewood,andproducesbeautifuleffectsasawonderfullycolouredcabinet-makers'material.Theseareonlyafewselectedinstancesoutoftheinnumerableusesofthecoco-nutpalm.Apartevenfromthemanifoldmeritsofthetreethatbearsit,themilkitselfhasmanyandgreatclaimstoourrespectandesteem,aseverybodywhohaseverdrunkitinitsnativesurroundingswillenthusiasticallyadmit.InEngland,tobesure,thewhitemilkinthedrynutsisaverypoorstuff,sickly,andstrong-flavoured,andratherindigestible.Butinthetropics,coco-nutmilk,or,asweoftenercallitthere,coco-nutwater,isaverydifferentandvastlysuperiorsortofbeverage.Ateleveno'clockeverymorning,whenyouarehotandtiredwiththeday'swork,yourblackservant,cladfromheadtofootinhiscoolcleanwhitelinensuit,bringsyouinatallsodaglassfullofaclear,light,crystalliquid,temptinglydisplayedagainsttheyellowbackgroundofachasedBenaresbrass-worktray.Thelumpoficebobsenticinglyupanddowninthecentreofthetumbler,orclinksmusicallyagainsttheedgeoftheglassashecarriesitalong.Youtakethecoolcupthankfullyandswallowitdownatonelongdraught;freshasaMaymorning,pureasanEnglishhillsidespring,delicateas--well,ascoco-nutwater.Nonebutitselfcanbeitsparallel.Itiscertainlythemostdelicious,dainty,transparent,crystaldrinkeverinvented.Howdiditgetthere,andwhatisitfor?Intheearlygreenstageatwhichcoco-nutsaregenerallypickedforhouseholduseinthetropicstheshellhasn'tyetsolidifiedintoahardstonycoat,butst

illremainsquitesoftenoughtobereadilycutthroughwithasharptableknife--justlikeyoungwalnutspickedforpickling.Ifyoucutoneacrosswhileit'sinthisunsophisticatedstate,itiseasyenoughtoseethearrangementoftheinterior,andthepartbornebythemilkinthedevelopmentandgrowthofthematurenut.Theordinarytropicalwayofopeningcoco-nutsfortable,indeed,isbycuttingoffthetopoftheshellandrindinsuccessiveslices,attheendwherethethreeporesaresituated,untilyoureachthelevelofthewater,whichfillsupthewholeinterior.Thenuttypartaroundtheinsideoftheshellisthenextremelysoftandjelly-like,sothatitcanbereadilyeatenwithaspoon;butasamatteroffactveryfewpeopleeverdoeatthefleshatall.Aftertheirfirstfewmonthsinthetropics,theylosethetasteforthiscomparativelyindigestiblepart,andconfinethemselvesentirely(likepatientsataGermanspa)todrinkingthewater.Ayoungcoco-nutisthusseentoconsist,firstofagreen

outerskin,thenofafibrouscoat,whichafterwardsbecomesthehair,andnextofahardershellwhichfinallygetsquitewoody;whileinsideallcomestheactualseedorunripenutitself.Theofficeofthecoco-nutwateristhedepositionofthenuttypartaroundthesideoftheshell;itis,sotospeak,themotherliquid,fromwhichthehardereatableportionisafterwardsderived.Thisstateisnotuncommoninembryoseeds.Inaveryyoungpea,forexample,theinsideisquitewatery,andonlytheouterskinisatallsolid,aswehaveallobservedwhengreenpeasfirstcomeintoseason.Butthespecialpeculiarityofthecoco-nutconsistsinthefactthatthisliquidconditionoftheinteriorcontinuesevenafterthenutisripe,andthatisthereallycuriouspointaboutthemilkinthecoco-nutwhichdoesactuallyneedaccountingfor.Inordertounderstanditoneoughttoexamineacoco-nutintheactofbudding,andtodothisitisbynomeansnecessarytovisittheWestIndiesorthePaci

ficIslands;allyouneedtodoistoaskaCoventGardenfruitsalesmantogetyouafew'growers.'OnthevoyagetoEngland,acertainnumberofprecociouscoco-nuts,stimulatedbythecongenialwarmthanddampofmostshipholds,usuallybegintosproutbeforetheirtime;andthesewastenutsaresoldbythedealersatalowratetoEast-endchildrenandinquiringbotanists.Anexaminationofa'grower'verysoonconvincesonewhatistheuseofthemilkinthecoco-nut.Itmustbedulyborneinmind,tobeginwith,thattheprimeendandobjectofthenutisnottobeeatenrawbytheingeniousmonkey,ortobeconvertedbylordlymanintococo-nutbiscuits,orcoco-nutpudding,butsimplyandsolelytoreproducethecoco-nutpalminsufficientnumberstofuturegenerations.Forthis



purposethenuthasslowlyacquiredbynaturalselectionanumberofprotectivedefencesagainstitsnumerousenemies,whichservetoguarditadmirablyinthenativestatefromalmostallpossibleanimaldepredators.Firstofall,theactualnutorseeditselfconsistsofatinyembryoplant,placedjustinsidethesoftestofthethreeporesorpitsattheendoftheshell,andsurroundedbyavastquantityofnutritiouspulp,destinedtofeedandsupportitduringitsearliestunprotecteddays,ifnototherwisedivertedbymanormonkey.Butaswhateverfeedsayoungplantwillalsofeedananimal,andasmanyanimalsbetrayafeloniousdesiretoappropriatetotheirownwickedendsthefood-stuffslaidupbythepalmfortheuseofitsownseedling,thecoco-nuthasbeencompelledtoinclosethisparticularlylargeandrichkernelinaverysolidanddefensiveshell.And,oncemore,sincethepalmgrowsataverygreatheightfromtheground--Ihaveseenthemuptoninetyfeetinfavourablecircumstances--thisshellstandsaverygoodchanceofgettingbrokenintumblingtotheearth,sothatithasbeennecessarytosurrounditwithamassofsoftandyieldingfibrousmaterial,whichbreaksitsfall,andactsasabuffertoitwhenitcomesincontactwiththesoilbeneath.Somanyprotectionshasthecoco-nutgraduallydevisedforitselfbythecontinuoussurvivalofthebestadaptedamidnumberlessandendlessspontaneousvariationsofallitskindinpasttime.Now,whenthecoco-nuthasactuallyreachedthegroundatlast,andproceedstosproutinthespotwherechance(perhapsinthebodilyshapeofadisappointedmonkey)haschosentocastit,thesenumeroussafeguardsandsolidenvelopesnaturallybegintoprovedecidednuisancestotheembryowithin.Itstartsunderthegreatdisadvantageofbeinghermeticallysealedwithinasolidwoodenshell,so

thatnowatercanpossiblygetatittoaiditasmostotherseedsareaidedintheprocessofgermination.Fancyyourselfaseed-pea,anxioustosprout,butcoatedallroundwithahardcoveringofimpermeablesealing-wax,andyouwillbeinapositionfaintlytoappreciatetheunfortunatepredicamentofagrowercoco-nut.Naturalselection,however--that_deusexmachina_ofmodernscience,whichcanperformsuchendlesswonders,ifonlyyougiveittimeenoughtoworkinandvariationsenoughtoworkupon--naturalselectionhascometotherescueoftheunhappyplantbyleavingitalittleholeatthetopoftheshell,outofwhichitcanpushitsfeatherygreenheadwithoutdifficulty.Everybodyknowsthatifyoulookatthesharpendofacoco-nutyouwillseethreelittlebrownpitsordepressionsonitssurface.Mostpeoplealsoknowthattwoofthesearefirmlystoppedup(forareasontowhichIshallpresentlyrecur),butthatthethirdoneisonlyclosedbyaslightfilmorverythinshell,whichcanbeeasilybo

redthroughwithapocketknife,soastoletthemilkrunoffbeforecrackingtheshell.Somuchwehavealllearntduringourardentpursuitofnaturalknowledgeonhalf-holidaysinearlylife.Butweprobablythenfailedtoobservethatjustoppositethissoftholeliesasmallroundishknob,imbeddedinthepulporeatableportion,whichknobisinfacttheembryopalmorseedling,forwhoseultimatebenefitthewholearrangement(inbrownandgreen)hasbeeninvented.Thatisverymuchthewaywithman:henoticeswhatconcernshisownappetite,andomitsallthereallyimportantpartsofthewholesubject.Wethinktheuseoftheholeistoletoutthemilk;butthenutknowsthatitsrealobjectistoletouttheseedling.Theknobgrowsoutatlastintotheyoungplantlet,anditisbymeansofthesoftholethatitmakesitsescapethroughtheshelltotheairandthesunshinewhichitseekswithout.Thisbringsusreallydownatlasttothetrue_raisond'¨ºtre_forthemilkinthecoco-nut.Astheseedorkernelcanno

teasilygetatmuchwaterfromoutside,ithasagoodsupplyofwaterlaidupforitreadybeforehandwithinitsownencirclingshell.Themotherliquidfromwhichthepulpornuttyparthasbeendepositedremainsinthecentre,asthemilk,tillthetinyembryobeginstosprout.Assoonasitdoesso,thelittleknobwhichwasatfirstsoverysmallenlargesrapidlyandabsorbsthewater,tillitgrowsoutintoabigspongycellularmass,whichatlastalmostfillsuptheentireshell.Atthesametime,itsotherendpushesitswayoutthroughthesofthole,andthengivesbirthtoagrowingbudatthetop--thefuturestemandleaves--andtoanumberoflongthreadsbeneath--thefutureroots.Meanwhile,thespongymassinsidebeginsgraduallytoabsorballthenuttypart,usingupitsoi



lsandstarchesforthepurposeoffeedingtheyoungplantabove,untilitisofanagetoexpanditsleavestotheopentropicalsunlightandshiftforitselfinthestruggleforlife.Itseemsatfirstsightveryhardtounderstandhowanytissuesosolidasthepulpofcoco-nutcanbethussoftenedandabsorbedwithoutanyvisiblecause;butinthesubtlechemistryoflivingvegetationsuchatransformationiscomparativelysimpleandeasytoperform.Naturesometimesworksmuchgreatermiraclesthanthisinthesameway:forexample,whatiscalledvegetableivory,asubstancesosolidthatitcanbecarvedorturnedonlywithgreatdifficulty,isreallythekernelofanotherpalm-nut,alliedtothecoco-palm,anditsverystonyparticlesareallsimilarlyabsorbedduringgerminationbythedissolvingpoweroftheyoungseedling.Why,however,hasthecoco-nutthreeporesatthetopinsteadofone,andwhyaretwooutofthethreesocarefullyandfirmlysealedup?Theexplanationofthisstrangepeculiarityisonlytobefoundintheancestralhistoryofthecoco-nutkind.Mostnuts,indeed,startintheirearlierstageasiftheymeanttoproducetwoormoreseedseach;butastheyripen,alltheseedsexceptonebecomeabortive.Thealmond,forexample,hasintheflowertwoseedsorkernelstoeachnut;butintheripestatethereisgenerallyonlyone,thoughoccasionallywefindanalmondwithtwo--aphilipoena,aswecommonlycallit--justtokeepinmemorytheoriginalarrangementofitsearlierancestors.Thereasonforthisisthatplantswhosefruitshavenospecialprotectionfortheirseedsareobligedtoproduceagreatmanyofthematonce,inorderthatoneseedinathousandmayfinallysurvivetheonslaughtsoftheirArgus-eyedenemies;butwhentheylearntoprotectthemselvesbyhardcoveringsfrombirdsandbeasts,theycandispe

nsewithsomeofthesesupernumeraryseeds,andputmorenutrimentintoeachoneofthosethattheystillretain.Compare,forexample,theinnumerablesmallroundseedletsofthepoppyheadwiththesolitarylargeandrichlystoredseedofthewalnut,orthetinyblackspecksofmustardandcresswiththesinglecompactandwell-filledseedofthefilbertandtheacorn.Totheveryend,however,mostnutsbeginintheflowerasiftheymeanttoproduceawholecapsulefulofsmallunstoredandunprotectedseeds,liketheiroriginalancestors;itisonlyatthelastmomentthattheyrecollectthemselves,suppressalltheirovulesexceptone,andstorethatonewithallthebestandoiliestfood-stuffsattheirdisposal.Thenuts,infact,havelearnedbylongexperiencethatitisbettertobetheonlysonandheirofawealthyhouse,setupinlifewithagoodcapitaltobeginupon,thantobeoneofapoorfamilyofthirteenneedyandunprovidedchildren.

Now,thecoco-nutsaredescendedfromagreattribe--thepalmsandlilies--whichhaveastheirmaindistinguishingpeculiaritythearrangementofpartsintheirflowersandfruitsbythreeseach.Forexample,inthemosttypicalflowersofthisgreatgroup,therearethreegreenoutercalyx-pieces,threebright-colouredpetals,threelongouterstamens,threeshortinnerstamens,threevalvestothecapsule,andthreeseedsorthreerowsofseedsineachfruit.Manypalmsstillkeepprettywelltothisprimitivearrangement,butafewofthemwhichhavespeciallyprotectedorhighlydevelopedfruitsornutshavelostintheirlaterstagesthethreefolddispositioninthefruit,andpossessonlyoneseed,oftenaverylargeone.Thereisnobetterandmoretypicalnutinthewholeworldthanacoco-nut--thatistosay,fromourpresentpointofviewatleast,thoughthefearofthatawfulperson,thebotanicalSmelfungus,compelsmetoaddthatthisisnotquitetechnicallytrue.Smelfungus,indeed,wouldinsistuponitthat

thecoco-nutisnotanutatall,andwouldthrilluswiththedelightfulinformation,innocentlyconveyedinthatdeliciousdialectofwhichheissogreatamaster,thatitisreally'adrupaceousfruitwithafibrousmesocarp.'Still,inspiteofSmelfunguswithhisnicehair-splittingdistinctions,itremainstruethathumanityatlargewillstillcallanutanut,andthatthecoco-nutisthehighestknowndevelopmentofthepeculiarnuttytactics.Ithasthelargestandmostrichlystoredseedofanyknownplant;andthisseedissurroundedbyoneofthehardestandmostunmanageableofanyknownshells.Hencethecoco-nuthasreadilybeenabletodispensewiththethreekernelswhicheachnutusedinitsearlierandlessdevelopeddaystoproduce.Butthoughthepalmhasthustaken



toreducingthenumberofitsseedsineachfruittothelowestpossiblepointconsistentwithitscontinuedexistenceatall,itstillgoesonretainingmanysignsofitsancientthreefoldarrangement.Theancestralandmostdeeplyingrainedhabitspersistintheearlierstages;itisonlyinthematureformthatthelateracquiredhabitsbeginfullytopredominate.Evensoourownboyspassthroughanessentiallysavagechildhoodofogresandfairies,bowsandarrows,sugar-plumsandbarbaricnurserytales,aswellasaromanticboyhoodofmedi?valchivalryandadventure,beforetheysteadydownintothatcrowninggloryofourrace,thesolid,sober,matter-of-fact,commercialBritishPhilistine.Hencethecoco-nutinitsunstrippedstateisroughlytriangularinform,itsanglesansweringtotheseparatethreefruitsofsimplerpalms;andithasthreepitsorweakplacesintheshell,throughwhichtheembryosofthethreeoriginalkernelsusedtoforcetheirwayout.Butasonlyoneofthemisnowneeded,thatonealoneisleftsoft;theothertwo,whichwouldbemerelyasourceofweaknesstotheplantifunprotected,arecoveredintheexistingnutbyhardershell.Doubtlesstheyserveinparttodeceivethetooinquisitivemonkeyorotherenemy,whoprobablyconcludesthatifoneofthepitsishardandimpermeable,theothertwoaresolikewise.ThoughIhavenow,Ihope,satisfactorilyaccountedforthemilkinthecoco-nut,andincidentallyforsomeothermattersinitseconomyaswell,IamlothtoleavetheyoungseedlingwhomIhavebroughtsofaronhiswaytothetendermerciesofthewindsandstormsandtropicalanimals,someofwhomareextremelyfondofhisjuicyanddelicateshoots.Indeed,thegrowingpointorbudofmostpalmsisaverypleasantsucculentvegetable,andonekind--theWestIndianmountai

ncabbage--deservesabetterandmorejustlydescriptivename,foritisreallymuchmorelikeseakaleorasparagus.Ishalltrytofollowouryoungseedlingoninlife,therefore,soastogive,whileIamaboutit,afairlycomprehensiveandcompletebiographyofasingleflourishingcoco-nutpalm.Beginning,then,withthefallofthenutfromtheparent-tree,thetroublesofthefuturepalmconfrontitatonceintheshapeofthenut-eatingcrab.Thisevil-disposedcrustaceaniscommonaroundthesea-coastoftheeasterntropicalislands,whichisalsotheregionmainlyaffectedbythecoco-nutpalm;forcoco-nutsareessentiallyshore-lovingtrees,andthrivebestintheimmediateneighbourhoodofthesea.Amongthefallennuts,theclumsy-lookingthiefofacrab(hisappropriateLatinnameis_Birguslatro_)makesgreatanddreadedhavoc.Toassisthiminhisunlawfulobjecthehasdevelopedapairoffrontlegs,withspeciallystrongandheavyclaws,supplementedbyalastortail-endpairarmedonly

withverynarrowandslenderpincers.Hesubsistsentirelyuponacoco-nutdiet.Settingtoworkuponabigfallennut--withthehuskon,coco-nutsmeasureintherawstateabouttwelveinchesthelongway--hetearsoffallthecoarsefibrebitbybit,andgetsdownatlasttothehardshell.Thenhehammersawaywithhisheavyclawonthesoftesteye-holetillhehaspoundedanopeningrightthroughit.Thisdonehetwistsroundhisbodysoastoturnhisbackuponthecoco-nutheisoperatingupon(crabsareneverfamouseitherforgoodmannersorgracefulness)andproceedsawkwardlybuteffectuallytoextractallthewhitekernelorpulpthroughthebreachwithhisnarrowpairofhindpincers.Likeman,too,therobber-crabknowsthevalueoftheouterhuskaswellasoftheeatablenutitself,forhecollectsthefibreinsurprisingquantitiestolinehisburrow,andliesuponit,theclumsysybarite,foraluxuriouscouch.Alas,however,forthehelplessnessofcrabs,andtherapacityandcunningofall-appropriatingm

an!Thespoil-sportMalaydigsupthenestforthesakeofthefibreitcontains,whichspareshimthetroubleofpickingjunkonhisownaccount,andthenheeatstheindustriouscrabwhohaslaiditallup,whilehemeltsdownthegreatlumpoffatundertherobber'scapacioustail,andsometimesgetsfromitasmuchasagoodquartofwhatmaybepracticallyconsideredaslimpidcoco-nutoil.Sicvosnonvobisiscertainlythemelancholyrefrainofallnaturalhistory.Thecoco-nutpalmintendstheoilforthenourishmentofitsownseedling;thecrabfeloniouslyappropriatesitandstoresitupunderhiscapacioustailforfuturepersonaluse;theMalaystealsitagainfromthethiefforhisownpurposes;andtentoonetheDutchorEnglishmerchantbeguilesitfromhimwithsizedcali



coorpoisonedrum,andtransmitsittoEurope,whereitservestolightenournightsandassistatourmatutinaltub,topointamoralandadornthepresenttale.If,however,ourcoco-nutisluckyenoughtoescapetherobber-crabs,thepigs,andthemonkeys,aswellastoavoidfallingintothehandsofman,andbeingconvertedintothecopraofcommerce,orsoldfromacostermonger'sbarrowinthechillystreetsofungenialLondonatapennyaslice,itmayveryprobablysucceedingerminatingafterthefashionIhavealreadydescribed,andpushingupitsheadthroughthesurroundingfoliagetothesunlightabove.Asarule,thecoco-nuthasbeendroppedbyitsmothertreeonthesandysoilofasea-beach;andthisisthespotitbestloves,andwhereitgrowstothestateliestheight.Sometimes,however,itfallsintotheseaitself,andthentheloosehuskbuoysitup,sothatitfloatsawaybravelytillitiscastbythewavesuponsomedistantcoralreefordesertisland.Itisthispoweroffloatingandsurvivingalongvoyagethathasdispersedthecoco-nutsowidelyamongoceanicislands,wheresofewplantsaregenerallytobefound.Indeed,onmanyatollsorisolatedreefs(forexample,onKeelingIsland)itistheonlytreeorshrubthatgrowsinanyquantity,andonitthepigs,thepoultry,theducks,andthelandcrabsoftheplaceentirelysubsist.Inanycase,whereverithappenstostrike,theyoungcoco-nutsendsupatfirstafinerosetteofbigspreadingleaves,notraisedasafterwardsonatallstem,butspringingdirectfromthegroundinawidecircle,somethinglikeaverybigandgracefulfern.Inthisearlystagenothingcanbemorebeautifulormoreessentiallytropicalinappearancethanaplantationofyoungcoco-nuts.Theirlongfeatheryleavesspreadingoutingreatclumpsfromt

heburiedstock,andwavingwithlithemotionbeforethestrongsea-breezeoftheIndies,aretheveryembodimentofthosedeceptiveidealtropicswhich,alas,aretobefoundinactualrealitynowhereonearthsaveintheartificialpalm-housesatKew,andtheCasinoGardensattooentrancingMonteCarlo.Forthefirsttwoorthreeyearstheyoungpalmsmustbewellwatered,andthesoilaroundthemopened;afterwhichthetallgracefulstembeginstoriserapidlyintotheopenair.Inthisconditionitmaybeliterallysaidtomakethetropics--thosefallacioustropics,Imean,ofpaintersandpoets,ofEnochArdenandofLocksleyHall.Youmayobservethatwheneveranartistwantstomakeatropicalpicture,heputsagroupofcoco-nutpalmsintheforeground,asmuchastosay,'Youseethere'snodeception;thesearethegenuineunadulteratedtropics.'Butastopaintingthetropicswithoutthepalms,hemightjustaswellthinkofpaintingthedesertwithoutthecamels.Ateightortenyearsoldthetreefl

owers,bearingblossomsoftheordinarypalmtype,degradedlikenessesoftheliliesandyuccas,greenishandinconspicuous,butvisitedbyinsectsforthesakeoftheirpollen.Theflower,however,isfertilisedbythewind,whichcarriesthepollengrainsfromonebunchofblossomstoanother.Thenthenutsgraduallyswellouttoanenormoussize,andripenveryslowly,evenunderthebrillianttropicalsun.(Iwilladmitthatthetropicsarehot,thoughinotherrespectsIholdthemtobearrantimpostors,likethatprecociousAmericanyouthwhoannouncedonhistenthbirthdaythatinhisopinionlifewasn'tallthatitwascrackeduptobe.)Buttheworstthingaboutthecoco-nutpalm,themissionariesalwayssay,isthefatalfactthat,whenoncefairlystarted,itgoesonbearingfruituninterruptedlyforfortyyears.Thisisveryimmoralandwrongoftheill-conditionedtree,becauseitencouragestheidyllicPolynesiantolieunderthepalms,alldaylong,coolinghislimbsintheseaoccasionally,sportingwithAmar

yllisintheshade,orwiththetanglesofNe?ra'shair,andwaitingforthenutstodropdowninduetime,whenheought(accordingtoEuropeannotions)tobekillinghimselfwithhardworkunderablazingsky,raisingcotton,sugar,indigo,andcoffee,fortheimmediatebenefitofthewhitemerchant,andtheultimateadvantageoftheBritishpublic.Itdoesn'tenforcehabitsofsteadyindustryandperseverance,thegoodmissionariessay;itdoesn'tinducethenativetofeelthatburningdesireforManchesterpiece-goodsandtheotherblessingsofcivilisationwhichoughtproperlytoaccompanythepropagationofthemissionaryinforeignparts.Youstickyournutinthesand;yousitbyafewyearsandwatchitgrowing;youpickuptheripefruitsastheyfallfromthetree;andyousell



thematlastforillimitableredclothtotheManchesterpiece-goodsmerchant.Nothingcouldbemoresimpleormoresatisfactory.Andyetitisdifficulttoseetheprecisemoraldistinctionbetweentheownerofacoco-nutgroveintheSouthSeaIslandsandtheownerofacoal-mineorabigestateincommercialEngland.Eachloungesdecorouslythroughlifeafterhisownfashion;onlytheoneloungesinaRussialeatherchairataclubinPallMall,whiletheotherloungesinanicesoftdust-heapbesidearollingsurfinTahitiortheHawaiianArchipelago.Curiouslyenough,atalittledistancefromthesandylevelsoralluvialflatsofthesea-shore,thesea-lovingcoco-nutwillnotbringitsnutstoperfection.Itwillgrow,indeed,butitwillnotthriveorfruitindueseason.Onthecoast-lineofSouthernIndia,immensegrovesofcoco-nutsfringetheshoreformilesandmilestogether;andinsomeparts,asinTravancore,theyformthechiefagriculturalstapleofthewholecountry.'TheStatehashencefacetiouslybeencalledCoconutcore,'saysitshistorian;whichcharminglyillustratesthetrueAnglo-Indiannotionofwhatconstitutesfacetiousness,andoughttostrikethelastnailintothecoffinofacompetitiveexaminationsystem.Agoodtreeinfullbearingshouldproduce120coco-nutsinaseason;sothataverysmallgroveisquitesufficienttomaintainarespectablefamilyindecencyandcomfort.Ah,whatamistaketheEnglishclimatemadewhenitleftoffitsprimitivewarmthofthetertiaryperiod,andgotchilledbytheiceandsnowoftheGlacialEpochdowntoitspresentmistyanddrearywheat-growingcondition!Ifitwerenotforthat,thoseodioushabitsofsteadyindustryandperseverancemightneverhavebeendevelopedinourselvesatall,andwemightbelazilypickingcopraoffourown

coco-palms,tothisday,toexportinreturnforthepiece-goodsofsomeArcticManchestersituatedsomewhereaboutthenorthofSpitzbergenortheNewSiberianIslands.Evenasthingsstandatthepresentday,however,itiswonderfulhowmuchusewemodernEnglishmennowmakeinourownhousesofthisfarEasternnut,whoseverynamestillbearsuponitsfacetheimpressofitsoriginallysavageorigin.Frommorningtonightweneverleaveoffbeingindebtedtoit.WewashwithitasoldbrownWindsororglycerinesoapthemomentweleaveourbeds.Wewalkacrossourpassagesonthematsmadefromitsfibre.Wesweepourroomswithitsbrushes,andwipeourfeetonitasweenterourdoors.Asrope,ittiesupourtrunksandpackages;inthehandsofthehousemaiditscrubsourfloors;orelse,wovenintocoarsecloth,itactsasacoveringforbalesandfurnituresentbyrailorsteamboat.Theconfectionerunderminesourdigestioninearlylifewithcoc

o-nutcandy;thecooktemptsuslateronwithcoco-nutcake;andMessrs.HuntleyandPalmercordiallyinviteustocompletetheruinwithcoco-nutbiscuits.Weanointourchappedhandswithoneofitspreparationsafterwashing;andgreasethewheelsofourcarriageswithanothertomakethemrunsmoothly.Finally,weusetheoiltoburninourreadinglamps,andlightourselvesatlasttobedwithstearinecandles.Altogether,anamateurcensusofasinglesmallEnglishcottageresultsinthestartlingdiscoverythatitcontainstwenty-sevendistinctarticleswhichowetheirorigininonewayoranothertothecoco-nutpalm.Andyetweaffectinourblackingratitudetodespisethequestionofthemilkinthecoco-nut.

FOODANDFEEDINGWhenamanandabearmeettogethercasuallyinanAmericanforest,itmakesag

reatdealofdifference,tothetwopartiesconcernedatleast,whetherthebeareatsthemanorthemaneatsthebear.Wehaven'ttheslightestdifficultyindecidingafterwardswhichofthetwo,ineachparticularcase,hasbeentheeater,andwhichtheeaten.Here,wesay,isthegrizzlythateattheman;or,hereisthemanthatsmokedanddinedoffthehamsofthegrizzly.Basingouropinionuponsuchfamiliarandwell-knowninstances,weareapttotakeitforgrantedfartooreadilythatbetweeneatingandbeingeaten,betweentheactiveandthepassivevoiceoftheverbedo,thereexistsnecessarilyaprofoundandimpassablenativeantithesis.Toswallowanoysteris,inourownpersonalhistories,soverydifferentathingfrombeingswallowedbyasharkthatwecanhardlyrealise



atfirsttheunderlyingfundamentalidentityofeatingwithmerecoalescence.Andyet,attheveryoutsetoftheartoffeeding,whenthenascentanimalfirstbegantoindulgeinthisveryessentialanimalpractice,onemayfairlysaythatnopracticaldifferenceasyetexistedbetweenthecreaturethatateandthecreaturethatwaseaten.Afterthemanandthebearhadfinishedtheirlittlemeal,ifonemaybefranklymetaphorical,itwasimpossibletodecidewhethertheremainingbeingwasthemanorthebear,orwhichofthetwohadswallowedtheother.Thedinnerhavingbeenpurelymutual,theresultinganimalrepresentedboththelitigantsequally;justas,incannibalNewZealand,thechiefwhoateuphisbrotherchiefwasheldnaturallytoinheritthegoodsandchattelsofthevanquishedandabsorbedrival,whomhehadthusliterallyandphysicallyincorporated.Ajelly-speck,floatingaboutathiseaseinadropofstagnantwaterunderthefieldofamicroscope,collidesaccidentallywithanotherjelly-speckwhohappenstobetravellingintheoppositedirectionacrossthesameminiatureocean.Whatthereuponoccurs?Onejelly-speckrollsitselfgraduallyintotheother,sothat,insteadoftwo,thereisnowone;andtheunitedbodyproceedstofloatawayquiteunconcernedly,withoutwaitingtotroubleitselfforasecondwiththeprofoundmetaphysicalquestion,whichhalfofitistheoriginalpersonality,andwhichhalfthedevouredanddigested.Intheseminuteandverysimpleanimalsthereisabsolutelynodivisionoflabourbetweenpartandpart;everybitofthejelly-likemassisalikeheadandfootandmouthandstomach.Thejelly-speckhasnopermanentlimbs,butitkeepsputtingforthvaguearmsandlegseverynowandthenfromonesideortheother;andwiththesetemporaryandever-dissolvin

gmembersitcrawlsalongmerrilythroughitstinydropofstagnantwater.Iftwoofthelegsorarmshappentoknockupcasuallyagainstoneanother,theycoalesceatonce,justliketwodropsofwateronawindow-pane,ortwostringsoftreacleslowlyspreadingalongthesurfaceofaplate.Whenthejelly-speckmeetsanyediblething--abitofdeadplant,aweecreaturelikeitself,amicroscopicegg--itproceedstofolditsownsubstanceslimilyaroundit,making,asitwere,atemporarymouthforthepurposeofswallowingit,andatemporarystomachforthepurposeofquietlydigestingandassimilatingitafterwards.Thuswhatatonemomentisafootmayatthenextmomentbecomeamouth,andatthemomentafterthatagainarudimentarystomach.Theanimalhasnoskinandnobody,nooutsideandnoinside,nodistinctionofpartsormembers,noindividuality,noidentity.Rollitupintoonewithanotherofitskind,anditcouldn'ttellyouitselfaminuteafterwardswhichofthetwoithadreallybeenaminutebefore.

Thequestionofpersonalidentityishereconsiderablymixed.Butassoonaswegettoratherlargercreaturesofthesametype,theantithesisbetweentheeaterandtheeatenbeginstoassumeamoredefinitecharacter.Thebigjelly-bagapproachesagoodmanysmallerjelly-bags,microscopicplants,andotherappropriatefood-stuffs,and,surroundingthemrapidlywithitscrawlingarms,envelopestheminitsownsubstance,whichclosesbehindthemandgraduallydigeststhem.Everybodyknows,bynameatleast,thatrevolutionaryandevolutionaryhero,theamoeba--theterroroftheologians,thepetofprofessors,andtheinsufferableboreofthegeneralreader.Well,thisparlousandsubversivelittleanimalconsistsofacomparativelylargemassofsoftjelly,pushingforthslenderlobes,likethreadsorfingers,fromitsownsubstance,andglidingabout,bymeansofthesetinylegs,overwater-plantsandothersubmergedsurfaces.Butthoughitcanliterallyturnitselfinsideout,likeaglove,itstillhas

somefaintbeginningsofamouthandstomach,foritgenerallytakesinfoodandabsorbswaterthroughaparticularpartofitssurface,wheretheslimymassofitsbodyisthinnest.Thustheamoebamaybesaidreallytoeatanddrink,thoughquitedevoidofanyspecialorgansforeatingordrinking.TheparticularpointtowhichIwishtodrawattentionhere,however,isthis:thateventheverysimplestandmostprimitiveanimalsdodiscriminatesomehowbetweenwhatiseatableandwhatisn't.Theamoebahasnoeyes,nonose,nomouth,notongue,nonervesoftaste,nospecialmeansofdiscriminationofanykind;andyet,solongasitmeetsonlygrainsofsandorbitsofshell,itmakesnoeffortinanywaytoswallowthem;but,themomentitcomesacrossabitofmater



ialfitforitsfood,itbeginsatoncetospreaditsclammyfingersaroundthenutritiousmorsel.Thefactis,everypartoftheamoeba'sbodyapparentlypossesses,inaveryvagueform,thefirstbeginningsofthosesenseswhichinusarespecialisedandconfinedtoasinglespot.AnditisbecauseofthelightwhichtheamoebathusincidentallycastsuponthenatureofthespecialisedsensesinhigheranimalsthatIhaveventuredoncemoretodragoutoftheprivatelifeofhisnativepondthatalreadytoonotoriousandobtrusiverhizopod.Withuslordlyhumanbeings,attheextremeoppositeendinthescaleofbeingfromthemicroscopicjelly-specks,theartoffeedingandthemechanismwhichprovidesforithavebothreachedaveryhighstateofadvancedperfection.Wehaveslowlyevolvedatongueandpalateontheonehand,andFrenchcooksand_pat¨¦defoiegras_ontheother.Butwhileeverybodyknowspracticallyhowthingstastetous,andwhichthingsrespectivelywelikeanddislike,comparativelyfewpeopleeverrecognisethatthesenseoftasteisnotmerelyintendedasasourceofgratification,butservesausefulpurposeinourbodilyeconomy,ininforminguswhatweoughttoeatandwhattorefuse.Paradoxicalasitmaysoundatfirsttomostpeople,nicethingsare,inthemain,thingsthataregoodforus,andnastythingsarepoisonousorotherwiseinjurious.Thatweoftenpracticallyfindtheexactcontrarythecase(alas!)isdue,nottotheprovisionsofnature,buttotheartificialsurroundingsinwhichwelive,andtothecunningwayinwhichweflavourupunwholesomefood,soastodeceiveandcajolethenaturalpalate.Yet,afterall,itisapleasantgospelthatwhatwelikeisreallygoodforus,and,whenwehavemadesomesmallallowancesforartificialconditions,itisinthemainatrueonealso.

Thesenseoftaste,whichinthelowestanimalsisdiffusedequallyoverthewholeframe,isinourselvesandotherhighercreaturesconcentratedinaspecialpartofthebody,namelythemouth,wherethefoodabouttobeswallowedischewedandotherwisepreparedbeforehandfortheworkofdigestion.Nowitis,ofcourse,quiteclearthatsomesortofsupervisionmustbeexercisedbythebodyoverthekindoffoodthatisgoingtobeputintoit.Commonexperienceteachesusthatprussicacidandpureopiumareundesirablefood-stuffsinlargequantities;thatrawspirits,petroleum,andredleadshouldbesparinglypartakenofbythejudiciousfeeder;andthatevengreenfruit,thebitterendofcucumber,andtheberriesofdeadlynightshadeareunsatisfactoryarticlesofdietwhencontinuouslypersistedin.If,attheveryoutsetofourdigestiveapparatus,wehadn'tasortofautomaticpremonitoryadviseruponthekindsoffoodweoughtoroughtnottoindulgein,weshouldnaturallycommitconsiderableimprudencesinth

ewayofeatinganddrinking--evenmorethanwedoatpresent.Naturalselectionhasthereforeprovideduswithafairlyefficientguideinthisrespectinthesenseoftaste,whichisplacedattheverythreshold,asitwere,ofourdigestivemechanism.Itisthedutyoftastetowarnusagainstuneatablethings,andtorecommendtoourfavourableattentioneatableandwholesomeones;and,onthewhole,inspiteofsmalloccasionalremissness,itperformsthisdutywithcreditablesuccess.Taste,however,isnotequallydistributedoverthewholesurfaceofthetonguealike.Therearethreedistinctregionsortracts,eachofwhichhastoperformitsownspecialofficeandfunction.Thetipofthetongueisconcernedmainlywithpungentandacridtastes;themiddleportionissensitivechieflytosweetsandbitters;whilethebackorlowerportionconfinesitselfalmostentirelytotheflavoursofroastmeats,butter,oils,andotherrichorfattysubstances.T

hereareverygoodreasonsforthissubdivisionoffacultiesinthetongue,theobjectbeing,asitwere,tomakeeachpieceoffoodundergothreeseparateexaminations(like'smalls,''mods,'and'greats'atOxford),whichmustbesuccessivelypassedbeforeitisadmittedintofullparticipationinthehumaneconomy.Thefirstexamination,asweshallshortlysee,getsridatonceofsubstanceswhichwouldbeactivelyandimmediatelydestructivetotheverytissuesofthemouthandbody;theseconddiscriminatesbetweenpoisonousandchemicallyharmlessfood-stuffs;andthethirdmerelydecidestheminorquestionwhethertheparticularfoodislikelytoprovethenandtherewholesomeorindigestibletotheparticularperson.Thesenseoftasteproceeds,infact,upontheprincipleofgrad



ualselectionandelimination;itrefusesfirstwhatispositivelydestructive,nextwhatismoreremotelydeleterious,andfinallywhatisonlyundesirableorover-luscious.Whenwewanttoassureourselves,bymeansoftaste,aboutanyunknownobject--sayalumpofsomewhitestuff,whichmaybecrystal,orglass,oralum,orborax,orquartz,orrock-salt--weputthetipofthetongueagainstitgingerly.Ifitbeginstoburnus,wedrawitawaymoreorlessrapidlywithanaccompanimentinlanguagestrictlydependentuponourpersonalhabitsandmanners.Thetestwethusoccasionallyapply,eveninthecivilisedadultstate,tounknownbodiesisonethatisbeingappliedeverydayandalldaylongbychildrenandsavages.Unsophisticatedhumanityisconstantlyputtingeverythingitseesuptoitsmouthinafrankspiritofexperimentalinquiryastoitsgustatoryproperties.Incivilisedlifewefindeverythingreadylabelledandassortedforus;wecomparativelyseldomrequiretorollthecontentsofasuspiciousbottle(inverysmallquantities)doubtfullyuponthetongueinordertodiscoverwhetheritispalesherryorChilivinegar,Dublinstoutormushroomketchup.Butinthesavagestate,fromwhich,geologicallyandbiologicallyspeaking,wehaveonlyjustemerged,bottlesandlabelsdonotexist.Primitiveman,therefore,inhissweetsimplicity,hasonlytwomodesopenbeforehimfordecidingwhetherthethingshefindsareorarenotstrictlyedible.Thefirstthinghedoesistosniffatthem;andsmell,being,asMr.HerbertSpencerhaswellputit,ananticipatorytaste,generallygiveshimsomeideaofwhatthethingislikelytoprove.Thesecondthinghedoesistopopitintohismouth,andproceedpracticallytoexamineitsfurthercharacteristics.

