Fall 2003Costas Busch - RPI1 Properties of Context-Free languages.
Fall 2006Costas Busch - RPI1 A Universal Turing Machine.
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Transcript of Fall 2006Costas Busch - RPI1 A Universal Turing Machine.
![Page 1: Fall 2006Costas Busch - RPI1 A Universal Turing Machine.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062405/5517fb5c550346d5568b4fa3/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 1
A Universal Turing Machine
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 2
Turing Machines are “hardwired”
they executeonly one program
A limitation of Turing Machines:
Real Computers are re-programmable
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 3
Solution: Universal Turing Machine
• Reprogrammable machine
• Simulates any other Turing Machine
Attributes:
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 4
Universal Turing Machine
simulates any Turing MachineM
Input of Universal Turing Machine:
Description of transitions of M
Input string of M
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 5
Universal Turing Machine M
Description of
Tape Contents of
M
State of M
Three tapes
Tape 2
Tape 3
Tape 1
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 6
We describe Turing machine as a string of symbols:
We encode as a string of symbols
M
M
Description of M
Tape 1
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 7
Alphabet Encoding
Symbols: a b c d
Encoding: 1 11 111 1111
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 8
State Encoding
States: 1q 2q 3q 4q
Encoding: 1 11 111 1111
Head Move Encoding
Move:
Encoding:
L R
1 11
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 9
Transition Encoding
Transition: ),,(),( 21 Lbqaq
Encoding: 10110110101
separator
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 10
Turing Machine Encoding
Transitions:
),,(),( 21 Lbqaq
Encoding:
10110110101
),,(),( 32 Rcqbq
110111011110101100
separator
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 11
Tape 1 contents of Universal Turing Machine:
binary encoding of the simulated machineM
1100011101111010100110110110101
Tape 1
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 12
A Turing Machine is described with a binary string of 0’s and 1’s
The set of Turing machines forms a language:
each string of this language isthe binary encoding of a Turing Machine
Therefore:
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 13
Language of Turing Machines
L = { 010100101,
00100100101111,
111010011110010101, …… }
(Turing Machine 1)
(Turing Machine 2)
……
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 14
Countable Sets
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 15
Infinite sets are either: Countable
or
Uncountable
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 16
Countable set:
There is a one to one correspondenceofelements of the setto Natural numbers (Positive Integers)
(every element of the set is mapped to a number such that no two elements are mapped to same number)
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 17
Example:
Even integers:(positive)
,6,4,2,0
The set of even integers is countable
Positive integers:
Correspondence:
,4,3,2,1
n2 corresponds to 1n
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 18
Example:The set of rational numbersis countable
Rational numbers: ,87
,43
,21
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 19
Naïve Approach
Rational numbers: ,31
,21
,11
Positive integers:
Correspondence:
,3,2,1
Doesn’t work:
we will never count numbers with nominator 2:
,32
,22
,12
Nominator 1
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 20
Better Approach
11
21
31
41
12
22
32
13
23
14
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 21
11
21
31
41
12
22
32
13
23
14
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 22
11
21
31
41
12
22
32
13
23
14
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 23
11
21
31
41
12
22
32
13
23
14
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 24
11
21
31
41
12
22
32
13
23
14
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 25
11
21
31
41
12
22
32
13
23
14
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 26
Rational Numbers: ,22
,31
,12
,21
,11
Correspondence:
Positive Integers: ,5,4,3,2,1
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 27
We proved:
the set of rational numbers is countable by describing an enumeration procedure (enumerator) for the correspondence to natural numbers
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 28
Definition
An enumerator for is a Turing Machinethat generates (prints on tape)all the strings of one by one
Let be a set of strings (Language) S
S
S
andeach string is generated in finite time
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 29
EnumeratorMachine for
,,, 321 sss
Ssss ,,, 321
Finite time: ,,, 321 ttt
strings
Soutput
(on tape)
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 30
Enumerator MachineConfiguration
Time 0
0q
Time
sq
1x 1s#1tprints 1s
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 31
Time
sq
3x 3s#3t
Time
sq
2x 2s#2tprints 2s
prints 3s
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 32
If for a set there is an enumerator, then the set is countable
Observation:
The enumerator describes the correspondence of to natural numbers
S
S
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 33
Example: The set of stringsis countable
},,{ cbaS
We will describe an enumerator for
Approach:
S
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 34
Naive enumerator:
Produce the strings in lexicographic order:
aaaaaa
......
Doesn’t work: strings starting with will never be produced
b
aaaa
1s
2s
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 35
Better procedure:
1. Produce all strings of length 1
2. Produce all strings of length 2
3. Produce all strings of length 3
4. Produce all strings of length 4..........
Proper Order(Canonical Order)
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 36
Produce strings in Proper Order:
aaabacbabbbccacbcc
aaaaabaac......
length 2
length 3
length 1abc
1s
2s
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 37
Theorem: The set of all Turing Machinesis countable
Proof:
Find an enumeration procedure for the set of Turing Machine strings
Any Turing Machine can be encodedwith a binary string of 0’s and 1’s
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 38
1. Generate the next binary string of 0’s and 1’s in proper order
2. Check if the string describes a Turing Machine if YES:YES: print string on output tape if NO:NO: ignore string
Enumerator:
Repeat
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 39
010001
10110110101 1011011010100110110101
101101001010101101
Binary strings Turing Machines
1s
2s 101101001010101101
End of Proof
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 40
Uncountable Sets
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 41
We will prove that there is a languagewhich is not accepted by any Turing machine
L
Technique:
Turing machines are countable
Languages are uncountable
(there are more languages than Turing Machines)
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 42
A set is uncountable if it is not countable
Definition:
We will prove that there is a languagewhich is not accepted by any Turing machine
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 43
Theorem:
If is an infinite countable set, then
the powerset of is uncountable. S2 S
S
(the powerset is the set whose elements are all possible sets made from the elements of )
S2S
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 44
Proof:
Since is countable, we can write S
},,,{ 321 sssS
Elements of S
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 45
Elements of the powerset have the form:
},{ 31 ss
},,,{ 10975 ssss
……
S2
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 46
We encode each element of the powersetwith a binary string of 0’s and 1’s
1s 2s 3s 4s
1 0 0 0}{ 1s
Powersetelement
Binary encoding
0 1 1 0},{ 32 ss
1 0 1 1},,{ 431 sss
(in arbitrary order)
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 47
Observation:Every infinite binary string correspondsto an element of the powerset:
10 Example: 0111 0
Corresponds to: Sssss 2},,,,{ 6541
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 48
Let’s assume (for contradiction) that the powerset is countable
Then: we can enumerate the elements of the powerset
},,,{2 321 tttS
S2
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 49
1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
Powerset element Binary encoding
1t
2t
3t
4t
suppose that this is the respective
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 50
1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
1t
2t
3t
4t
Binary string: 0011(birary complement of diagonal)
Take the binary string whose bits are the complement of the diagonal
t
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 51
0011tThe binary string
correspondsto an element of the powerset : Ssst 2},,{ 43 S2
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 52
Thus, must be equal to some it
However,
the i-th bit in the encoding of is the complement of the bit of , thus:
Contradiction!!!
t
itt
i-th it
itt
t
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 53
Since we have a contradiction:
The powerset of is uncountable S2 S
End of proof
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 54
An Application: Languages
The set of all Strings:
},,,,,,,,,{},{ * aabaaabbbaabaababaS infinite and countable
Consider Alphabet : },{ baA
(we can enumerate the strings in proper order)
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 55
The set of all Strings:
},,,,,,,,,{},{ * aabaaabbbaabaababaS infinite and countable
Any language is a subset of :
},,{ aababaaL
S
Consider Alphabet : },{ baA
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 56
Consider Alphabet : },{ baA
The set of all Strings:
},,,,,,,,,{},{ ** aabaaabbbaabaababaAS infinite and countable
The powerset of contains all languages:
}},,,{},...,,{},,{},{},{,{2 aababaabaabaaS uncountable
S
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 57
Turing machines: 1M 2M 3M
Languages acceptedBy Turing Machines: 1L 2L 3L
accepts
Denote: },,,{ 321 LLLX countable
Note: SX 2
countable
countable
*},{ baS
Consider Alphabet : },{ baA
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 58
X countable
S2 uncountable
Languages acceptedby Turing machines:
All possible languages:
Therefore:SX 2
SS XX 2 have we,2 since
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 59
There is a language not acceptedby any Turing Machine:
(Language cannot be described by any algorithm)
Conclusion:
L
SX 2 XL and 2 SL
L
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 60
Turing-Acceptable Languages
Non Turing-Acceptable Languages
L
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Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 61
Note that: },,,{ 321 LLLX
is a multi-set (elements may repeat)since a language may be accepted by more than one Turing machine
However, if we remove the repeated elements, the resulting set is again countable since every element still corresponds to a positive integer