Strictlyspeaking,withthetipofthetongueonecan'treallytasteatall.Ifyouputasmalldropofhoneyorofoilofbitteralmondsonthatpartofthemouth,youwillfind(nodoubttoyourgreatsurprise)thatitproducesnoeffectofanysort;youonlytasteitwhenitbeginsslowlytodiffuseitself,andreachesthetruetastingregioninthemiddledistance.Butifyouputalittlecayenneormustardonthesamepart,youwillfindthatitbitesyouimmediately--theexperimentshouldbetriedsparingly--whileifyouputitlowerdowninthemouthyouwillswallowitalmostwithoutnoticingthepungencyofthestimulant.Thereasonis,thatthetipofthetongueissuppliedonlywithnerveswhicharereallynervesoftouch,notnervesoftasteproper;theybelongtoatotallydifferentmainbranch,andtheygotoadifferentcentreinthebrain,togetherwiththeverysimilarthreadswhichsupplythenervesofsmellformustardandpepper.Thatiswhythesmellandtasteofthesepungentsubstancesaresomuchalik

e,aseverybodymusthavenoticed,agoodsniffatamustard-potproducingalmostthesameirritatingeffectsasanincautiousmouthful.Asarulewedon'taccuratelydistinguish,itistrue,betweenthesedifferentregionsoftasteinthemouthinordinarylife;butthatisbecauseweusuallyrollourfoodaboutinstinctively,withoutpayingmuchattentiontotheparticularpartaffectedbyit.Indeed,whenoneistryingdeliberateexperimentsinthesubject,inordertotestthevaryingsensitivenessofthedifferentpartstodifferentsubstances,itisnecessarytokeepthetonguequitedry,inordertoisolatethethingyouareexperimentingwith,andpreventitsspreadingtoallpartsofthemouthtogether.Inactualpracticethisresultisobtainedinaratherludicrousmanner--byblowinguponthetongue,betweeneachexperiment,withapairofbellows.Tosuchundignifiedexpedientsdoesthepursuitofscienceleadtheardentmodernpsychologist.ThosedomesticrivalsofDr.ForbesWinslow,theservants,whobeholdth

eenthusiasticinvestigatoralternatelydryinghistongueinthisridiculousfashion,asifhewereablacksmith'sfire,andthensqueezingoutasingledropofessenceofpepper,vinegar,orbeef-teafromaglasssyringeuponthedrysurface,notunnaturallyarriveattheconclusionthatmasterhasgonestarkmad,andthat,intheirprivateopinion,it'sthemicroscopeandtheskeletonashasdoneit.Aboveallthings,wedon'twanttobeflayedalive.Sothekindsoftastesdiscriminatedbythetipofthetonguearethepungent,likepepper,cayenneandmustard;theastringent,likeboraxandalum;thealkaline,likesodaandpotash;theacid,likevinegarandgreenfruit;andthesaline,likesaltandammonia.Alm



ostallthebodieslikelytogiverisetosuchtastes(or,morecorrectly,sensationsoftouchinthetongue)areobviouslyunwholesomeanddestructiveintheircharacter,atleastwhentakeninlargequantities.Nobodywishestodrinknitricacidbythequart.Thefirstbusinessofthispartofthetongueis,therefore,towarnusemphaticallyagainstcausticsubstancesandcorrosiveacids,againstvitriolandkerosene,spiritsofwineandether,capsicumsandburningleavesorroots,suchasthoseofthecommonEnglishlords-and-ladies.Thingsofthissortareimmediatelydestructivetotheverytissuesofthetongueandpalate;iftakenincautiouslyintoolargedoses,theyburntheskinofftheroofofthemouth;andwhenswallowedtheyplayhavoc,ofcourse,withourinternalarrangements.Itishighlyadvisable,therefore,tohaveanimmediatewarningoftheseextremelydangeroussubstances,attheveryoutsetofourfeedingapparatus.Thiskindoftastehardlydiffersfromtouchorburning.Thesensibilityofthetipofthetongueisonlyaveryslightmodificationofthesensibilitypossessedbytheskingenerally,andespeciallybytheinnerfoldsoveralldelicatepartsofthebody.Weallknowthatcommoncausticburnsuswhereverittouches;anditburnsthetongueonlyinasomewhatmoremarkedmanner.Nitricorsulphuricacidattacksthefingerseachafteritsownkind.Amustardplastermakesustinglealmostimmediately;andtheactionofmustardonthetonguehardlydiffers,exceptinbeingmoreinstantaneousandmorediscriminative.Cantharidesworkinjustthesameway.Ifyoucutaredpepperintwoandrubitonyourneck,itwillstingjustasitdoeswhenputintosoup(thisexperiment,however,isbesttrieduponone'syoungerbrother;ifmadepersonally,ithardlyrepaysthetroubleandannoyance).Evenvinegarandotheracids,rubbedintotheskin,arefollo

wedbyaslighttingling;whiletheeffectofbrandy,applied,say,tothearms,isgentlystimulatingandpleasurable,somewhatinthesamewayaswhennormallyswallowedinconjunctionwiththehabitualseltzer.Inshort,mostthingswhichgiverisetodistincttasteswhenappliedtothetipofthetonguegiverisetofaintersensationswhenappliedtotheskingenerally.Andonehardlyneedstoberemindedthatpepperorvinegarplaced(accidentallyasarule)ontheinnersurfaceoftheeyelidsproducesaverydistinctandunpleasantsmart.Thefactis,theliabilitytobechemicallyaffectedbypungentoracidbodiesiscommontoeverypartoftheskin;butitisleastfeltwherethetoughouterskinisthickest,andmostfeltwherethatskinisthinnest,andthenervesaremostplentifullydistributednearthesurface.Amustardplasterwouldprobablyfailtodrawatallonone'sheelorthepalmofone'shand;whileitisdecidedlypainfulonone'sneckorchest;andamerespeckofmustardinsidetheeyelid

givesonepositivetortureforhourstogether.Now,thetipofthetongueisjustapartofone'sbodyspeciallysetasideforthisveryobject,providedwithanextremelythinskin,andsuppliedwithanimmensenumberofnerves,onpurposesoastobeeasilyaffectedbyallsuchpungent,alkaline,orspirituoussubstances.SirWilfridLawsonwouldprobablyconcludethatitwasdeliberatelydesignedbyProvidencetowarnusagainstawickedindulgenceinthebrandyandseltzeraforesaid.Atfirstsightitmightseemasthoughtherewerehardlyenoughofsuchpungentandfierythingsinexistencetomakeitworthwhileforustobeprovidedwithaspecialmechanismforguardingagainstthem.Thatistrueenough,nodoubt,asregardsourmoderncivilisedlife;though,evennow,itisperhapsjustaswellthatourchildrenshouldhaveaninternalmonitor(otherthanconscience)todissuadethemimmediatelyfromindiscriminateindulgenceinphotographicchemicals

,thecontentsofstraymedicinebottles,andthebestdriedWestIndiachilies.Butinanearlierperiodofprogress,andespeciallyintropicalcountries(wheretheDarwinianshavenowdecidedthehumanracemadeitsfirst_d¨¦but_uponthisoranyotherstage),thingswereverydifferentindeed.Pungentandpoisonousplantsandfruitsaboundedoneveryside.Wehaveallofusinouryouthbeentakeninbysometoocruellywaggishcompanion,whoinsisteduponmakinguseatthebright,glossyleavesofthecommonEnglisharum,whichwithoutlookprettyandjuicyenough,butwithinarefulloftheconcentratedessenceofpungencyandprofanity.Well,therearehundredsofsuchplants,evenincoldclimates,totempttheeyesandpoisontheveinsofunsuspectingcattleorchildishhumanity.The



reisbuttercup,sohorriblyacridthatcowscarefullyavoiditintheirclosestcroppedpastures;andyetyourcowisnotusuallyatoodaintyanimal.Thereisaconite,thedeadlypoisonwithwhichDr.Lamsonremovedhistroublesomerelatives.Thereisbaneberry,whoseverynamesufficientlydescribesitsdangerousnature.Therearehorse-radish,andstingingrocket,andbitingwall-pepper,andstillsmarterwater-pepper,andworm-wood,andnightshade,andspurge,andhemlock,andhalfadozenotherequallyunpleasantweeds.Allofthesehaveacquiredtheirpungentandpoisonousproperties,justasnettleshaveacquiredtheirsting,andthistlestheirthorns,inordertopreventanimalsfrombrowsinguponthemanddestroyingthem.Andtheanimalsinturnhaveacquiredaverydelicatesenseofpungencyonpurposetowarnthembeforehandoftheexistenceofsuchdangerousandundesirablequalitiesintheplantswhichtheymightotherwisebetemptedincautiouslytoswallow.Intropicalwoods,whereour'hairyquadrumanousancestor'(Darwinianfortheprim?valmonkey,fromwhomwearepresumablydescended)usedplayfullytodisporthimself,asyetunconsciousofhisgloriousdestinyastheremoteprogenitorofShakespeare,Milton,andthelateMr.Peace--intropicalwoods,suchacridorpungentfruitsandplantsareparticularlycommon,andcorrespondinglyannoying.Thefactis,ourprimitiveforefatherandalltheothermonkeysare,orwere,confirmedfruit-eaters.Buttoguardagainsttheirdepredationsavastnumberoftropicalfruitsandnutshaveacquireddisagreeableorfieryrindsandshells,whichsufficetodetertheboldaggressor.Itmaynotbenicetogetyourtongueburntwitharootorfruit,butitisatleastagreatdealbetterthangettingpoisoned;and,roughlyspeaking,pungencyinexternalnatureexactlyanswerstoth

eroughgaudylabelswhichsomechemistspasteonbottlescontainingpoisons.Itmeanstosay,'Thisfruitorleaf,ifyoueatitinanyquantities,willkillyou.'Thatisthetrueexplanationofcapsicums,pimento,colocynth,crotonoil,theupastree,andthevastmajorityofbitter,acrid,orfieryfruitsandleaves.Ifwehadtopickupourownlivelihood,asournakedancestorshadtodo,fromroots,seeds,andberries,weshouldfarmorereadilyappreciatethissimpletruth.Weshouldknowthatagreatmanymoreplantsthanwenowsuspectarebitterorpungent,andthereforepoisonous.EveninEnglandwearefamiliarenoughwithsuchdefencesasthosepossessedbytheouterrindofthewalnut;butthetropicalcashew-nuthasarindsointenselyacridthatitblistersthelipsandfingersinstantaneously,inthesamewayascantharideswoulddo.Ibelievethatonthewhole,takingnaturethroughout,morefruitsandnutsarepoisonous,orintenselybitter,orveryfiery,thanaresweet,luscious,andedible.

'But,'saysthatfidgetyperson,thehypotheticalobjector(whomonealwayssetsupfortheexpresspurposeofpromptlyknockinghimdownagain),'ifitbethebusinessoftheforepartofthetonguetowarnusagainstpungentandacridsubstances,howcomesitthatwepurposelyusesuchthingsasmustard,pepper,curry-powder,andvinegar?'Well,inthemselvesallthesethingsare,strictlyspeaking,badforus;butinsmallquantitiestheyactasagreeablestimulants;andwetakecareinpreparingmostofthemtogetridofthemostobjectionableproperties.Moreover,weusethem,notasfoods,butmerelyascondiments.Onedropofoilofcapsicumsisenoughtokillaman,iftakenundiluted;butinactualpracticewebuyitinsuchaverydilutedformthatcomparativelylittleharmarisesfromusingit.Still,veryyoungchildrendislikealltheseviolentstimulants,eveninsmallquantities;theywon'ttouchmustard,pepper,orvinegar,andtheyrecoilatoncefromwineorspirits.Itisonlybyslowdegreesthatwelear

ntheseunnaturaltastes,asournervesgetbluntedandourpalatesjaded;andweallknowthattheoldIndianwhocaneatnothingbutdrycurries,devilledbiscuits,anchovypaste,pepper-pot,mulligatawnysoup,Worcestershiresauce,preservedginger,hotpickles,fierysherry,andneatcognac,isalsoapersonwithnodigestion,afragmentaryliver,andverylittlechanceofgettinghimselfacceptedbyanysafeandsolventinsuranceoffice.Throughout,thewarninginitselfisausefulone;itiswewhofoolishlyandpersistentlydisregardit.Alcohol,forexample,tellsusatoncethatitisbadforus;yetwemanagesotodressitupwithflavouringmattersanddiluteitwithwaterthatweoverlookthefierycharacterofthespirititself.Butthatalcoholisinitselfabadthing(whe



nfreelyindulgedin)hasbeensoabundantlydemonstratedinthehistoryofmankindthatithardlyneedsanyfurtherproof.Themiddleregionofthetongueisthepartwithwhichweexperiencesensationsoftasteproper--thatistosay,ofsweetnessandbitterness.Inahealthy,naturalstateallsweetthingsarepleasanttous,andallbitters(evenifcombinedwithsherry)unpleasant.Thereasonforthisiseasyenoughtounderstand.Itcarriesusbackatonceintothoseprim?valtropicalforests,whereour'hairyancestor'usedtodiethimselfuponthefruitsoftheearthindueseason.Now,almostallediblefruits,roots,andtuberscontainsugar;andthereforethepresenceofsugaris,inthewildcondition,asgoodaroughtestofwhetheranythingisgoodtoeatasonecouldeasilyfind.Infact,theargumentcutsbothways:ediblefruitsaresweetbecausetheyareintendedformanandotheranimalstoeat;andmanandotheranimalshaveatonguepleasurablyaffectedbysugarbecausesugarythingsinnaturearefortheminthehighestdegreeedible.Ourearlyprogenitorsformedtheirtasteuponoranges,mangoes,bananas,andgrapes;uponsweetpotatoes,sugar-cane,dates,andwildhoney.Thereisscarcelyanythingfittedforhumanfoodinthevegetableworld(andourearliestancestorsweremostundoubtedvegetarians)whichdoesnotcontainsugarinconsiderablequantities.Intemperateclimates(wheremanisbutarecentintruder),wehavetaken,itistrue,toregardingwheatenbreadasthestaffoflife;butinournativetropicsenormouspopulationsstilllivealmostexclusivelyuponplantains,bananas,bread-fruit,yams,sweetpotatoes,dates,cocoanuts,melons,cassava,pine-apples,andfigs.Ournerveshavebeenadaptedtothecircumstancesofourearlylifeasaraceintropicalforests;andwestillretainamarkedlikingforsweetsof

everysort.Notcontentwithourstrawberries,raspberries,gooseberries,currants,apples,pears,cherries,plumsandothernorthernfruits,weransacktheworldfordates,figs,raisins,andoranges.Indeed,inspiteofouracquiredmeat-eatingpropensities,itmaybefairlysaidthatfruitsandseeds(includingwheat,rice,peas,beans,andothergrainsandpulse)stillformbyfarthemostimportantelementinthefood-stuffsofhumanpopulationsgenerally.Butbesidesthenaturalsweets,wehavealsotakentoproducingartificialones.Hasanyhousewifeeverrealisedthealarmingconditionofcookeryinthebenightedgenerationsbeforetheinventionofsugar?Itisreallyalmosttooappallingtothinkabout.Somanythingsthatwenowlookuponasallbutnecessaries--cakes,puddings,madedishes,confectionery,preserves,sweetbiscuits,jellies,cookedfruits,tarts,andsoforth--werethenpracticallyquiteimpossible.Fancyattemptingnowadaystoliveasingledaywithoutsugar;notea,nocoffee,noj

am,nopudding,nocake,nosweets,nohottoddybeforeonegoestobed;thebareideaofitistooterrible.Andyetthatwasreallytheabjectconditionofallthecivilisedworlduptothemiddleofthemiddleages.Horace'spunchwassugarlessandlemonless;thegentleVirgilnevertastedthecongenialcupofafternoontea;andSocrateswentfromhiscradletohisgravewithouteverknowingtheflavourofpeppermintbull'seyes.HowthechildrenmanagedtospendtheirSaturdayas,ortheirweeklyobolus,isaprofoundmystery.Tobesure,peoplehadhoney;buthoneyisrare,dear,andscanty;itcanneverhavefilledonequartertheplacethatsugarfillsinourmodernaffections.Tryforamomenttorealisedrinkinghoneywithone'swhisky-and-water,ordoingtheyear'spreservingwithapotofbestNarbonne,andyougetatonceacommonmeasureofthedifferencebetweenthetwoaspracticalsweeteners.Nowadays,wegetsugarfromcaneandbeet-rootinabundance,whilesugar-maplesandpalm-treesofvarioussortsafford

aconsiderablesupplytoremotercountries.ButthechildhoodofthelittleGreeksandRomansmusthavebeenabsolutelyunlightedbyasinglerayofjoyfromchocolatecreamsorEvertontoffee.Theconsequenceofthisexcessiveproductionofsweetsinmoderntimesis,ofcourse,thatwehavebeguntodistrusttheindicationsaffordedusbythesenseoftasteinthisparticularastothewholesomenessofvariousobjects.Wecanmixsugarwithanythingwelike,whetherithadsugarinittobeginwithorotherwise;andbysweeteningandflavouringwecangiveafalsepalatablenesstoeventheworstandmostindigestiblerubbish,suchasplaster-of-Paris,largelysoldunderthenameofsugaredalmondstotheingenuousyouthoftwohemispheres.But



inuntouchednaturethetestrarelyorneverfails.Aslongasfruitsareunripeandunfitforhumanfood,theyaregreenandsour;assoonastheyripentheybecomesoftandsweet,andusuallyacquiresomebrightcolourasasortofadvertisementoftheiredibility.Inthemain,bartheaccidentsofcivilisation,whateverissweetisgoodtoeat--naymore,ismeanttobeeaten;itisonlyourownperversefollythatmakesussometimesthinkallnicethingsbadforus,andallwholesomethingsnasty.Inastateofnature,theexactoppositeisreallythecase.Onemayobserve,too,thatchildren,whoareliterallyyoungsavagesinmoresensesthanone,standnearertotheprimitivefeelinginthisrespectthangrown-uppeople.Theyunaffectedlylikesweets;adults,whohavegrownmoreaccustomedtotheartificialmeatdiet,don't,asarule,caremuchforpuddings,cakes,andmadedishes.(MayIventureparentheticallytoadd,anyappearancetothecontrarynotwithstanding,thatIamnotavegetarian,andthatIamfarfromdesiringtobringdownuponmydevotedheadtheimprecationpronouncedagainsttherashpersonwhowouldrobapoormanofhisbeer.Itisquitepossibletobelievethatvegetarianismwasthestartingpointoftherace,withoutwishingtoconsideritalsoasthegoal;justasitisquitepossibletoregardclothesaspurelyartificialproductsofcivilisation,withoutdesiringpersonallytoreturntothecharmingsimplicityoftheGardenofEden.)Bitterthingsinnatureatlarge,onthecontrary,arealmostinvariablypoisonous.Strychnia,forexample,isintenselybitter,anditiswellknownthatlifecannotbesupportedonstrychniaaloneformorethanafewhours.Again,colocynthandaloesarefarfrombeingwholesomefoodstuffs,foracontinuance;andthebitterendofcucumberdoesnotconducetothehigheststandardofgoodliving

.Thebittermatterindecayingapplesishighlyinjuriouswhenswallowed,whichitisn'tlikelytobebyanybodywhoevertastesit.Wormwoodandwalnut-shellscontainotherbitterandpoisonousprinciples;absinthe,whichismadefromoneofthem,isafavouriteslowpoisonwiththefashionableyoungmenofParis,whowishtoescapeprematurelyfrom'Lemondeo¨´l'ons'ennuie.'Butprussicacidisthecommonestcomponentinallnaturalbitters,beingfoundinbitteralmonds,applepips,thekernelsofmangosteens,andmanyotherseedsandfruits.Indeed,onemaysayroughlythattheobjectofnaturegenerallyistopreventtheactualseedsofediblefruitsfrombeingeatenanddigested;andforthispurpose,whileshestoresthepulpwithsweetjuices,sheenclosestheseeditselfinhardstonycoverings,andmakesitnastywithbitteressences.Eatanorange-pip,andyouwillpromptlyobservehoweffectualisthisarrangement.Asarule,theouterrindofnutsisbitter,andtheinnerkernelofediblefruits.Thetonguethus

warnsusimmediatelyagainstbitterthings,asbeingpoisonous,andpreventsusautomaticallyfromswallowingthem.'Buthowisit,'asksourobjectoragain,'thatsomanypoisonsaretasteless,oreven,likesugaroflead,pleasanttothepalate?'Theansweris(yousee,weknockhimdownagain,asusual)becausethesepoisonsarethemselvesforthemostpartartificialproducts;theydonotoccurinastateofnature,atleastinman'sordinarysurroundings.Almosteverypoisonousthingthatwearereallyliabletomeetwithinthewildstatewearewarnedagainstatoncebythesenseoftaste;butofcourseitwouldbeabsurdtosupposethatnaturalselectioncouldhaveproducedamodeofwarningusagainstpoisonswhichhaveneverbeforeoccurredinhumanexperience.Onemightjustaswellexpectthatitshouldhaverenderedusdynamite-proof,orhavegivenusaskinlikethehideofarhinocerostoprotectusagainstthefuturecontingencyoftheinventionofrifles.

Sweetsandbittersarereallyalmosttheonlytastesproper,almosttheonlyonesdiscriminatedbythiscentralandtrulygustatoryregionofthetongueandpalate.Mostso-calledflavouringswillbefoundonstrictexaminationtobenothingmorethanmixtureswiththeseofcertainsmells,orelseofpungent,salty,oralkalinematters,distinguishedassuchbythetipofthetongue.Forinstance,paradoxicalasitsoundstosayso,cinnamonhasreallynotasteatall,butonlyasmell.Nobodywilleverbelievethisonfirsthearing,butnothingonearthiseasierthantoputittothetest.Takeasmallpieceofcinnamon,holdyournosetightly,ratherhighup,betweenthethumbandfinger,andbeginchewingit.Youwillfindthatitisabsolutelytasteless;youaremerelychewingaperfe



ctlyinsipidbitofbark.Thenletgoyournose,andyouwillfindimmediatelythatit'tastes'strongly,thoughinrealityitisonlytheperfumefromitthatyounowpermittoriseintothesmelling-chamberinthenose.So,again,cloveshaveonlyapungenttasteandapeculiarsmell,andthesameisthecasemoreorlesswithalmostalldistinctiveflavourings.Whenyoucometofindofwhattheyaremadeup,theyconsistgenerallyofsweetsorbitters,intermixedwithcertainetherealperfumes,orwithpungentoracidtastes,orwithbothorseveralsuchtogether.Inthisway,acomparativelysmallnumberoforiginalelements,variouslycombined,sufficetomakeupthewholeenormousmassofrecognisablydifferenttastesandflavours.ThethirdandlowestpartofthetongueandthroatistheseatofthosepeculiartastestowhichProfessorBain,thegreatauthorityuponthisimportantphilosophicalsubject,hasgiventhenamesofrelishesanddisgusts.Itishere,chiefly,thatwetasteanimalfood,fats,butters,oils,andthericherclassofvegetablesandmadedishes.Ifwelikethem,weexperienceasensationwhichmaybecalledarelish,andwhichinducesonetokeeprollingthemorselfartherdownthethroat,tillitpassesatlastbeyondtheregionofourvoluntarycontrol.Ifwedon'tlikethem,wegetthesensationwhichmaybecalledadisgust,andwhichisverydifferentfromthemereunpleasantnessofexcessivelypungentorbitterthings.Itisfarlessofanintellectualandfarmoreofaphysicalandemotionalfeeling.Wesay,andsayrightly,ofsuchthingsthatwefindithardtoswallowthem;asomethingwithinus(ofaverytangiblenature)seemstoriseupbodilyandprotestagainstthem.Asaverygoodexampleofthisexperience,takeone'sfirstattempttoswallowcod-liveroil.Otherthingsmaybeunpleasantor

unpalatable,butthingsofthisclassareinthestrictestsensenastyanddisgusting.Thefactis,thelowerpartofthetongueissuppliedwithnervesinclosesympathywiththedigestion.Ifthefoodwhichhasbeenpassedbythetwopreviousexaminersisfoundheretobesimpleanddigestible,itispermittedtogoonunchallenged;ifitisfoundtobetoorich,toobilious,ortooindigestible,aprotestispromptlyenteredagainstit,andifwearewisewewillimmediatelydesistfromeatinganymoreofit.Itisherethattheimpartialtribunalofnaturepronouncesdefinitelyagainstroastgoose,mincepies,_pat¨¦defoiegras_,sallylunn,muffinsandcrumpets,andcreamypuddings.Itishere,too,thattheslightesttaintinmeat,milk,orbutterisimmediatelydetected;thatrancidpastryfromthepastrycook'sisruthlesslyexposed;andthatthewilesofthefishmongeraresetatnaughtbythejudiciouspalate.Itisthespecialduty,infact,of

thislastexaminertodiscover,notwhetherfoodispositivelydestructive,notwhetheritispoisonousordeleteriousinnature,butmerelywhetheritisthenandtheredigestibleorundesirable.Asourstateofhealthvariesgreatlyfromtimetotime,however,sodothewarningsofthislastsympatheticadviserchangeandflicker.Sweetthingsarealwayssweet,andbitterthingsalwaysbitter;vinegarisalwayssour,andgingeralwayshotinthemouth,too,whateverourstateofhealthorfeeling.Butourtasteforroastloinofmutton,highgame,salmoncutlets,andGorgonzolacheesevariesimmenselyfromtimetotime,withthepassingconditionofourhealthanddigestion.Inillness,andespeciallyinsea-sickness,onegetsthedistastecarriedtotheextreme:youmayeatgrapesorsuckanorangeinthechopsoftheChannel,butyoudonotfeelwarmlyattachedtothestewardwhooffersyouabasinofgreasyox-tail,orconsolesyouwithpromisesofhamsandwichesinhalfaminu

te.Underthosetwopainfulconditionsitistheverylight,fresh,andstimulatingthingsthatonecanmosteasilyswallow--champagne,soda-water,strawberries,peaches;notlobstersalad,sardinesontoast,greenChartreuse,orhotbrandy-and-water.Ontheotherhand,inrobusthealth,andwhenhungrywithexercise,youcaneatfatporkwithrelishonaScotchhillside,ordineofffreshsalmonthreedaysrunningwithoutinconvenience.EvenaSpanishstew,withplentyofgarlicinit,andfloatinginoliveoil,tastespositivelydeliciousafteraday'smountaineeringinthePyrenees.Thehealthypopularbelief,stillsurvivinginspiteofcookery,thatourlikesanddislikesarethebestguidetowhatisgoodforus,findsitsjustification



inthisfact,thatwhateverisrelishedwillproveontheaveragewholesome,andwhateverrousesdisgustwillproveonthewholeindigestible.Nothingcanbemorewrong,forexample,thantomakechildreneatfatwhentheydon'twantit.Ahealthychildlikesfat,andeatsasmuchofitashecanget.Ifachildshowssignsofdisgustatfat,thatprovesthatitisofabilioustemperament,anditoughtnevertobeforcedintoeatingitagainstitswill.Mostofusarebiliousinafter-lifejustbecausewewerecompelledtoeatrichfoodinchildhood,whichwefeltinstinctivelywasunsuitableforus.Wemightstillbeindulgingwithimpunityinthickturtle,canvas-backducks,devilledwhitebait,meringues,andNesselrodepuddings,ifwehadn'tbeensopersistentlyoverdosedinourearlieryearswiththingsthatwedidn'twantandknewwereindigestible.Ofcourse,inourexistingmoderncookery,veryfewsimpleanduncompoundedtastesarestilllefttous;everythingissomixeduptogetherthatonlybyaneffortofdeliberateexperimentcanonediscoverwhatarethespecialeffectsofspecialtastesuponthetongueandpalate.Saltismixedwithalmosteverythingweeat--_salsapitomnia_--andpepperorcayenneisnearlyequallycommon.Butterisputintothepeas,whichhavebeenpreviouslyadulteratedbybeingboiledwithmint;andcucumberisunknownexceptinconjunctionwithoilandvinegar.Thismakesitcomparativelydifficultforustorealisethedistinctnessoftheelementswhichgotomakeupmosttastesasweactuallyexperiencethem.Moreover,agreatmanyeatableobjectshavehardlyanytasteoftheirown,properlyspeaking,butonlyafeelingofsoftness,orhardness,orglutinousnessinthemouth,mainlyobservedintheactofchewingthem.Forexample,plainboiledriceisalmostwhollyinsipid;buteveninitsplainestformsalthasusuallybeenboiledwi

thit,andinpracticewegenerallyeatitwithsugar,preserves,curry,orsomeotherstronglyflavouredcondiment.Again,plainboiledtapiocaandsago(inwater)areasnearlytastelessasanythingcanbe;theymerelyyieldafeelingofgumminess;butmilk,inwhichtheyareoftenestcooked,givesthemarelish(inthesensehererestricted),andsugar,eggs,cinnamon,ornutmegareusuallyaddedbywayofflavouring.Eventurbothashardlyanytasteproper,exceptintheglutinousskin,whichhasafaintrelish;theepicurevaluesitratherbecauseofitssoftness,itsdelicacy,anditslightflesh.Gelatinebyitselfismerelyveryswallowable;wemustmixsugar,wine,lemon-juice,andotherflavouringsinordertomakeitintogoodjelly.Salt,spices,essences,vanilla,vinegar,pickles,capers,ketchups,sauces,chutneys,lime-juice,curry,andalltherest,arejustourcivilisedexpedientsforaddingthepleasureofpungencyandaciditytonaturallyinsipidfoods,bystimulatingthenervesoftouchinthetongue,j

ustassugarisourtributetothepuregustatorysense,andoil,butter,bacon,lard,andthevariousfatsusedinfryingtothesenseofrelishwhichformsthelastelementinourcompoundtaste.Aboiledsoleisallverywellwhenoneisjustconvalescent,butinrobusthealthwedemandthedelightsofeggandbread-crumb,whichareafterallonlythevehiclefortheappetisinggrease.Plainboiledmacaronimaypassmusterintheunsophisticatednursery,butinthepampereddining-roomitrequirestheaidoftoastedparmesan.Goodmoderncookeryisthepracticalresultofcenturiesofexperienceinthisdirection;thefinalflowerofagesofevolution,devotedtotheequalisationofflavoursinallhumanfood.Thinkofthegenerationsoffruitlessexperimentthatmusthavepassedbeforemankinddiscoveredthatmintsauce(itselfacunningcompoundofvinegarandsugar)oughttobeeatenwithlegoflamb,thatroastgooserequiredacorrectiveintheshapeofapple,andthatwhileapre-establishedharmonyexistedbetween

salmonandlobster,oysterswereordainedbeforehandbynatureastheproperaccompanimentofboiledcod.WheneverIreflectuponsuchthings,IbecomeatonceagoodPositivist,andofferuppraiseinmyownprivatechapeltotheSpiritofHumanitywhichhasslowlyperfectedtheseprofoundrulesofgoodliving.

DEBANANAThetitlewhichheadsthispaperisintendedtobeLatin,andismodelledontheprecedentoftheDeAmicitia,DeSenectute,DeCorona,andothertime-honouredplaguesofourinnocentboyhood.Itismeanttogivedignityandauthoritytothesubjectwithwhichitdeals,aswellastorousecuriosityintheingenuousbr



eastofthecandidreader,whomayperhapsmistakeit,atfirstsight,fornegro-English,orforthenameofadistinguishedNormanfamily.Inanticipationofthepossibleobjectionthattheword'Banana'isnotstrictlyclassical,IwouldhumblyurgethepreceptandexampleofmyoldfriendHorace--enemyIoncethoughthim--whoexpresseshisapprobationofthosehappyinnovationswherebyLatiumwasgraduallyenrichedwithacopiousvocabulary.ImaintainthatifBanana,banan?,&c.,isnotalreadyaLatinnounofthefirstdeclension,whythenitoughttobe,anditshallbeinfuture.Linn?usindeedthoughtotherwise.Hetooassignedtheplantandfruittothefirstdeclension,buthandeditovertononeotherthanourearliestacquaintanceintheLatinlanguage,Musa.HecalledthebananaMusasapientum.Whatconnectionhecouldpossiblyconceivebetweenthatwoollyfruitandthedaughtersofthe?gis-bearingZeus,orwhyheshouldconsideritaproofofwisdomtoeataparticularlyindigestibleandnightmare-begettingfood-stuff,passesmyhumblecomprehension.Themuses,sofarasIhavepersonallynoticedtheirhabits,alwaysgreatlypreferthegrapetothebanana,andwisemenshuntheoneatleastassedulouslyastheyavoidtheother.Letitnotforamomentbesupposed,however,thatIwishtotreattheusefulandornamentalbananawithintentionaldisrespect.Onthecontrary,Icherishforit--atadistance--feelingsofthehighestesteemandadmiration.Wearesoparochialinourviews,takingusasaspecies,thatIdaresayveryfewEnglishpeoplereallyknowhowimmenselyusefulaplantisthecommonbanana.Tomostofusitenvisagesitselfmerelyasacurioustropicalfruit,largelyimportedatCoventGarden,andacapitalthingtostickononeofthetalldessert-disheswhenyougiveadinner-party,becauseitlooksdelightfullyforeign,andjustserves

tobalancethepine-appleattheoppositeendofthehospitablemahogany.Perhapssuchinnocentreaderswillbesurprisedtolearnthatbananasandplantainssupplytheprincipalfood-stuffofafarlargerfractionofthehumanracethanthatwhichissupportedbywheatenbread.Theyformtheveritablestaffoflifetotheinhabitantsofbotheasternandwesterntropics.WhatthepotatoistothedegeneratedescendantofCeltickings;whattheoatistothekiltedHighlandman;whatriceistotheBengalee,andIndiancorntotheAmericannegro,thatisthemuseofsages(ItranslateliterallyfromtheimmortalSwede)toAfricansavagesandBrazilianslaves.Humboldtcalculatedthatanacreofbananaswouldsupplyagreaterquantityofsolidfoodtohungryhumanitythancouldpossiblybeextractedfromthesameextentofcultivatedgroundbyanyotherknownplant.Soyouseethequestionisnosmallone;tosingthepraiseofthisLinn?anmuseisataskwellworthyofthePierianmuses.

Doyouknowtheouterlookandaspectofthebananaplant?Ifnot,thenyouhavenevervoyagedtothosedelusivetropics.Tropicalvegetation,asordinarilyunderstoodbypoetsandpainters,consistsentirelyofthecoco-nutpalmandthebananabush.Doyouwishtopaintabeautifulpictureofarichambrosialtropicalisland,_¨¤la_Tennyson--asummerisleofEdenlyingindarkpurplespheresofsea?--thenyouintroduceagroupofcoco-nuts,whisperinginodorousheightsofeven,intheveryforegroundofyourprettysketch,justtoletyourpublicunderstandataglancethatthesearethedeliciouspoeticaltropics.Doyoudesiretocreateanidealparadise,_¨¤la_BernardindeSt.Pierre,whereidyllicVirginiesdieofpuremodestyratherthanappearbeforetheeyesoftheirbelovedbutunweddedPaulsinalace-bedraped_peignoir_?--thenyoustrikethekeynotebystickinginthemiddledistanceahutorcottage,overshadowedbythebroadandgracefulfoliageofthepicturesquebanana.('Hut'isapoorandchillywordforthese

glowingdescriptions,farinferiortotheprettyandhigh-soundingoriginal_chaumi¨¨re_.)Thatishowwedothetropicswhenwewanttoworkupontheemotionsofthereader.Butitisalladelicatetheatricalillusion;atrickofartmeanttodeceiveandimposeupontheunwarywhohaveneverbeenthere,andwouldliketothinkitallgenuine.Inreality,ninetimesoutoften,youmightcastyoureyescasuallyaroundyouinanytropicalvalley,and,iftheredidn'thappentobeanativecottagewithacoco-nutgroveandbananapatchanywhereintheneighbourhood,youwouldseenothinginthewayofvegetationwhichyoumightn'tseeathomeanydayinEurope.Butwhatpainterwouldeverventuretopaintthetropicswithoutthepalmtrees?Hemightjustaswelltrytopaintthedesertwithout



thecamels,ortorepresentSt.Sebastianwithoutasheafofarrowsstickingunperceivedinthecalmcentreofhisunruffledbosom,tomarkandemphasisehisSebastianicpersonality.Still,Iwillfranklyadmitthatthebananaitself,withitspracticallyalmostidenticalrelation,theplantain,isarealbitoftropicalfoliage.Iconfesstoasettledprejudiceagainstthetropicsgenerally,butIallowthesunsets,thecoco-nuts,andthebananas.Thetruestemcreepsunderground,andsendsupeachyearanuprightbranch,thicklycoveredwithmajesticbroadgreenleaves,somewhatlikethoseofthecannacultivatedinourgardensas'Indianshot,'butfarlarger,nobler,andhandsomer.Theysometimesmeasurefromsixtotenfeetinlength,andtheirthickmidribandstronglymarkeddivergingveinsgivethemaverylordlyandgracefulappearance.Buttheyareaptinpracticetosuffermuchfromthefuryofthetropicalstorms.Thewindripstheleavesupbetweentheveinsasfarasthemidribintangledtatters;sothatafteragoodhurricanetheylookmorelikecoco-nutpalmleavesthanlikesinglebroadmassesoffoliageastheyoughtproperlytodo.This,ofcourse,istheeffectofagentleandbalmyhurricane--amerecapfulofwindthattearsandtattersthem.Afterareallybadstorm(oneofthesortwhenyoutieropesroundyourwoodenhousetopreventitsfallingbodilytopieces,Imean)thebananasareallactuallyblowndown,andthecropforthatseasonutterlydestroyed.Theapparentstem,beingmerelycomposedoftheoverlappingandsheathingleaf-stalks,hasnaturallyverylittlestability;andthesoftsucculenttrunkaccordinglygiveswayforthwithattheslightestonslaught.Thisliabilitytobeblowndowninhighwindsformstheweakpointoftheplantain,viewedasafood-stuffcrop.IntheSouthSeaIslands,whe

rethereislittleshelter,thepoorFijian,incannibaldays,oftenlosthisonemeansofsubsistencefromthiscause,andwascompelledtosatisfythepangsofhungerontheplumppersonsofhisimmediaterelatives.ButsincetheintroductionofChristianity,andofadwarfstoutwind-proofvarietyofbanana,hisconditioninthisrespect,Iamgladtosay,hasbeengreatlyameliorated.Bydescentthebananabushisadevelopedtropicallily,notatallremotelyalliedtothecommoniris,onlythatitsflowersandfruitareclusteredtogetheronahangingspike,insteadofgrowingsolitaryandseparateasinthetrueirises.Theblossoms,which,thoughpretty,arecomparativelyinconspicuousforthesizeoftheplant,showtheextraordinarypersistenceofthelilytype;foralmostallthevastnumberofspecies,moreorlessdirectlydescendedfromtheprimitivelily,continuetotheveryendofthechaptertohavesixpetals,sixstamens,andthreerowsofseedsintheirfruitsorcapsules.Butpracticalman,with

hiseyealwayssteadilyfixedontheoneimportantqualityofedibility--thesumandsubstancetomostpeopleofallbotanicalresearch--hasconfinedhisattentionalmostentirelytothefruitofthebanana.Inallessentials(otherthanthesystematicallyunimportantonejustalludedto)thebananafruitinitsoriginalstateexactlyresemblesthecapsuleoftheiris--thatprettypodthatdividesinthreewhenripe,andshowsthedelicateorange-coatedseedslyingintriplerowswithin--only,inthebanana,thefruitdoesnotopen;inthesweetlanguageoftechnicalbotany,itisanindehiscentcapsule;andtheseeds,insteadofstandingseparateanddistinct,asintheiris,areembeddedinasoftandpulpysubstancewhichformstheedibleandpracticalpartoftheentirearrangement.Thisistheproperappearanceoftheoriginalandnaturalbanana,beforeithasbeentakeninhandandcultivatedbytropicalman.Whencutacrossthemiddle,itoughttoshowthreerowsofseeds,interspersedwithpulp,andfaintlypreserv

ingsomedimmemoryofthedividingwallwhichonceseparatedthem.Inpractice,however,thebananadifferswidelyfromthistheoreticalideal,aspracticeoftenwilldifferfromtheory;forithasbeensolongcultivatedandselectedbyman--beingprobablyoneoftheveryoldest,ifnotactuallyquitetheoldest,ofdomesticatedplants--thatithasallbutlosttheoriginalhabitofproducingseeds.Thisisacommoneffectofcultivationonfruits,anditisofcoursedeliberatelyaimedatbyhorticulturists,astheseedsaregenerallyanuisance,regardedfromthepointofviewoftheeater,andtheirabsenceimprovesthefruit,aslongasonecanmanagetogetalongsomehowwithoutthem.IntheprettylittleTangierineoranges(soingeniouslycorruptedbyfruiterersintomandarins)the



seedshavealmostbeencultivatedout;inthebestpine-apples,andinthesmallgrapesknowninthedriedstateascurrants,theyhavequitedisappeared;whileinsomevarietiesofpearstheysurviveonlyintheformofshrivelled,barren,anduselesspips.Butthebanana,morethananyotherplantweknowof,hasmanagedformanycenturiestodowithoutseedsaltogether.Thecultivatedsort,especiallyinAmerica,isquiteseedless,andtheplantsarepropagatedentirelybysuckers.Still,youcanneverwhollycircumventnature.Expelherwithapitchfork,tamenusquerecurrit.Nownaturehassettledthattherightwaytopropagateplantsisbymeansofseedlings.Strictlyspeaking,indeed,itistheonlyway;theothermodesofgrowthfrombulbsorcuttingsarenotreallypropagation,butmerereduplicationbysplitting,aswhenyouchopawormintwo,andacoupleofwormswriggleoffcontentedlyforthwithineitherdirection.Justsowhenyoudivideaplantbycuttings,suckers,slips,orrunners;thetwoapparentplantsthusproducedareinthelastresortonlyseparatepartsofthesameindividual--oneandindivisible,liketheFrenchRepublic.Seedlingsareabsolutelydistinctindividuals;theyaretheproductofthepollenofoneplantandtheovulesofanother,andtheystartafreshinlifewithsomechanceofbeingfairlyfreefromthehereditarytaintsorpersonalfailingsofeitherparent.Butcuttingsorsuckersareonlythesameoldplantoverandoveragaininfreshcircumstances,transplantedasitwere,butnottrulyrenovatedorrejuvenescent.Thatistherealreasonwhyourpotatoesarenowallgoingto--well,thesameplaceasthearmyhasbeengoingeversincetheearliestmemoriesoftheoldestofficerinthewholeservice.Wehavegoneongrowingpotatoesoverandoveragainfromthetubersalon

e,andhardlyeverfromseed,tillthewholeconstitutionofthepotatokindhasbecomepermanentlyenfeebledbyoldageanddotage.Theeyes(asfarmerscallthem)areonlybudsorundergroundbranches;andtoplantpotatoesasweusuallydoisnothingmorethantomultiplytheapparentscionsbyfission.Oddasitmaysoundtosayso,allthepotatovinesinawholefieldareoften,fromthestrictbiologicalpointofview,partsofasinglemuch-dividedindividual.Itisjustasthoughoneweretogooncuttingupasingleworm,timeaftertime,assoonashegrewagain,tillatlasttheoneoriginalcreaturehadmultipliedintoawholecolonyofapparentlydistinctindividuals.Yet,ifthefirstwormhappenedtohavethegoutortherheumatism(metaphoricallyspeaking),alltheotherwormsintowhichhiscompoundpersonalityhadbeendividedwoulddoubtlesssufferfromthesamecomplaintsthroughoutthewholeoftheirjointlifetimes.Thebanana,however,hasverylongresistedtheinevitabletendencytodegenerat

ioninplantsthusartificiallyandunhealthilypropagated.Potatoeshaveonlybeenincultivationforafewhundredyears;andyetthepotatoconstitutionhasbecomesofarenfeebledbythepracticeofgrowingfromthetuberthattheplantsnowfallaneasypreytopotatofungus,Coloradobeetles,andathousandotherpersistentenemies.Itisjustthesamewiththevine--propagatedtoolongbylayersorcuttings,itshealthhasfailedentirely,anditcannolongerresisttheravagesofthephylloxeraortheslowattacksofthevine-diseasefungus.Butthebanana,thoughofveryancientandpositivelyimmemorialantiquityasacultivatedplant,seemssomehowgiftedwithanextraordinarypowerofholdingitsowninspiteoflong-continuedunnaturalpropagation.ForthousandsofyearsithasbeengrowninAsiaintheseedlesscondition,andyetitspringsasheartilyaseverstillfromtheundergroundsuckers.Nevertheless,theremustintheendbesomenaturallimittothiswonderfulpowerofreproduction,orratheroflong

evity;for,inthestrictestsense,thebananabushesthatnowgrowinthenegrogardensofTrinidadandDemeraraarepartandparceloftheverysameplantswhichgrewandborefruitathousandyearsagointhenativecompoundsoftheMalayArchipelago.Infact,Ithinktherecanbebutlittledoubtthatthebananaistheveryoldestproductofhumantillage.Man,wemustremember,isessentiallybyoriginatropicalanimal,andwildtropicalfruitsmustnecessarilyhaveformedhisearliestfood-stuffs.Itwasamongthemofcoursethathisfirstexperimentsinprimitiveagriculturewouldbetried;thelittleinsignificantseedsandberriesofcoldnorthernregionswouldonlyveryslowlybeaddedtohislimitedstockinhusba



ndry,ascircumstancespushedsomefewoutlyingcoloniesnorthwardandevernorthwardtowardthechillierunoccupiedregions.Now,ofalltropicalfruits,thebananaiscertainlytheonethatbestrepayscultivation.Ithasbeencalculatedthatthesameareawhichwillproducethirty-threepoundsofwheatorninety-ninepoundsofpotatoeswillproduce4,400poundsofplantainsorbananas.ThecultivationofthevariousvarietiesinIndia,China,andtheMalayArchipelagodates,saysDeCandolle,'fromanepochimpossibletorealise.'Itsdiffusion,asthatgreatbutveryoracularauthorityremarks,maygobacktoaperiod'contemporarywithorevenanteriortothatofthehumanraces.'WhatthisremarkablyillogicalsentencemaymeanIamatalosstocomprehend;perhapsM.deCandollesupposesthatthebananawasoriginallycultivatedbypre-humangorillas;perhapshemerelyintendstosaythatbeforemenbegantoseparatetheysentspecialmessengersoninfrontofthemtodiffusethebananainthedifferentcountriestheywereabouttovisit.Evenlegendretainssometraceoftheextremeantiquityofthespeciesasacultivatedfruit,forAdamandEvearesaidtohavereclinedundertheshadowofitsbranches,whenceLinn?usgavetothesortknownastheplantaintheLatinnameofMusaparadisiaca.IfaplantwascultivatedinEdenbythegrandoldgardenerandhiswife,asLordTennysondemocraticallystyledthem(beforehiselevationtothepeerage),wemayfairlyconcludethatitpossessesaveryrespectableantiquityindeed.ThewildbananaisanativeoftheMalayregion,accordingtoDeCandolle,whohasproducedbyfarthemostlearnedandunreadableworkontheoriginofdomesticplantseveryetwritten.(Pleasedon'tgivemeunduecreditforhavingheroicallyreaditthroughoutofpureloveofscience:Iwasoneofitsunfortunatere

viewers.)Thewildformproducesseed,andgrowsinCochinChina,thePhilippines,Ceylon,andKhasia.Likemostotherlargetropicalfruits,itnodoubtowesitsoriginaldevelopmenttotheselectiveactionofmonkeys,hornbills,parrotsandotherbigfruit-eaters;anditshareswithallfruitsofsimilaroriginonecurioustropicalpeculiarity.Mostnorthernberries,likethestrawberry,theraspberry,thecurrant,andtheblackberry,developedbytheselectiveactionofsmallnorthernbirds,canbepoppedatonceintothemouthandeatenwhole;theyhavenotoughouterrindordefensivecoveringofanysort.Butbigtropicalfruits,whichlaythemselvesoutfortheserviceoflargebirdsormonkeys,havealwayshardoutercoats,becausetheycouldonlybeinjuredbysmalleranimals,whowouldeatthepulpwithouthelpinginthedispersionoftheusefulseeds,theoneobjectreallyheldinviewbythemotherplant.Often,asinthecaseoftheorange,therindevencontainsabitter,nauseous,orpungentjuice,whileatti

mes,asinthepine-apple,thepricklypear,thesweet-sop,andthecherimoyer,theentirefruitiscoveredwithsharpprojections,stinginghairs,orknobbyprotuberances,onpurposetowarnofftheunauthoriseddepredator.Itwasthislineofdefencethatgavethebananainthefirstinstanceitsthickyellowskin;and,lookingatthematterfromtheepicure'spointofview,onemaysayroughlythatalltropicalfruitshavetobeskinnedbeforetheycanbeeaten.Theyarealladaptedforbeingcutupwithaknifeandfork,ordugoutwithaspoon,onaciviliseddessert-plate.AsforthatmostdeliciousofIndianfruits,themango,ithasbeenwellsaidthattheonlyproperwaytoeatitisoveratubofwater,withacoupleoftowelshanginggracefullyacrosstheside.Thevarietiesofthebananaareinfiniteinnumber,and,asinmostotherplantsofancientcultivation,theyshadeoffintooneanotherbyinfinitesimalgradations.Twoprincipalsorts,however,arecommonlyrecognised--thetruebananaof

commerce,andthecommonplantain.Thebananaproperiseatenraw,asafruit,andisallowedaccordinglytoripenthoroughlybeforebeingpickedformarket;theplantain,whichisthetruefood-stuffofalltheequatorialregioninbothhemispheres,isgatheredgreenandroastedasavegetable,or,tousethemoreexpressiveWestIndiannegrophrase,asabread-kind.MillionsofhumanbeingsinAsia,Africa,America,andtheislandsofthePacificOceanlivealmostentirelyonthemildandsucculentbuttastelessplantain.Somepeoplelikethefruit;tomepersonallyitismoresuggestiveofaveryflavourlessover-ripepearthanofanythingelseinheavenorearthorthewatersthatareundertheearth--thelatterbeingthemostprobableplacetolookforit,asitstasteandsubstancea



redecidedlywatery.Bakeddryinthegreenstate'itresemblesroastedchestnuts,'orratherbakedparsnip;pulpedandboiledwithwateritmakes'averyagreeablesweetsoup,'almostasniceaspeasoupwithbrownsugarinit;andcutintoslices,sweetened,andfried,itforms'anexcellentsubstituteforfruitpudding,'havingaflavourmuchlikethatofpotatoes_¨¤lama¨ªtred'h¨®tel_servedupinle.Altogetherafruittobesedulouslyavoided,theplantain,thoughmillionsofourspirituallydestituteAfricanbrethrenhaven'tyetforamomentdiscoveredthatitisn'teverybitasgoodaswheatenbreadandfreshbutter.Missionaryenterprisewillnodoubtbeforelongenlightenthemonthissubject,andcreateagoodmarketintimeforAmericanflourandManchesterpiece-goods.ThoughbyoriginaMalayanplant,therecanbelittledoubtthatthebananahadalreadyreachedthemainlandofAmericaandtheWestIndiaIslandslongbeforethevoyageofColumbus.WhenPizarrodisembarkeduponthecoastofPeruonhisdesolatingexpedition,themild-eyed,melancholy,doomedPeruviansflockeddowntotheshoreandofferedhimbananasinalordlydish.BedscomposedofbananaleaveshavebeendiscoveredinthetombsoftheIncas,ofdateanterior,ofcourse,totheSpanishconquest.Howdidtheygetthere?Well,itisclearlyanabsurdmistaketosupposethatColumbusdiscoveredAmerica;asArtemusWardpertinentlyremarked,thenobleRedIndianhadobviouslydiscovereditlongbeforehim.Therehadbeenintercourseofold,too,betweenAsiaandtheWesternContinent;theelephant-headedgodofMexico,thedebasedtracesofBuddhismintheAztecreligion,thesingularcoincidencesbetweenIndiaandPeru,allseemtoshowthatastreamofcommunication,howeverfaint,onceexistedbetweentheAsiaticandAme

ricanworlds.Garcilasohimself,thehalf-IndianhistorianofPeru,saysthatthebananawaswellknowninhisnativecountrybeforetheconquest,andthattheIndianssay'itsoriginisEthiopia.'Insomestrangewayorother,then,longbeforeColumbussetfootuponthelowsandbankofCat'sIsland,thebananahadbeentransportedfromAfricaorIndiatotheWesternhemisphere.Ifitwereaplantpropagatedbyseed,onewouldsupposethatitwascarriedacrossbywindorwaves,waftedonthefeetofbirds,oraccidentallyintroducedinthecranniesofdrifttimber.Sothecoco-nutmadethetouroftheworldagesbeforeeitherofthefamousCooks--theCaptainortheexcursionagent--hadrenderedthesamefeateasyandpracticable;andso,too,anumberofAmericanplantshavefixedtheirhomeinthetarnsoftheHebridesoramongthelonelybogsofWesternGalway.Butthebananamusthavebeencarriedbyman,becauseitisunknowninthewildstateintheWesternContinent;and,asitispracticallyseedles

s,itcanonlyhavebeentransportedentire,intheformofarootorsucker.Anexactlysimilarproofofancientintercoursebetweenthetwoworldsisaffordedusbythesweetpotato,aplantofundoubtedAmericanorigin,whichwasneverthelessnaturalisedinChinaasearlyasthefirstcenturiesoftheChristianera.NowthatweallknowhowtheScandinaviansoftheeleventhcenturywenttoMassachusetts,whichtheycalledVineland,andhowtheMexicanempirehadsomeknowledgeofAccadianastronomy,peoplearebeginningtodiscoverthatColumbushimselfwasafterallanegregioushumbug.Intheoldworldthecultivationofthebananaandtheplantaingoesback,nodoubt,toamostimmemorialantiquity.OurAryanancestorhimself,ProfessorMaxM¨¹ller'sespecial_prot¨¦g¨¦_,hadalreadyinventedseveralnamesforit,whichdulysurvivinveryclassicalSanskrit.TheGreeksofAlexander'sexpeditionsawitinIndia,where'sagesreposedbeneathitsshadeandateofitsfruit,whencethebotan

icalname,Musasapientum.'AsthesagesinquestionwerelazyBrahmans,alwayscelebratedfortheirimmensecapacityfordoingnothing,thereport,asquotedbyPliny,isnodoubtanaccurateone.ButtheacceptedderivationofthewordMusafromanArabicoriginalseemstomehighlyuncertain;forLinn?us,whofirstbestoweditonthegenus,calledseveralotheralliedgenerabysuchcognatenamesasUraniaandHeliconia.If,therefore,thefatherofbotanyknewthathisownwordwasoriginallyArabic,wecannotacquithimofthehighcrimeandmisdemeanourofdeliberatepunning.ShouldtheRoyalSocietygetwindofthis,somethingseriouswoulddoubtlesshappen;foritiswellknownthatthepossessionofasenseofhumourisabsolutelyfataltothepretensionsofamanofscience.



Besidesitsmainuseasanarticleoffood,thebananaservesincidentallytosupplyavaluablefibre,obtainedfromthestem,andemployedforweavingintotextilefabricsandmakingpaper.Severalkindsoftheplantaintribearecultivatedforthispurposeexclusively,thebestknownamongthembeingtheso-calledmanillahemp,aplantlargelygrowninthePhilippineIslands.ManyofthefinestIndianshawlsarewovenfrombananastems,andmuchoftheropethatweuseinourhousescomesfromthesamesingularorigin.Iknownothingmorestrikinglyillustrativeoftheextremecomplexityofourmoderncivilisationthanthewayinwhichwethuseverydayemployarticlesofexoticmanufactureinourordinarylifewithouteverforamomentsuspectingorinquiringintotheirtruenature.Whatladyknowswhensheputsonherdelicatewrapper,fromLiberty'sorfromSwanandEdgar's,thatthematerialfromwhichitiswovenisaMalayanplantainstalk?WhoeverthinksthattheglycerineforourchappedhandscomesfromTravancorecoco-nuts,andthatthepurebuttersuppliedusfromthefarminthecountryiscolouredyellowwithJamaicanannatto?Webreakatooth,asMr.HerbertSpencerhaspointedout,becausethegrape-curersofZantearenotcarefulenoughaboutexcludingsmallstonesfromtheirstockofcurrants;andwesufferfromindigestionbecausetheCapewine-growerhasdoctoredhislightBurgundieswithBrazilianlogwoodandwhiterum,tomakethemtastelikePortugueseport.Takemerelythisveryquestionofdessert,andhowintenselycomplicateditreallyis.TheWestIndianbananaskeepcompanywithsweetSt.MichaelsfromtheAzores,andwithSpanishcobnutsfromBarcelona.DriedfruitsfromMetz,figsfromSmyrna,anddatesfromTunisliesidebysideonourtablewithBrazilnutsandguavajellyanddamsoncheeseandalmondsandraisins.Weforgetwhereeverythingcomesfrom

nowadays,inourgeneralconsciousnessthattheyallcomefromtheQueenVictoriaStreetStores,andanyrealknowledgeofcommonobjectsisrenderedeverydaymoreandmoreimpossiblebythebewilderingcomplexityandvariety,everydayincreasing,ofthecommonobjectsthemselves,theirsubstitutes,adulterates,andspuriousimitations.Why,youprobablyneverheardofmanillahempbefore,untilthisveryminute,andyetyouhavebeenfamiliarlyusingitallyourlifetime,while400,000hundredweightsofthatusefularticleareannuallyimportedintothiscountryalone.Itisaninterestingstudytotakeanydayalistofmarketquotations,andaskoneselfabouteverymaterialquoted,whatitisandwhattheydowithit.Forexample,canyouhonestlypretendthatyoureallyunderstandtheuseandimportanceofthatvaluableobjectofeverydaydemand,fustic?Irememberanill-usedtelegraphclerkinatropicalcolonyoncecomplainingtomethatEnglishcabl

eoperatorsweresodisgracefullyignorantaboutthisimportantstapleasinvariablytosubstituteforitsnametheword'justice'inalltelegramswhichoriginallyreferredtoit.Haveyouanyclearanddefinitenotionsastotheprimeoriginandfinaldestinationofathingcalledjute,inwhosesolemanufacturethewholegreatandflourishingtownofDundeelivesandmovesandhasitsbeing?Whatisturmeric?Whencedoweobtainvanilla?Howmanycommercialproductsareyieldedbytheorchids?Howmanytotallydistinctplantsindifferentcountriesaffordthetotallydistinctstarcheslumpedtogetheringrocers'listsundertheabsurdnameofarrowroot?Whenyouaskforsagodoyoureallyseethatyougetit?andhowmanyentirelydifferentobjectsdescribedassagoareknowntocommerce?Definetheusesofpartridgecanesandcohuneoil.Whatobjectsaregenerallymanufacturedfromtucum?WoulditsurpriseyoutolearnthatEnglishdoor-handlesarecommonlymadeoutofcoquillanuts?thatyourwife'sbuttonsareturnedf

romtheinduratedfruitoftheTaguapalm?andthattheknobsofumbrellasgreworiginallyintheremotedepthsofGuatemalanforests?Areyouawarethataplantcalledmaniocsuppliesthestarchyfoodofaboutone-halfthepopulationoftropicalAmerica?Thesearethesortofinquirieswithwhichaneweditionof'Mangnall'sQuestions'wouldhavetobefilled;andastoansweringthem--why,eventhepupil-teachersinaLondonBoardSchool(whorepresent,Isuppose,thehighestattainablelevelofhumanknowledge)wouldoftenfindthemselvescompletelynonplussed.Thefactis,tropicaltradehasopenedoutsorapidlyandsowonderfullythatnobodyknowsmuchaboutthechiefarticlesoftropicalgrowth;wegoonusingtheminanuninquiringspiritofchildlikefaith,muchastheJamaicaneg



roesgoonusingarticlesofEuropeanmanufactureaboutwhoseorigintheyaresoridiculouslyignorantthatoneyoungwomanonceaskedmewhetheritwasreallytruethatcottonhandkerchiefsweredugupoutofthegroundoverinEngland.SomedimconfusionbetweencoalorironandManchesterpiece-goodsseemedtohavetakenfirmpossessionofherinfantileimagination.ThatiswhyIhavethoughtthatatreatiseDeBananamightnot,perhaps,bewhollywithoutitsusefulnesstothemodernEnglishreadingworld.Afterall,afood-stuffwhichsupportshundredsofmillionsamongourbelovedtropicalfellow-creaturesoughttobeverydeartotheheartofanationwhichgoverns(andannuallykills)moreblackpeople,takeninthemass,thanalltheotherEuropeanpowersputtogether.WehaveintroducedtheblessingsofBritishrule--thegoodandwell-paidmissionary,theRemingtonrifle,thered-cottonpocket-handkerchief,andtheuseof'theliquorcalledrum'--intosomanyremotecornersofthetropicalworldthatitishightimeweshouldbegininreturntolearnsomewhataboutfetichesandfustic,Jamaicaandjaggery,bananasandBuddhism.Weknowtoolittlestillaboutourcoloniesanddependencies.'CapeBretonanisland!'criedKingGeorge'sMinister,theDukeofNewcastle,inthewell-knownstory,'CapeBretonanisland!Why,soitis!Godblessmysoul!ImustgoandtelltheKingthatCapeBreton'sanisland.'Thatwasahundredyearsago;butonlytheotherdaytheBoardofTradeplacardedallourtownsandvillageswithaflamingnoticetotheeffectthattheColoradobeetlehadmadeitsappearanceat'atowninCanadacalledOntario,'andmightsoonbeexpectedtoarriveatLiverpoolbyCunardsteamer.TherighthonourablesandotherhighmightinesseswhoputforththenoticeinquestionwereevidentlyunawarethatOntarioisaprovinceasbigasEngland

,includinginitsbordersToronto,Ottawa,Kingston,London,Hamilton,andotherlargeandflourishingtowns.Apparently,inspiteofcompetitiveexaminations,theschoolmasterisstillabroadintheGovernmentoffices.

GOTOTHEANTInthemarket-placeatSantaF¨¦,inMexico,peasantwomenfromtheneighbouringvillagesbringinforsaletrayfulsoflivingants,eachaboutasbigandroundasalargewhitecurrant,andeachentirelyfilledwithhoneyorgrapesugar,muchappreciatedbytheingenuousMexicanyouthasanexcellentsubstituteforEvertontoffee.ThemethodofeatingthemwouldhardlycommandtheapprobationoftheSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoAnimals.Itissimpleandprimitive,butdecidedlynothumane.Ingenuousyouthholdstheantbyitsheadandshoulders,sucksoutthehoneywithwhichthebackpartisabsurdlydistended,andthrows

awaytheemptybodyasathingwithwhichithasnownofurthersympathy.Matureragebuystheantsbythequart,pressesoutthehoneythroughamuslinstrainer,andmanufacturesitintoaverysweetintoxicatingdrink,somethinglikeshandygaff,asIamcrediblyinformedbyboldpersonswhohaveventuredtoexperimentuponit,takeninternally.ThecuriousinsectwhichthusservesasananimatedsweetmeatfortheMexicanchildrenisthehoney-antoftheGardenoftheGods;anditaffordsabeautifulexampleofMandeville'scharmingparadoxthatpersonalvicesarepublicbenefits--vitiaprivatahumanacommoda.Thehoney-antisagreedyindividualwhohasneverthelessnoblydevotedhimselfforthegoodofthecommunitybyconvertinghimselfintoalivinghoney-jar,fromwhichalltheotherantsinhisownnestmayhelpthemselvesfreelyfromtimetotime,asoccasiondemands.Thetribetowhichhebelongslivesunderground,inadome-roofedvault,andonlyoneparticularcas

teamongtheworkers,knownasrotundsfromtheirexpansivegirth,istoldoffforthisspecialdutyofstoringhoneywithintheirownbodies.Clingingtothetopoftheirnest,withtheirround,transparentabdomenshangingdownloosely,mereglobulesofskinenclosingthepaleamber-colouredhoney,theseDanielLambertsoftheinsectracelookforalltheworldlikeclustersofthelittleAmericanDelawaregrapes,withanant'slegsandheadstuckawkwardlyontotheendinsteadofastalk.Theyhave,infact,realisedineverydaylifetheawfulfateofMr.Gilbert'sdiscontentedsugar-broker,wholaidonfleshand'adiposedeposit'untilhebecameconvertedatlastintoaperfectrollingballofglobularhumanity.



Themannersofthehoney-antraceareverysimple.Mostofthemembersofeachcommunityareactiveandrovingintheirdispositions,andshownotendencytounduedistensionofthenetherextremities.Theygooutatnightandcollectnectarorhoney-dewfromthegall-insectsonoak-trees;forthegall-insect,likeloveintheoldLatinsaw,isfruitfulbothinsweetsandbitters,melleetfelle.Thisnectartheythencarryhome,andgiveittotherotundsorhoney-bearers,whoswallowitandstoreitintheirroundabdomenuntiltheycanholdnomore,havingstretchedtheirskinsliterallytotheverypointofbursting.Theypasstheirtime,liketheFatBoyin'Pickwick,'chieflyinsleeping,buttheyclingupsidedownmeanwhiletotheroofoftheirresidence.Whentheworkersinturnrequireameal,theygouptothenearesthoney-bearerandstrokehergentlywiththeirantenn?.Thehoney-bearerthereuponthrowsupherheadandregurgitatesalargedropoftheamberliquid.('Regurgitates'isagoodwordwhichIborrowfromDr.McCook,ofPhiladelphia,thegreatauthorityuponhoney-ants;anditsavesanimmensedealoftroubleinlookingaboutforarespectableperiphrasis.)Theworkersfeeduponthedropsthusexuded,twoorthreeatonceoftenstandingaroundthelivinghoney-jar,andlappingnectartogetherfromthelipsoftheirdevotedcomrade.Thismayseematfirstsightratheranunpleasantpracticeonthepartoftheants;butafterall,howdoesitreallydifferfromourownhabitofeatinghoneywhichhasbeentreatedinverymuchthesameunsophisticatedmannerbythedomesticbee?Worsethingsthanthese,however,Dr.McCookrecordstothediscreditoftheColoradohoney-ant.WhenhewasopeningsomenestsintheGardenoftheGods,hehappenedaccidentallytoknockdownsomeoftherotunds,whichstraightwaybursta

sunderinthemiddle,andscatteredtheirstoreofhoneyonthefloorofthenest.Atoncetheotherants,temptedawayfromtheirinstinctivetaskofcarryingoffthecocoonsandyounggrubs,clusteredaroundtheirunfortunatecompanion,likestreetboysaroundabrokenmolassesbarrel,and,insteadofformingthemselvesforthwithintoavolunteerambulancecompany,proceededimmediatelytolapupthehoneyfromtheirdyingbrother.Ontheotherhanditmustbesaid,tothecreditoftherace,that(unlikethemembersofArcticexpeditions)theyneverdesecratetheremainsofthedead.Whenahoney-bearerdiesathispost,avictimtohiszealforthecommongood,theworkerscarefullyremovehiscoldcorpsefromtheroofwhereitstillclings,clipofftheheadandshouldersfromthedistendedabdomen,andconveytheirdeceasedbrotherpiecemeal,intwodetachments,totheformicancemetery,undisturbed.Iftheychose,theymightonlyburythefronthalfoftheirlaterelation,whiletheyretainedhisremainingmoietyasa

navailablehoney-bag:butfromthiscannibalproceedingant-etiquetterecoilsindecenthorror;andtheamberglobesare'pulledupgalleries,rolledalongrooms,andbowledintothegraveyard,alongwiththejuicelessheads,legs,andothermembers.'Suchfraternalconductwouldbeverycreditabletotheworkerhoney-ants,wereitnotforahorriddoubtinsinuatedbyDr.McCookthatperhapstheinsectsdon'tknowtheycouldgetatthehoneybybreakingupthebodyoftheirlamentedrelative.Ifso,theirapparentdisregardofutilitarianconsiderationsmayreallybeduenottotheirsentimentalitybuttotheirhopelessstupidity.Thereasonwhytheantshavetakenthustostoringhoneyinthelivingbodiesoftheirownfellowsiseasyenoughtounderstand.Theywanttolayupforthefuturelikeprudentinsectsthattheyare;buttheycan'tmakewax,asthebeesdo,andtheyhavenotyetevolvedthepurelyhumanartofpottery.Consequently--happythought--whynottelloffsomeofournumbertoactasjarsonbehalfofthe

others?Someofthecommunityworkbygoingoutandgatheringhoney;theyalsoservewhoonlystandandwait--whoreceiveitfromtheworkers,andkeepitstoredupintheirowncapaciousindiarubbermawstillfurthernotice.Soobviousisthisplanforconvertingantsintoanimatedhoney-jars,thatseveraldifferentkindsofantsindifferentpartsoftheworld,belongingtothemostwidelydistinctfamilies,haveindependentlyhitupontheveryself-samedevice.BesidestheMexicanspecies,thereisatotallydifferentAustralianhoney-ant,andanotherequallyseparateinBorneoandSingapore.Thislastkinddoesnotstorethehoneyinthehindpartofthebodytechnicallyknownastheabdomen,butinthemiddledivisionwhichnaturalistscallthethorax,whereitformsatransparentbl



adder-likeswelling,andmakesthecreaturelookasthoughitweresufferingwithanacuteattackofdropsy.Inanycase,thelifeofahoney-bearermustbesingularlyuneventful,nottosaydullandmonotonous;butnodoubtanysmallinconvenienceinthisrespectmustbemorethancompensatedforbythegloriousconsciousnessthatoneissacrificingone'sownpersonalcomfortforthecommongoodofuniversalanthood.Perhaps,however,theantshavenotyetreachedthePositiviststage,andmaybetotallyignorantoftheenthusiasmofformicity.Equallycuriousarethehabitsandmannersoftheharvestingants,thespecieswhichSolomonseemstohavehadspeciallyinviewwhenheadvisedhishearerstogototheant--apieceofadvicewhichIhavealsoadoptedasthetitleofthepresentarticle,thoughIbynomeansintendtherebytoinsinuatethatthereadersofthisvolumeoughtproperlytobeclassedassluggards.TheseindustriouslittlecreaturesaboundinIndia:theyaresosmallthatittakeseightortenofthemtocarryasinglegrainofwheatorbarley;andyettheywillpatientlydragalongtheirbigburdenforfivehundredorathousandyardstothedooroftheirformicary.Topreventthegrainfromgerminating,theybiteofftheembryoroot--apieceofanimalintelligenceoutdonebyanotherspeciesofant,whichactuallyallowstheprocessofbuddingtobegin,soastoproducesugar,asinmalting.Afterthelastthunderstormsofthemonsoonthelittleproprietorsbringupallthegrainfromtheirgranariestodryinthetropicalsunshine.Thequantityofgrainstoredupbytheharvestingantsisoftensolargethatthehair-splittingJewishcasuistsoftheMishnahaveseriouslydiscussedthequestionwhetheritbelongstothelandownerormaylawfullybeappropriatedbythegleaners.'Theydonotappear,'saysSirJohnLubbock,'tohaveconsideredtherightsofthe

ants.'Indeedourdutytowardsinsectsisaquestionwhichseemshithertotohaveescapedthenoticeofallmoralphilosophers.EvenMr.HerbertSpencer,theprophetofindividualism,hasnevertakenexceptiontoourgrossdisregardoftheproprietaryrightsofbeesintheirhoney,orofsilkwormsintheircocoons.Therearesigns,however,thattheobtusehumanconscienceisawakeninginthisrespect;forwhenDr.Loewsuggestedtobee-keepersthedesirabilityoftestingthecommercialvalueofhoney-ants,asrivalstothebee,Dr.McCookrepliedthat'thesentimentagainsttheuseofhoneythustakenfromlivinginsects,whichisworthyofallrespect,wouldnotbeeasilyovercome.'TherearenoharvestingantsinNorthernEurope,thoughtheyextendasfarasSyria,Italy,andtheRiviera,inwhichlatterstationIhaveoftenobservedthembusilyworking.WhatmostcarelessobserverstakeforgraininthenestsofEnglishantsareofcoursereallythecocoonsofthepup?.Formanyyears,therefore

,entomologistswereundertheimpressionthatSolomonhadfallenintothispopularerror,andthatwhenhedescribedtheantas'gatheringherfoodintheharvest'and'preparinghermeatinthesummer,'hewasspeakingratherasapoetthanasastrictnaturalist.Laterobservations,however,havevindicatedthegeneralaccuracyofthemuch-marriedkingbyshowingthattrueharvestingantsdoactuallyoccurinSyria,andthattheylaybystoresforthewinterintheverywaystatedbythatearlyentomologist,whoseknowledgeof'creepingthings'isspeciallyenumeratedinthelonglistofhisuniversalaccomplishments.Dr.LincecumofTexanfamehasevenimproveduponSolomonbyhisdiscoveryofthosestillmoreinterestingandcuriouscreatures,theagriculturalantsofTexas.Americaisessentiallyafarmingcountry,andtheagriculturalantsarebornfarmers.Theymakeregularclearingsaroundtheirnests,andontheseclearingstheyallownothingtogrowexceptaparticularkindofgrain,knownasant-rice.

Dr.Lincecummaintainsthatthetinyfarmersactuallysowandcultivatetheant-rice.Dr.McCook,ontheotherhand,isofopinionthatthericesowsitself,andthattheinsects'partislimitedtopreventinganyotherplantsorweedsfromencroachingontheappropriatedarea.Inanycase,betheysquattersorplanters,itiscertainthattherice,whenripe,isdulyharvested,andthatitis,tosaytheleast,encouragedbytheants,totheexclusionofallothercompetitors.'Afterthematuringandharvestingoftheseed,'saysDr.Lincecum,'thedrystubbleiscutawayandremovedfromthepavement,whichisthusleftfallowuntiltheensuingautumn,whenthesamespeciesofgrass,andinthesamecircle,appearsagain,andreceivesthesameagriculturalcareasdidthepreviouscrop.'



SirJohnLubbock,indeed,goessofarastosaythatthethreestagesofhumanprogress--thehunter,theherdsman,andtheagriculturist--arealltobefoundamongvariousspeciesofexistingants.TheSa¨¹baantsoftropicalAmericacarrytheiragriculturaloperationsastepfurther.Dwellinginundergroundnests,theysallyforthuponthetrees,andcutoutoftheleaveslargeroundpieces,aboutasbigasashilling.Thesepiecestheydropupontheground,whereanotherdetachmentisinwaitingtoconveythemtothegalleriesofthenest.Theretheystoreenormousquantitiesoftheseroundpieces,whichtheyallowtodecayinthedark,soastoformasortofminiaturemushroombed.Onthemoulderingvegetableheaptheyhavethuspiledup,theyinduceafungustogrow,andwiththisfungustheyfeedtheiryounggrubsduringtheirhelplessinfancy.Mr.Belt,the'NaturalistinNicaragua,'foundthatnativetreessufferedfarlessfromtheirdepredationsthanimportedones.Theantshardlytouchedthelocalforests,buttheystrippedyoungplantationsoforange,coffee,andmangotreesstarknaked.HeingeniouslyaccountsforthiscuriousfactbysupposingthataninternecinestrugglehaslongbeengoingoninthecountriesinhabitedbytheSa¨¹basbetweentheantsandtheforesttrees.Thosetreesthatbestresistedtheants,owingeithertosomeunpleasanttasteortohardnessoffoliage,haveinthelongrunsurviveddestruction;butthosewhichweresuitedforthepurposeoftheantshavebeenreducedtononentity,whiletheantsinturnweregettingslowlyadaptedtoattackothertrees.Inthiswayalmostallthenativetreeshaveatlastacquiredsomespecialmeansofprotectionagainsttheravagesoftheleaf-cutters;sothattheyimmediatelyfalluponallimportedandunprotectedkindsastheirnaturalprey.Thisingeniousandwhollysatisfactor

yexplanationmustofcoursegofartoconsoletheBrazilianplantersforthefrequentlossoftheirorangeandcoffeecrops.Mr.AlfredRusselWallace,theco-discovereroftheDarwiniantheory(whosehonourshewaivedwithraregenerosityinfavouroftheolderandmoredistinguishednaturalist),tellsacuriousstoryaboutthepredatoryhabitsofthesesameSa¨¹bas.Ononeoccasion,whenhewaswanderingaboutinsearchofspecimensontheRioNegro,heboughtapeckofrice,whichwastiedup,Indianfashion,inthelocalbandannaofthehappyplantationslave.Atnighthelefthisriceincautiouslyonthebenchofthehutwherehewassleeping;andnextmorningtheSa¨¹bashadriddledthehandkerchieflikeasieve,andcarriedawayagallonofthegrainfortheirownfeloniouspurposes.Theundergroundgallerieswhichtheydigcanoftenbetracedforhundredsofyards;andMr.HamletClarkeevenassertsthatinonecasetheyhavetunnelledunderthebedofariverwhereitisaquarterofamil

ewide.ThisbeatsBrunelonhisowngroundintotheproverbialcockedhat,bothfordepthanddistance.Withindoors,inthetropics,antsareapttoputthemselvesobtrusivelyforwardinamannerlittlegratifyingtoanyexcepttheenthusiasticallyentomologicalmind.Thewingedfemales,aftertheirmarriageflight,haveadisagreeablehabitofflyinginattheopendoorsandwindowsatlunchtime,settlinguponthetableliketheHarpiesinthe?neid,andthenquietlyshufflingofftheirwingsoneatatime,byholdingthemdownagainstthetable-clothwithoneleg,andrunningawayvigorouslywiththefiveothers.Assoonastheyhavethusdisembarrassedthemselvesoftheirsuperfluousmembers,theyproceedtorunaboutoverthelunchasifthehousebelongedtothem,andtomakeaseriesofexperimentsupontheediblequalitiesofthedifferentdishes.Onedoesn'tsomuchmindtheirphilosophicalinquiriesintothenatureofthebreadoreventhemeat;butwhenthey

cometodrowningthemselvesbydozens,inthepursuitofknowledge,inthesoupandsherry,onefeelsboundtoprotestenergeticallyagainstthespiritofmartyrdombywhichtheyaretooprofoundlyanimated.Thatisoneoftheslightdrawbacksoftherealmsofperpetualsummer;inthepoetsyouseeonlyonesideofthepicture--thepalms,theorchids,thehumming-birds,thegreattrailinglianas:inpracticallifeyouseethereverseside--thethermometerat98¡ã,thetepiddrinking-water,thepricklyheat,theperpetuallanguor,theendlessshoalsofaggressiveinsects.Aladyofmyacquaintance,indeed,madeavaluableentomologicalcollectioninherowndining-room,bythesimpleprocessofconsigningtopill-boxesallthemothsandfliesandbeetlesthatsettleduponthemangoesandstar-



applesinthecourseofdessert.Anotherobjectionablehabitofthetropicalants,viewedpractically,istheirtotaldisregardofvestedinterestsinthecaseofhouseproperty.LikeMr.Georgeandhiscommunisticfriends,theydisbelieveentirelyintheprincipleofprivaterightsinrealestate.Theywilleattheirwaythroughthebeamsofyourhousetillthereisonlyaslendercoreofsolidwoodlefttosupporttheentireburden.IhavetakendownarafterinmyownhouseinJamaica,originally18inchesthickeachway,withasoundcircularcentreofnomorethan6inchesindiameter,uponwhichalltheweightnecessarilyfell.Withthematerialextractedfromthewoodenbeamstheyproceedtoaddinsulttoinjurybybuildinglongcoveredgalleriesrightacrosstheceilingofyourdrawing-room.Asmaybeeasilyimagined,thesegalleriesdonottendtoimprovetheappearanceoftheceiling;anditbecomesnecessarytoformaLibertyandPropertyDefenceLeaguefortheprotectionofone'spersonalinterestsagainsttheinsectenemy.Ihavenoobjectiontoantsbuildinggalleriesontheirownfreehold,oreventotheirnationalisingthelandintheirnativeforests;butIdoobjectstronglytotheirunwarrantableintrusionuponthedomainofprivatelife.Expostulationandactivewarfare,however,areequallyuseless.Thecarpenter-anthasnomoralsense,andisnotamenableeithertokindnessorblows.Ononeoccasion,whenabodyoftheseintrusivecreatureshadconstructedanabsurdlyconspicuousbrowngallerystraightacrosstheceilingofmydrawing-room,Ideterminedtodeclareopenwaragainstthem,and,gettingmyblackservanttobringinthestepsandamop,Iproceededtodemolishtheentiregalleryjustafterbreakfast.Itwasabout20feetlong,aswellasIcanremember,andperhapsaninchindiameter.Atoneo'clockIretur

nedtolunch.Myblackservantpointed,withabroadgrinonhisintelligentfeatures,tothewoodenceiling.Ilookedup;inthosethreehoursthecarpenter-antshadreconstructedtheentiregallery,andweredoubtlessmockingmeattheirease,withtheirupliftedantenn?,underthatsafeshelter.Iretiredatoncefromtheunequalcontest.Itwasclearlyimpossibletogoonknockingdownafreshgalleryeverythreehoursofthedayornightthroughoutawholelifetime.Ants,saysMr.Wallace,withoutonetouchofsatire,'forcethemselvesupontheattentionofeveryonewhovisitsthetropics.'Theydo,indeed,andthatmostpungently;ifbynoothermethod,atleastbythesimpleandeffectualoneofstinging.Themajorityofantsineverynestareofcourseneuters,orworkers,thatistosay,strictlyspeaking,undevelopedfemales,incapableoflayingeggs.Buttheystillretaintheovipositor,whichisconvertedintoasting,andsuppliedwithapoisonousliquidtoejectafterwardsintothewound.Soadmirablyadapt

edtoitspurposeisthisbeautifulprovisionofnature,thatsometropicalantscanstingwithsuchviolenceastomakeyourlegswellandconfineyouforsomedaystoyourroom;whilecaseshaveevenbeenknowninwhichthepersonattackedhasfaintedwithpain,orhadaseriousattackoffeverinconsequence.Itisnoteverykindofant,however,thatcansting;agreatmanycanonlybitewiththeirlittlehardhornyjaws,andthenejectadropofformicpoisonafterwardsintotheholecausedbythebite.Thedistinctionisadelicatephysiologicalone,notmuchappreciatedbythevictimsofeithermodeofattack.Theperfectfemalescanalsosting,butnot,ofcourse,themales,whoarepoor,wretched,uselesscreatures,onlygoodashusbandsforthecommunity,anddyingoffassoonastheyhaveperformedtheirpartintheworld--anotherbeautifulprovision,whichsavestheworkersthetroubleofkillingthemoff,asbeesdowithdronesafterthemarriageflightofthequeenbee.

Theblinddriver-antsofWestAfricaareamongtheveryfewspeciesthatrenderanyservicetoman,andthat,ofcourse,onlyincidentally.Unlikemostothermembersoftheirclass,thedriver-antshavenosettledplaceofresidence;theyarevagabondsandwanderersuponthefaceoftheearth,formicantramps,blindbeggars,wholeadagipsyexistence,andkeepperpetuallyuponthemove,smellingtheirwaycautiouslyfromonecamping-placetoanother.Theymarchbynight,oroncloudydays,likewisetropicalstrategists,andneverexposethemselvestotheheatofthedayinbroadsunshine,asthoughtheywerenobetterthanthemerenumberedBritishTommyAtkinsatCoomassieorintheSoudan.Theymoveinvastarmiesacrosscountry,drivingeverythingbeforethemastheygo;fortheybelo



ngtothestingingdivision,andareveryvoraciousintheirpersonalhabits.Notonlydotheyeatuptheinsectsintheirlineofmarch,buttheyfallevenuponlargercreaturesanduponbigsnakes,whichtheyattackfirstintheeyes,themostvulnerableportion.Whentheyreachanegrovillagetheinhabitantsturnoutenmasse,andrunaway,exactlyasifthevisitorswereEnglishexplorersorbraveMarines,bentuponretaliatingforthetheftofaknifebynoblyburningdownKingTom'stownorKingJumbo'scapital.Thenthenegroeswaitinthejungletillthelittleblackarmyhaspassedon,afterclearingoutthehutsbythewayofeverythingeatable.Whentheyreturntheyfindtheircalabashesandsaucepanslickedclean,buttheyalsofindeveryrat,mouse,lizard,cockroach,gecko,andbeetlecompletelyclearedoutfromthewholevillage.Mostofthemhavecutandrunatthefirstapproachofthedrivers;oftheremainder,afewblanchedandneatly-pickedskeletonsaloneremaintotellthetale.AsIwishtobeconsideredaveracioushistorian,Iwillnotretailthefurtherstrangestoriesthatstillfindtheirwayintobooksofnaturalhistoryaboutthemannersandhabitsoftheseblindmarauders.Theycrossrivers,theWestAfricangossipsdeclare,byanumberofdevotedindividualsflingingthemselvesfirstintothewaterasalivingbridge,likesomanysix-leggedMarcusCurtiuses,whileovertheirdrowningbodiestheheedlessremaindermarchinsafetytotheotherside.Ifthestoryisnottrue,itisatleastwellinvented;fortheant-commonwealtheverywherecarriestotheextremestpitchtheoldRomandoctrineoftheabsolutesubjectionoftheindividualtotheState.Soexactlyisthisthecasethatinsomespeciesthereareafewlarge,overgrown,lazyantsineachnest,whichdonoworkthemselves,butaccompanytheworkersontheirexpeditions;an

dthesoleuseoftheseidlemouthsseemstobetoattracttheattentionofbirdsandotherenemies,andsodistractitfromtheusefulworkers,themainstayoftheentirecommunity.Itisalmostasthoughanarmy,marchingagainstatribeofcannibals,weretoplaceitselfinthecentreofahollowsquareformedofallthefattestpeopleinthecountry,whosefineconditionandfitnessforkillingmightimmediatelyengrosstheattentionofthehungryenemy.Ants,infact,have,forthemostpart,alreadyreachedthegoalsetbeforeusasadelightfulonebymostcurrentschoolsofsocialistphilosophers,inwhichtheindividualisabsolutelysacrificedineverywaytotheneedsofthecommunity.Themostabsurdlyhuman,however,amongallthetricksandhabitsofantsaretheirwellknowncattle-farmingandslaveholdinginstincts.Everybodyhasheard,ofcourse,howtheykeepthecommonrose-blightasmilchcows,andsuckfromthemthesweethoney-dew.Buteverybody,probably,doesnotyetknowthelargenumbe

rofinsectswhichtheyherdinoneformoranotherasdomesticatedanimals.Manhas,atmost,sometwentyorthirtysuch,includingcows,sheep,horses,donkeys,camels,llamas,alpacas,reindeer,dogs,cats,canaries,pigs,fowl,ducks,geese,turkeys,andsilkworms.Butantshavehundredsandhundreds,someofthemkeptobviouslyforpurposesoffood;othersapparentlyaspets;andyetothersagain,ashasbeenplausiblysuggested,byreasonofsuperstitionorasobjectsofworship.Thereisacuriousblindbeetlewhichinhabitsants'nests,andissoabsolutelydependentuponitshostsforsupportthatithasevenlostthepoweroffeedingitself.Itneverquitsthenest,buttheantsbringitinfoodandsupplyitbyputtingthenourishmentactuallyintoitsmouth.Butthebeetle,inreturn,seemstosecreteasweetliquid(oritmayevenbeastimulantlikebeer,oranarcoticliketobacco)inatuftofhairsnearthebottomofthehardwing-cases,andtheantsoftenlickthistuftwitheveryappearanceofsatisfaction

andenjoyment.Inthiscase,andinmanyothers,therecanbenodoubtthattheinsectsarekeptforthesakeoffoodorsomeotheradvantageyieldedbythem.Butthereareotherinstancesofinsectswhichhauntants'nests,whichitisfarhardertoaccountforonanyhypothesissavethatofsuperstitiousveneration.ThereisalittleweevilthatrunsaboutbyhundredsinthegalleriesofEnglishants,inandoutamongthefreecitizens,makingitselfquiteathomeintheirstreetsandpublicplaces,butaslittlenoticedbytheantsthemselvesasdogsareinourowncities.Then,again,thereisawhitewoodlouse,somethinglikethecommonlittlearmadillo,butblindfromhavinglivedsolongunderground,whichwalksupanddownthelanesandalleysofantdom,withouteverholdinganyc



ommunicationofanysortwithitshostsandneighbours.InneithercasehasSirJohnLubbockeverseenananttaketheslightestnoticeofthepresenceofthesestrangefellow-lodgers.'Onemightalmostimagine,'hesays,'thattheyhadthecapofinvisibility.'Yetitisquiteclearthattheantsdeliberatelysanctiontheresidenceoftheweevilsandwoodliceintheirnests,foranyunauthorisedintruderwouldimmediatelybesetuponandmassacredoutright.SirJohnLubbocksuggeststhattheymayperhapsbetoleratedasscavengers:or,again,itispossiblethattheymaypreyupontheeggsorlarv?ofsomeoftheparasitestowhoseattackstheantsaresubject.Inthefirstcase,theirusewouldbesimilartothatofthewilddogsinConstantinopleorthecommonblackJohn-crowvulturesintropicalAmerica:inthesecondcase,theywouldbeaboutequivalenttoourowncatsortothehedgehogoftenputinfarmhousekitchenstokeepdowncockroaches.Thecrowninggloryofowningslaves,whichmanyphilosophicAmericans(beforethewar)showedtobethehighestandnoblestfunctionofthemostadvancedhumanity,hasbeenattainedbymorethanonevarietyofanthood.OurgreatEnglishhorse-antisamoderateslaveholder;butthebigredantofSouthernEuropecarriesthedomesticinstitutionmanystepsfurther.Itmakesregularslave-raidsuponthenestsofthesmallbrownants,andcarriesofftheyoungintheirpupacondition.By-and-bythebrownantshatchoutinthestrangenest,andneverhavingknownanyotherlifeexceptthatofslavery,accommodatethemselvestoitreadilyenough.Theredant,however,isstillonlyanoccasionalslaveowner;ifnecessary,hecangetalongbyhimself,withouttheaidofhislittlebrownservants.Indeed,therearefreestatesandslavestatesofredantssidebysidewithone

another,asofoldinMarylandandPennsylvania:inthefirst,theredantsdotheirworkthemselves,likemerevulgarOhiofarmers;inthesecond,theygettheirworkdoneforthembytheirindustriouslittlebrownservants,likethearistocraticfirstfamiliesofVirginiabeforetheearthquakeofemancipation.Butthereareotherdegradedants,whoselife-historymaybehumblypresentedtotheconsiderationoftheAnti-SlaverySociety,asspeakingmoreeloquentlythananyotherknownfactforthedemoralisingeffectofslaveowningupontheslaveholdersthemselves.TheSwissrufescentantisaspeciessolonghabituatedtorelyentirelyupontheservicesofslavesthatitisnolongerabletomanageitsownaffairswhendeprivedbymanofitshereditarybondsmen.Ithaslostentirelytheartofconstructinganest;itcannolongertenditsownyoung,whomitleavesentirelytothecareofnegronurses;anditsbodilystructureevenhaschanged,forthejawshavelosttheirteeth,andhavebeenconvertedintomerenip

pers,usefulonlyasweaponsofwar.Therufescentant,infact,isapurelymilitarycaste,whichhasdevoteditselfentirelytothepursuitofarms,leavingeveryotherformofactivitytoitsslavesanddependents.Officersoftheoldschoolwillbegladtolearnthatthismilitaryinsectisdressed,ifnotinscarlet,atanyrateinverydecentred,andthatitrefusestobebotheredinanywaywithquestionsoftransportorcommissariat.Ifthecommunitychangesitsnest,themastersarecarriedonthebacksoftheirslavestothenewposition,andtheblackantshavetoundertaketheentiredutyofforagingandbringinginstoresofsupplyfortheirgentlemanlyproprietors.Onlywhenwaristobemadeuponneighbouringnestsdoesthethinredlineformitselfintolongfileforactiveservice.Nothingcouldbemoreperfectlyaristocraticthantheviewsoflifeentertainedandacteduponbythesedistinguishedslaveholders.Ontheotherhand,thepicturehasitsreverseside,exhibitingclearlytheweak

pointsoftheslaveholdingsystem.Therufescentanthaslosteventheverypoweroffeedingitself.Socompletelydependentiseachuponhislittleblackvaletfordailybread,thathecannotsomuchashelphimselftothefoodthatissetbeforehim.H¨¹berputafewslaveholdersintoaboxwithsomeoftheirownlarv?andpup?,andasupplyofhoney,inordertoseewhattheywoulddowiththem.Appalledatthenoveltyofthesituation,theslaveholdersseemedtocometotheconclusionthatsomethingmustbedone;sotheybegancarryingthelarv?aboutaimlesslyintheirmouths,andrushingupanddowninsearchoftheservants.Afterawhile,however,theygaveitupandcametotheconclusionthatlifeundersuchcircumstanceswasclearlyintolerable.Theynevertouchedthehoney,butre



signedthemselvestotheirfatelikeofficersandgentlemen.Inlessthantwodays,halfofthemhaddiedofhunger,ratherthantasteadinnerwhichwasnotsuppliedtothembyaproperlyconstitutedfootman.Admiringtheirheroismorpityingtheirincapacity,H¨¹beratlastgavethemjustoneslavebetweenthemall.Thepluckylittlenegro,nothingdauntedbythegravityofthesituation,settoworkatonce,dugasmallnest,gatheredtogetherthelarv?,helpedseveralpup?outofthecocoon,andsavedthelivesofthesurvivingslaveowners.Othernaturalistshavetriedsimilarexperiments,andalwayswiththesameresult.Theslaveownerswillstarveinthemidstofplentyratherthanfeedthemselveswithoutattendance.Eithertheycannotorwillnotputthefoodintotheirownmouthswiththeirownmandibles.Thereareyetotherants,suchastheworkerlessAnergates,inwhichthedegradationofslaveholdinghasgoneyetfurther.ThesewretchedcreaturesaretheformicanrepresentativesofthoseOrientaldespotswhoarenolongerevenwarlike,butaresunkinslothandluxury,andpasstheirlivesineatingbangorsmokingopium.Onceuponatime,SirJohnLubbockthinks,theancestorsofAnergatesweremaraudingslaveowners,whoattackedandmadeserfsofotherants.Butgraduallytheylostnotonlytheirartsbuteventheirmilitaryprowess,andwerereducedtomakingwarbystealthinsteadofopenlycarryingofftheirslavesinfairbattle.Itseemsprobablethattheynowcreepintoanestofthefarmorepowerfulslaveants,poisonorassassinatethequeen,andestablishthemselvesbysheerusurpationinthequeenlessnest.'Gradually,'saysSirJohnLubbock,'eventheirbodilyforcedwindledawayundertheenervatinginfluencetowhichtheyhadsubjectedthemselves,untiltheysanktotheirpresentdegradedcondition--weaki

nbodyandmind,fewinnumbers,andapparentlynearlyextinct,themiserablerepresentativesoffarsuperiorancestorsmaintainingaprecariousexistenceascontemptibleparasitesoftheirformerslaves.'Onemayobserveinpassingthatthesewretcheddo-nothingscannothavebeentheantswhichSolomoncommendedtothefavourableconsiderationofthesluggard;thoughitiscuriousthatthetextwasneverpressedintotheserviceofdefenceforthepeculiarinstitutionbytheadvocatesofslaveryintheSouth,whowerealwaysmostanxioustoprovetherighteousnessoftheircausebymostsureandcertainwarrantyofHolyScripture.

BIGANIMALS'TheAtlantosaurus,'saidI,pointingaffectionatelywithawaveofmylefthandtoallthatwasimmortalofthatextinctreptile,'isestimatedtohavehadatotallengthofonehundredfeet,andwasprobablytheverybiggestlizardthate

verlived,eveninWesternAmerica,wherehisearthlyremainswerefirstdisinhumedbyanenthusiasticexplorer.''Yes,yes,'myfriendansweredabstractedly.'Ofcourse,ofcourse;thingswereallsoverybiginthosedays,youknow,mydearfellow.''Excuseme,'Irepliedwithpoliteincredulity;'Ireallydon'tknowtowhatparticularperiodoftimethephrase"inthosedays"maybesupposedpreciselytorefer.'Myfriendshuffledinsidehiscoatalittleuneasily.(IwilladmitthatIwastakingameanadvantageofhim.Theprofessoriallectureinprivatelife,especiallywhenfollowedbyastrictexamination,isquiteundeniablyamostintolerablenuisance.)'Well,'hesaid,inacrustyvoice,afteramoment'shesitation,'Imean,youknow,ingeologicaltimes...well,there,mydearfellow,thingsusedalltobesoverybiginthosedays,usedn'tthey?'

Itookcompassionuponhimandlethimoffeasily.'You'vehadenoughofthemuseum,'Isaidwithmagnanimousself-denial.'TheAtlantosaurushasbrokenthecamel'sback.Let'sgoandhaveaquietcigaretteintheparkoutside.'Butifyousuppose,reader,thatIamgoingtocarrymyforbearancesofarastoletyou,too,offtheremainderofthatgeologicaldisquisition,youarecertainlyverymuchmistaken.Adiscoursewhichwouldbequiteunpardonableinsocialintercoursemaybefreelyadmittedintheprivacyofprint;because,yousee,whileyoucan'teasilytellamanthathisconversationboresyou(thoughsomepeoplejustavoiddoingsobyaninfinitesimalfraction),youcanshutupabookwheneveryoulike,withouttheveryfaintestorremotestriskofhurtingtheautho



r'sdelicatesusceptibilities.Thesubjectofmydiscoursenaturallydividesitself,liketheconventionalsermon,intotwoheads--theprecisedateof'geologicaltimes,'andtheexactbignessoftheanimalsthatlivedinthem.AndImayaswellbeginbyannouncingmygeneralconclusionattheveryoutset;first,that'thosedays'neverexistedatall;and,secondly,thattheanimalswhichnowinhabitthisparticularplanetare,onthewhole,aboutasbig,takeninthelump,asanypreviouscontemporaryfaunathateverlivedatanyonetimetogetheruponitschangefulsurface.Iknowthattoannouncethissadconclusionistobreakdownonemoreuniversalandcherishedbelief;everybodyconsidersthat'geologicalanimals'wereeversomuchbiggerthantheirmodernrepresentatives;buttheinterestsoftruthshouldalwaysbeparamount,and,ifthetradeofaniconoclastisasomewhatcruelone,itisatleastanecessaryfunctioninaworldsoludicrouslyoverstockedwithpopulardelusionsasthiserringplanet.What,then,istheordinaryideaof'geologicaltime'inthemindsofpeoplelikemygoodfriendwhorefusedtodiscusswithmetheexactantiquityoftheAtlantosaurian?Theythinkofitallasimmediateandcontemporaneous,avastpanoramaofinnumerableagesbeingallcrammedforthemontoasinglementalsheet,inwhichthedodoandthemoahob-an'-nobamicablywiththepterodactylandtheammonite;inwhichthetertiarymegatheriumgoescheekbyjowlwiththesecondarydeinosaursandtheprimarytrilobites;inwhichthehugeherbivoresoftheParisBasinaresupposedtohavebrowsedbeneaththegiganticclub-mossesoftheCarboniferousperiod,andtohavebeensuccessfullyhuntedbythegreatmarinelizardsandflyingdragonsoftheJurassicEpoch.Suchapictureisreallyjustasab

surd,or,tospeakmorecorrectly,athousandtimesabsurder,thanifoneweretospeakofthosegrandoldtimeswhenHomerandVirgilsmokedtheirpipestogetherintheMermaidTavern,whileShakespeareandMoli¨¨re,crownedwithsummerroses,sippedtheirFalernianattheireasebeneaththewhisperingpalmwoodsoftheNevskyProspect,anddiscussedthedetailsoftheplaytheyweretoproduceto-morrowinthecrowdedColosseum,ontheoccasionofNapoleon'sreceptionatMemphisbyhisvictoriousbrotheremperors,RamsesandSardanapalus.Thisisnot,astheinexperiencedreadermayatfirstsightimagine,aliteraltranscriptfromoneoftheglowingdescriptionsthatcrowdthebeautifulpagesofOuida;itisafaintattempttoparallelinthebriefmomentofhistoricaltimetheglaringanachronismsperpetuallycommittedasregardsthevastlapseofgeologicalchronologyevenbywell-informedandintelligentpeople.Wemustremember,then,thatindealingwithgeologicaltimewearedealingwith

apositivelyawe-inspiringandunimaginableseriesof?ons,eachofwhichoccupieditsownenormousandincalculableepoch,andeachofwhichsawthedawn,therise,theculmination,andthedownfallofinnumerabletypesofplantandanimal.Onthecosmicclock,bywhosependulumalonewecanfaintlymeasurethedimagesbehindus,thebrieflapseofhistoricaltime,fromtheearliestofEgyptiandynastiestotheeventsnarratedinthisevening'sPallMall,islessthanasecond,lessthanaunit,lessthanthesmallestitembywhichwecanpossiblyguideourblindcalculations.ToageologistthetemplesofKarnakandtheNewLawCourtswouldbeabsolutelycontemporaneous;hehasnomeansbywhichhecoulddiscriminateindatebetweenascarab?usofThothmes,adenariusofAntonine,andabronzefarthingofherMostGraciousMajestyQueenVictoria.CompetentauthoritieshaveshowngoodgroundsforbelievingthattheGlacialEpochendedabout80,000yearsago;andeverythingthathashappenedsincetheGlacialEpochis,fro

mthegeologicalpointofview,describedas'recent.'Ashellembeddedinaclaycliffsixtyorseventythousandyearsago,whileshortandswarthyMongoloidsstilldweltundisturbedinBritain,agesbeforetheirruptionofthe'AncientBritons'ofourinadequateschool-books,is,intheeyesofgeologistsgenerally,stillregardedaspurelymodern.Butbehindthatindivisiblemomentofrecenttime,thateightythousandyearswhichcoincidesinpartwiththefractionofasingleswingofthecosmicalpendulum,thereliehours,anddays,andweeks,andmonths,andyears,andcenturies,andagesofaninfinite,anillimitable,aninconceivablepast,whosevastdivisionsunfoldthemselvesslowly,onebeyondtheother,toourachingvisioninthe



half-decipheredpagesofthegeologicalrecord.BeforetheGlacialEpochtherecomesthePliocene,immeasurablylongerthanthewholeexpanseofrecenttime;andbeforethatagainthestilllongerMiocene,andthentheEocene,immeasurablylongerthanalltheothersputtogether.ThesethreemakeupintheirsumtheTertiaryperiod,whichentireperiodcanhardlyhaveoccupiedmoretimeinitspassagethanasingledivisionoftheSecondary,suchastheCretaceous,ortheOolite,ortheTriassic;andtheSecondaryperiod,oncemore,thoughitselfofpositivelyappallingduration,seemsbutapatch(tousetheexpressivemodernism)upontheunthinkableandunrealisablevastnessoftheendlesssuccessivePrimary?ons.Sothatintheendwecanonlysay,likeMichaelScott'smystichead,'Timewas,Timeis,Timewillbe.'Thetimeweknowaffordsusnomeasureatallforeventhenearestandbriefestepochsofthetimeweknownot;andthetimeweknownotseemstodemandstillvasterandmoreinexpressiblefiguresasweprybackcuriously,withwonderingeyes,intoitsdimmestandearliestrecesses.Theseeffortstorealisetheunrealisablemakeone'sheadswim;letusharkbackoncemorefromcosmicaltimetothepunybignessofourearthlyanimals,livingorextinct.Ifwelookatthewholeofourexistingfauna,marineandterrestrial,weshallsoonseethatwecouldbringtogetheratthepresentmomentaverygoodlycollectionofextantmonsters,mostparlousmonsters,too,eachaboutasfairlybiginitsownkindasalmostanythingthathaseverprecededit.Everyagehasitsown_specialit¨¦_inthewayofbigness;inoneepochitisthelizardsthattakesuddenlytodevelopingovergrowncreatures,themonarchsofcreationintheirlittleday;inanother,itisthefishesthatblossomoutunexpectedlyintoTitanicpr

oportions;inathird,itistheslothsortheproboscideansthatwaxfatandkickwithgiganticmembers;inafourth,itmaybethebirdsorthementhataredestinedtoevolvewithfutureagesintoveritablerocsorpurelyrealisticGargantuasorBrobdingnagians.Thepresentperiodismostundoubtedlytheperiodofthecetaceans;andthefuturegeologistwhogoeshuntingfordrybonesamongtheoozeoftheAtlantic,nowknowntousonlybythescantydredgingsofour'Alerts'and'Challengers,'butthenupheavedintosnow-cladAlpsorvine-coveredApennines,willdoubtlessstandaghastatthehugeskeletonsofourwhalesandourrazorbacks,andwillmuttertohimselfinawe-struckastonishment,intheexactwordsofmyfriendatSouthKensington,'Thingsusedalltobesoverybiginthosedays,usedn'tthey?'Now,thefactastothecomparativesizeofourowncetaceansandof'geological'animalsisjustthis.TheAtlantosaurusoftheWesternAmericanJurassicbeds,

agreaterectlizard,istheverylargestcreatureeverknowntohaveinhabitedthissublunarysphere.Hisentirelengthissupposedtohavereachedaboutahundredfeet(fornocompleteskeletonhaseverbeendiscovered),whileinstatureheappearstohavestoodsomethirtyfeethigh,orover.Inanycase,hewasundoubtedlyaverybiganimalindeed,forhisthigh-bonealonemeasureseightfeet,ortwofeettallerthanthatgloryofcontemporarycivilisation,aBritishGrenadier.This,ofcourse,impliesaverydecenttotalofheightandsize;butourownspermwhalefrequentlyattainsagoodlengthofseventyfeet,whiletherorqualsoftenrunuptoeighty,ninety,andevenahundredfeet.Wearethusfairlyentitledtosaythatwehaveatleastonespeciesofanimalnowlivingwhich,occasionallyatanyrate,equalsinsizetheverybiggestandmostcolossalformknowninferentiallytogeologicalscience.Indeedwhenweconsidertheextraordinarycompactnessandrotundityofthemoderncetaceans,ascomparedwiththeta

lllimbsandstragglingskeletonofthehugeJurassicdeinosaurs,IaminclinedtobelievethatthetonnageofadecentmodernrorqualmustpositivelyexceedthatofthegiganticAtlantosaurus,thegreatlizardofthewest,inpropriapersona.Idoubt,inshort,whethereventhesolidthigh-boneofthedeinosaurcouldeverhavesupportedtheprodigiousweightofafull-grownfamilyrazor-backwhale.Thementalpictureoftheseunwieldymonstershoppingcasuallyabout,likeAlice'sGryphoninTenniel'sfamoussketch,orlikethatstillmoreparlousbrute,thechortlingJabberwock,mustbelefttothevividimaginationofthecourteousreader,whomayfillinthedetailsforhimselfaswellasheisable.Ifweturnfromtheparticularcomparisonofselectedspecimens(alwaysanunfai



rmethodofjudging)tothegeneralaspectofourcontemporaryfauna,Iventureconfidentlytoclaimforourownexistinghumanperiodasfineacollectionofbiganimalsasanyothereverexhibitedonthisplanetbyanyonesinglerivalepoch.Ofcourse,ifyouaregoingtolumpalltheextinctmonstersandhorrorsintooneimaginaryunifiedfauna,regardlessofanachronisms,Ihavenothingmoretosaytoyou;Iwillcandidlyadmitthatthereweremoregreatmeninallpreviousgenerationsputtogether,fromHomertoDickens,fromAgamemnontoWellington,thantherearenowexistinginthislastquarterofourreallyveryrespectablenineteenthcentury.Butifyoucomparehonestlyagewithage,oneatatime,Ifearlesslymaintainthat,sofarfromtherebeinganyfallingoffintheaveragebignessofthingsgenerallyintheselatterdays,therearemorebigthingsnowlivingthanthereeverwereinanyonesingleepoch,evenofmuchlongerdurationthanthe'recent'period.Isupposewemayfairlysay,fromtheevidencebeforeus,thattherehavebeentwoAugustanAgesofbiganimalsinthehistoryofourearth--theJurassicperiod,whichwasthezenithofthereptiliantype,andthePliocene,whichwasthezenithofthecolossalterrestrialtertiarymammals.Isayonpurpose,'fromtheevidencebeforeus,'because,asIshallgoontoexplainhereafter,Idonotmyselfbelievethatanyoneagehasmuchsurpassedanotherinthegeneralsizeofitsfauna,sincethePermianEpochatleast;andwherewedonotgetgeologicalevidenceoftheexistenceofbiganimalsinanyparticulardeposit,wemaytakeitforgranted,Ithink,thatthatdepositwaslaiddownunderconditionsunfavourabletothepreservationoftheremainsoflargespecies.Forexample,thesedimentnowbeingaccumulatedatthebottomoftheCaspiancannotpossiblycontain

thebonesofanycreaturemuchlargerthantheCaspianseal,becausetherearenobigspeciesthereswimming;andyetthatfactdoesnotnegativetheexistenceinotherplacesofwhales,elephants,giraffes,buffaloes,andhippopotami.Nevertheless,wecanonlygouponthefactsbeforeus;andifwecompareourexistingfaunawiththefaunaofJurassicandPliocenetimes,weshallatanyratebeputtingittothetestoftheseverestcompetitionthatlieswithinourpowerundertheactualcircumstances.IntheJurassicagetherewereundoubtedlyagreatmanyverybigreptiles.'Amonstrouseftwasofoldthelordandmasterofearth:Forhimdidhishighsunflameandhisriverbillowingran:Andhefelthimselfinhispridetobenature'scrowningrace.'Therewastheichthyosaurus,afish-likemarinelizard,familiartousallfromathousandreconstructions,withhislongthinbody,hisstrongflippers,hisstumpyneck,andhishugepairofstaringgoggleeyes.Theichthy

osauruswascertainlyamostunpleasantcreaturetomeetaloneinanarrowstraitonadarknight;butifitcomestoactualmeasurement,theverybiggestichthyosaurianskeletoneveruneartheddoesnotexceedtwenty-fivefeetfromsnouttotail.Now,thisisanextremelydecentsizeforareptile,asreptilesgo;forthecrocodileandalligator,thetwobiggestexistinglizards,seldomattainanextremelengthofsixteenfeet.Butthereareotherreptilesnowlivingthateasilybeattheichthyosaurus,such,forexample,asthelargerpythonsorrock-snakes,whichnotinfrequentlyreachtothirtyfeet,andmeasureroundthewaistasmuchasaLondonaldermanofthenoblestproportions.Ofcourse,otherJurassicsaurianseasilybeatthissimplerecord.OurBritishMegalosaurusonlyextendedtwenty-fivefeetinlength,andcarriedweightnotexceedingthreetons;but,hisrivalCeteosaurusstoodtenfeethigh,andmeasuredfiftyfeetfromthetipofhissnouttotheendofhistail;whilethedimensionsofTitanosaurusmaybe

brieflydescribedassixtyfeetbythirty,andthoseofAtlantosaurusasonehundredbythirty-two.Viewedasreptiles,wehavecertainlynothingatalltocomeuptothese;butourcetaceans,asagroup,showanassemblageofspecieswhichcouldveryfavourablycompetewiththewholelotofJurassicsauriansatanycattleshow.Indeed,ifitcametotonnage,Ibelieveagoodblubberyright-whalecouldeasilygivepointstoanydeinosaurthatevermoveduponooliticcontinents.ThegreatmammalsofthePlioceneage,again,suchasthedeinotheriumandthemastodon,werealso,intheirway,verybigthingsinlivestock;buttheyscarcelyexceededthemodernelephant,andbynomeanscamenearthemodernwhales.Af



ewcolossalruminantsofthesameperiodcouldhaveheldtheirownwellagainstourexistinggiraffes,elks,andbuffaloes;but,takingthegroupasagroup,Idon'tthinkthereisanyreasontobelievethatitbeatingeneralaspectthelivingfaunaofthispresentage.Forfewpeopleeverreallyrememberhowverymanybiganimalswestillpossess.WehavetheIndianandtheAfricanelephant,thehippopotamus,thevariousrhinoceroses,thewalrus,thegiraffe,theelk,thebison,themuskox,thedromedary,andthecamel.Bigmarineanimalsaregenerallyinallagesbiggerthantheirbiggestterrestrialrivals,andmostpeoplelumpallourbigexistingcetaceansunderthecommonandridiculoustitleofwhales,whichmakesthisvastandvariedassortmentofgiganticspeciesseemallreducibletoacommonform.Asamatteroffact,however,thereareseveraldozencolossalmarineanimalsnowsportingandspoutinginalloceans,asdistinctfromoneanotherasthecamelisfromtheox,ortheelephantfromthehippopotamus.OurNewZealandBerardiuseasilybeatstheichthyosaurus;ourspermwhaleismorethanamatchforanyJurassicEuropeandeinosaur;ourrorqual,onehundredfeetlong,justequalsthedimensionsofthegiganticAmericanAtlantosaurushimself.Besidestheseexceptionalmonsters,ourbottleheadsreachtofortyfeet,ourCaliforniawhalestoforty-four,ourhump-backstofifty,andourrazor-backstosixtyorseventy.Truefishgenerallyfallfarshortoftheseenormousdimensions,butsomeofthelargersharksattainalmostequalsizewiththebiggestcetaceans.Thecommonblueshark,withhistwenty-fivefeetofsolidrapacity,wouldhaveprovedatoughantagonist,Iventuretobelieve,forthebestbredenaliosaurianthatevermunchedaliasammonite.Iwouldbackourmoderncarcharodon,whogrowstofortyfeet,againstan

yplesiosaurusthateverswamtheJurassicsea.Asforrhinodon,agiganticsharkoftheIndianOcean,hehasbeenactuallymeasuredtoalengthoffiftyfeet,andisstatedoftentoattainseventy.Iwillstakemyreputationuponitthathewouldhaveclearedthesecondaryseasoftheirgreatsauriansinlessthanacentury.Whenwecometoaddtotheseenormousmarineandterrestrialcreaturessuchotherexamplesasthegreatsnakes,thegiganticcuttle-fish,thegrampuses,andmanatees,andsea-lions,andsunfish,Iamquitepreparedfearlesslytochallengeanyotheragethateverexistedtoenterthelistsagainstourownforcolossalformsofanimallife.Again,itisapointworthnotingthatagreatmanyoftheverybiganimalswhichpeoplehaveintheirmindswhentheytalkvaguelyabouteverythinghavingbeensoverymuchbigger'inthosedays'havebecomeextinctwithinaverylateperiod,andareoften,fromthegeologicalpointofview,quiterecent.

Forexample,thereisourfriendthemammoth.Isupposenoanimalismorefrequentlypresenttothemindofthenon-geologicalspeaker,whenhetalksindefinitelyaboutthegreatextinctmonsters,thanthefamiliarfigureofthathuge-tusked,hairynorthernelephant.Yetthemammoth,chronologicallyspeaking,isbutathingofyesterday.HewashuntedhereinEnglandbymenwhosedescendantsareprobablystillliving--atleastsoProfessorBoydDawkinssolemnlyassuresus;whileinSiberiahisfrozenbody,fleshandall,isfoundsoveryfreshthatthewolvesdevourit,withoutraisinganyunnecessaryquestionastoitsfitnessforlupinefood.TheGlacialEpochistheyesterdayofgeologicaltime,anditwastheGlacialEpochthatfinallykilledoffthelastmammoth.Then,again,thereishisneighbour,themastodon.Thatbigtertiaryproboscideandidnotlivequitelongenough,itistrue,tobehuntedbythecavemenofthePleistoceneage,buthesurvivedatanyrateaslongasthePliocene--ourdaybeforeyesterday--and

heoftenfellverylikelybeforethefire-splitflintweaponsoftheAbb¨¦Bourgeois'Miocenemen.TheperiodthatseparateshimfromourowndayisasnothingcomparedwiththevastandimmeasurableintervalthatseparateshimfromthehugemarinesauriansoftheJurassicworld.Tocomparetherelativelapsesoftimewithhumanchronology,themastodonstandstoourownfaunaasBeauBrummelstandstothemodernmasher,whilethesauriansstandtoitastheEgyptianandAssyrianwarriorsstandtoLordWolseleyandthefollowersoftheMahdi.Oncemore,takethegiganticmoaofNewZealand,thatenormousbirdwhowastotheostrichasthegiraffeistotheantelope;amonstrousemu,asfarsurpassingtheostrichesofto-dayastheostrichessurpassalltheotherfowlsoftheair



.Yetthemoa,thoughnowextinct,isinthestrictestsensequitemodern,acontemporaryverylikelyofQueenElizabethorQueenAnne,exterminatedbytheMaorisonlyaverylittletimebeforethefirstwhitesettlementsinthegreatsouthernarchipelago.Itisevendoubtfulwhetherthemoadidnotlivedowntothedaysoftheearliestcolonists,forremainsofMaoriencampmentsarestilldiscovered,withtheashesofthefireplaceevennowunscattered,andtheclose-gnawedbonesofthegiganticbirdlyingintheveryspotwherethenativesleftthemaftertheirdestructivefeasts.So,too,withthebigsharks.Ourmoderncarcharodon,whoruns(asIhavebeforenoted)tofortyfeetinlength,isaveryrespectablemonsterindeed,astimesgo;andhishugesnappingteeth,whichmeasurenearlytwoincheslongbyoneandahalfbroad,woulddisdaintomaketwobitesoftheable-bodiedBritishseaman.Butthenaturalistsofthe'Challenger'expeditiondredgedupinnumbersfromtheoozeofthePacificsimilarteeth,fiveincheslongbyfourwide,sothatthesharkstowhichtheyoriginallybelongedmust,byparityofreasoning,havemeasurednearlyahundredfeetinlength.This,nodoubt,beatsourbiggestexistingshark,therhinodon,bysomethirtyfeet.Still,theoozeofthePacificisaquiterecentoralmostmoderndeposit,whichisevennowbeingaccumulatedontheseabottom,andtherewouldbereallynothingastonishinginthediscoverythatsomerepresentativesofthesecolossalcarcharodonsaretothisdayswimmingaboutattheirlordlyleisureamongthecoralreefsoftheSouthSeaIslands.Thatverycautiousnaturalist,Dr.G¨¹nther,oftheBritishMuseum,contentshimselfindeedbymerelysaying:'Aswehavenorecordoflivingindividualsofthatbulkhavingbeenobserved,thegiganticspeciestowhichtheseteethbelongedmustprobablyhavebecomeextinctwithinacomparatively

recentperiod.'Ifthesethingsareso,thequestionnaturallysuggestsitself:Whyshouldcertaintypesofanimalshaveattainedtheirgreatestsizeatcertaindifferentepochs,andbeenreplacedatothersbyequallybiganimalsofwhollyunlikesorts?Theanswer,Ibelieve,issimplythis:Becausethereisnotroomandfoodintheworldatanyonetimeformorethanacertainrelativelysmallnumberofgiganticspecies.Eachgreatgroupofanimalshashadsuccessivelyitsrise,itszenith,itsdecadence,anditsdotage;eachattheperiodofitshighestdevelopmenthasproducedaconsiderablenumberofcolossalforms;eachhasbeensupplantedinduetimebyhighergroupsoftotallydifferentstructure,whichhavekilledofftheirpredecessors,notindeedbyactualstressofbattle,butbyirresistiblecompetitionforfoodandprey.Thegreatsaurianswerethussucceededbythegreatmammals,justasthegreatmammalsarethemselvesinturnbeingousted,fromt

helandatleast,bythehumanspecies.Letuslookbrieflyatthesuccessionofbiganimalsintheworld,sofaraswecanfollowitfromthemutilatedandfragmentaryrecordofthegeologicalremains.Theveryearliestexistingfossilswouldleadustobelievewhatisotherwisequiteprobable,thatlifeonourplanetbeganwithverysmallforms--thatitpassedatfirstthroughababystage.TheanimalsoftheCambrianperiodarealmostallsmallmollusks,star-fishes,sponges,andothersimple,primitivetypesoflife.Therewereasyetnovertebratesofanysort,notevenfishes,farlessamphibians,reptiles,birds,ormammals.TheveritablegiantsoftheCambrianworldwerethecrustaceans,andespeciallythetrilobites,which,nevertheless,hardlyexceededinsizeagoodbigmodernlobster.Thebiggesttrilobiteissometwofeetlong;andthoughwecannotbyanymeanssaythatthiswasreallythelargest

formofanimallifethenexisting,owingtotheextremelybrokennatureofthegeologicalrecord,wehaveatleastnoevidencethatanythingbiggerasyetmoveduponthefaceofthewaters.Thetrilobites,whichwereasortoftriple-tailedcrabs(tospeakverypopularly),beganintheCambrianEpoch,attainedtheirculminatingpointintheSilurian,wanedintheDevonian,anddiedoututterlyintheCarboniferousseas.Itisinthesecondgreatepoch,theSilurian,thatthecuttle-fishtribe,stillfairlyrepresentedbythenautilus,theargonaut,thesquid,andtheoctopus,firstbegantomaketheirappearanceuponthisoranyotherstage.Thecuttle-fishesareamongthemostdevelopedofinvertebrateanimals;theyarerapidswimmer



s;theyhavelargeandpowerfuleyes;andtheycaneasilyenfoldtheirprey(testeVictorHugo)intheirlongandslimysucker-cladarms.Withthesenaturaladvantagestobackthemup,itisnotsurprisingthatthecuttlefamilyrapidlymadetheirmarkintheworld.Theywerebyfarthemostadvancedthinkersandactorsoftheirownage,andtheyrosealmostatoncetobethedominantcreaturesoftheprim?valoceaninwhichtheyswam.Therewereasyetnosauriansorwhalestodisputethedominionwiththeserapaciouscephalopods,andsothecuttlefamilyhadthingsforthetimealltheirownway.BeforetheendoftheSilurianEpoch,accordingtothataccuratecensus-taker,M.Barrande,theyhadblossomedforthintonolessthan1,622distinctspecies.Forasinglefamilytodevelopsoenormousavarietyofseparateforms,allpresumablyderivedfromasinglecommonancestor,argues,ofcourse,animmensesuccessinlife;anditalsoarguesavastlapseoftimeduringwhichthedifferentspeciesweregraduallydemarcatedfromoneanother.Someoftheammonites,whichbelongedtothiscuttle-fishgroup,soonattainedaveryconsiderablesize;butashellknownastheorthoceras(Iwishmysubjectdidn'tcompelmetousesuchverylongwords,butIamnotpersonallyanswerable,thankheaven,forthevagariesofmodernscientificnomenclature)grewtoabiggersizethanthatofanyotherfossilmollusk,sometimesmeasuringasmuchassixfeetintotallength.Atwhatdatethegiganticcuttlesofthepresentdayfirstbegantomaketheirappearanceitwouldbehardtosay,fortheirshell-lessbodiesaresosoftthattheycouldleavehardlyanythingbehindinafossilstate;butthelargestknowncuttle,measuredbyMr.Gabriel,ofNewfoundland,waseightyfeetinlength,includingthelongarms.

Thesecuttlesaretheonlyinvertebratesatallintherunningsofarascolossalsizeisconcerned,anditwillbeobservedthatherethelargestmodernspecimenimmeasurablybeatsthelargestfossilformofthesametype.Idonotsaythattherewerenotfossilformsquiteasbigasthegiganticcalamariesofourowntime--onthecontrary,Ibelievetherewere;butifwegobytherecordalonewemustconfessthat,inthematterofinvertebratesatleast,thebalanceofsizeisallinfavourofourownperiod.Thevertebratesfirstmaketheirappearance,intheshapeoffishes,towardsthecloseoftheSilurianperiod,thesecondofthegreatgeologicalepochs.Theearliestfishappeartohavebeensmall,elongated,eel-likecreatures,closelyresemblingthelampreysinstructure;buttheyrapidlydevelopedinsizeandvariety,andsoonbecametherulingraceinthewatersoftheocean,wheretheymaintainedtheirsupremacytilltheriseofthegreatsecondarysaurians.Eventhen,

inspiteoftheseverecompetitionthusintroduced,andstilllater,inspiteofthestruggleforlifeagainstthehugemoderncetaceans(thetruemonarchsoftherecentseas),thesharkscontinuedtoholdtheirownasproducersofgiganticforms;andatthepresentdaytheirlargesttypesprobablyranksecondonlytothewhalesinthewholerangeofanimatednature.Thereseemsnoreasontodoubtthatmodernfish,asawhole,quiteequalinsizethepiscinefaunaofanypreviousgeologicalage.Itissomewhatdifferentwiththenextgreatvertebrategroup,theamphibians,representedinourownworldonlybythefrogs,thetoads,thenewts,andtheaxolotls.Herewemustcertainlywithshameconfessthattheamphibiansofoldgreatlysurpassedtheirdegeneratedescendantsinourmodernwaters.TheJapanesesalamander,byfarthebiggestamongourexistingnewts,neverexceedsayardinlengthfromsnouttotail;whereassomeofthelabyrinthodonts(forgivemeoncem

ore)oftheCarboniferousEpochmusthavereachedatleastsevenoreightfeetfromstemtostern.Butthereasonofthisfallingoffisnotfartoseek.Whentheadventurousnewtsandfrogsofthatremoteperiodfirstdroppedtheirgillsandhoppedaboutinquiringlyonthedryland,undertheshadowoftheancienttree-fernsandclub-mosses,theyweretheonlyterrestrialvertebratesthenexisting,andtheyhadthefield(or,rather,theforest)alltothemselves.Forawhile,therefore,likealldominantracesforthetimebeing,theyblossomedforthattheireaseintorelativelygiganticforms.Frogsasbigasdonkeys,andeftsaslongascrocodiles,luxuriatedtotheirhearts'contentinthemarshylowlands,andlordeditfreelyoverthesmallcreatureswhichtheyfoundinundisturbed



possessionoftheCarboniferousisles.Butasagespassedaway,andnewimprovementswereslowlyinventedandpatentedbysurvivalofthefittestintheofficesofnature,theirownmoreadvancedanddevelopeddescendants,thereptilesandmammals,gottheupperhandwiththem,andsoonlivedthemdowninthestruggleforlife,sothatthisessentiallyintermediateformisnowalmostentirelyrestrictedtoitsoneadaptedseat,thepoolsandditchesthatdryupinsummer.Thereptiles,again,areaclassinwhichthebiggestmodernformsaresimplynowherebesidethegiganticextinctspecies.Firstappearingontheearthattheverycloseofthevastprimaryperiods--inthePermianage--theyattainedinsecondarytimesthemostcolossalproportions,andhavecertainlyneversincebeenexceededinsizebyanylaterformsoflifeinwhateverdirection.Butonemustrememberthatduringtheheydayofthegreatsaurians,therewereasyetnobirdsandnomammals.Theplacenowfilledintheoceanbythewhalesandgrampuses,aswellastheplacenowfilledinthegreatcontinentsbytheelephants,therhinoceroses,thehippopotami,andtheotherbigquadrupeds,wasthenfilledexclusivelybyhugereptiles,ofthesortrenderedfamiliartousallbytherestoredeffigiesonthelittleislandintheCrystalPalacegrounds.Everydoghashisday,andthereptileshadtheirdayinthesecondaryperiod.Theformsintowhichtheydevelopedwerecertainlyeverywhitaslargeasanyeverseenonthesurfaceofthisplanet,butnot,asIhavealreadyshown,appreciablylargerthanthoseofthebiggestcetaceansknowntoscienceinourowntime.Duringtheveryperiod,however,whenenaliosauriansandpterodactylswereplayingsuchpranksbeforehighheavenasmighthavemadecontemporaryangelsweep,iftheytookanynoticeofsaurianmorality,asmallraceofunobservedlittlepr

owlerswasgrowingupinthedenseshadesoftheneighbouringforestswhichwasdestinedatlasttooustthehugereptilesfromtheirempireoverearth,andtobecomeinthefulnessoftimetheexclusivelydominanttypeofthewholeplanet.Inthetriaswegetthefirstremainsofmammalianlifeintheshapeoftinyrat-likeanimals,marsupialintype,andcloselyrelatedtothebandedant-eatersofNewSouthWalesatthepresentday.Throughoutthelonglapseofthesecondaryages,acrossthelias,theoolite,thewealden,andthechalk,wefindthemammalianraceslowlydevelopingintoopossumsandkangaroos,suchasstillinhabittheisolatedandantiquatedcontinentofAustralia.Gatheringstrengthallthetimeforthecomingcontest,increasingconstantlyinsizeofbrainandkeennessofintelligence,thetruemammalswereableatlast,towardsthecloseofthesecondaryages,toenterthelistsboldlyagainstthegiganticsaurians.Withthedawnofthetertiaryperiod,thereignofthereptilesbeginstowane,andthe

reignofthemammalstosetinatlastinrealearnest.Inplaceoftheichthyosaurswegetthehugecetaceans;inplaceofthedeinosaurswegetthemammothandthemastodon;inplaceofthedominantreptilegroupswegetthefirstprecursorsofmanhimself.Thehistoryofthegreatbirdshasbeensomewhatmoresingular.Unliketheothermainvertebrateclasses,thebirds(asifonpurposetocontradicttheproverb)seemneveryettohavehadtheirday.Unfortunatelyforthem,oratleastfortheirchanceofproducingcolossalspecies,theirevolutionwentonsidebyside,apparently,withthatofthestillmoreintelligentandmorepowerfulmammals;sothat,whereverthemammaliantypehadoncefirmlyestablisheditself,thebirdswerecompelledtolimittheiraspirationstoaverymodestandhumblestandard.Terrestrialmammals,however,cannotcrossthesea;soinisolatedregions,suchasNewZealandandMadagascar,thebirdshadthingsalltheirownway.InNe

wZealand,therearenoindigenousquadrupedsatall;andtherethehugemoaattainedtodimensionsalmostequallingthoseofthegiraffe.InMadagascar,themammalianlifewassmallandoflowgrade,sothegigantic?pyornisbecametheverybiggestofallknownbirds.Atthesametime,thesebigspeciesacquiredtheirimmensesizeatthecostofthedistinctivebirdlikehabitofflight.Aflyingmoaisalmostanimpossibleconception;eventheostrichescompetepracticallywiththezebrasandantelopesratherthanwiththeeagles,thecondors,orthealbatrosses.Inlikemanner,whenapigeonfounditswaytoMauritius,itdevelopedintothepracticallywinglessdodo;whileinthenorthernpenguins,ontheiricyperches,theforelimbshavebeengraduallymodifiedintoswimmingorgans,ex



actlyanalogoustotheflippersoftheseal.Arethegreatanimalsnowpassingawayandleavingnorepresentativesoftheirgreatnesstofutureages?Onlandatleastthatisveryprobable.Man,diminutiveman,who,ifhewalkedonallfours,wouldbenobiggerthanasillysheep,andwhoonlypartiallydisguiseshisnativesmallnessbyhisacquiredhabitofwalkingerectonwhatoughttobehishindlegs--manhasupsetthewholebalancedeconomyofnature,andiseverywhereexpellingandexterminatingbeforehimthegreatherbivores,hispredecessors.Heneedsforhiscornandhisbananasthefruitfulplainswhichwereoncelaiddowninprairieorscrubwood.Henceitseemsnotunlikelythattheelephant,thehippopotamus,therhinoceros,andthebuffalomustgo.Butwearestillalongwayofffromthatfinalconsummation,evenondryland;whileasforthewater,itappearshighlyprobablethatthereareasgoodfishstillintheseaasevercameoutofit.Whethermanhimself,nowbecomethesoledominantanimalofourpooroldplanet,willeverdevelopintoTitanicproportions,seemsfarmoreproblematical.Theraceisnownolongertotheswift,northebattletothestrong.Braincountsformorethanmuscle,andmindhasgainedthefinalvictoryovermerematter.GoliathofGathhasshrunkintoinsignificancebeforetheGatlinggun;asinthefairytalesofold,itiscunninglittleJackwithhiscleverdeviceswhowinsthedayagainsttheheavy,clumsy,muddle-headedgiants.Nowadaysitisour'Minotaurs'and'Warriors'thataretherealleviathansandbehemothsofthegreatdeep;ourKruppsandArmstrongsarethefire-breathingkrakensofthelatter-dayseas.Insteadofdevelopingindividuallyintohugeproportions,thehumanracetendsrathertoaggregateintovastempires,whichcompetewithoneanotherbymeansofhugearmaments,andinventm

itrailleusesandtorpedosofincredibleferocityfortheirmutualdestruction.Thedragonsoftheprimethattareeachotherintheirslimehaveyieldedplacetoeighty-tongunsandarmour-platedturret-ships.Thosearethegenuinelinealrepresentativesonourmodernseasofthesecondarysaurians.Letushopethatsomecominggeologistofthedimfuture,findingthefossilremainsofthesunken'Captain,'ortheplatedscalesofthe'ComtedeGrasse,'firmlyembeddedintheupheavedoozeoftheexistingAtlantic,mayshakehisheadinsolemndeprecationatthehorridsight,andthankheaventhatsuchhideouscarnivorouscreaturesnolongerexistinhisownday.

FOSSILFOODThereissomethingatfirstsightratherridiculousintheideaofeatingafossil.Tobesure,whenthefrozenmammothsofSiberiawerefirstdiscovered,thoug

htheyhadbeendeadforatleast80,000years(accordingtoDr.Croll'sminimumreckoningfortheendofthegreaticeage),andmightthereforenaturallyhavebeguntogetalittlemusty,theyhadneverthelessbeenkeptsofresh,likeasortofprehistoricAustralianmutton,intheirvastnaturalrefrigerators,thatthewolvesandbearsgreedilydevouredthepreciousrelicsforwhichthenaturalistsofEuropewouldhavebeenreadygladlytopaythehighestmarketpriceofbestbeefsteak.Thosecarnivorousvandalsgnawedofftheskinandfleshwiththeutmostappreciation,andleftnothingbutthetusksandbonestoadornthegalleriesofthenewNaturalHistoryMuseumatSouthKensington.Butthenwolvesandbears,especiallyinSiberia,arenotexactlyfastidiousaboutthenatureoftheirmeatdiet.Furthermore,someofthebonesofextinctanimalsfoundbeneaththestalagmiticfloorofcaves,inEnglandandelsewhere,presumablyofaboutthesameageastheSiberianmammoths,stillcontainenoughanimalmattertoproduce

agoodstrongstockforantediluvianbroth,whichhasbeenscientificallydescribedbyahighauthorityaspre-Adamitejelly.ThecongressofnaturalistsatT¨¹bingenafewyearssincehadasmokingtureenofthiscave-bonesoupplaceduponthedinner-tableattheirhoteloneevening,andpronounceditwithgeologicalenthusiasm'scarcelyinferiortoprimeox-tail.'Butmenofscience,too,areaccustomedtotryingunsavouryexperiments,whichwouldgosadlyagainstthegrainwithlessphilosophicandmoresqueamishpalates.Theythinknothingoftastingacaterpillarthatbirdswillnottouch,inordertodiscoverwhetheritowesitsimmunityfromattacktosomenauseous,bitter,orpungentflavouring;andtheyevenadviseyoucalmlytodiscriminatebetweentwocloselysimilarspeciesofsna



ilsbytryingwhichofthemwhenchewedhasadelicate_soup?on_ofonionyaroma.Sothatnaturalistsinthismatter,asthechildrensay,don'tcount:theiruniversalthirstforknowledgewillpromptthemtodrinkanything,downevento_consomm¨¦_ofquaternarycave-bear.Thereisoneformoffossilfood,however,whichappearsconstantlyuponallourtablesatbreakfast,lunch,anddinner,everyday,andwhichissoperfectlyfamiliartoeveryoneofusthatwealmostforgetentirelyitsimmenselyremotegeologicalorigin.Thesaltinoursalt-cellarsisafossilproduct,laiddownagesagoinsomeprim?valDeadSeaorCaspian,andderivedinallprobability(throughthemediumofthegrocer)fromthetriassicrocksofCheshireorWorcestershire.Sincethatthickbedofrock-saltwasfirstprecipitateduponthedryfloorofsomeoldevaporatedinlandsea,thegreaterpartofthegeologicalhistoryknowntotheworldatlargehasslowlyunrolleditselfthroughincalculableages.Thedragonsoftheprimehavebegunandfinishedtheirlong(andLordTennysonsaysslimy)race.Thefish-likesauriansandflyingpterodactylsofthesecondaryperiodhavecomeintoexistenceandgoneoutofitgracefullyagain.Thewholefamilyofbirdshasbeendevelopedanddiversifiedintoitsmodernvarietyofeaglesandtitmice.Thebeastsofthefieldhavepassedthroughsundrystagesofmammothandmastodon,ofsabre-toothedlionandhugerhinoceros.Manhimselfhasprogressedgraduallyfromthehumbleconditionofa'hairyarborealquadruped'--thesebadwordsareMr.Darwin'sown--tothegloriouselevationofanerect,two-handedcreature,withacountysuffragequestionandanintelligentinterestinthelatestproceedingsofthecentraldivorcecourt.Andafterallthosemanifoldchanges,comparedtowhichtheentireperiodofEnglishhistory,fromthela

ndingofJuliusC?sartotheappearanceofthispresentvolume(totaketwoimportantlandmarks),isasonehourtoahumanlifetime,wequietlydigupthesaltto-dayfromthatdrylakebottomandproceedtoeatitwiththeeggslaidbythehensthismorningforthismorning'sbreakfast,justasthoughtheonefood-stuffwerenotawhitmoreancientormoredignifiedinnaturethantheother.Why,mammothsteakisreallyquitemodernandcommonplacebythesideofthesaltinthesalt-cellarthatwetreatsocavalierlyeverydayofourephemeralexistence.Thewaysaltgotoriginallydepositedinthesegreatrockbedsisverywellillustratedforusbythewayitisstillbeingdepositedintheevaporatingwatersofmanyinlandseas.Everyschoolboyknowsofcourse(thoughsomepersonswhoarenolongerschoolboysmayjustpossiblyhaveforgotten)thattheCaspianisinrealityonlyalittlebitoftheMediterranean,whichhasbeencutofffromthe

mainseabythegradualelevationofthecountrybetweenthem.Formanyagestheintermediatesoilhasbeenquiteliterallyrisingintheworld;buttothisdayacontinuouschainofsaltlakesandmarshesrunsbetweentheCaspianandtheBlackSea,anddoesitsbesttokeepalivethememoryofthetimewhentheywerebothunitedinasinglebasin.Allalongthisinterveningtract,onceseabutnowdryland,banksofshellsbelongingtokindsstilllivingintheCaspianandtheBlackSeaaliketestifytotheoldlineofwatercommunication.Onefinemorning(dateunknown)theintermediatebeltbegantoriseupbetweenthem;thewaterwasallpushedoffintotheCaspian,buttheshellsremainedtotellthetaleevenuntothisday.Now,whenabitoftheseagetscutoffinthiswayfromthemainocean,evaporationofitswatersgenerallytakesplaceratherfasterthanthereturnsupplyofrainbyriversandlessertributaries.Inotherwords,theinlandseaorsaltl

akebeginsslowlytodryup.ThisisnowjusthappeningintheCaspian,whichisinfactabigpoolincourseofbeingslowlyevaporated.By-and-byapointisreachedwhenthewatercannolongerholdinsolutiontheamountofsaltsofvarioussortsthatitoriginallycontained.Inthetechnicallanguageofchemistsandphysicistsitbeginstogetsupersaturated.Thenthesaltsarethrowndownasasedimentatthebottomoftheseaorlake,exactlyascrustformedonthebottomofakettle.Gypsumisthefirstmaterialtobesothrowndown,becauseitislesssolublethancommonsalt,andthereforesoonergotridof.Itformsathickbottomlayerinthebedofallevaporatinginlandseas;andasplasterofParisitnotonlygivesrisefinallytoartisticmonstrositieshawkedaboutthestre



etsforthedegradationofnationaltaste,butalsoplaysanimportantpartinthemanufactureofbonbons,thedestructionofthehumandigestion,andtheultimateruinofthedominantwhiteEuropeanrace.Onlyaboutathirdofthewaterinasaltlakeneedbeevaporatedbeforethegypsumbeginstobedepositedinasolidlayeroveritswholebed;itisnottill93percent.ofthewaterhasgone,andonly7percent.isleft,thatcommonsaltbeginstobethrowndown.Whenthatpointofintensityisreached,thesalt,too,fallsasasedimenttothebottom,andthereoverliesthegypsumdeposit.Hencealltheworldover,whereverwecomeuponabedofrocksalt,italmostinvariablyliesuponafloorofsolidgypsum.TheCaspian,beingstillaveryrespectablemodernsea,constantlysuppliedwithfreshwaterfromthesurroundingrivers,hasnotyetbegunbyanymeanstodepositsaltonitsbottomfromitswholemass;buttheshallowpoolsandlongbaysarounditsedgehavecrustsofbeautifulrose-colouredsalt-crystalsformingupontheirsides;andastheselesserbasinsgraduallydryup,thesand,blownbeforethewind,slowlydriftsoverthem,soastoformminiaturerock-saltbedsonaverysmallscale.Nevertheless,theyoungandvigorousCaspianonlyrepresentsthefirststageintheprocessofevaporationofaninlandsea.Itisstillfreshenoughtoformtheabodeoffishandmollusks;andtheirrepressibleyoungladyofthepresentgenerationisperhapsevenawarethatitcontainsnumbersofseals,beinginfacttheseatofoneofthemostimportantandvaluableseal-fisheriesinthewholeworld.Itmayberegardedasatypicalexampleofayetyouthfulandlivelyinlandsea.TheDeadSea,ontheotherhand,isanoldanddecrepitsaltlakeinaveryadva

ncedstateofevaporation.ItliesseveralfeetbelowtheleveloftheMediterranean,justastheCaspianliesseveralfeetbelowtheleveloftheBlackSea;andasinbothcasesthesurfacemustoncehavebeencontinuous,itisclearthatthewaterofeithersheetmusthavedrieduptoaveryconsiderableextent.But,whiletheCaspianhasshrunkonlyto85feetbelowtheBlackSea,theDeadSeahasshrunktotheenormousdepthof1,292feetbelowtheMediterranean.Everynowandthen,someenterprisingDeLessepsorotherproposestodigacanalfromtheMediterraneantotheDeadSea,andsore-establishtheoldhighlevel.TheeffectofthisveryrevolutionaryproceedingwouldbetofloodtheentireJordanValley,connecttheSeaofGalileewiththeDeadSea,andplaythedickensgenerallywithScripturegeography,totheinfinitedelightofSundayschoolclasses.Now,whentheDeadSeafirstbeganitsindependentcareerasaseparatesheetofwateronitsownaccount,itnodoubtoccupiedthewholebedofthisimaginary

engineers'lake--spreading,ifnotfromDantoBeersheba,atanyratefromDantoEdom,or,inotherwords,alongthewholeJordanValleyfromtheSeaofGalileeandeventheWatersofMeromtothesoutherndesert.(Iwillnotinsultthereader'sintelligenceandorthodoxybysuggestingthatperhapshemaynotbepreciselycertainastotheexactpositionoftheWatersofMerom;butIwillmerelyrecommendhimjusttorefreshhismemorybyturningtohisatlas,asthisisanopportunitywhichmaynotagainoccur.)ThemodernDeadSeaisthelastshrunkenrelicofsuchaconsiderableancientlake.Itswatersarenowsoveryconcentratedandsoverynastythatnofishorotherself-respectinganimalcanconsenttoliveinthem;andsobuoyantthatamancan'tdrownhimself,evenifhetries,becausetheseaissaturatedwithsaltsofvarioussortstillithasbecomeakindofsouporporridge,inwhichaswimmerfloats,willhenillhe.Personsintheneighbourhoodwhowishtocommitsuicidearethereforeobligedtogoelsewhe

re:muchasinTasmania,thehealthiestclimateintheworld,peoplewhowanttodieareobligedtorunacrossforaweektoSydneyorMelbourne.ThewatersoftheDeadSeaarethusintheconditionofhavingalreadydepositedalmostalltheirgypsum,aswellasthegreaterpartofthesalttheyoriginallycontained.Theyare,infact,muchlikeseawaterwhichhasbeenboileddowntillithasreachedthestateofathicksaltyliquid;andthoughmostofthesaltisnowalreadydepositedinadeeplayeronthebottom,enoughstillremainsinsolutiontomaketheDeadSeainfinitelysalterthanthegeneralocean.Atthesametime,thereareagoodmanyotherthingsinsolutioninseawaterbesidesgypsumandcommonsalt;suchaschlorideofmagnesiasulphateofpotassium,and



otherinterestingsubstanceswithprettychemicalnames,wellcalculatedtoendearthematfirstsighttothesentimentalaffectionsofthegeneralpublic.Theseotherby-contentsofthewaterareoftenstilllongeringettingdepositedthancommonsalt;and,owingtotheirintermixtureinaveryconcentratedformwiththemotherliquidoftheDeadSea,thewaterofthatevaporatinglakeisnotonlysaltbutalsoslimyandfetidtothelastdegree,itstastebeingaccuratelydescribedashalfbrine,halfrancidoil.Indeed,thesalthasbeensofarprecipitatedalreadythatthereisnowfivetimesasmuchchlorideofmagnesiumleftinthewaterasthereiscommonsalt.Bytheway,itisaluckythingforusthatthesevarioussolublemineralsareofsuchconstitutionastobethrowndownseparatelyatdifferentstagesofconcentrationintheevaporatingliquid;for,ifitwereotherwise,theywouldallgetdepositedtogether,andweshouldfindonalloldsaltlakebedsonlyamixedlayerofgypsum,salt,andotherchloridesandsulphates,absolutelyuselessforanypracticalhumanpurpose.Inthatcase,weshouldbeentirelydependentuponmarinesaltpansandartificialprocessesforourentiresaltsupply.Asitis,wefindthematerialsdepositedoneaboveanotherinregularlayers;first,thegypsumatthebottom;thentherock-salt;andlastofall,ontop,themoresolublemineralconstituents.TheGreatSaltLakeofUtah,sacredtothememoryofBrighamYoung,givesusanexampleofamodernsalinesheetofverydifferentorigin,sinceitisinfactnotabranchoftheseaatall,butamereshrunkenremnantofaverylargefresh-waterlakesystem,likethatofthestill-existingSt.Lawrencechain.Onceuponatime,Americangeologistssay,ahugesheetofwater,forwhichtheyhaveeveninventedadefinitename,LakeBonneville,occupiedafarlargervalleyamong

theoutliersoftheRockyMountains,measuring300milesinonedirectionby180milesintheother.BesidethisprimitiveSuperiorlayasecondgreatsheet--anearlyHuron--(LakeLahontan,thegeologistscallit)almostasbig,andequallyoffreshwater.By-and-by--theprecisedatesarenecessarilyindefinite--somechangeintherainfall,unregisteredbyanycontemporary'NewYorkHerald,'madethewatersofthesebiglakesshrinkandevaporate.LakeLahontanshrankawaylikeAliceinWonderland,tilltherewasabsolutelynothingleftofit;LakeBonnevilleshranktillitattainedthediminishedsizeoftheexistingGreatSaltLake.Terraceafterterrace,runninginlongparallellinesonthesidesoftheWahsatchMountainsaround,markthevariouslevelsatwhichitrestedforawhileonitsgradualdownwardcourse.Itisstillfallingindeed;andtheplainaroundisbeinggraduallyuncovered,formingthewhitesalt-encrustedshorewithwhichallvisitorstotheMormoncityaresofamiliar.

Butwhyshouldthewaterhavebecomebriny?WhyshouldtheevaporationofanoldSuperiorproduceatlastaGreatSaltLake?Well,thereisasmallquantityofsaltinsolutioneveninthefreshestoflakesandponds,broughtdowntothembythestreamsorrivers;and,asthewaterofthehypotheticalLakeBonnevilleslowlyevaporated,thesaltandothermineralconstituentsremainedbehind.Thusthesolutiongrewconstantlymoreandmoreconcentrated,tillatthepresentdayitisextremelysaline.ProfessorGeikie(towhoseworksthepresentpaperismuchindebted)foundthathefloatedonthewaterinspiteofhimself;andtheundersidesofthestepsatthebathing-placesareallencrustedwithshortstalactitesofsalt,producedfromthedripofthebathersastheyleavethewater.Themineralconstituents,however,differconsiderablyintheirproportionsfromthosefoundintruesaltlakesofmarineorigin;andthepointatwhichthesaltisthrowndownisstillfarfromhavingbeenreached.GreatSaltLakemustsimme

rinthesunformanycenturiesyetbeforethepointarrivesatwhich(ascookssay)itbeginstosettle.Thatisthewayinwhichdepositsofsaltarebeingnowproducedontheworld'ssurface,inpreparationforthatmanofthefuturewho,aswelearnfromadulyconstitutedauthority,istobehairless,toothless,web-footed,andfartoorespectableevertobefunny.Manofthepresentderiveshisexistingsalt-supplychieflyfrombedsofrock-saltsimilarlylaiddownagainsthisexpectedappearancesomehundredthousand?onsorsoago.(An?onisaveryconvenientgeologicalunitindeedtoreckonby;asnobodyhasanyideahowlongitis,theycan'tcarpatyouforamatterofan?onortwoonewayortheother.)Rock-saltisfound



inmostpartsoftheworld,inbedsofveryvariousages.ThegreatSaltRangeofthePunjaubisprobablytheearliestindateofallsaltdeposits;itwaslaiddownatthebottomofsomeveryancientAsiaticMediterranean,whoselastshrunkenremnantcoveredtheupperbasinoftheIndusanditstributariesduringtheSilurianage.Europehadthenhardlybeguntobe;andEnglandwasprobablystillcoveredfromendtoendbytheprim?valocean.FromthisveryprimitivesaltdepositthegreaterpartofIndiaandCentralAsiaisstillsupplied;andtheIndianGovernmentmakesaprettypennyoutoftheduesintheshapeofthejustlydetestedsalt-tax--ataxespeciallyodiousbecauseitwringsthefractionofafarthingevenfromthoseunhappyagriculturallabourerswhohavenevertastedgheewiththeirrice.Thethicknessofthebedsineachsaltdepositofcoursedependsentirelyupontheareaoftheoriginalseaorsalt-lake,andthelengthoftimeduringwhichtheevaporationwenton.Sometimeswemaygetamerefilmofsalt;sometimesasolidbedsixhundredfeetthick.Perfectlypurerock-saltiscolourlessandtransparent;butonedoesn'toftenfinditpure.Alasforadegenerateworld!eveninitsoriginalsite,Natureherselfhastakenthetroubletoadulterateitbeforehand.(Ifshehadn'tdoneso,onemaybeperfectlysurethatcommercialenterprisewouldhaveprovedequaltotheoccasioninthelongrun.)Buttheadulterationhasn'tspoiltthebeautyofthesalt;onthecontrary,itserves,likerouge,togiveafinefreshcolourwherenoneexisted.Whenironisthechiefcolouringmatter,rock-saltassumesabeautifulclearredtint;inothercasesitisemeraldgreenorpaleblue.Asarule,saltispreparedfromitfortablebyaregularprocess;butithasbecomeafadoflatewithafewpeopletoputcrystalsof

nativerock-saltontheirtables;andtheydecidedlylookverypretty,andhaveacertaindistinctiveflavouroftheirownthatisnotunpleasant.OurEnglishsaltsupplyischieflyderivedfromtheCheshireandWorcestershiresalt-regions,whichareoftriassicage.Manyoftheplacesatwhichthesaltisminedhavenamesendinginwich,suchasNorthwich,Middlewich,Nantwich,Droitwich,Netherwich,andShirleywich.Thisterminationwichisitselfcuriouslysignificant,asCanonIsaacTaylorhasshown,ofthenecessaryconnectionbetweensaltandthesea.Theearliestknownwayofproducingsaltwasofcourseinshallowpansonthesea-shore,atthebottomofashoalbay,calledinNorseandEarlyEnglishawickorwich;andthematerialsoproducedisstillknownintradeasbay-salt.By-and-by,whenpeoplecametodiscovertheinlandbrine-pitsandsaltmines,theytransferredtothemthefamiliarname,awich;andtheplaceswherethesaltwasmanufacturedcametobeknownaswych-houses.Droitwich,forexa

mple,wasoriginallysuchawich,wherethedroitsorduesonsaltwerepaidatthetimewhenWilliamtheConqueror'scommissionersdrewuptheirgreatsurveyforDomesdayBook.Butthegood,easy-goingmedi?valpeoplewhogavethesequaintnamestotheinlandwicheshadprobablynoideathattheywerereallyandtrulydried-upbays,andthatthesalttheyminedfromtheirpitswasgenuineancientbay-salt,thedepositofanoldinlandsea,evaporatedbyslowdegreesacountlessnumberofagessince,exactlyastheDeadSeaandtheGreatSaltLakearegettingevaporatedinourowntime.Such,nevertheless,isactuallythecase.Agood-sizedCaspianusedtospreadacrossthecentreofEnglandandnorthofIrelandintriassictimes,boundedhereandthere,aswellasDr.Hullcanmakeout,bytheWelshMountains,theCheviots,andtheDonegalHills,andwiththePeakofDerbyshireandtheIsleofManstandingoutasseparateislandsfromitsblueexpanse.(Wewillbegthequestion

thattheEnglishseaswerethenblue.TheyarecertainlymarkedsoinaveryfineceruleantintonDr.Hull'smapofTriassicBritain.)Slowly,likemostotherinlandseas,thisearlyBritishCaspianbegantoloseweightandtoshrivelawaytoeversmallerdimensions.InDevonshire,whereitappearstohavefirstdriedup,wegetnosalt,butonlyredmarl,withhereandthereacubicalcast,fillingaholeonceoccupiedbyrock-salt,thoughthepercolationoftherainhaslongsincemeltedoutthatverysolublesubstance,andreplaceditbyameremouldinthecharacteristicsquareshapeofsaltcrystals.ButWorcestershireandCheshireweretheseatoftheinlandseawhenithadcontractedtothedimensionsofameresaltlake,andbeguntothrowdownitsdissolvedsalinematerials.One



oftheCheshirebedsissometimesahundredfeetthickofalmostpureandcrystallinerock-salt.TheabsenceoffossilsshowsthatanimalsmusthavehadasbadatimeofitthereasintheDeadSeaofourmodernPalestine.TheDroitwichbrine-pitshavebeenknownformanycenturies,sincetheywereworked(andtaxed)evenbeforetheNormanConquest,asweremanyothersimilarwellselsewhere.Buttheactualminingofrock-saltassuchinEnglanddatesbackonlyasfarasthereignofKingCharlesII.ofblessedmemory,ormoredefinitelytotheveryyearinwhichthe'Pilgrim'sProgress'wasconceivedandwrittenbyJohnBunyan.Duringthatparticularsummer,anenterprisingpersonatNantwichhadsunkashaftforcoal,whichhefailedtofind;butonhiswaydownhecameunexpectedlyacrossthebedofrock-salt,thenforthefirsttimediscoveredasanativemineral.Sincethatfortunateaccidentthebedshavebeensoenergeticallyworkedandthespringssoenergeticallypumpedthatsomeofthetownsbuiltontopofthemhavegotundermined,andnowthreatenfromyeartoyear,inthemostliteralsense,tocavein.Infact,oneortwosubsidencesofconsiderableextenthavealreadytakenplace,dueinpartnodoubttothedissolvingactionofrainwater,butinpartalsotothemodeofworking.Theminesareapproachedbyashaft;and,whenyougetdowntotheleveloftheoldseabottom,youfindyourselfinasortofartificialgallery,whoseroof,withalltheworldontopofit,issupportedeveryhereandtherebymassivepillarsaboutfifteenfeetthick.Consideringthatthesaltliesoftenahundredandfiftyyardsdeep,andthatthesepillarshavetobeartheweightofallthatdepthofsolidrock,itisnotsurprisingthatsubsidencesshouldsometimesoccurinabandonedshafts,wherethewaterisallowedtocollect,andslowlydissolveawaythesupportingcolumns.

Saltisanecessaryarticleoffoodforanimals,butinafarlessdegreethaniscommonlysupposed.Eachofuseatsonanaverageabouttentimesasmuchsaltasweactuallyrequire.Inthisrespectpopularnotionsareasinexactasintheverysimilarcaseofthesupplyofphosphorus.Becausephosphorusisneedfulforbrainaction,peoplejumpforthwithtotheabsurdconclusionthatfishandotherfoodsrichinphosphatesoughttobespeciallygoodforstudentspreparingforexamination,greatthinkers,andliterarymen.MarkTwainindeedonceadvisedapoeticalaspirant,whosenthimafewversesforhiscriticalopinion,thatfishwasveryfeedingforthebrains;hewouldrecommendacoupleofyoungwhalestobeginupon.Asamatteroffact,thereismorephosphorusinourdailybreadthanwouldhavesufficedShakespearetowrite'Hamlet,'orNewtontodiscoverthelawofgravitation.Itisn'tphosphorusthatmostofusneed,butbrainstoburnitin.Amanmightaswelllightafireinacarriage,becausecoalmakesan

enginego,ashopetomendthepaceofhisdullpatebyeatingfishforthesakeofthephosphates.Thequestionstillremains,Howdidthesaltoriginallygetthere?Afterall,whenwesaythatitwasproduced,asrock-salt,byevaporationofthewaterininlandseas,weleaveunansweredthemainproblem,Howdidthebrineinsolutiongetintotheseaatallinthefirstplace?Well,onemightalmostaswellask,Howdidanythingcometobeupontheearthatanytime,inanyway?Howdidtheseaitselfgetthere?Howdidthisplanetswimintoexistenceatall?IntheIndianmythologytheworldissupporteduponthebackofanelephant,whoissupporteduponthebackofatortoise;butwhatthetortoiseinthelastresortissupportedupontheIndianphilosophersprudentlysaynot.Ifweoncebeginthuspushingbackourinquiriesintothegenesisofthecosmos,weshallfindoursearchretreatingstepafterstepadinfinitum.Thenegropreacher,describingthecreat

ionofAdam,anddrawingslightlyuponhisimagination,observedthatwhenourprimeforefatherfirstcametoconsciousnesshefoundhimself'sotupaginafence.'Oneofhishearersventuredscepticallytoejaculate,'Denwhardatfencecomefrom,ministah?'Theoutrageddivinescratchedhisgreywoolreflectivelyforamoment,andreplied,afterapause,withsternsolemnity,'Treemoreobdemquestionswillunderminedewholesystemobteology.'However,wearenotpermittedhumblytoimitatetheprudentreticenceoftheIndianphilosophers.Inthesedaysofevolutionhypotheses,andnebulartheories,andkineticenergy,andalltherestofit,thequestionwhytheseaissaltrisesupirrepressibleandimperativelydemandstogetitselfanswered.Therewasa



sapientinquirer,recentlydeceased,whohadashortwayoutofthisdifficulty.Heheldthattheseawasonlysaltbecauseofallthesaltriversthatrunintoit.Consideringthatthesaltriversarethemselvessaltedbypassingthroughsaltregions,orbeingfedbysalinesprings,allofwhichderivetheirsaltnessfromdepositslaiddownlongagobyevaporationfromearlierseasorlakebasins,thisexplanationsavourssomewhatofcircularity.Itamountsineffecttosayingthattheseaissaltbecauseofthelargeamountofsalinematterwhichitholdsinsolution.Cheeseisalsoacaseouspreparationofmilk;thedutiesofanarchdeaconaretoperformarchidiaconalfunctions;andopiumputsonetosleepbecauseitpossessesasoporificvirtue.Apartfromsuchpurelyverbalexplanationsofthesaltnessofthesea,however,onecanonlygivesomesuchaccountofthewayitcametobe'thebriny'asthefollowing:--Thisworldwasonceahazeoffluidlight,asthepoetsandthemenofscienceagreeininformingus.Assoonasitbegantocooldownalittle,theheaviermaterialsnaturallysanktowardsthecentre,whilethelighter,nowrepresentedbytheoceanandtheatmosphere,floatedinagaseousconditionontheoutside.Butthegreatenvelopeofvapourthusproduceddidnotconsistmerelyoftheconstituentsofairandwater;manyothergasesandvapoursmingledwiththem,astheystilldotoafarlessextentinourexistingatmosphere.By-and-by,asthecoolingandcondensingprocesscontinued,thewatersettleddownfromtheconditionofsteamintooneofaliquidatadullredheat.Asitcondensed,itcarrieddownwithitagreatmanyothersubstances,heldinsolution,whosecomponentelementshadpreviouslyexistedintheprimitivegaseousatmosphere.Thustheearly

oceanwhichcoveredthewholeearthwasinallprobabilitynotonlyverysalt,butalsoquitethickwithothermineralmatterscloseuptothepointofsaturation.Itwasfulloflime,andrawflint,andsulphates,andmanyothermiscellaneousbodies.Moreover,itwasnotonlyjustassaltasatthepresentday,butevenagreatdealsalter.Forfromthattimetothisevaporationhasconstantlybeengoingonincertainshallowisolatedareas,layingdowngreatbedsofgypsumandthenofsalt,whichstillremaininthesolidcondition,whilethewaterhas,ofcourse,beencorrespondinglypurified.Thesamethinghaslikewisehappenedinaslightlydifferentwaywiththelimeandflint,whichhavebeenseparatedfromthewaterchieflybylivinganimals,andafterwardsdepositedonthebottomoftheoceaninimmenselayersaslimestone,chalk,sandstone,andclay.Thusitturnsoutthatintheendalloursourcesofsalt-supplyarealikeultimatelyderivedfromthebrinyocean.Whetherwedigitoutassolidrock-saltfro

mtheopenquarriesofthePunjaub,orpumpitupfrombrine-wellssunkintothetriassicrocksofCheshire,orevaporateitdirectinthesalt-pansofEnglandandtheshallowsalinesoftheMediterraneanshore,itisstillatbottomessentiallysea-salt.Howeverdistanttheconnectionmayseem,oursaltisalwaysinthelastresortobtainedfromthematerialheldinsolutioninsomeancientormodernsea.EventhesalinespringsofCanadaandtheNorthernStatesofAmerica,wherethewapitilovetocongregate,andthenoblehunterlurksinthethickettomurderthemunperceived,derivetheirsaltness,asanableCanadiangeologisthasshown,fromthethinlyscatteredsaltsstillretainedamongthesedimentsofthatveryarchaicseawhoseprecipitatesformtheearliestknownlife-bearingrocks.TotheHomericGreek,astoMr.DickSwiveller,theoceanwasalwaysthebriny:tomodernscience,ontheotherhand(whichneitherofthoseworthieswouldprobablyhaveappreciatedatitsownvaluation),thebrinyisalwaystheocean

ic.Thefossilfoodwhichwefindto-dayonallourdinner-tablesdatesbackitsoriginprimarilytothefirstseasthatevercoveredthesurfaceofourplanet,andsecondarilytothegreatrockdepositsofthedried-uptriassicinlandsea.Andyetevenourmenofsciencehabituallydescribethatancientmineralascommonsalt.

OGBURYBARROWSWewenttoOgburyBarrowsonanarch?ologicalexpedition.Andastheverynameofarch?ology,owingtoaseriousmisconceptionincidentaltohumannature,isenoughtodetermostpeoplefromtakinganyfurtherinterestinourproceedingswh



enoncewegotthere,Imayaswellbeginbyexplaining,forthebenefitofthosewhohaveneverbeentoone,themethodandmannerofanarch?ologicalouting.Thefirstthingyouhavetodoistocatchyoursecretary.Thegenuinesecretaryisborn,notmade;andthereforeyouhavegottocatchhim,nottoappointhim.Appointingasecretaryispurevanityandvexationofspirit;youmustfindtherightmanmadereadytoyourhand;andwhenyouhavefoundhimyouwillsoonseethatheslipsintotheonerousdutiesofthesecretariatasiftothemannerborn,bypureinstinct.Theperfectsecretaryisanurbaneoldgentlemanofmatureyearsandportlybearing,adignifiedrepresentativeofBritisharch?ology,withplentyofmoneyandplentyofleisure,possessingaheaven-borngeniusfororganisation,andutterlyunhamperedbyanyfoolishviewsofhisownaboutarch?ologicalresearchoranyotherkindredsubject.Thesecretarywhoarch?ologisesislost.HisbusinessisnottodiscourseofearlyEnglishwindowsorofpal?olithichatchets,ofburiedvillasorofPlantagenetpedigrees,ofRomantile-workorofdolichocephalicskulls,buttoprovideabundantbrakes,drags,andcarriages,totakecarethattheownersofcastlesandbaronialresidencesthrowthemopen(withlunchprovided)totheardentstudentofBritishantiquities,toseethatalltheoldladieshavesomebodytotalkto,andalltheyoungonessomebodytoflirtwith,andgenerallytosuperintendthemorals,happiness,andpersonalcomfortofsomefiftyassortedscientificenthusiasts.Thesecretarywhodivergesfromthesehisproperandelevatedfunctionsintotrivialandpueriledisquisitionsupontheantiquityofman(whenheoughtrathertobeadmiringthejuvenilityofwoman),ortheprecisedateoftheAnglo-Saxonconquest(whenheshouldbyrightsbeconcentratingthewholeforceofhismassiveintellectuponthearduo

ustaskofarrangingfordinner),proveshimselfatonceunworthyofhishighposition,andshouldforthwithbedeposedfromthesecretariatbypublicacclamation.Havingonceentrappedyourperfectsecretary,yousethimbusilytoworkbeforehandtomakeallthearrangementsforyourexpectedexcursion,thearch?ologistsgenerallycordiallyrecognisingtheimportantprinciplethathepaysalltheexpensesheincursoutofhisownpocket,anddrivessplendidbargainsontheiraccountwithhotel-keepers,coachmen,railwaycompanies,andotherstofeed,lodge,supply,andconveythematfabulouslylowpricesthroughoutthewholeexpedition.Youalsounderstandthatthesecretarywillcalluponeverybodyintheneighbourhoodyouproposetovisit,inducetherectorstothrowopentheirchurches,squarethehousekeepersofabsenteedukes,andbeardtheownersofElizabethanmansionsintheirowndens.Theselittlepreliminariesbeingamicablysettled,you

gettogetheryourarch?ologistsandsetoutuponyourintendedtour.Anarch?ologist,itshouldbefurtherpremised,hasnonecessarypersonalconnectionwitharch?ologyinanyway.He(orshe)isahumanbeing,ofassortedorigin,age,andsex,knownasanarch?ologistthenandthereonnoothergroundthanthepossessionofaticket(pricehalf-a-guinea)forthatparticulararch?ologicalmeeting.Whowouldnotbeaman(orwoman)ofscienceonsucheasyandunexactingterms?Mostarch?ologistswithinmyownprivateexperience,indeed,areladiesofvariousages,manyofthemelderly,butmanymoreyoungandpretty,whoseviewsaboutthestylesofEnglisharchitectureortheexactdistinctionbetweenDurotrigesandDamnoniansareofthevaguestandmostshadowypossibledescription.Youalldriveinbrakestogethertothevariouspointsofinterestinthesurroundingcountry.Whenyouarriveatapointofinterest,somebodyorotherwithabadcoldinhisheadreadsadullpaperonitsoriginandnature,inwhich

thereisfortunatelynosubsequentexamination.Ifyouareburningtolearnallaboutit,youputyourhanduptoyourear,andassumeanattitudeofprofoundattention.Ifyouarenotburningwiththedesireforinformation,youstrolloffcasuallyaboutthegroundsandgardenswiththeprettiestandpleasantestamongthearch?ologicalsisters,whoseacquaintanceyouhavemadeonthewaythither.Sometimesitrains,andthenyouobtainanadmirablechanceofofferingyourneighbourtheprotectionaffordedbyyourbrand-newsilkumbrella.By-and-bythedullpapergetsfinished,andsomebodywholivesinanadjoininghousevolunteerstoprovideyouwithluncheon.Thenyouadjourntotheparishchurch,whereanoldgentlemanoffeebleeyesightreadsalongandtediousaccountofalltheper



sonswhosemonumentsareorarenottobefounduponthewallsofthatpokylittlebuilding.Nobodylistenstohim;buteverybodycarriesawayavagueimpressionthatsomeoneorother,temp.HenrytheSecond,marriedAdeliza,daughterandheiressofSirRalphdeThingumbob,andhadissuethirteenstalwartsonsandtwenty-sevenbeautifuldaughters,eachfoundersofanoblefamilywithacorrespondinglyvariedpedigree.Finally,youtaketeaandicesuponsomebody'slawn,byspecialinvitation,anddrivehome,notwithoutmuchlaughter,inthecooloftheeveningtoanexcellenttabled'h?tedinneratthemarvellouslycheaphotel,presidedoverbytheever-smilingandurbanesecretary.Thatiswhatwemeannowadaysbybeingamemberofanarch?ologicalassociation.ItwasonjustsuchapleasantexcursionthatweallwenttoOgburyBarrows.Iwasoverflowing,myself,withbottled-upinformationonthesubjectofthosetwoprehistorictumuli;forOgburyBarrowshavebeenthehobbyofmylifetime;butIdidn'treadapaperupontheiroriginandmeaning,first,becausethesecretaryveryhappilyforgottoaskme,andsecondly,becauseIwasmuchbetteremployedinpsychologicalresearchintothehabitsandmannersofanextremelyprettypink-and-whitearch?ologistwhostoodbesideme.Instead,therefore,ofboringherandmyothercompanionswithallmyaccumulatedstoreofinformationaboutOgburyBarrows,Ilockeditupsecurelyinmyownbosom,withthefelldesignoffinallyventingitallatonceinonevastflooduponthepresentarticle.OgburyBarrows,Iwouldhavesaid(haditnotbeenforthepraiseworthynegligenceofouresteemedsecretary),standupontheveryvergeofagreatchalk-down,overlookingabroadandfertilebeltofvalley,whoseslopesareterracedinthequaintestfashionwithlongparallellinesofobviouslyhumanandindustrialor

igin.Theterracingmusthavebeendoneaverylongtimeagoindeed,foritisadeviceforcollectingenoughsoilonachalkyhillsidetogrowcornin.Now,nobodyevertriedtogrowcornonopenchalk-downsinanycivilisedperiodofhistoryuntilthepresentcentury,becausethedownsaresomuchmorenaturallyadaptedforsheep-walksthattheattempttoturnthemintowavingcornfieldswouldneveroccurtoanybodyonearthexceptabarbarianoranadvancedagriculturist.ButwhenOgburyDownswereoriginallyterraced,Idon'tdoubtthattheprimitivesystemofuniversaltribalwarfarestillexistedeverywhereinBritain.ThissystemisaptlysummedupinthefamiliarmodernBlackCountryformula,'Yon'sastranger.'Eave'arfabrickathim.'Eachtribewasthenperpetuallyatwarwitheveryothertribeoneithersideofit:asimpleplanwhichrenderedforeigntariffsquiteunnecessary,andmosteffectuallyprotectedhomeindustries.Theconsequencewas,eachdistricthadtoproduceforitsowntribeallthenecessaries

oflife,howeverill-adaptedbynaturefortheirdueproduction:becausetrafficandbarterdidnotyetexist,andtheonlyformeverassumedbyimporttradewasthatofraidingonyourneighbours'territories,andbringingbackwithyouwhateveryoucouldlayhandson.SothepeopleofthechalkyOgburyvalleyhadperforcetogrowcornforthemselves,whethernaturewouldornaturewouldn't;and,inordertogrowitundersuchveryunfavourablecircumstancesofsoilandclimate,theyterracedofftheentirehillside,bycatchingthesiltasitwashedslowlydown,andkeepingitinplacebyartificialbarriers.Onthetopofthedown,overlookingthiscuriousvaleofprehistoricterraces,risethetwinheightsofOgburyBarrows,familiarlandmarkstoallthecountrysidearoundformanymiles.Oneofthemisatall,circularmoundortumulussurroundedbyadeepandwell-markedtrench:theother,whichstandsalittleononeside,islongandnarrow,shapedexactlylikeamoderngrave,butofcomparative

lygiganticandcolossalproportions.EventhelittlechildrenofOgburyvillagehavenoticeditscloseresemblanceofshapeandoutlinetothegrassyhillocksintheirownchurchyard,andwhispertooneanotherwhentheyplayuponitssummitthatagreatgiantingoldenarmourliesburiedinastonevaultunderneath.Butifonlytheyknewtherealtruth,theywouldsayinsteadthatthatbig,ungainly,overgrowngravecoverstheremainsofashort,squat,dwarfishchieftain,akininshapeandfeaturetotheLappsandFinns,andaboutasmuchunlikeagiantashumannaturecouldeasilymanage.Itmayberegardedasageneraltruthofhistorythatthegreatestmendon'tbyanymeansalwaysgetthebiggestmonument.



Thearch?ologistsinbecomingprintswhowentwithustothetopofOgburyBarrowssagaciouslysurmised(withdemonstrativeparasol)that'thesemoundsmusthavebeenmadeaverylongtimeago,indeed.'Soinfacttheywere:butthoughtheystandnowsoclosetogether,andlooksomuchlikesistersandcontemporaries,oneisagesolderthantheother,andwasalreadygreenandgrass-grownwithimmemorialantiquitywhenthefreshearthofitsneighbourtumuluswasfirstthrownupbyitsside,abovetheburiedurnofsomelong-forgottenCelticwarrior.Letusbeginbyconsideringtheoldestfirst,andthenpassontoitsyoungersister.OgburyLongBarrowisaveryancientmonumentindeed.Not,tobesure,onequartersoancientasthedaysoftheextremelyoldmasterwhocarvedthemammothonthefragmentsofhisowntuskinthecavesoftheDordogne,andconcerningwhomIhaveinditedadiscourseinanearlierportionofthisvolume:comparedwiththatveryantiquepersonage,ourlongbarrowonOgburyhill-topmayinfactbelookeduponasalmostmodern.Still,whenoneisn'ttalkingingeologicallanguage,tenortwentythousandyearsmaybefairlyconsideredaverylongtimeastimegoes:andIhavelittledoubtthatfromtentotwentythousandyearshavepassedsincetheshort,squatchieftainaforesaidwasfirstcommittedtohisfinalresting-placeinOgburyLongBarrow.Twoyearssince,welocalarch?ologists--notinbecomingprintsthistime--openedthebarrowtoseewhatwasinsideit.Wefound,asweexpected,the'stonevault'ofthepopulartradition,provingconclusivelythatsomefaintmemoryoftheoriginalintermenthadclungforallthoselongyearsaroundthegrassypileofthatancienttumulus.Itscentre,infact,wasoccupiedbyasepulchralchamberbuiltofbigSarsenstonesfromthesurround

inghillsides;andinthemidstofthehouseofdeaththusrudelyconstructedlaythemoulderingskeletonofitsoriginalpossessor--anoldprehistoricMongoloidchieftain.WhenIstoodforthefirstmomentwithinthatprim?valpalaceofthedead,neverbeforeenteredbylivingmanforahundredcenturies,Ifelt,Imustown,somethinglikeaburglar,somethinglikeabody-snatcher,somethinglikearesurrectionman,butmostofalllikeahappyarch?ologist.Thebigstonehutinwhichwefoundourselveswas,infact,aburiedcromlech,coveredallover(untilweopenedit)bytheearthofthebarrow.Almosteverycromlech,whereverfound,wasonce,Ibelieve,thecentralchamberofjustsuchalongbarrow:butinsomeinstanceswindandrainhavebeatendownandwashedawaythesurroundingearth(andthenwecallita'Druidicalmonument'),whileinothersthemoundstillenclosesitsoriginaldeposit(andthenwecallitmerelyaprehistorictumulus).Asamatteroffact,eventheDruidsthemselvesarequit

emodernandcommonplacepersonagescomparedwiththeshort,squatchieftainsofthelongbarrows.ForalltheindicationswefoundinthelongbarrowatOgbury(asinmanyotherswehadopenedelsewhere)ledusatoncetothestrangeconclusionthatournewacquaintance,theskeleton,hadoncebeenalivingcannibalkingofthenewerstone-ageinBritain.Theonlyweaponsorimplementswecoulddiscoverinthebarrowweretwoneatlychippedflintarrowheads,andaverydelicategroundgreenstonehatchet,ortomahawk.Theseweretheweaponsofthedeadchief,laidbesidehiminthestonechamberwherewefoundhisskeleton,forhisfutureuseinhisundergroundexistence.Apieceortwoofrudehand-madepottery,nodoubtcontainingfoodanddrinkfortheghost,hadalsobeenplacedclosetohisside:buttheyhadmoulderedawaywithtimeanddamp,tillitwasquiteimpossibletorecovermorethanafewbrokenandshapelessfragments.Therewasnotraceofmetalinanyway:whereasif

thetribesmenofourfriendtheskeletonhadknownatalltheartofsmelting,wemaybesuresomebronzeaxeorspearheadwouldhavetakentheplaceoftheflintarrowsandthegreenstonetomahawk:forsavagesalwaysburyaman'sbestpropertytogetherwithhiscorpse,whilecivilisedmentakecaretopreserveitwithpiouscareintheirownpossession,andtofightoveritstrenuouslyinthecourtofprobate.Thechief'sownskeletonlay,orrathersquatted,inthemostundignifiedattitude,inthecentralchamber.Hispeoplewhentheyputhimthereevidentlyconsideredthathewastositathisease,ashehadbeenaccustomedtodoinhislifetime,intheordinarysavagesquattingposition,withhiskneestuckeduptillth



eyreachedhischin,andhisbodyrestingentirelyontheheelsandhaunches.Theskeletonwasentire:butjustoutsideandabovethestonevaultwecameuponanumberofotherbones,whichtoldanotherandverydifferentstory.Someofthemwerethebonesoftheoldprehistoricshort-hornedox:othersbelongedtowildboars,reddeer,andsundrysimilaranimals,forthemostpartskullsandfeetonly,therelicsofthesavagefuneralfeast.Itwasclearthatassoonasthebuildersofthebarrowhaderectedthestonechamberoftheirdeadchieftain,andplacedwithinithishonouredremains,theyhadheldagreatbanquetonthespot,and,afterkillingoxenandchasingreddeer,hadeatenalltheeatableportions,andthrowntheskulls,horns,andhoofsontopofthetomb,asofferingstothespiritoftheirdepartedmaster.Butamongtheserelicsofthefuneralbakedmeatsthereweresomethatspeciallyattractedourattention--anumberofbrokenhumanskulls,mingledindiscriminatelywiththehornsofdeerandthebonesofoxen.Itwasimpossibletolookatthemforasinglemoment,andnottorecognisethatwehadheretheveritableremainsofacannibalfeast,ahundredcenturiesago,onOgburyhill-top.Eachskullwassplitorfractured,notcleancut,aswithaswordorbullet,buthackedandhewnwithsomebluntimplement,presumablyeitheracluborastonetomahawk.Theskullofthegreatchiefinsidewasentireandhisskeletonunmutilated:butwecouldseeataglancethattheremainswefoundhuddledtogetheronthetopwerethoseofslavesorprisonersofwar,sacrificedbesidethedeadchieftain'stomb,andeatenwiththeotherproductsofthechasebyhissurvivingtribesmen.Inaninnerchamberbehindthechieftain'sownhutwecameuponyetastrangerrelicofprimitivebarbarism.Twocompletehumanskeletonssquattedt

hereinthesamecuriousattitudeastheirlord's,asifinattendanceuponhiminaneighbouringante-chamber.Theyweretheskeletonsofwomen--soourprofessionalbone-scannerimmediatelytoldus--andeachoftheirskullshadbeencarefullycleftrightdownthemiddlebyasingleblowfromasharpstonehatchet.Buttheywerenotthevictimsintendedforthe_pi¨¨ceder¨¦sistance_atthefuneralbanqet.Theywereclearlythetwowivesofthedeceasedchieftain,killedonhistombbyhissonandsuccessor,inordertoaccompanytheirlordandmasterinhisnewlifeundergroundastheyhadhithertodoneinhisrudewoodenpalaceonthesurfaceofthemiddleearth.Wecoveredupthereopenedsepulchreoftheoldcannibalsavageking(afterabstractingforourlocalmuseumthearrowheadsandtomahawk,aswellastheskulloftheveryancientBritonhimself),andwhenourarch?ologicalsociety,ablyledbytheesteemedsecretary,stoodtwoyearslateronthedesecratedtomb,thegr

asshadgrownagainasgreenasever,andnotasignremainedofthesacrilegiousactinwhichoneofthepartythenassembledtherehadbeenaprimeactor.Lookingdownfromthesummitofthelongbarrowonthatbrightsummermorning,overthegaygroupofpicnickingarch?ologists,itwasacuriouscontrasttoreinstateinfancythesceneatthatfirstinstallationoftheOgburymonument.Inmymind'seyeIsawoncemorethehowlingbandofnaked,yellow-facedandyellow-limbedsavagessurgeuptheterracedslopesofOgburyDown;Isawthembearaloft,withbeatingofbreastsandloudgesticulations,thebentcorpseoftheirdeadchieftain;Isawtheterrifiedandfaintingwiveshaledalongbythongsofrawoxhide,andtheweepingprisonersdrivenpassivelylikesheeptotheslaughter;Isawthefearfulorgyofmassacreandrapinearoundtheopentumulus,thewildpriestshatteringwithhisgleamingtomahawktheskullsofhisvictims,thefireofgorseandlowbrushwoodpreparedtoroastthem,theheadsandfeetflungcarel

esslyontopoftheyetuncoveredstonechamber,theawfuldanceofblood-stainedcannibalsaroundthemangledremainsofmenandoxen,andfinallythelongtaskofheapingupabovethestonehutofthedeadkingtheearthenmoundthatwasneveragaintobeopenedtothelightofdaytill,tenthousandyearslater,wemodernBritonsinvadedwithourprying,sacrilegiousmattockthesacredprivacyofthatcannibalghost.Allthispassedlikeavisionbeforemymind'seye;butIdidn'tmentionanythingofitatthatparticularmomenttomyfellow-arch?ologists,becauseIsawtheywereallmuchmoreinterestedinthepigeon-pieandthefunnystoryaboutanexaltedpersonageandadistinguishedactresswithwhichthemodelsecretarywasjustthendulyentertainingthem.



Fivethousandyearsorsoslowlyworeaway,fromthedateoftheerectionofthelongbarrow,andanewracehadcometooccupythesoilofEngland,andhaddrivenawayorreducedtoslaverytheshort,squat,yellow-skinnedcannibalsoftheearlierepoch.Theywereapastoralandagriculturalpeople,thesenewcomers,acquaintedwiththeuseandabuseofbronze,andfarmorecivilisedineverywaythantheirdarkerpredecessors.NotraceremainsbehindtotellusnowbywhatfierceonslaughttheCelticinvaders--forthebronze-agefolkwerepresumablyCelts--sweptthroughthelittleOgburyvalley,andbrainedthemenoftheolderrace,whiletheymadeslavesoftheyoungerwomenandserviceablechildren.NothingnowstandstotellusanythingofthelongyearsofCelticdomination,excepttheroundbarrowonthebaredown,justasgreenandasgrass-grownnowadaysasitsfarearlierandmoreprimitiveneighbour.WeopenedtheOgburyroundbarrowatthesametimeastheother,andfoundinit,asweexpected,nobonesorskeletonofanysort,brokenorotherwise,butsimplyalargecineraryurn.Theurnwasformedofcoarsehand-madeearthenware,verybrittlebylongburialintheearth,butnotbyanymeanssooldorporousasthefragmentswehaddiscoveredinthelongbarrow.Aprettypatternranrounditsedge--apatterninthesimplestandmostprimitivestyleofornamentation;foritconsistedmerelyoftheprintofthepotter'sthumb-nail,firmlypressedintothemoistclaybeforebaking.Besidetheurnlayasecondspecimenofearlypottery,oneofthosecuriousperforatedjarswhichantiquariescallbytheveryquestion-beggingnameofincense-cups;andwithinitwediscoveredthemostpreciouspartofallour'find,'abeautifulwedge-shapedbronzehatchet,andthreethingoldbeads.Havingnoconsiderationforthefeelingsoftheashes,weprom

ptlyappropriatedbothhatchetandbeads,andtooktheurnandcupasapeace-offeringtothelordofthemanorforourdesecrationofatomb(withhisfullconsent)onthelandofhisfathers.Whydidthesebronze-agepeopleburninsteadofburyingtheirdead?Whydidtheyanticipatethelatestfashionablemodeofdisposalofcorpses,andgoinforcremationwithsuchthoroughconviction?Theycouldn'thavebeeninfluencedbythoseratherunpleasantsanitaryconsiderationswhichsoprofoundlyagitatedthemindof'GraveyardWalker.'SanitationwasstillinaveryrudimentarystateintheyearfivethousandB.C.;andtheingeniousCelt,whoisstillgivento'waking'hisneighbours,whentheydieofsmall-pox,withasublimeindifferencetothechancesofinfection,musthavehadsomeotherandmorepowerfulreasonforadoptingthecomparativelyunnaturalsystemofcremationinpreferencetothatofsimpleburial.Thechange,Ibelieve,wasduetoafurtherdevelopmentofreligio

usideasonthepartoftheCeltictribesmenabovethatoftheprimitivestone-agecannibals.Whenmenbegantoburytheirdead,theydidsointhefirmbeliefinanotherlife,whichlifewasregardedastheexactcounterpartofthispresentone.Theunsophisticatedsavage,holdingthatinthatequalskyhisfaithfuldogwouldbearhimcompany,naturallyenoughhadthedoginquestionkilledandburiedwithhim,inorderthatitmightfollowhimtothehappyhunting-grounds.Clearly,youcan'thuntwithoutyourarrowsandyourtomahawk;sotheflintweaponsandthetrustybowaccompaniedtheirownerinhisnewdwelling-place.Thewoodenhaft,thedeer-sinewbow-string,theperishablearticlesoffoodanddrinkhavelongsincedecayedwithinthedamptumulus:buttheharderstoneandearthenwarearticleshavesurvivedtillnow,totellthestoryofthatcrudeandsimpleearlyfaith.Verycrudeandillogicalindeeditwas,however,foritisquiteclearthatthe

actualbodyofthedeadmanwasthoughtofaspersistingtoliveasortofundergroundlifewithinthebarrow.Astonehutwasconstructedforitsuse;realweaponsandimplementswereleftbyitsside;andslavesandwiveswereruthlesslymassacred,asstillinAshantee,inorderthattheirbodiesmightaccompanythecorpseoftheburiedmasterinhissubterraneandwelling.Inallthiswehaveclearevidenceofaveryinconsistent,savage,materialisticbelief,notindeedintheimmortalityofthesoul,butinthecontinuedundergroundlifeofthedeadbody.Withtheprogressoftime,however,men'sideasuponthesesubjectsbegantogrowmoredefiniteandmoreconsistent.Insteadofthecorpse,wegettheghost;in



steadofthematerialundergroundworld,wegettheidealisedandsublimatedconceptionofashadowyHades,aworldofshades,arealmofincorporeal,disembodiedspirits.Withthegrowthoftheideainthisghostlynetherworld,therearisesnaturallythehabitofburningthedeadinorderfullytofreetheliberatedspiritfromtheearthlychainsthatclogandbindit.Itis,indeed,averynoticeablefactthatwhereverthisbeliefinaworldofshadesisimplicitlyaccepted,therecremationfollowsasamatterofcourse;whilewherever(amongsavageorbarbaricraces)burialispractised,thereamorematerialisticcreedofbodilysurvivalnecessarilyaccompaniesit.Tocarryoutthistheorytoitsfullextent,notonlymustthebodyitselfbeburnt,butalsoallitsbelongingswithit.Ghostsareclothedinghostlyclothing;andthequestionhasoftenbeenaskedofmodernspiritualistsbymaterialisticscoffers,'Wheredotheghostsgettheircoatsanddresses?'Thetruebelieverincremationandtheshadowyworldhasnodifficultyatallinansweringthatcrucialinquiry;hewouldsayatonce,'Theyaretheghostsoftheclothesthatwereburntwiththebody.'InthegossipingstoryofPeriander,asveraciouslyretailedforusbythatdearoldgrandmotherlyscandalmonger,Herodotus,theshadeofMelissarefusestocommunicatewithherlatehusband,bymediumorotherwise,onthegroundthatshefoundherselfnakedandshiveringwithcold,becausethegarmentsburiedwithherhadnotbeenburnt,andthereforewereofnousetoherintheworldofshades.SoPeriander,toputastoptothissadstateofspiritualdestitution,requisitionedallthebestdressesoftheCorinthianladies,burntthembodilyinagreattrench,andreceivedanimmediateanswerfromthegratifiedshade,whowasthenceforthenabledtowalkaboutintheprincipalpromenadesofHadesamongthebest-dressedghos

tsofthatpopulousquarter.ThebeliefwhichthussurvivedamongthecivilisedGreeksoftheageoftheDespotsissharedstillbyFijisandKarens,andwasderivedbyallincommonfromearlyancestorsoflikefaithwiththefoundersofOgburyroundbarrow.Theweaponswerebrokenandtheclothesburnt,toliberatetheirghostsintotheworldofspirits,justasnow,inFiji,knivesandaxeshavetheirspiritualcounterparts,whichcanonlybereleasedwhenthematerialshapeisdestroyedorpurifiedbytheactionoffire.Everything,insuchastate,issupposedtopossessasoulofitsown;andthefireisthechosenmodeforsettingthesoulfreefromallcloggingearthlyimpurities.Sotillyesterday,intheriteofsuttee,theHindoowidowimmolatedherselfuponherhusband'spyre,inorderthatherspiritmightfollowhimunhamperedtotheworldofghostswhitherhewasbound.ThusthetwinbarrowsonOgburyhillsidebridgeoverforustwovastepochsofhumancultur

e,bothnowsoremoteastomergetogethermentallytothecasualeyesofmodernobservers,butyetinrealitymarkingintheirveryshapeanddispositionanimmense,long,andslowadvanceofhumanreason.Forjustasthelongbarrowanswersinformtotheburiedhumancorpseandthechamberedhutthatsurroundsandenclosesit,sodoestheroundbarrowanswerinformtotheurncontainingthecalcinedashesofthecrematedbarbarian.AndisitnotasuggestivefactthatwhenweturntothelittlegraveyardbythechurchbelowwefindtheChristianbeliefintheresurrectionofthebody,asopposedtothepaganbeliefintheimmortalityofthesoul,oncemorebringingusbacktothesmalloblongmoundwhichisafterallbutthedwarfedandhumblermodernrepresentativeofthelongbarrow?SodeepistheconnectionbetweenthatfamiliarshapeandthepracticeofinhumationthatthedwarflongbarrowseemseverywheretohavecomeintouseagainthroughoutallEurope,afterwholecenturiesofcontinuedcremation,asthenatura

lconcomitantandnecessarymarkofChristianburial.ThisiswhatIwouldhavesaid,ifIhadbeenasked,atOgburyBarrows.ButIwasn'tasked;soIdevotedmyselfinsteadtopsychologicalresearch,andsaidnothing.

FISHOUTOFWATERStrollingonedayinwhatiseuphemisticallytermed,inequatoriallatitudes,'thecooloftheevening,'alongatangledtropicalAmericanfield-path,throughalowregionoflagoonsandwatercourses,myattentionhappenedtobemomentarilyattractedfromthemonotonouspursuitofthenimblemosquitobyasmallanimal



scuttlingalongirregularlybeforeme,asifinagreathurrytogetoutofmywaybeforeIcouldturnhimintoanexcellentspecimen.AtfirstsightItookthelittlehopper,inthegreydusk,foroneofthecommon,smallgreenlizards,andwasn'tmuchdisposedtopayitanydistinguishedshareeitherofpersonalorscientificattention.ButasIwalkedonalittlefurtherthroughthedenseunderbrush,moreandmoreoftheseshufflingandscurryinglittlecreatureskeptcrossingthepath,hastily,allinonedirection,andall,asitwere,inaformedbodyormarchingphalanx.Lookingcloser,tomygreatsurprise,Ifoundtheywereactuallyfishoutofwater,goingonawalkingtour,forchangeofair,toanewresidence--genuinefish,acoupleofincheslongeach,noteel-shapedorserpentineinoutline,butcloselyresemblingaredmulletinminiature,thoughmuchmorebeautifullyanddelicatelycoloured,andwithfinsandtailsofthemostorthodoxspinyandpricklydescription.Theyweretravellingacrosscountryinabee-line,thousandsofthemtogether,notatalllikethehelplessfishoutofwaterofpopularimagination,butasunconcernedlyandnaturallyasiftheyhadbeenaccustomedtotheoverlandroutefortheirwholelifetimes,andwerewalkingnowontheking'shighwaywithoutletorhindrance.Itookoneupinmyhandandexamineditmorecarefully;thoughthecatchingitwasn'tbyanymeanssoeasyasitsoundsonpaper,fortheseperambulatoryfisharethoroughlyinuredtothedangersanddifficultiesofdryland,andcangetoutofyourwaywhenyoutrytocapturethemwitharapidityanddexteritywhicharetrulysurprising.Thelittlecreaturesareverypretty,well-formedcatfish,withbright,intelligenteyes,andabodyarmedallover,likethearmadillo's,withacontinuouscoatofhardandhornymail.Thiscoatisnotformedofscale

s,asinmostfish,butoftoughenedskin,asincrocodilesandalligators,arrangedintwooverlappingrowsofimbricatedshields,exactlyliketheroundtilessocommonontheroofsofItaliancottages.Thefishwalks,orrathershamblesalongungracefully,bytheshufflingmovementofapairofstiffspinesplacedclosebehindhishead,aidedbythesteeringactionofhistail,andaconstantsnake-likewrigglingmotionofhisentirebody.LegspinesofsomewhatthesamesortarefoundinthecommonEnglishgurnard,andinthisageofAquariumsandFisheriesExhibitions,mostadultpersonsabovetheageoftwenty-oneyearsmusthaveobservedthegurnardsthemselvescrawlingalongsuspiciouslybytheiraidatthebottomofatankattheCrystalPalaceorthepolyonymousSouthKensingtonbuilding.ButwhiletheEuropeangurnardonlyuseshissubstitutesforlegsonthebedoftheocean,myitineranttropicalacquaintance(hisname,Iregrettosay,isCallichthys)usesthemboldlyforterrestriallocomotionacrossthedryl

owlandsofhisnativecountry.Andwhilethegurnardhasnolessthansixofthesepro-legs,theAmericanlandfishhasonlyasinglepairwithwhichtoaccomplishhisarduousjourneys.Ifthisbeconsideredasapointofinferiorityinthearmour-platedAmericanspecies,wemustrememberthatwhilebeetlesandgrasshoppershaveasmanyassixlegsapiece,man,theheadandcrownofthings,iscontenttoscramblethroughlifeungracefullywithnomorethantwo.ThereareagreatmanytropicalAmericanpond-fishwhichsharetheseadventurousgipsyhabitsoftheprettylittleCallichthys.Thoughtheybelongtotwodistinctgroups,otherwiseunconnected,thecircumstancesofthecountrytheyinhabithaveinducedinbothfamiliesthisqueerfashionofwaddlingoutcourageouslyondryland,andgoingonvoyagesofexplorationinsearchoffreshpondsandshallowsnew,somewhereintheneighbourhoodoftheirlateresidence.Onekindinparticular,theBrazilianDoras,takeslandjourneysofsuchsurprisinglength,th

atheoftenspendsseveralnightsontheway,andtheIndianswhomeetthewanderingbandsduringtheirmigrationsfillseveralbasketsfullofthepreythusdroppeduponthem,asitwere,fromthekindlyclouds.BothDorasandCallichthys,too,arewellprovidedwithmeansofdefenceagainsttheenemiestheymaychancetomeetduringtheirterrestrialexcursions;forinbothkindstherearethesamebonyshieldsalongthesides,securingthelittletravellers,asfaraspossible,fromattackonthepartofhungrypiscivorousanimals.Dorasfurtherutilisesitspowersoflivingoutofwaterbygoingashoretofetchdryleaves,withwhichitbuildsitselfaregularnest,likeabird's,atthebeginningoftherainyseason.Inthisnesttheaffectionateparentscar



efullycoveruptheireggs,thehopeoftherace,andwatchoverthemwiththeutmostattention.Manyotherfishbuildnestsinthewater,ofmaterialsnaturallyfoundatthebottom;butDoras,Ibelieve,istheonlyonethatbuildsthemonthebeach,ofmaterialssoughtforonthedryland.Suchamphibioushabitsonthepartofcertaintropicalfishareeasyenoughtoexplainbythefashionableclueof'adaptationtoenvironment.'Pondsarealwaysverylikelytodryup,andsotheanimalsthatfrequentpondsareusuallycapableofbearingaverylongdeprivationofwater.Indeed,ourevolutionistsgenerallyholdthatlandanimalshaveineverycasesprungfrompondanimalswhichhavegraduallyadaptedthemselvestodowithoutwateraltogether.Life,accordingtothistheory,beganintheocean,spreaduptheestuariesintothegreaterrivers,thenceextendedtothebrooksandlakes,andfinallymigratedtotheponds,puddles,swampsandmarshes,whenceittookatlast,bytentativedegrees,tothesolidshore,theplains,andthemountains.Certainlythetenacityoflifeshownbypondanimalsisveryremarkable.OurownEnglishcarpburythemselvesdeeplyinthemudinwinter,andthereremaininadormantconditionmanymonthsentirelywithoutfood.Duringthislonghibernatingperiod,theycanbepreservedaliveforaconsiderabletimeoutofwater,especiallyiftheirgillsare,fromtimetotime,slightlymoistened.Theymaythenbesenttoanyaddressbyparcelspost,packedinwetmoss,withoutseriousdamagetotheirconstitution;though,accordingtoDr.G¨¹nther,thesedissipatedproductsofcivilisationprefertohaveapieceofbreadsteepedinbrandyputintotheirmouthstosustainthembeforehand.InHolland,wherethecarparenotsosophisticated,theyareoftenkeptthewholewinterthrough,hungupinanettokeepthemfromfreezing.Atfirstth

eyrequiretobeslightlywettedfromtimetotime,justtoacclimatisethemgraduallytosodryanexistence;butafterawhiletheyadaptthemselvescheerfullytotheiralteredcircumstances,andfeedonanoccasionalfrugalmealofbreadandmilkwithChristianresignation.Ofallland-frequentingfish,however,byfarthemostfamousistheso-calledclimbingperchofIndia,whichnotonlywalksbodilyoutofthewater,butevenclimbstreesbymeansofspecialspines,neartheheadandtail,soarrangedastostickintothebarkandenableittowriggleitswayupawkwardly,somethingafterthesamefashionasthe'looping'ofcaterpillars.Thetree-climberisasmallscalyfish,seldommorethansevenincheslong;butithasdevelopedaspecialbreathingapparatustoenableittokeepupthestockofoxygenonitsterrestrialexcursions,whichmayberegardedastosomeextenttheexactconverseofthemeansemployedbydiverstosupplythemselveswithairunderwater.Justabo

vethegills,whichformofcourseitsnaturalhereditarybreathingapparatus,theclimbingperchhasinventedanewandwhollyoriginalwaterchamber,containingwithinitafrilledbonyorgan,whichenablesittoextractoxygenfromthestored-upwaterduringthecourseofitsa?rialperegrinations.Whileonshoreitpicksupsmallinsects,worms,andgrubs;butitalsohasvegetariantastesofitsown,anddoesnotdespisefruitsandberries.TheIndianjugglerstametheclimbingperchesandcarrythemaboutwiththemaspartoftheirstockintrade;theirabilitytoliveforalongtimeoutofwatermakesthemusefulconfederatesinmanysmalltrickswhichseemverywonderfultopeopleaccustomedtobelievethatfishdiealmostatoncewhentakenoutoftheirnativeelement.TheIndiansnakeheadisacloselyalliedspecies,commonintheshallowpondsandfresh-watertanksofIndia,whereholyBrahmansbatheanddrinkanddieandareburied,andmostofwhichdryupentirelyduringthedryseason.Thesnakehead

,therefore,hassimilarlyaccommodatedhimselftothisannualpeculiarityinhislocalhabitationbyacquiringaspecialchamberforretainingwatertomoistenhisgillsthroughouthislongdeprivationofthatprimenecessary.Helivescomposedlyinsemi-fluidmud,orliestorpidinthehardbakedclayatthebottomofthedrytankfromwhichallthewaterhasutterlyevaporatedinthedroughtofsummer.Aslongasthemudremainssoftenoughtoallowthefishtoriseslowlythroughit,theycometothesurfaceeverynowandthentotakeinagoodheartygulpofair,exactlyasgoldfishdoinEnglandwhenconfinedwiththoughtlessorignorantcrueltyinaglassglobetoosmalltoprovidesufficientoxygenfortheirrespiration.Butwhenthemudhardensentirelytheyhibernateorrather?



stivate,inadormantcondition,untiltheburstingofthemonsoonfillsthepondsoncemorewiththewelcomewater.Evenintheperfectlydrystate,however,theyprobablymanagetogetalittleaireverynowandagainthroughthenumerouschinksandfissuresinthesun-bakedmud.OurAryanbrotherthengoesa-fishingplayfullywithaspadeandbucket,anddigsthesnakeheadinthismeanfashionoutofhiscomfortablelair,withanultimateviewtothemanufactureofpillau.InBurmah,indeed,whilethemudisstillsoft,theingeniousBurmesecatchthehelplesscreaturesbyastillmeanerandmoreunsportsmanlikedevice.Theyspreadalargeclothovertheslimyoozewherethesnakeheadslieburied,andsocutoffentirelyforthemomenttheirsupplyofoxygen.Thepoorfish,half-asphyxiatedbythisunkindtreatment,comeupgaspingtothesurfaceundertheclothinsearchoffreshair,andaretheneasilycaughtwiththehandandtossedintobasketsbythedegenerateBuddhists.OldAnglo-IndiansevensaythatsomeofthesemudhauntingOrientalfishwillsurviveformanyyearsinastateofsuspendedanimation,andthatwhenpondsorjh¨ªlswhichareknowntohavebeendryforseveralsuccessiveseasonsaresuddenlyfilledbyheavyrains,theyarefoundtobeswarmingatoncewithfull-grownsnakeheadsreleasedinamomentfromwhatImayventuretocalltheirlivingtombinthehardenedbottom.Whethersuchstatementsareabsolutelytrueornotthepresentdeponentwouldbelothtodecidedogmatically;but,ifwewereimplicitlytoswalloweverythingthattheoldAnglo-Indianinhissimplicityassuresushehasseen--well,theclergywouldhavenofurthercauseanylongertodeplorethegrowingscepticismandunbeliefoftheselatterunfaithfulages.Thishabitoflyinginthemudandtherebecomingtorpidmaybelookeduponasa

naturalalternativetothehabitofmigratingacrosscountry,whenyourponddriesup,insearchoflargerandmorepermanentsheetsofwater.Somefishsolvetheproblemhowtogetthroughthedryseasoninoneofthesetwoalternativefashionsandsomeintheother.Inflatcountrieswheresmallpondsandtanksaloneexist,theburyingplanisalmostuniversal;inplainstraversedbylargeriversorcontainingconsiderablescatteredlakes,themigratorysystemfindsgreaterfavourwiththepiscinepopulation.Onetropicalspecieswhichadoptsthetacticsofhidingitselfinthehardclay,theAfricanmud-fish,isspeciallyinterestingtoushumanbeingsontwoaccounts--first,because,unlikealmostallotherkindsoffish,itpossesseslungsaswellasgills;and,secondly,becauseitformsanintermediatelinkbetweenthetruefishandthefrogsoramphibians,andthereforestandsinallprobabilityinthedirectlineofhumandescent,beingthelivingrepresentativeofoneamon

gourownremoteandearlyancestors.ScientificinterestandfilialpietyoughtaliketosecureourattentionfortheAfricanmud-fish.Itlivesitsamphibiouslifeamongtherice-fieldsontheNile,theZambesi,andtheGambia,andissogreatlygiventoaterrestrialexistencethatitsswim-bladderhasbecomeporousandcellular,soastobemodifiedintoapairoftrueandserviceablelungs.Infact,thelungsthemselvesinallthehigheranimalsaremerelytheswim-bladdersoffish,slightlyalteredsoastoperformanewbutcloselyalliedoffice.Themud-fishiscommonenoughinallthelargerEnglishaquariums,owingtoaconvenienthabitinwhichitindulges,andwhichpermitsittobereadilyconveyedtoallpartsoftheglobeonthesameprincipleasthevansforfurniture.Whenthedryseasoncomesonandtherice-fieldsarereducedtobanksofbakingmud,themud-fishretiretothebottomoftheirpools,wheretheyformforthemselvesasortofcocoonofhardenedclay,linedwithmucus,andwithaholeateache

ndtoadmittheair;andinthissnugretreattheyremaintorpidtillthereturnofwetweather.Asthefishusuallyreachalengthofthreeorfourfeet,thecocoonsareofcoursebynomeanseasytotransportentire.Neverthelessthenativesmanagetodigthemupwhole,fishandall;andifthecapsulesarenotbroken,theunconsciousinmatescanbesentacrossbysteamertoEuropewithperfectsafety.Theirastonishmentwhentheyfinallywakeupaftertheirlongslumber,andfindthemselvesinspectingtheBritishpublic,asintroducedtothembyMr.Farini,throughasheetofplate-glass,mustbeprofoundandinteresting.InEnglanditself,ontheotherhand,wehaveatleastonekindoffishwhichexemplifiestheoppositeormigratorysolutionofthedrypondproblem,andthati



sourfamiliarfriendthecommoneel.Thewaysofeelsareindeedmysterious,fornobodyhaseveryetsucceededindiscoveringwhere,when,orhowtheymanagetospawn;nobodyhaseveryetseenaneel'segg,orcaughtafemaleeelinthespawningcondition,orevenobservedareallyadultmaleorfemalespecimenofperfectdevelopment.Alltheeelseverfoundinfreshwaterareimmatureandundevelopedcreatures.Buteelsdocertainlyspawnsomewhereorotherinthedeepsea,andeveryyear,inthecourseofthesummer,flocksofyoungones,knownaselvers,ascendtheriversinenormousquantities,likeavastarmyundernumberlessleaders.Ateachtributaryoraffluent,beitriver,brook,stream,orditch,aproportionatedetachmentofthemainbodyisgivenofftoexplorethevariousbranches,whilethecentralforcewrigglesitswayupthechiefchannel,regardlessofobstacles,withundiminishedvigour.Whentheyoungelverscometoaweir,awall,afloodgate,oralasher,theysimplysquirmtheirwayuptheperpendicularbarrierwithindescribablewrigglings,asiftheywerewhollyunacquainted,physicallyaswellasmentally,withNewton'smagnificentdiscoveryofgravitation.Nothingstopsthem;theygowhereverwateristobefound;andthoughmillionsperishhopelesslyintheattempt,millionsmoresurviveintheendtoattaintheirgoalintheupperreaches.Theyevenseemtoscentpondsorlakesmysteriously,atadistance,andwillstrikeboldlystraightacrosscountry,tosheetsofwaterwhollycutofffromcommunicationwiththeriverwhichformstheirchiefhighway.Thefull-growneelsarealsogiventojourneyingacrosscountryinamoresober,sedate,anddignifiedmanner,asbecomesfishwhichhavefullyarrivedatyears,orrathermonths,ofdiscretion.Whenthepondsinwhichtheylivedryupins

ummer,theymakeinabee-lineforthenearestsheetoffreshwater,whosedirectionanddistancetheyappeartoknowintuitively,throughsomestrangeinstinctivegeographicalfaculty.Ontheirwayacrosscountry,theydonotdespisethesucculentrat,whomtheyswallowwholewhencaughtwithgreatgusto.Tokeeptheirgillswetduringtheseexcursions,eelshavethepowerofdistendingtheskinoneachsideoftheneck,justbelowthehead,soastoformabigpouchorswelling.Thispouchtheyfillwithwater,tocarryagoodsupplyalongwiththem,untiltheyreachthepondsforwhichtheyaremaking.Itisthepouchalonethatenableseelstolivesolongoutofwaterunderallcircumstances,andsoincidentallyexposesthemtothedisagreeableexperienceofgettingskinnedalive,whichitistobefearedstillformsthefateofmostofthosethatfallintotheclutchesofthehumanspecies.Afarmoresingularwalkingfishthananyoftheseistheoddcreaturethatrejo

ices(unfortunately)intheveryclassicalsurnameofPeriophthalmus,whichis,beinginterpreted,Stare-about.(IfhehadarecognisedEnglishnameofhisown,Iwouldgladlygiveit;butashehasn't,andasitisclearlynecessarytocallhimsomething,Ifearwemuststicktothesomewhatalarmingscientificnomenclature.)Periophthalmus,then,isanoddfishofthetropicalPacificshores,withapairofverydistinctforelegs(theoreticallydescribedasmodifiedpectoralfins),andwithtwogoggleeyes,whichhecanprotrudeatpleasurerightoutsidethesockets,soastolookinwhateverdirectionhechooses,withouteventakingthetroubletoturnhisheadtoleftorright,backwardorforward.Atebbtidethissingularperipateticgobyliterallywalksstraightoutofthewater,andpromenadesthebarebeacherectontwolegs,insearchofsmallcrabsandotherstraymarineanimalsleftbehindbytherecedingwaters.Ifyoutrytocatchhim,hehopsawaybrisklymuchlikeafrog,andstaresbackatyougrimlyoverhi

sleftshoulder,withhissquintingoptics.Socompletelyadaptedisheforthisamphibiouslong-shoreexistence,thathisbigeyes,unlikethoseofmostotherfish,areformedforseeingintheairaswellasinthewater.Nothingcanbemoreludicrousthantowatchhimsuddenlythrustingtheseverymovableorbsrightoutoftheirsocketslikeapairoftelescopes,andtwistingthemroundinalldirectionssoastoseeinfront,behind,ontop,andbelow,inonedelightfulcircularsweep.ThereisalsoacertaincurioustropicalAmericancarpwhich,thoughithardlydeservestobeconsideredinthestrictestsenseasafishoutofwater,yetmanagestofallnearlyhalf-wayunderthatpeculiarcategory,foritalwaysswimswi



thitsheadpartlyabovethesurfaceandpartlybelow.Butthefunniestthinginthisqueerarrangementisthefactthatonehalfofeacheyeisoutintheairandtheotherhalfisbeneathinthewater.Accordingly,theeyeisdividedhorizontallybyadarkstripintotwodistinctandunlikeportions,theupperoneofwhichhasapupiladaptedtovisionintheairalone,whilethelowerisadaptedtoseeinginthewateronly.Thefish,infact,alwaysswimswithitseyehalfoutofthewater,anditcanseeaswellondrylandasinitsnativeocean.ItsnameisAnableps,butinallprobabilityitdoesnotwishthefacttobegenerallyknown.Theflyingfisharefishoutofwaterinasomewhatdifferentandmoretransitorysense.Theira?rialexcursionsarebriefandrapid;theycanonlyflyaverylittleway,andhavesoontotakeoncemoreforsafetytotheirownmorenaturalandpermanentelement.Morethanfortykindsofthefamilyareknown,inappearanceverymuchlikeEnglishherrings,butwiththefrontfinsexpandedandmodifiedintoveritablewings.Itisfashionablenowadaysamongnaturaliststoassertthattheflyingfishdon'tfly;thattheymerelyjumphorizontallyoutofthewaterwithapowerfulimpulse,andfallagainassoonastheforceofthefirstimpetusisentirelyspent.Whenmenendeavourtopersuadeyoutosuchfolly,believethemnot.Formyownpart,Ihaveseentheflyingfishfly--deliberatelyfly,andflutter,andriseagain,andchangethedirectionoftheirflightinmid-air,exactlyafterthefashionofabigdragonfly.Iftheotherpeoplewhohavewatchedthemhaven'tsucceededinseeingthemfly,thatistheirownfault,oratleasttheirownmisfortune;perhapstheireyesweren'tquickenoughtocatchtherapid,thoughtomeperfectlyrecognisable,hoveringandflutteringofthegauz

e-likewings;butIhaveseenthemmyself,andImaintainthatonsuchaquestiononepieceofpositiveevidenceisagreatdealbetterthanahundrednegative.Thetestimonyofallthewitnesseswhodidn'tseethemurdercommittedisasnothingcomparedwiththesingletestimonyoftheonemanwhoreallydidseeit.AndinthiscaseIhavemetwithmanyotherquickobserverswhofullyagreedwithme,againsttheweightofscientificopinion,thattheyhaveseentheflyingfishreallyflywiththeirowneyes,andnomistakeaboutit.TheGermanprofessors,indeed,allthinkotherwise;butthentheGermanprofessorsallweargreenspectacles,whicharetheoutwardandvisiblesignof'blindedeyesightporingovermiserablebooks.'TheunsophisticatedvisionofthenobleBritishseamanisunanimouslywithmeonthematteroftherealityofthefishes'flight.Anothergroupofveryinterestingfishoutofwateraretheflyinggurnards,commonenoughintheMediterraneanandthetropicalAtlantic.Theyaremuchheavier

andbiggercreaturesthanthetrueflyingfishoftheherringtype,beingoftenafootandahalflong,andtheirwingsaremuchlargerinproportion,thoughnot,Ithink,reallysopowerfulasthoseoftheirprettylittlesilveryrivals.Alltheflyingfishflyonlyofnecessity,notfromchoice.Theyleavethewaterwhenpursuedbytheirenemies,orwhenfrightenedbytherapidapproachofabigsteamer.Soswiftlydotheyfly,however,thattheycanfaroutstripashipgoingattherateoftenknotsanhour;andIhaveoftenwatchedonekeepaheadofagreatPacificlinerunderfullsteamformanyminutestogetherinquicksuccessiveflightsofthreeorfourhundredfeeteach.Oddlyenough,theycanflyfurtheragainstthewindthanbeforeit--afactacknowledgedevenbythespectacledGermansthemselves,andveryhardindeedtoreconcilewiththeorthodoxbeliefthattheyarenotflyingatall,butonlyjumping.Idon'tknowwhethertheflyinggurnardsaregoodeatingornot;butthesilveryflyingfisharecaughtform

arket(saddesecrationofthepoetryofnature!)intheWindwardIslands,andwhennicelyfriedineggandbread-crumbarereallyquiteasgoodforpracticalpurposesassmeltsorwhitingoranyotherprosaicEuropeansubstitute.Onthewhole,itwillbeclear,Ithink,totheimpartialreaderfromthisrapidsurveythatthehelplessnessandawkwardnessofafishoutofwaterhasbeenmuchexaggeratedbythethoughtlessgeneralisationofunscientifichumanity.Granting,forargument'ssake,thatmostfishpreferthewater,asamatterofabstractpredilection,tothedryland,itmustbeadmittedpercontrathatmanyfishcutamuchbetterfigureonterrafirmathanmostoftheircriticsthemselveswouldcutinmid-ocean.Therearefishthatwriggleacrosscountryintrepidlywith



thedexterityandagilityofthemostaccomplishedsnakes;therearefishthatwalkaboutonopensand-banks,semi-erectontwolegs,aseasilyaslizards;therearefishthathopandskipontailandfinsinamannerthatthecelebratedjumpingfroghimselfmighthaveobservedwithenvy;andtherearefishthatflythroughtheairofheavenwithagraceandswiftnessthatwouldputtoshameinnumerablespeciesamongtheirfeatheredcompetitors.Nay,thereareevenfish,likesomekindsofeelsandtheAfricanmud-fish,thatscarcelyliveinthewateratall,butmerelyfrequentwetandmarshyplaces,wheretheyliesnuglyinthesoftoozeanddampearththatlinethebottom.IfIhaveonlysucceeded,therefore,inrelievingthemindofonesensitiveandretiringfishfromtheabsurdobloquycastuponitsappearancewhenitventuresawayforawhilefromitsproperelement,then,inthepatheticandpropheticwordsborrowedfromathousanduncutprefaces,thisworkwillnot,Itrust,havebeenwritteninvain.

THEFIRSTPOTTERCollectivehumanityowesagreatdebtofgratitudetothefirstpotter.Beforehisdaystheartofboiling,thoughinonesenseverysimpleandprimitiveindeed,wasinanothersenseverycomplex,cumbersome,andlengthy.Theunsophisticatedsavage,havingdulyspearedandkilledhisantelope,proceededtolightaroaringfire,withflintordrill,bythesideofsomeconvenientlakeorriverinhistropicaljungle.Thenhedugabigholeinthesoftmudclosetothewater'sedge,andletthewater(rathermuddy)percolateintoit,orsometimesevenheplasteredoveritsbottomwithpuddledclay.Afterthat,heheatedsomesmoothroundstonesredhotinthefirecloseby,anddrawingthemoutgingerlybetweent

wopiecesofstick,droppedthemonebyone,splutteringandfizzing,intohisimprovisedbasinorkettle.This,ofcourse,madethewaterintheholeboil;andtheunsophisticatedsavagethereuponthrustintoithisjointofantelope,repeatingtheprocessoverandoveragainuntilthesoddenmeatwascompletelyseethedtotasteontheoutside.Ifoneapplicationwasnotsufficient,hegnawedoffthecookedmeatfromthesurfacewithhisstoutteeth,innocentasyetofthedentist'sart,andplungedtheunderdonecorebackagain,tillitexactlysuitedhisnotover-delicateordaintyfancy.Tobesure,theprimitivesavage,unversedashewasinpastesandglazes,inmouldsandornaments,didnotpasshislifeentirelydevoidofcupsandplatters.Coconutshellandcalabashrind,hornofoxandskullofenemy,bamboo-jointandcapaciousrhomb-shell,allalike,nodoubt,suppliedhimwithcongenialimplementsfordrinkorstorage.LikeEveintheMiltonicParadise,therelackedhimno

tfitvesselspure;pickingsomeluscioustropicalfruit,thesavourypulphechewed,andintherindstillashethirstedscoopedthebrimmingstream.Thiswassatisfactoryasfarasitwent,ofcourse,butitwasnotpottery.Hecouldn'tboilhisjointfordinnerincoco-nutorskull;hehadtodoitwithstonepot-boilers,inarudekettleofpuddledclay.Butatlastoneday,thatinspiredbarbarian,thefirstpotter,hitbyaccidentuponhisgranddiscovery.Hehadcarriedsomewaterinabigcalabash--thehardshellofatropicalfruitwhosepulpycentrecanbeeasilyscoopedout--andahappythoughtsuddenlystruckhim:whynotputthecalabashtoboiluponthefirewithalittleclaysmearedoutsideit?Thesavageisconservative,buthelovestosavetrouble.Hetriedtheexperiment,anditsucceededadmirably.Thewaterboiled,andthecalabashwasnotburntorbroken.Ournamelessphilosophertooktheprimitivevesseloffthefirewithaforkedbranchandlookedatitcritical

lywiththedelightedeyesofafirstinventor.Awonderfulchangehadsuddenlycomeoverit.Hehadblunderedaccidentallyupontheartofpottery.Forwhatisthisthathashappenedtotheclay?Itwentinsoft,brown,andmuddy;ithascomeouthard,red,andstone-like.Thefirstpotterruminatedandwondered.Hedidn'tfullyrealise,nodoubt,whathehadactuallydone;butheknewhehadinventedameansbywhichyoucouldputacalabashuponafireandkeepittherewithoutburningorbursting.That,afterall,wasatleastsomething.Allthis,yousay(which,ineffect,isDr.Tylor'sview),ispurelyhypothetical.Inonesense,yes;butnotinanother.Weknowthatmostsavageracesstillusenaturalvessels,madeofcoco-nuts,gourds,orcalabashes,foreverydaypurpo



sesofcarryingwater;andwealsoknowthatallthesimplestandearliestpotteryismouldedontheshapeofjustsuchnaturaljarsandbottles.Thefactandthetheorybasedonitarenonovelties.Earlyinthesixteenthcentury,indeed,theSieurGonneville,skipperofHonfleur,sailingroundtheCapeofGoodHope,madehiswayrightacrosstheSouthernOceantosomevaguepointofSouthAmericawherehefoundthepeoplestilljustintheintermediatestagebetweentheuseofnaturalvesselsandtheinventionofpottery.Fortheseamiablesavages(nameandhabitatunknown)hadwoodenpots'plasteredwithakindofclayagoodfingerthick,whichpreventsthefirefromburningthem.'Herewecatchindustrialevolutionintheveryact,andthepotter'sartinitsfirstinfancy,fossilisedandcrystallised,asitwere,inanembryocondition,andfixedforusimmovablybytheunprogressiveconservatismofasavagetribe.ItwasthiscuriousearlyobservationofevolvingkeramicartthatmadeGoguet--ananthropologistbornoutofdueseason--firsthituponthatluminoustheoryoftheoriginofpotterynowallbutuniversallyaccepted.Plentyofevidencetothesameeffectisnowforthcomingforthemoderninquirer.AmongtheancientmonumentsoftheMississippivalley,SquierandDavisfoundthekilnsinwhichtheprimitivepotteryhadbeenbaked;andamongtheirrelicswerepartiallyburntpotsretaininginparttherindsofthegourdsorcalabashesonwhichtheyhadbeenactuallymodelled.AlongtheGulfofMexicogourdswerealsousedtogiveshapetothepot;andallovertheworld,eventothisday,thegourdformisaverycommononeforpotteryofallsorts,thuspointingback,dimlyandcuriously,totheoriginalmodeinwhichfictilewaregenerallycametobeinvented.InFijiandinmanypartsofAfricavesselsmodelleduponnatura

lformsarestilluniversal.Ofcourseallsuchpotsasthesearepurelyhand-made;theinventionofthepotter'swheel,nowsoindissolublyassociatedinallourmindswiththeproductionofearthenware,belongstoaninfinitelylaterandalmostmodernperiod.Andthatconsiderationnaturallysuggeststhefundamentalquestion,Whendidthefirstpotterlive?Theworld(asSirHenryTaylorhasoracularlytoldus)knowsnothingofitsgreatestmen;andtheverynameofthefatherofallpottershasbeenutterlyforgotteninthelapseofages.Indeed,paradoxicalasitmaysoundtosayso,onemayreasonablydoubtwhethertherewaseveractuallyanyonesinglemanonwhomonecoulddefinitelylayone'sfinger,andsaywithconfidence,Herewehavethefirstpotter.Pottery,nodoubt,likemostotherthings,grewbyimperceptibledegreesfromwhollyvagueandrudimentarybeginnings.Justasthereweresteam-enginesbeforeWatt,andlocomotivesbeforeStephenson,sothere

werepotsbeforethefirstpotter.Manymenmusthavediscoveredseparately,byhalf-unconscioustrials,thatacoatofmudrudelyplasteredoverthebottomofacalabashpreventeditfromcatchingfireandspillingitscontents;othermenslowlylearnedtoplasterthemudhigherandeverhigherupthesides;andyetothersgraduallyintroducedandpatentednewimprovementsforwhollyencasingtheentirecupinaninchthicknessofcarefullykneadedclay.Bitbybittheinventiongrew,likeallgreatinventions,withoutanyinventor.Thusthequestionofthedateofthefirstpotterpracticallyresolvesitselfintothesimplerquestionofthedateoftheearliestknownpottery.Didpal?olithicman,thatantiquenakedcrouchingsavagewhohuntedthemammoth,thereindeer,andthecave-bearamongthefrozenfieldsofinterglacialGaulandBritain--didpal?olithicmanhimself,inhisruderock-shelters,possessaknowledgeoftheartofpottery?Thatisaquestionwhichhasbeenmuchdebatedamo

ngstarch?ologists,andwhichcannotevennowbeconsideredasfinallysettledbeforethetribunalofscience.Hemusthavedrunkoutofsomethingorother,butwhetherhedrankoutofearthenwarecupsisstilluncertain.ItisprettyclearthattheearliestdrinkingvesselsusedinEuropewereneitherbowlsofearthenwarenorshellsoffruits,forthecoldclimateofinterglacialtimesdidnotpermitthegrowthinnorthernlatitudesofsuchlargenaturalvesselsasgourds,calabashes,bamboos,orcoco-nuts.Inallprobabilitythehornsoftheaurochsandthewildcattle,andthecapaciousskullofthefellow-manwhoseboneshehadjustpickedathiseaseforhiscannibalsupper,formedtheaboriginalgobletsandbasinsoftheoldblackEuropeansavage.Acuriousverbalrelicoftheuseof



hornsasdrinking-cupssurvivesindeeddowntoalmostmoderntimesintheGreekwordkeramic,stillcommonlyappliedtotheartofpottery,andderived,ofcourse,fromkeras,ahorn;whileastoskulls,notonlyweretheyfrequentlyusedasdrinking-cupsbyourScandinavianancestors,buttherestillexistsaverysingularintermediateAmericanvesselinwhichtheclayhasactuallybeenmouldedonahumanskullasmodel,justasothervesselshavebeenmouldedoncalabashesorothersuitablevegetableshapes.Still,thebalanceofevidencecertainlyseemstoshowthatalittleveryrudeandalmostshapelesshand-madepotteryhasreallybeendiscoveredamongsttheburiedcaveswherepal?olithicmenmadeforagestheirchiefdwelling-places.FragmentsofearthenwareoccurredintheHohefelscavenearUlm,incompanywiththebonesofreindeer,cave-bears,andmammoths,whosejointshaddoubtlessbeendulyboiled,ahundredthousandyearsago,bytheintelligentproducerofthoseidenticalsun-driedfleshpots;andM.Joly,ofToulouse,hasinhispossessionportionsofanirregularlycircular,flat-bottomedvessel,fromthecaveofNabrigas,onwhichthefinger-marksofthehandthatmouldedtheclayarestillclearlydistinguishableonthebakedearthenware.Thatisthegreatmeritofpottery,viewedasanhistoricaldocument;itretainsitsshapeandpeculiaritiesunalteredthroughcountlesscenturies,forthefutureedificationofunbornantiquaries.Literascriptamanet,andsodoesbakedpottery.Thehanditselfthatformedthatrudebowlhaslongsincemoulderedaway,fleshandbonealike,intothesoilaroundit;buttheprintofitsfingers,indeliblyfixedbyfireintothehardenedclay,remainsforusstilltotellthestoryofthatearlytriumphofnascentkeramics.

Therelicsofpal?olithicpotteryare,however,soveryfragmentary,andthecircumstancesunderwhichtheyhavebeendiscoveredsoextremelydoubtful,thatmanycautiousandscepticalantiquarianswillevennowhavenothingtosaytothesuspectedimpostors.AmongtheremainsofthenewerStoneAge,ontheotherhand,comparativelyabundantkeramicspecimenshavebeenunearthed,withoutdoubtorcavil,fromthelongbarrows--theburial-placesoftheearlyMongoloidrace,nowrepresentedbytheFinnsandLapps,whichoccupiedthewholeofWesternEuropebeforetheadventoftheAryanvanguard.Oneofthebestbitsisacuriouswide-mouthed,semi-globularbowlfromNortonBavant,inWiltshire,whosesingularshapesuggestsalmostimmediatelytheideathatitmustatleasthavebeenbased,ifnotactuallymodelled,uponahumanskull.Itsrimisroughandquiteirregular,andthereisnotraceofornamentationofanysort;afactquiteinaccordancewithalltheotherfactsweknowaboutthemenofthenewerStoneAge,whower

efarlessartisticand?stheticineverywaythantheirruderpredecessorsoftheinterglacialepoch.Ornamentation,whenitdoesbegintoappear,arisesatfirstinastrictlypracticalandunintentionalmanner.Laterexampleselsewhereshowusbyanalogyhowitfirstcameintoexistence.TheIndiansoftheOhioseemtohavemodelledtheirpotteryinbagsornettingsmadeofcoarsethreadortwistedbark.ThoseoftheMississippimouldedtheminbasketsofwilloworsplints.Whenthemoistclaythusshapedandmarkedbytheindentationsofthemouldwasbakedinthekiln,itofcourseretainedtheprettydapplingitreceivedfromtheinterlacedandwoventhrums,whichwereburntoffintheprocessoffiring.Thusarudesortofnaturaldiaperornamentwassetup,towhichtheeyesoonbecameaccustomed,andwhichitlearnedtoregardasnecessaryforbeauty.Hence,wherevernewerandmoreimprovedmethodsofmodellingcameintouse,therewouldariseaninstinctivet

endencyonthepartoftheearlypottertoimitatethefamiliarmarkingbyartificialmeans.Dr.KlemmlongagopointedoutthattheoldestGermanfictilevaseshaveanornamentationinwhichplaitingisimitatedbyincisedlines.'Whatwasnolongerwantedasanecessity,'hesays,'waskeptupasanornamentalone.'Anotherverysimpleformofornamentation,reappearingeverywherealltheworldoveronprimitivebowlsandvases,istheropepattern,alineorstring-courseoverthewholesurfaceornearthemouthofthevessel.ManyoftheindentedpatternsonearlyBritishpotteryhavebeenproduced,asSirDanielWilsonhaspointedout,bythecloseimpressoftwistedcordonthewetclay.Sometimesthesecordsseemtohavebeenoriginallyleftontheclayintheprocessofbaking,and



usedasamould;atothertimestheymayhavebeenemployedafterwardsashandles,asisstilldoneinthecaseofsomeSouthAfricanpots:and,whentheropehandleworeoff,thepatternmadebyitsindentationontheplasticmaterialbeforesun-bakingwouldstillremainaspureornament.Probablytheverycommonideaofstring-courseornamentationjustbelowthemouthortopofvasesandbowlshasitsorigininthisearlyandalmostuniversalpractice.Whenotherconsciousandintentionalornamentationbegantosupersedetheserudenaturalandundesignedpatterns,theywereatfirstmereroughattemptsonthepartoftheearlypottertoimitate,withthesimplemeansathisdisposal,thecharacteristicmarksoftheropesorwickerworkbywhichtheoldervesselswerenecessarilysurrounded.Hehadgraduallylearned,asMr.Tylorwellputsit,thatclayaloneorwithsomemixtureofsandiscapableofbeingusedwithoutanyextraneoussupportforthemanufactureofdrinkingandcookingvessels.Hethereforebegantomodelrudelythinglobularbowlswithhisownhands,dispensingwiththeaidofthongsorbasketwork.Buthestillnaturallycontinuedtoimitatetheoriginalshapes--thegourd,thecalabash,theplaitednet,theroundbasket;andhiseyerequiredthefamiliardecorationwhichnaturallyresultedfromtheuseofsomeoneorotheramongtheseprimitivemethods.Sohetriedhishandatdeliberateornamentinhisownsimpleuntutoredfashion.Itwasquiteliterallyhishand,indeed,thathetriedatfirst;fortheearliestdecorationuponpaleolithicpotteryismadebypressingthefingersintotheclaysoastoproduceacoupleofdeepparallelfurrows,whichisthesoleattemptatornamentonM.Joly'sNabrigasspecimen;whiletheurnsanddrinking-cupstakenfromourEnglishlongbarrowsareadornedwithreallyprettyandeffective

patterns,producedbypressingthetipofthefingerandthenailintotheplasticmaterial.Itiswonderfulwhatcapitalandvariedresultsyoucangetwithnomorereconditegraverthanthehumanfinger-nail,sometimesturnedfrontdownward,sometimesbackdownward,andsometimesusedtoeggupthemoistclayintosmalljaggedandrelieveddesigns.Mostofthesepatternsaremoreorlessplaitlikeinarrangement,evidentlysuggestedtothemindofthepotterbytheprimitivemarksoftheoldbasketwork.But,astimewenton,theearlyartistlearnedtopressintohisservicenewimplements,piecesofwood,bonescrapers,andtheflintknifeitself,withwhichheincisedmoreregularpatterns,straightorzigzaglines,rowsofdots,squaresandtriangles,concentriccircles,andeventhemysticcrossandswastika,thesacredsymbolsofyetunbornandundreamt-ofreligions.Asyet,therewasnodirectimitationofplantoranimalforms;onceonly,onasinglespecimenfromaSwisslakedwelling,arethestemandveinsofal

eafdimlyfiguredonthehandiworkoftheEuropeanprehistoricpotter.Ornamentinitspureform,aspatternmerely,hadbeguntoexist;imitativeworkassuchwasyetunknown,oralmostunknown,totheeasternhemisphere.InAmerica,itwasquiteotherwise.TheforgottenpeoplewhobuiltthemoundsofOhioandthegreattumulioftheMississippivalleydecoratedtheirpotterynotonlywithanimalfigures,suchassnakes,fish,frogs,andturtles,butalsowithhumanheadsandfaces,manyofthemevidentlymodelledfromthelife,andsomeofthemquiteunmistakablygenuineportraits.Ononesuchvase,foundinArkansas,andfiguredbytheMarquisdeNadaillacinhisexcellentworkonPrehistoricAmerica,theornamentationconsists(intrueRedIndiantaste)ofskeletonhands,interspersedwithcrossbones;andthedelicacyandanatomicalcorrectnessofthedetailinevitablysuggesttheideathattheunknownartistmusthaveworkedwiththeactualhandofhisslaughteredenemylyingforamodelonthetablebe

forehim.MuchoftheearlyAmericanpotteryisalsocolouredaswellasfigured,andthatwithconsiderablerealtaste;thepigmentswereapplied,however,afterthebaking,andsopossesslittlestabilityorpermanenceofcharacter.Butpotsandvasesoftheseadvancedstyleshavegotsofaraheadofthefirstpotterthatwehavereallylittleornobusinesswiththeminthispaper.PrehistoricEuropeanpotteryhasneveraspout,butitoftenindulgesinsomesimpleformofearorhandle.TheveryancientBritishbowlfromBavantLongBarrow--producedbythatoldsquatFinnlikeracewhichprecededthe'AncientBritons'ofourold-fashionedschool-books--hastwoear-shapedhandlesprojectingjustbelowtherim,exactlyasinthemodernformofvesselknownasacrock,andstil



lfamiliarlyusedforhouseholdpurposes.Thislongsurvivalofacommondomesticshapefromthemostremoteprehistoricantiquitytoourowntimeisverysignificantandveryinteresting.ManyoftheoldBritishpotshavealsoaholeortwoholespiercedthroughthem,nearthetop,evidentlyforthepurposeofputtinginastringorropebywayofahandle.Withtheroundbarrows,whichbelongtotheBronzeAge,andcontaintheremainsofalaterandmorecivilisedCelticpopulation,wegetfarmoreadvancedformsofpottery.Burialhereisprecededbycremation,andtheashesareenclosedinurns,manyofwhichareverybeautifulinformandexquisitelydecorated.Cremation,asProfessorRollestonusedfeelinglytoplead,isbadforthecomparativeanatomistandethnographer,butitispassingwellforthecollectorofpottery.Whereburningexistsasacommonpractice,thereurnsarefrequent,andpotteryanartingreatrequest.Drinking-cupsandperforatedincenseburnersaccompanythedeadintheroundbarrows;buttheuseofthepotter'swheelisstillunknown,andalltheurnsandvasesbelongingtothisagearestillhand-moulded.Itisacuriousreflection,however,thatinspiteofallthelaterimprovementsinthefictileart--inspiteofwheelsandmoulds,pastesandglazes,stampsandpigments,andalltherestofit--themostprimitivemethodsofthefirstpotterarestillinuseinmanycountries,sidebysidewiththemostfinishedproductsofmodernEuropeanskillandindustry.IhaveinmyownpossessionsomeWestIndiancalabashes,cutanddecoratedundermyowneyebyaJamaicannegroforhispersonaluse,andboughtfromhimbymeforthesmallestcointherecurrent--calabashescarvedroundtheedgethroughtherindwitharudestring-course,exactlylikethecommonropepatternofprehistoricpottery.IhaveseenthesameJ

amaicannegroeskneadingtheirhand-madeporousearthenwarebesideatropicalstream,mouldingitonfruitsorshapingitinsidewithafreesweepofthecurvedhand,anddryingitforuseinthehotsun,orbakingitinahastily-formedkilnofplasteredmudintolargecoarsejarsofprehistorictypes,locallyknownbythequaintWestAfricannameof'yabbas.'Manyoftheseyabbas,ifburiedinthegroundandexposedtodampandfrost,tilltheyalmostlosttheeffectsofthebaking,wouldbequiteindistinguishable,evenbytheskilledarch?ologist,fromtheactualhandicraftofthepal?olithicpotter.TheWestIndiannegroesbroughtthesesimpleartswiththemfromtheirAfricanhome,wheretheyhavebeenhandeddowninunbrokencontinuityfromtheveryearliestageoffictileindustry.Newandbettermethodshaveslowlygrownupeverywherearoundthem,butthesesimplest,earliest,andeasiestplanshavesurvivednonethelessforthemostordinarydomesticuses,andwillsurviveforagesyet,aslongasthereremainany

out-of-the-wayplaces,remotefromthemainstreamsofcivilisedcommerce.Thus,whilehundredsofthousandsofyears,inallprobability,separateusnowfromtheancientdaysofthefirstpotter,itisyetpossibleforustoseethefirstpotter'sownmethodsandprinciplesexemplifiedunderourveryeyesbypeoplewhoderivetheminunbrokensuccessionfromthedirectteachingofthatlong-forgottenprehistoricsavage.

THERECIPEFORGENIUSLetusstartfairbyfranklyadmittingthatthegenius,likethepoet,isbornandnotmade.Ifyouwishtoapplytherecipeforproducinghim,itisunfortunatelynecessarytosetoutbyselectingbeforehandhisgrandfathersandgrandmothers,tothethirdandfourthgenerationofthosethatprecedehim.Nevertheless,thereisarecipefortheproductionofgenius,andeveryactualconcretegenius

whoeveryetadornedordisgracedthisoblatespheroidofourshasbeenproduced,Ibelieve,instrictaccordancewithitsunwrittenrulesandunknownregulations.Inotherwords,geniusesdon'tcropupirregularlyanywhere,'quitepromiscuouslike';theyhavetheirfixedlawsandtheiradequatecauses:theyaretheresultandeffectofcertainfairlydemonstrableconcatenationsofcircumstance:theyare,inshort,anaturalproduct,nota_lususnatur?_.Yougetthemonlyundersundryrelativelydefiniteandsettledconditions;andthoughitisn't(unfortunately)quitetruethattheconditionswillalwaysinfalliblybringforththegenius,itisquitetruethatthegeniuscanneverbebroughtforthatallwithouttheconditions.Domengathergrapesofthorns,orfigsofthistles?Nomor



ecanyougetapoetfromafamilyofstockbrokerswhohaveintermarriedwiththedaughtersofaneminentalderman,ormakeaphilosopheroutofacountrygrocer'seldestsonwhoseamiablemotherhadnosoulabovethehalf-poundsofteaandsugar.Inthefirstplace,bywayofclearingthedecksforaction,Iamgoingtostartevenbygettingridonceforall(sofaraswearehereconcerned)ofthatfamousbutmisleadingolddistinctionbetweengeniusandtalent.Itisreallyadistinctionwithoutadifference.Isupposethereisprobablynosubjectunderheavenonwhichsomuchhigh-flownstuffandnonsensehasbeentalkedandwrittenasuponthiswell-knownandmuch-debatedhair-splittingdiscrimination.Itisjustlikethatothergreatdistinctionbetweenfancyandimagination,aboutwhichpoetsandessayistsdiscoursedsofluentlyatthebeginningofthepresentcentury,untilatlastonefinedaytheworldatlargewokeupsuddenlytotheunpleasantconsciousnessthatithadbeenwastingitstimeoveranon-existentdifference,andthatfancyandimaginationwereafterallabsolutelyidentical.Now,Iwon'tdogmaticallyassertthattalentandgeniusareexactlyoneandthesamething;butIdoassertthatgeniusissimplytalentraisedtoaslightlyhigherpower;itdiffersfromitnotinkindbutmerelyindegree:itistalentatitsbest.Thereisnodrawingahard-and-fastlineofdemarcationbetweenthetwo.Youmightjustaswelltrytoclassifyallmankindintotallmenandshortmen,andthenendeavourtoprovethatarealdistinctionexistedinnaturebetweenyourtwoartificialclasses.Asamatteroffact,mendifferinheightandinabilitybyinfinitesimalgradations:somemenareveryshort,othersrathershort,othersmedium-sized,otherstall,andyetothersagainofportentousstaturelikeMr.C

hangandJacobOmnium.So,too,somemenareidiots,somearenextdoortoafool,somearestupid,someareworthypeople,someareintelligent,someareclever,andsomegeniuses.Butgeniusisonlytheculminatingpointofordinarycleverness,andifyouweretotryanddrawupalistofalltherealgeniusesinthelasthundredyears,notwopeoplecouldeverbefoundtoagreeamongthemselvesastowhichshouldbeincludedandwhichexcludedfromtheartificialcatalogue.IhaveheardKingsleyandCharlesLambdescribedasgeniuses,andIhaveheardthembothabsolutelydeniedeverysortofliterarymerit.CarlylethoughtDarwinapoorcreature,andComteregardedHegelhimselfasanemptywindbag.Thefactis,mostofthegrandiosetalkaboutthevastgulfwhichseparatesgeniusfrommeretalenthasbeenpublishedandsetabroadbythosefortunatepersonswhofell,orfanciedthemselvestofall,undertheformerhighlysatisfactoryandagreeablecategory.Genius,inshort,realorself-suspected,hasalwaysbeen

atgreatpainstoglorifyitselfattheexpenseofpoor,commonplace,inferiortalent.Thereisacertaintypeofgreatmaninparticularwhichisnevertiredofdilatinguponthenoblesupremacyofitsowngreatnessoverthespuriousimitation.Itoffersincenseobliquelytoitselfinofferingitgenericallytotheclassgenius.Itbringsgheetoitsownimage.Therearegreatmen,forexample,suchasLordLytton,Disraeli,VictorHugo,theLionComique,andMr.OscarWilde,whoposeperpetuallyasgreatmen;theycryaloudtothepoorsillypublicsofarbeneaththem,'Iamagenius!Admireme!Worshipme!'AgainstthisByronicself-elevationonana?rialpedestal,highabovetheheadsoftheblindandbattlingmultitude,wepoorcommonmortals,whoarenotunfortunatelygeniuses,aresurelyentitledtoenteroccasionallyourhumbleprotest.Ourcontentionisthatthegeniusonlydiffersfromthemanofabilityasthemanofabilitydiffersfromtheintelligentman,andtheintelligentmanfromtheworthypersonofsound

commonsense.Theslidingscaleofbrainshasinfinitegradations;andthegradationsmergeinsensiblyintooneanother.Thereisnogulf,nogap,nosuddenjumpofnature;hereaselsewhere,throughoutthewholerangeofhermanifoldproductions,ourcommonmothersaltumnonfacit.Thequestionbeforethehouse,then,narrowsitselfdownfinallytothis;whataretheconditionsunderwhichexceptionalabilityorhightalentislikelytoarise?Now,IsupposeeverybodyisreadytoadmitthattwocompletebornfoolsarenotatalllikelytobecometheproudfatherandhappymotherofaShakespeareoraNewton.Isupposeeverybodywillunhesitatinglyallowthatagreatmathematician



couldhardlybyanyconceivablechanceariseamongtheSouthAfricanBushmen,whocannotunderstandthearduousarithmeticalpropositionthattwoandtwomakefour.Noamountofeducationorcarefultraining,Itakeit,wouldsufficetoelevatethemostprofoundlyartisticamongtheVeddahsofCeylon,whocannotevencomprehendanEnglishdrawingofadogorhorse,intoarespectablepresidentoftheRoyalAcademy.Itisequallyunlikely(asitseemstome)thataMendelssohnoraBeethovencouldberaisedinthebosomofafamilyallofwhosemembersoneithersidewereincapable(likeadistinguishedmodernEnglishpoet)ofdiscriminatinganyonenoteinanoctavefromanyother.Suchleapsasthesewouldbelittleshortofpuremiracles.Theywouldbeequivalenttothesuddencreation,withoutantecedentcause,ofawholevastsystemofnervesandnerve-centresintheprodigiousbrainofsomeinfantphenomenon.Ontheotherhand,muchofthecommonplace,shallowfashionabletalkabouthereditarygenius--Idon'tmean,ofcourse,thetalkofourDarwinsandGaltons,butthecheapdrawing-roomphilosophyofeasysciolistswhocan'tunderstandthem--isitselffullyasabsurdinitsownwayastheideathatsomethingcancomeoutofnothing.Foritisnoexplanationoftheexistenceofgeniustosaythatitishereditary.Youonlyputthedifficultyoneplaceback.GrantingthatyoungAlastorJonesisabuddingpoetbecausehisfather,PercyByssheJones,wasapoetbeforehim,why,pray,wasJonestheelderapoetatall,tostartwith?Thiskindofexplanation,infact,explainsnothing;itbeginsbypositingtheexistenceofoneoriginalgenius,absolutelyunaccountedfor,andthenproceedsblandlytopointoutthattheothergeniusesderivetheircharacteristicsfromhim,byvirtueofdescent,justasallthesonsofapeerarebornhonourables.Theelep

hantsupportstheearth,andthetortoisesupportstheelephant,butwho,pray,supportsthetortoise?Ifthefirstchickencameoutofanegg,whatwastheoriginofthehenthatlaidit?Besides,theallegationasitstandsisnotevenatrueone.Genius,asweactuallyknowit,isbynomeanshereditary.Thegreatmanisnotnecessarilythesonofagreatmanorthefatherofagreatman:oftenenough,hestandsquiteisolated,asolitarygoldenlinkinachainofbasermetaloneithersideofhim.Mr.JohnShakespearewoolstapler,ofStratford-on-Avon,Warwickshire,wasnodoubtaneminentlyrespectablepersoninhisowntrade,andhehadsufficientintelligencetobemayorofhisnativetownonceuponatime:but,sofarasisknown,noneofhisliteraryremainsareatallequaltoMacbethorOthello.ParsonNewton,oftheParishofWoolsthorpe,inLincolnshire,mayhavepreachedagreatmanyveryexcellentandconvincingdiscourses,butthereisnoevidenceofanysort

thatheeverattemptedtowritethePrincipia.PercontratheMissMiltons,goodyoungladiesthattheywere(thoughofconflictingmemory),donotappeartohavedifferedconspicuouslyinabilityfromtheotherPriscillasandPatiencesandMerciesamongstwhomtheirlotwascast;whiletheMarlboroughsandtheWellingtonsdonotseemtobudoutspontaneouslyintogreatcommandersinthesecondgeneration.True,therearenumerouscasessuchasthatoftheHerschels,fatherandson,orthetwoScaligers,ortheCaracci,orthePitts,ortheScipios,andadozenmore,wherethegenius,oncedeveloped,haspersistedfortwoorthree,orevenfourlives:buttheseinstancesreallycastnolightatalluponourcentralproblem,whichisjustthis--Howdoesthegeniuscomeinthefirstplacetobedevelopedatallfromparentsinwhomindividuallynoparticulargeniusisultimatelytobeseen?Supposewetake,tostartwith,araceofhuntingsavagesintheearliest,lowes

t,andmostundifferentiatedstage,weshallgetreallynexttonopersonalpeculiaritiesoridiosyncrasiesofanysortamongstthem.Everyoneofthemwillbeagoodhunter,agoodfisherman,agoodscalperandagoodmanufacturerofbowsandarrows.Divisionoflabour,andtheothertroublesometechnicalitiesofourmodernpoliticaleconomy,areasunknownamongsuchfolkasthemodernnuisanceofdressingfordinner.Eachmanperformsallthefunctionsofacitizenonhisownaccount,becausethereisnobodyelsetoperformthemforhim--themediumofexchangeknownashardcashhasnot,sofarasheisconcerned,yetbeeninvented;andheperformsthemwell,suchastheyare,becauseheinheritsfromallhisancestorsaptitudesofbrainandmuscleinthesedirections,owingtothesimp



lefactthatthoseamonghiscollateralpredecessorswhodidn'tknowhowtosnareabird,orwerehopelesslystupidintheartofchippingflintarrowheads,diedoutofstarvation,leavingnorepresentatives.Thebeneficentinstitutionofthepoorlawdoesnotexistamongsavages,inordertoenablethehelplessandincompetenttobringupfamiliesintheirownimage.There,survivalofthefitteststillworksoutitsownultimatelybenevolentandusefulendinitsowndirectlycruelandrelentlessway,cuttingoffruthlesslythestupidortheweak,andallowingonlythestrongandthecunningtobecometheparentsoffuturegenerations.Henceeveryyoungsavage,beingdescendedonbothsidesfromancestorswhointheirownwayperfectlyfulfilledtheidealofcompletesavagery--weregoodhunters,goodfishers,goodfighters,goodcraftsmenofboworboomerang--inheritsfromthesehissuccessfulpredecessorsallthosequalitiesofeyeandhandandbrainandnervoussystemwhichgotomakeuptheabstractlyAdmirableCrichtonofasavage.Thequalitiesinquestionareensuredinhimbytwoseparatemeans.Inthefirstplace,survivalofthefittesttakescarethatheandallhisancestorsshallhavedulypossessedthemtosomeextenttostartwith;inthesecondplace,constantpracticefromboyhoodupwardincreasesanddevelopstheoriginalfaculty.Thussavages,asarule,displayabsolutelyastonishingabilityandclevernessinthefewlineswhichtheyhavemadetheirown.Theircunninginhunting,theirpatienceinfishing,theirskillintrapping,theirinfinitedodgesfordeceivingandcajolingtheanimalsorenemiesthattheyneedtooutwit,havemovedthewonderandadmirationofinnumerabletravellers.Thesavage,infact,isnotstupid:inhisownwayhisclevernessisextraordinary.Butthewayisavery

narrowandrestrictedone,andallsavagesofthesameracewalkinitexactlyalike.Cunningtheyhave,skilltheyhave,instincttheyhave,toamostmarvellousdegree;butofspontaneity,originality,initiative,variability,notasinglespark.Knowonesavageofatribeandyouknowthemall.Theirclevernessisnottheclevernessoftheindividualman:itistheinheritedandgarneredintelligenceorinstinctoftheentirerace.How,then,dooriginality,diversity,individuality,genius,begintocomein?Inthisway,asitseemstome,lookingatthematterboth_¨¤priori_andbythelightofactualexperience.Supposeacountryinhabitedinitsinteriorbyasavageraceofhuntersandfighters,andonitsseaboardbyanequallysavageraceofpiratesandfishermen,liketheDyaksofBorneo.Eachoftheseraces,iflefttoitself,willdevelopintimeitsownpeculiarandspecialtypeofsavagecleverness.Each(inthescient

ificslangoftheday)willadaptitselftoitsparticularenvironment.Thepeopleoftheinteriorwillacquireandinheritawonderfulfacilityinspearingmonkeysandknockingdownparrots;whilethepeopleofthesea-coastwillbecomeskilfulmanagersofcanoesuponthewater,andmercilessplunderersofoneanother'svillages,aftertheuniversalfashionofallpirates.Theseoriginaldifferencesofpositionandfunctionwillnecessarilyentailathousandminordifferencesofintelligenceandskillinathousanddifferentways.Forexample,thesea-coastpeople,havingofpureneedtomakethemselvescanoesandpaddles,willprobablylearntodecoratetheirhandicraftwithornamentalpatterns;andthe?sthetictastethusarousedwill,nodoubt,finallyleadthemtoadornthefa?adesoftheirwoodenhutswiththegrinningskullsofslaughteredenemies,prettilydisposedatmeasureddistances.Athoughtlessworldmaylaugh,indeed,atthesena?veexpressionsofthenascentartisticanddecorativefacultiesinthesavagebr

east,butthe?stheticphilosopherknowshowtoappreciatethemattheirtrueworth,andtoseeinthemtheearliestingenuousprecursorsofourownSalisbury,Lichfield,andWestminster.Now,solongasthesetwoimaginaryracesofourscontinuetoremaindistinctandseparate,itisnotlikelythatidiosyncrasiesorvarietiestoanygreatextentwillariseamongthem.But,assoonasyoupermitintermarriagetotakeplace,theinheritedanddevelopedqualitiesoftheoneracewillbeliabletocropupinthenextgeneration,diverselyintermixedineveryvarietyofdegreewiththeinheritedanddevelopedqualitiesoftheother.Thechildrenmaytakeaftereitherparentinanycombinationofqualitieswhatsoever.Youhaveadmittedanapp



arentlycapriciouselementofindividuality:apoweronthepartofthehalf-breedsofdifferingfromoneanothertoanextentquiteimpossibleinthetwooriginalhomogeneoussocieties.Inoneword,youhavemadepossiblethefutureexistenceofdiversityincharacter.If,now,weturnfromtheseperfectlysimplesavagecommunitiestoourownverycomplexandheterogeneousworld,whatdowefind?Anendlessvarietyofsoldiers,sailors,tinkers,tailors,butchers,bakers,candlestickmakers,andjollyundertakers,mostofwhomfallintoacertainroughnumberofclasses,eachwithitsowndevelopedandinheritedtraitsandpeculiarities.Ourworldismadeup,liketheworldofancientEgyptandofmodernIndia,ofanimmensevarietyofseparatecastes--not,indeed,rigidlydemarcatedandstrictlylimitedasinthoseextremelyhierarchicalsocieties,butstillveryfairlyhereditaryincharacter,andgivenontheaveragetoatolerablyclosesystemofintermarriagewithinthecaste.Forexample,thereistheagriculturallabourercaste--theHodgeChawbaconofurbanhumour,whoinhismilitaryavataralsoreappearsasTommyAtkins,alittletransfigured,butatbottomidentical--thealternativeaspectofasingleundividedcentralreality.Hodgeforthemostpartlivesanddiesinhisancestralvillage:marriesMary,thedaughterofHodgeSecundusofthatparish,andbegetsassortedHodgesandMarysinvastquantities,allofthesamepattern,toreplenishtheearthinthenextgeneration.Thereyouhaveaverywell-markedhereditarycaste,littlegiventointermixturewithothers,andfromwhosemembers,howeverrecruitedbyfreshblood,theobjectofourquest,theDivineGenius,isveryunlikelytofindhispointoforigin.Thenthereisthetownartisancaste,spru

ngoriginally,indeed,fromtheranksoftheHodges,butnaturallyselectedoutofitsmostactive,enterprising,andintelligentindividuals,andoftenofmanygenerationsstandinginvariousformsofhandicraft.Thisisafarhigherandmorepromisingtypeofhumanity,fromthejudiciousintermixtureofwhosebestelementsweareapttogetourStephensons,ourArkwrights,ourTelfords,andourEdisons.Inarankoflifejustabovethelast,wefindthefixedandimmobilefarmercaste,whichonlyrarelyblossomsout,underfavourablecircumstancesonbothsides,intoastrayCobbettoranalmostmiraculousmillerConstable.Theshopkeepersareatribeofmorevariedinterestsandmorediversifiedlives.Animmensevarietyofbrainelementsarecalledintoplaybytheirdiversefunctionsindiverselines;andwhenwetaketheminconjunctionwiththeuppermercantilegrades,whicharechieflycomposedoftheirablestandmostsuccessfulmembers,wegetconsiderablechancesofthosehappyblendingsofindividualexcellences

intheircasualmarriageswhichgotomakeuptalent,and,intheirfinaloutcome,genius.Lastofall,intheprofessionalandupperclassesthereisafreedomandplayoffacultyeverywheregoingon,whichinthechancesofintermarriagebetweenlawyer-folkanddoctor-folk,scientificpeopleandartisticpeople,countyfamiliesandbishopsorlawlords,andsoforthadinfinitum,offersbyfarthebestopportunitiesofanyfortheoccasionaldevelopmentofthatrareproductofthehighesthumanity,thegenuinegenius.Butineverycaseitis,Ibelieve,essentiallyintermixtureofvariouslyacquiredhereditarycharacteristicsthatmakesthebestandtruestgeniuses.Lefttoitself,eachseparatelineofcasteancestrywouldtendtoproduceacertainfixedChineseorJapaneseperfectionofhandicraftinacertaindefinite,restricteddirection,butnotprobablyanythingworthcallingrealgenius.Forexample,afamilyofartists,startingwithsomesortofmanualdexterityinimitatingnatu

ralformsandcolourswithpaintandpencil,andstrictlyintermarryingalwayswithotherfamiliespossessingexactlythesameinheritedendowments,wouldprobablygoongettingmoreandmorewoodenlyaccurateinitsdrawing;moreandmoreconventionallycorrectinitsgrouping;moreandmoretechnicallyperfectinitsperspectiveandlight-and-shade,andsoforth,bypuredintofaccumulatedhereditaryexperiencefromgenerationtogeneration.ItwouldpassfromtheEgyptiantotheChinesestyleofartbyslowdegreesandwithinfinitegradations.Butsuppose,insteadofthusrigorouslyconfiningitselftoitsowncaste,thisfamilyofhandicraftartistsweretointermarryfreelywithpoetical,orseafaring,orcandlestick-makingstocks.Whatwouldbetheconsequence?Why,suchaninfiltr



ationofotherhereditarycharacteristics,otherwiseacquired,asmightmaketheyoungpaintersoffuturegenerationsmorewideminded,morediversified,moreindividualistic,morevividandlifelike.Somedivinesparkofpoeticalimagination,sometendernessofsentiment,someplayoffancy,unknownperhaps,tothehard,dry,matter-of-factlimnersoftheancestralschool,mightthusbeintroducedintotheoriginallineofhereditaryartists.Inthiswayonecaneasilyseehowevenintermarriagewithnon-artisticstocksmightimprovethebreedofafamilyofpainters.Forwhileeachcaste,lefttoitself,isliabletohardendownintoameretechnicalexcellenceafteritsownkind,awoodenfacilityfordrawingfaces,orcastingupcolumnsoffigures,orhackingdownenemies,orbuildingsteam-engines,ahealthycrosswithothercastesisliabletobringinallkindsofnewandvaluablequalities,eachofwhich,thoughacquiredperhapsinatotally,differentlineoflife,isapttobearanewapplicationinthenewcomplexwhereofitnowformsapart.Inourveryvariedmodernsocieties,everymanandeverywoman,intheupperandmiddleranksoflifeatleast,hasanindividualityandanidiosyncrasysocompoundedofendlessvaryingstocksandraces.HereisonewhosefatherwasanIrishmanandhismotheraScotchwoman;hereisanotherwhosepaternallinewerecountryparsons,whilehismaternalancestorswerecitymerchantsordistinguishedsoldiers.Takealmostanybody's'sixteenquarters'--hisgreat-greatgrandfathersandgreat-greatgrandmothers,ofwhomhehassixteenalltold--andwhatdoyouoftenfind?Apeer,acobbler,abarrister,acommonsailor,aWelshdoctor,aDutchmerchant,aHuguenotpastor,acornetofhorse,anIrishheiress,afarmer'sdaughter,ahousemaid,anactress,aDevonshirebeauty,arichyoungladyofsu

gar-brokingextraction,aLadyCarolina,aLondonlodging-housekeeper.Thisisnotbyanymeansanexaggeratedcase;itwouldbeeasy,indeed,fromone'sownknowledgeoffamilyhistoriestosupplyagreatmanyrealexamplesfarmorestartlingthanthispartiallyimaginaryone.Withsuchavarietyofracialandprofessionalantecedentsbehindus,whatinfinitepossibilitiesareopenedbeforeusofchildrenwithability,folly,stupidity,genius?Infinitenumbersofintermixtureseverywhereexistincivilisedsocieties.Mostofthemarepassable;manyofthemareexecrable;afewofthemareadmirable;andhereandthere,oneofthemconsistsofthathappyblendingofindividualcharacteristicswhichweallimmediatelyrecogniseasgenius--atleastaftersomebodyelsehastoldusso.Theultimaterecipeforgenius,then,wouldappeartobesomewhatafterthisfashion.Takeanumberofgood,strong,powerfulstocks,mentallyorphysically,en

dowedwithsomethingmorethantheaverageamountofenergyandapplication.Letthembeasvariedaspossibleincharacteristics;and,sofarasconvenient,trytoincludeamongthemaconsiderablesmall-changeofraces,dispositions,professions,andtemperaments.Mix,bymarriage,totheproperconsistency;educatetheoffspring,especiallybycircumstancesandenvironment,asbroadly,freely,anddiverselyasyoucan;letthemallintermarryagainwithothersimilarlyproduced,butpersonallyunlike,idiosyncrasies;andwatchtheresulttofindyourgeniusinthefourthorfifthgeneration.Iftheexperimenthasbeenproperlyperformed,andalltheconditionshavebeendecentlyfavourable,youwillgetamongtheresultantfivehundredpersonsaconsiderablesprinklingofaveragefools,afairproportionofmodestmediocrities,asmallnumberofablepeople,and(incaseyouareexceptionallyluckyandhaveshuffledyourcardsverycarefully)perhapsamongthemallasinglegenius.Butmostprobablythegeniuswillhaved

iedyoungofscarletfever,ormissedfirethroughsometinydefectofinternalbrainstructure.Natureherselfistryingthisexperimentunaidedeverydayallaroundus,and,thoughshemakesagreatmanymisses,occasionallyshemakesastrayhitandthenwegetaShakespeareoraGrimaldi.'Butyouhaven'tprovedallthis:youhaveonlysuggestedit.'Doesoneproveathesisofdeep-reachingimportanceinaten-pageessay?Andifoneproveditinabigbook,withclassifiedexamplesanddetailedgenealogiesofallthegeniuses,wouldanybodyonearthexceptMr.FrancisGaltonevertakethetroubletoreadit?



DESERTSANDSIfdesertshaveafault(whichtheirpresentbiographerisfarfromadmitting),thatfaultmaydoubtlessbefoundinthefactthattheirsceneryasaruletendstobejustatriflemonotonous.Thoughfineinthemselves,theylackvariety.Tobesure,veryfewofthedesertsofreallifepossessthatabsoluteflatness,sandinessandsameness,whichcharacterisesthefamiliardesertofthepoetandoftheannualexhibitions--adesertalllevelyellowexpanse,mostbiliousinitscolouring,andrelievedbybutfourallowableacademyproperties,apalm-tree,acamel,asphinx,andapyramid.Forforeground,throwinasheikhinappropriatedrapery;forbackground,asky-lineandableachingskeleton;stirandmix,andyourpictureisfinished.Mostpracticaldesertsonecomesacrossintravelling,however,areagreatdeallesssimpleandtheatricalthanthat;rockpreponderatesoversandintheircomposition,andinequalitiesofsurfaceareoftentheruleratherthantheexception.Thereisreasontobelieve,indeed,thattheartisticconceptionofthecommonorBurlingtonHousedeserthasbeenundulyinfluencedforevilbytheaccessibilityandthepoeticadjunctsoftheEgyptiansand-waste,which,beingsituatedinagreatalluvialrivervalleyisreallyflat,and,beingthemostfamiliar,hasthereforedistortedtoitsownshapethementalpictureofallitskindelsewhere.Butmostdesertsofactualnaturearenotallflat,norallsandy;theypresentaconsiderablediversityandvarietyofsurface,andtheirrocksareoftenunpleasantlyobtrusivetothetenderfeetofthepedestriantraveller.Adesert,infact,isonlyaplacewheretheweatherisalwaysanduniformlyfine.Thesandistheremerelyaswhatthelogicianscall,intheircheerfulway,'

aseparableaccident';theessentialofadesert,assuch,istheabsenceofvegetation,duetodrought.Thebarometerinthosehappy,toohappy,regions,alwaysstandsatSetFair.Atleast,itwould,ifbarometerscommonlygrewinthedesert,where,however,inthepresentconditionofscience,theyarerarelyfound.Itisthisdrynessoftheair,andthisalone,thatmakesadesert;alltherest,likethecamels,thesphinx,theskeleton,andthepyramid,isonlythrownintocompletethepicture.Nowthefirstquestionthatoccurstotheinquiringmind--whichisbutagracefulperiphrasisforthepresentwriter--whenitcomestoexamineindetailthepeculiaritiesofdesertsisjustthis:Whyarethereplacesontheearth'ssurfaceonwhichrainneverfalls?WhatmakesitsouncommonlydryinSaharawhenit'ssounpleasantlywetandsounnecessarilyfoggyinthisrealmofEngland?Andtheobviousansweris,ofcourse,thatdesertsexistonlyinthosepartsoftheworl

dwheretherunofmountainranges,prevalentwinds,andoceancurrentsconspiretorendertheaveragerainfallassmallaspossible.But,strangelyenough,thereisalargeirregularbeltofthegreateasterncontinentwherethesepeculiarconditionsoccurinanalmostunbrokenlineforthousandsofmilestogether,fromthewestcoastofAfricatothebordersofChina:anditisinthisbeltthatallthebestknowndesertsoftheworldareactuallysituated.InoneplaceitistheAtlasandtheKongmountains(nowdon'tpretend,asDavidCopperfield'sauntwouldhavesaid,youdon'tknowtheKongmountains);atanotherplaceitistheArabiancoastrange,Lebanon,andtheBeluchihills;atathird,itistheHimalayasandtheChineseheightsthatinterceptandprecipitateallthemoisturefromtheclouds.But,fromwhatevervarietyoflocalcausesitmayarise,thefactstillremainsthesame,thatallthegreatdesertsruninthislong,almostunbrokenseries,beginningwiththegreaterandthesmallerSahara,continuingi

ntheLibyanandEgyptiandesert,spreadingonthroughthelargerpartofArabia,reappearingtothenorthastheSyriandesert,andtotheeastasthedesertofRajputana(theGreatIndianDesertoftheAnglo-Indianmind),whilefurthereastagainthelonglineterminatesinthedesertofGobiontheChinesefrontier.Inotherpartsoftheworld,desertsarelessfrequent.Thepeculiarcombinationofcircumstanceswhichgoestoproducethemdoesnotelsewhereoccuroveranyvastarea,onsolargeascale.Still,thereisoneregioninwesternAmericawherethenecessaryconditionsarefoundtoperfection.Thehighsnow-cladpeaksoftheRockyMountainsontheonesidecheckandcondenseallthemoisturethatcomesfromtheAtlantic;theSierraNevadaandtheWahsatchrangeontheother,ru



nningparallelwiththemtothewest,checkandcondenseallthemoisturethatcomesfromthePacificcoast.InbetweenthesetwogreatlinesliesthedryandalmostrainlessdistrictknowntotheambitiouswesternmindastheGreatAmericanDesert,enclosinginitsmidstthatslowlyevaporatinginlandsea,theGreatSaltLake,alastrelicofsomeextinctchainofmightywatersoncecomparabletoSuperior,Erie,andOntario.InMexico,again,wherethetwinrangesdrawclosertogether,desertconditionsoncemoresupervene.ButitisincentralAustraliathatthecauseswhichleadtothedesertstateare,perhapsonthewhole,bestexemplified.There,rangesofhighmountainsextendalmostallroundthecoasts,andsocompletelyintercepttherainfallwhichoughttofertilisethegreatcentralplainthattheriversarealmostallshortandlocal,andonethirstywastespreadsformilesandmilestogetheroverthewholeunexploredinteriorofthecontinent.Butwhyaredesertsrockyandsandy?Whyaren'ttheycovered,liketherestoftheworld,withearth,soil,mould,ordust?Onecanseeplainlyenoughwhythereshouldbelittleornovegetationwherenorainfalls,butonecan'tseequitesoeasilywhythereshouldbeonlysandandrockinsteadofaridclay-field.Well,theansweristhatwithoutvegetationthereisnosuchthingassoilonearthanywhere.Thetoplayerofthelandinallordinaryandwell-behavedcountriesiscomposedentirelyofvegetablemould,thedecayingremainsofinnumerablegenerationsofweedsandgrasses.Earthtoearthistheruleofnature.Soil,infact,consistsentirelyofdeadleaves.Andwheretherearenoleavestodieanddecay,therecanbenomouldorsoiltospeakof.Darwinshowed,indeed,inhislastgreatbook,thatweowethewholeearthycoveringofourhillsandplains

almostentirelytotheperennialexertionsofthatfriendofthefarmers,theharmless,necessaryearthworm.Yearafteryearthesilentworkerisbusyeverynightpullingdownleavesthroughhistunnelledburrowintohisundergroundnest,andthereconvertingthembymeansofhiscastingsintotheblackmouldwhichproduces,intheend,forlordlyman,allhiscultivablefieldsandpasture-landsandmeadows.Wheretherearenoleavesandnoearth-worms,therefore,therecanbenosoil;andunderthosecircumstanceswegetwhatwefamiliarlyknowasadesert.Thenormalcourseofeventswherenewlandrisesabovetheseaissomethinglikethis,asoceanicisleshavesufficientlydemonstrated.Therockwhenitfirstemergesfromthewaterrisesbareandruggedlikeasea-cliff;nolivingthing,animalorvegetable,isharbouredanywhereonitsnakedsurface.Intime,however,asrainfallsuponitsjuttingpeaksandbarrenpinnacles,disintegrationsets

in,or,tospeakplainerEnglish,therockcrumbles;andsoonstreamswashdowntinydepositsofsandandmudthusproducedintothevalleysandhollowsoftheupheavedarea.Atthesametimelichensbegintospringinyellowpatchesuponthebarefaceoftherock,andfeatheryferns,whosesporeshavebeenwaftedbythewind,orcarriedbythewaves,orborneonthefeetofunconsciousbirds,sprouthereandtherefromthecleftsandcrannies.These,astheydieanddecay,inturnformathinlayerofvegetablemould,thefirstbeginningofalocalsoil,inwhichthetrustyearthworm(importedintheeggondriftwoodorfloatingweeds)straightwaysetstoworktoburrow,andwhichherapidlyincreasesbyhisconstantlabour.Onthesoilthusdeposited,floweringplantsandtreescansoonrootthemselves,asfastasseeds,nutsorfruitsarewaftedtotheislandbyvariousaccidentsfromsurroundingcountries.ThenewlandthrownupbythegreateruptionofKrakatoahasinthiswayalreadyclotheditselffromheadtofootw

ithaluxuriantsheetofferns,mosses,andothervegetation.Firstsoil,thenplantandanimallife,arethusinthelastresortwhollydependentfortheirexistenceontheamountofrainfall.Butindeserts,whererainseldomorneverfalls(exceptbyaccident)thefirstterminthisseriesisaltogetherwanting.Therecanbenorivers,brooksorstreamstowashdownbedsofalluvialdepositfromthemountainstothevalleys.Denudation(theterm,thoughratherawful,isnotanimproperone)mustthereforetakeadifferentturn.Practicallyspeaking,thereisnowateraction;theworkisalldonebysunandwind.Underthesecircumstances,therockscrumbleawayveryslowlybymereexposureintosmallfragments,whichthewindknocksoffandblowsaboutthesurface,for



mingsandordustoftheminallconvenienthollows.Thefrequentcurrents,producedbytheheatedairthatliesuponthebaskinglayerofsand,continuallykeepthesurfaceagitated,andsoblowaboutthesandandgrindonepieceagainsttheothertillitbecomeseverfinerandfiner.Thusforthemostpartthehollowsorvalleysofdesertsarefilledbyplainsofbaresand,whiletheirhigherportionsconsistratherofbarren,rockymountainsortable-land.Theeffectuponwhateveranimalorvegetablelifecanmanagehereandtheretosurviveundersuchcircumstancesisverypeculiar.Desertsarethemostexactingofallknownenvironments,andtheycompeltheirinhabitantswithprofoundimperiousnesstoknuckleundertotheirprejudicesandpreconceptionsintenthousandparticulars.Tobeginwith,allthesmallerdenizensofthedesert--whetherbutterflies,beetles,birds,orlizards--mustbequiteuniformlyisabellineorsand-coloured.Thisuniversaldeterminationofthedesert-hauntingcreaturestofallinwiththefashionandtoharmonisewiththeirsurroundingsaddsconsiderablytothepainfullymonotonouseffectofdesertscenery.Agreenplant,abluebutterfly,aredandyellowbird,ablackorbronze-colouredbeetleorlizardwouldimprovetheartisticaspectofthedesertnotalittle.Butno;theanimalswillhearnothingofsuchgaudyhues;withQuakeruniformitytheywillclothethemselvesindove-colour;theywillallwearasandypepper-and-saltwithasgreatunanimityastheladiesoftheCourt(onreceiptoforders)wearCourtmourningforthelatelamentedKingoftheTongatabooIslands.Inreality,thisuniversalsombretintofdesertanimalsisabeautifulexampleoftheimperiousworkingofourmodern_Deusexmachina_,naturalselection.The

moreuniforminhueistheenvironmentofanyparticularregion,themoreuniforminhuemustbeallitsinhabitants.Inthearcticsnows,forexample,wefindthisprinciplepushedtoitsfurthestlogicalconclusion.There,everythingisandmustbewhite--hares,foxes,andptarmigansalike;andthereasonisobvious--therecanbenoexception.Anybrownorblackorreddishanimalwhoventurednorthwouldatoncerenderhimselfunpleasantlyconspicuousinthemidstoftheuniformarcticwhiteness.Ifhewereabrownhare,forexample,thefoxesandbearsandbirdsofpreyofthedistrictwouldspothimatonceonthewhitefields,andpouncedownuponhimforthwithonhisfirstappearance.Thatharewouldleavenosimilardescendantstocontinuetheraceofbrownharesinarcticregionsafterhim.Or,suppose,ontheotherhand,itwereabrownfoxwhoinvadedthedomainofeternalsnow.Alltheharesandptarmigansofhisnewdistrictwouldbeholdhimcomingfromafarandkeepwelloutofhisway,whilehe,poorcreature,

wouldneverbeabletospotthematallamongthewhitesnow-fields.Hewouldstarveforwantofprey,attheverytimewhenthewhitefox,hisneighbour,wasstealingunperceivedwithstealthytreadupontheharesandptarmigans.Inthisway,fromgenerationtogenerationofarcticanimals,theblackerorbrownerhavebeenconstantlyweededout,andthegreyerandwhiterhavebeenconstantlyencouraged,tillnowallarcticanimalsalikeareasspotlesslysnowyasthesnowaroundthem.Inthedesertmuchthesamecausesoperate,inaslightlydifferentway,infavourofageneralgreynessorbrownnessasagainstpronouncedshadesofblack,white,red,green,oryellow.Desertanimals,likeintenseSouthKensington,goinonlyforneutraltints.Inproportionaseachindividualapproachesinhuetothesandaboutitwillitsucceedinlifeinavoidingitsenemiesorincreepinguponitsprey,accordingtocircumstances.Inproportionasitpresentsastrikin

glyvividordistinctappearanceamongthesurroundingsandwillitmakeitselfasuremarkforitswatchfulfoes,ifithappentobeanunprotectedskulker,orwillitbeseenbeforehandandavoidedbyitsprey,ifithappentobeapredatoryhuntingorinsect-eatingbeast.Henceonthesandydesertallspeciesalikeareuniformlysand-coloured.Spottylizardsbaskonspottysands,keepingasharplook-outforspottybutterfliesandspottybeetles,onlytobethemselvesspottedanddevouredinturnbyequallyspottybirds,orsnakes,ortortoises.Allnatureseemstohavegoneintohalf-mourningtogether,or,convertedbyapassingPuritanmissionary,tohavecladitselfincontinentlyingreyandfawn-colour.Eventhelargerbeaststhathauntthedeserttaketheirtonenotalittlefromt



heirsandysurroundings.Youhaveonlytocomparethedesert-hauntinglionwiththeothergreatcatstoseeatoncethereasonforhispeculiaruniform.Thetigersandothertropicaljungle-catshavetheircoatsarrangedinverticalstripesofblackandyellow,which,thoughyouwouldhardlybelieveitunlessyousawthemintheirnativenullahs(goodword'nullah,'givesaconvincingIndiantonetoanarrativeofadventure),harmonisemarvellouslywiththelightsandshadesofthebamboosandcane-brakesthroughwhosedepthsthetigermovessonoiselessly.Lookingintothegloomofatangledjungle,itisalmostimpossibletopickoutthebeastfromtheyellowstemsanddarkshadowsinwhichithides,savebythebalefulgleamofthosewickedeyes,catchingthelightforonesecondastheyturnwistfullyandbloodthirstilytowardstheapproachingstranger.Thejaguar,oncelot,leopard,andothertree-cats,ontheotherhand,aredappledorspotted--atypeofcolorationwhichexactlyharmoniseswiththelightandshadeoftheroundsun-spotsseenthroughthefoliageofatropicalforest.They,too,arealmostindistinguishablefromthetreesoverheadastheycreepalongcautiouslyonthetrunksandbranches.Butspotsorstripeswouldatoncebetraythecrouchinglionamongthebarerocksordesertsands;andthereforethelionisapproximatelysand-coloured.SeeninacageattheZoo,theBritishlionisaveryconspicuousanimalindeed;butspreadatfulllengthonasandypatchoramongbareyellowrocksundertheSaharansun,youmaywalkintohismouthbeforeyouareevenawareofhisaugustexistence.ThethreeothergreatdesertbeastsofAsiaorAfrica--theostrich,thegiraffe,andthecamel--arelessprotectivelycoloured,forvariousreasons.Giraffesan

dostrichesgoinherds;theytrustforsafetymainlytotheirswiftnessoffoot,and,whendriventobay,likemostgregariousanimals,theymakecommoncauseagainsttheill-advisedintruder.Insuchcasesitisoftenwell,forthesakeofstragglers,thattheherdshouldbereadilydistinguishedatadistance;anditistoinsurethisadvantage,Ibelieve,thatgiraffeshaveacquiredtheirstronglymarkedspots,aszebrashaveacquiredtheirdistinctivestripes,andhy?nastheirsimilarlybandedordappledcoats.Onemustalwaysrememberthatdisguisemaybecarriedatrifletoofar,andthatrecognisabilityintheparentsoftengivestheyoungandgiddyapointintheirfavour.Forexample,itseemscertainthatthegeneralgrey-browntintofEuropeanrabbitsservestorenderthemindistinguishableinafieldofbracken,stubble,ordrygrass.Howharditis,eitherformanorhawk,topickoutrabbitssolongastheysitstill,inanEnglishmeadow!Butassoonastheybegintoruntowardstheirburrowsthewhitepatch

bytheirtailsinevitablybetraysthem;andthisbetrayalseemsatfirstsightlikeafailureofadaptation.Certainlymanyarabbitmustbespottedandshot,orkilledbybirdsofprey,solelyonaccountofthattell-talewhitepatchashemakesforhisshelter.Nevertheless,whenwecometolookcloser,wecansee,asMr.Wallaceacutelysuggests,thatthetell-talepatchhasitsfunctionalso.Onthefirstalarmtheparentrabbitstaketotheirheelsatonce,andrunatanyuntowardsightorsoundtowardthesafetyoftheburrow.Thewhitepatchandthehoistedtailactasadanger-signaltothelittlebunnies,anddirectthemwhichwaytoescapethethreatenedmisfortune.Theyoungonestakethehintatonceandfollowtheirleader.Thuswhatmaybesometimesadisadvantagetotheindividualanimalbecomesinthelongrunofincalculablebenefittotheentirecommunity.Itisinterestingtonote,too,howmuchalikeinbuildandgaitarethesethree

thoroughbreddesertroamers,thegiraffe,theostrich,andthecamelordromedary.Intheirlonglegs,theirstalkingmarch,theirtallnecks,andtheirungainlyappearancetheyallbetokentheircommonadaptationtotheneedsanddemandsofaspecialenvironment.Sincefoodisscarceandshelterrare,theyhavetorunaboutmuchoverlargespacesinsearchofalivelihoodortoescapetheirenemies.Thentheburningnatureofthesandaswellastheneedforspeedcompelsthemtohavelonglegswhichinturnnecessitateequallylongnecks,iftheyaretoreachthegroundorthetreesoverheadforfoodanddrink.Theirfeethavetobesoftandpaddedtoenablethemtorunoverthesandwithease;andhardhornypatchesmustprotecttheirkneesandallotherportionsofthebodyliableto



touchtheswelteringsurfacewhentheyliedowntorestthemselves.Finally,theycanallendurethirstforlongperiodstogether;andthecamel,themostinveteratedesert-haunterofthetrio,isevenprovidedwithaspecialstomachtotakeinwaterforseveraldaysatastretch,besideshavingapeculiarlytoughskininwhichperspirationisreducedtoaminimum.Hecarrieshisownwater-supplyinternally,andwastesaslittleofitbythewayaspossible.Whatthecamelisamonganimalsthatisthecactusamongplants--themostconfirmedandspecialisedofdesert-hauntingorganisms.Ithasbeenwhollydevelopedin,by,andforthedesert.Idon'tmeanmerelytosaythatcactusesresemblecamelsbecausetheyareclumsy,ungainly,awkward,andparadoxical;thatwouldbeapointofviewalmostasfarbeneaththedignityofscience(whichinspiteofoccasionallapsesintothesinoflevityIendeavourasarulepiouslytouphold)astheoldandfallaciousreason'becausethere'saBinboth.'Butcactuses,likecamels,takeintheirwatersupplywhenevertheycangetit,andneverwasteanyofitonthewaybyneedlessevaporation.Astheyformtheperfectcentraltypeofdesertvegetation,andarealsofamiliarplantstoeveryone,theymaybetakenasagoodillustrativeexampleoftheeffectthatdesertconditionsinevitablyproduceuponvegetableevolution.Quaint,shapeless,succulent,jointed,thecactuseslookatfirstsightasiftheywereallleaves,andhadnostemortrunkworthmentioning.Ofcourse,therefore,theexactoppositeisreallythecase;for,asalatelamentedpoethasassuredusinmournfulnumbers,things(generallyspeaking)arenotwhattheyseem.Thetruetruthaboutthecactusesrunsjusttheotherway;theyareallstemandnoleaves;whatlooklikeleavesbeingreallyjointsofthetrunkorbranches,

andthefoliagebeingalldwarfedandstuntedintothepricklyhairsthatdotandencumberthesurface.Allplantsofveryaridsoils--forexample,ourcommonEnglishstonecrops--tendtobethick,jointed,andsucculent;thedistinctionbetweenstemandleavestendstodisappear;andthewholeweed,accustomedattimestolongdrought,acquiresthehabitofdrinkinginwatergreedilyatitsrootletsaftereveryrain,andstoringitawayforfutureuseinitsthick,sponge-like,andwater-tighttissues.Topreventundueevaporation,thesurfacealsoiscoveredwithathick,shinyskin--asortofvegetablemacintosh,whicheffectuallychecksallunnecessarytranspiration.Ofthisdeserttype,then,thecactusisthefurthestpossibleterm.Ithasnoflatleaveswithexpandedblades,towitheranddieinthescorchingdesertair;butintheirsteadthethickandjointedstemsdothesamework--absorbcarbonfromthecarbonicacidoftheair,andstoreupwaterinthedriestofseasons.Then,torepeltheattacksofherbivores,

whowouldgladlygetatthejuicymorseliftheycould,thefoliagehasbeenturnedintosharpdefensivespinesandprickles.Thecactusistenaciousoflifetoawonderfuldegree;andforreproductionittrustsnotmerelytoitsbrilliantflowers,fertilisedforthemostpartbydesertmothsorbutterflies,andtoitsjuicyfruit,ofwhichthecommonpricklypearisafamiliarinstance,butithasthespecialpropertyofspringingafreshfromanystraybitorfragmentofthestemthathappenstofalluponthedrygroundanywhere.Truecactuses(inthenativestate)areconfinedtoAmerica;buttheunhappynaturalistwhoventurestosaysoinmixedsocietyissuretogetsatupon(withoutduecause)bynumberlesspeoplewhohaveseen'thecactus'wildalltheworldover.Foronething,thepricklypearandafewothercommonAmericanspecies,havebeennaturalisedandrunwildthroughoutNorthAfrica,theMediterraneanshores,andagreatpartofIndia,Arabia,andPersia.Butwhatismoreinteresting

andmoreconfusingstill,otherdesertplantswhicharenotcactuses,livinginSouthAfrica,Sind,Rajputana,andelsewhereunspecified,havebeendrivenbythenatureoftheircircumstancesandthedrynessofthesoiltoadoptpreciselythesametactics,andthereforeunconsciouslytomimicorimitatethecactustribeintheminutestdetailsoftheirpersonalappearance.Mostofthesefallaciouspseudo-cactusesarereallyspurgesoreuphorbiasbyfamily.TheyresemblethetrueMexicantypeinexternalsonly;thatistosay,theirstemsarethick,jointed,andleaf-like,andtheygrowwithclumsyandawkwardangularity;butintheflower,fruit,seed,andinshortinallstructuralpeculiaritieswhatsoever,theydifferutterlyfromthegenuinecactus,andcloselyresemblealltheirspurge



relations.Adaptivelikenessesofthissort,duetomerestressoflocalconditions,havenomoreweightasindicationsofrealrelationshipthanthewingsofthebatorthenippersoftheseal,whichdon'tmaketheoneintoaskylark,ortheotherintoamackerel.InSahara,ontheotherhand,theprevailingtypeofvegetation(whereverthereisany)belongstothekindplayfullydescribedbySirLambertPlayfairas'salsolaceous,'thatistosay,inplainerEnglish,itconsistsofplantsliketheglass-wortandthekali-weed,whicharecommonlyburnttomakesoda.Thesefleshyweedsresemblethecactusesinbeingsucculentandthick-skinnedbuttheydifferfromthemintheircuriousabilitytoliveuponverysaltandsoda-ladenwater.AllthroughthegreatAfricandesertregion,infact,mostofthewaterismoreorlessbrackish;'bitterlakes'arecommon,andgypsumoftencoversthegroundoverimmenseareas.Thesedistrictsoccupythebedsofvastancientlakes,nowalmostdry,ofwhichtheexistingchotts,orverysaltpools,arethelastshrunkenandevanescentrelics.AndthispointaboutthewaterbringsmeatlasttoacardinalfactintheconstitutionofdesertswhichisalmostalwaysutterlymisconceivedinEurope.Mostpeopleathomepicturethedeserttothemselvesaswhollydead,flat,andsandy.TotalkaboutthefaunaandfloraofSaharasoundsintheirearslikeself-contradictorynonsense.But,asamatteroffact,thatuniformandlifelessdesertofthepopularfancyexistsonlyinthosesisterartsthatGeorgeII.--good,practicalman--soheartilydespised,'boetryandbainting.'Thedesertofreallife,thoughlessimpressive,isfarmorevaried.Ithasitsupsanddowns,itshillsandvalleys.Ithasitssandyplainsanditsrockyridges.Ithasitslakesand

ponds,andevenitsrivers.Ithasitsplantsandanimals,itsoasesandpalm-groves.Inshort,likeeverythingelseonearth,it'sagooddealmorecomplexthanpeopleimagine.OnemaytakeSaharaasaverygoodexampleoftheactualdesertofphysicalgeography,incontradistinctiontothelevelandlifelessdesertthatstretchesliketheseaoverillimitablespacesinverseorcanvas.Andhere,Ifear,Iamgoingtodispelanothercommonandcherishedillusion.Itismyfatetobeaniconoclast,andperhapslongpracticehasmademeratherlikethetradethanotherwise.ApopularbeliefexistsalloverEuropethatthelateM.Roudaire--thatDeLessepswhoneverquite'cameoff'--proposedtocutacanalfromtheMediterraneanintotheheartofAfrica,whichwasintended,inthestereotypedphraseofjournalism,to'floodSahara,'andconvertthedesertintoaninlandsea.HemightalmostaswellhavetalkedofcuttingacanalfromBrightontotheDevil'sDykean

d'submergingEngland,'asthedevilwishedtodointheoldlegend.Asamatteroffact,good,practicalM.Roudaire,soundengineerthathewas,neverevendreamtofanythingsochimerical.Whathedidreallyproposewassomethingfarmilderandsimplerinitsway,but,ashisschemehasgivenrisetotheabsurdnotionthatSaharaasawholeliesbelowsea-level,itmaybeworthwhilebrieflytoexplainwhatitwashereallythoughtofdoing.SomesixtymilessouthofBiskra,themostfashionableresortintheAlgerianSahara,thereisadeepdepressiontwohundredandfiftymileslong,partlyoccupiedbythreesaltlakesofthekindsocommonoverthewholedried-upSaharanarea.Thesethreelakes,shrunkenremnantsofmuchlargersheets,liebelowtheleveloftheMediterranean,buttheyareseparatedfromit,andfromoneanother,byuplandrangeswhichriseconsiderablyabovethesealine.WhatM.Roudaireproposedtodowastocutcanalsthroughthesethreebarriers,andfloodthebasins

ofthesaltlakes.Theresultwouldhavebeen,notasiscommonlysaidtosubmergeSahara,noreventoformanythingworthseriouslydescribingas'aninlandsea,'buttosubstitutethreelargersaltlakesfortheexistingthreesmallerones.Theareasoflooded,however,wouldbeartothewholeareaofSaharasomethinglikethesameproportionthatWindsorParkbearstotheentiresurfaceofEngland.Thisisthetruetruthaboutthatstupendousundertaking,whichistocreateanewMediterraneaninthemidstoftheDarkContinent,andtomodifytheclimateofNorthernEuropetosomethingliketheconditionoftheGlacialEpoch.AnewDeadSeawouldbemuchnearerthemark,andtheonlywayNorthernEuropewouldfeelthechange,ifitfeltitatall,wouldbeinaslightfallintheprice



ofdatesinthewholesalemarket.No,Saharaasawholeisnotbelowsea-level;itisnotthedrybedofarecentocean;anditisnotasflatastheproverbialpancakeallover.Partofit,indeed,isverymountainous,andallofitismoreorlessvariedinlevel.TheUpperSaharaconsistsofarockyplateau,risingattimesintoconsiderablepeaks;theLower,towhichitdescendsbyasteepslope,is'avastdepressionofclayandsand,'butstillforthemostpartstandinghighabovesea-level.NoportionoftheUpperSaharaislessthan1,300feethigh--agooddealhigherthanDartmoororDerbyshire.MostoftheLowerreachesfromtwotothreehundredfeet--quiteaselevatedasEssexorLeicester.Thefewspotsbelowsea-levelconsistofthebedsofancientlakes,nowmuchshrunkbyevaporation,owingtothepresentrainlessconditionofthecountry;thesoilaroundtheseisdeepingypsum,andthewateritselfisconsiderablysalterthanthesea.That,however,isalwaysthecasewithfresh-waterlakesintheirlastdotage,asAmericangeologistshaveamplyprovedinthecaseoftheGreatSaltLakeofUtah.Movingsandundoubtedlycoversalargespaceinbothdivisionsofthedesert,butaccordingtoSirLambertPlayfair,ourbestmodernauthorityonthesubject,itoccupiesnotmorethanone-thirdpartoftheentireAlgerianSahara.Elsewhererock,clay,andmuddylakearetheprevailingfeatures,interspersedwithnotinfrequentdate-grovesandvillages,theproductofartesianwells,orexcavatedspaces,orriveroases.EvenSahara,inshort,togiveititsdue,isnotbyanymeanssoblackasit'spainted.

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