FACT-FINDING MISSION TO SUDAN

8 - 2 0 MAY 2001

Bisschop & Partners B.V. July 2001

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION - ORGANISATION DES NATIONS UNIES POUR

H i L 'EDUCA TION, LA SCIENCE ET LA CUL TURE

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Members of the Mission

Lesley R. Blinker

Manager International Operations

Bisschop & Partners Ltd.

Advisory Bureau on Energy and Environment

Utrecht, The Netherlands

&

Sergio Grassi

Senior Researcher

c/o International Institute for Geothermal Research

Italian National Research Council

Pisa, Italy

B I S S C H O P ¿) P A R T N E R S

JULY 2001 ADVISORY BUREAU ON ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4

FOREWORD 5

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7

PART 1 - GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND PREPARATIONS OF 15

MISSION/ FIELDWORK

General Introduction 15

1. Background on the UNESCO Mission - A multidisciplinary Approach 15

2. Background on Sudan- Energy Sector 19

3. Geothermal Energy as an Option -A Regional Perspective 26

Preparations of Mission/Fieldwork 29

4. Fieldwork 29

4.1. Planning and Timing 29

4.2. Focus on the Jebel Marra/Darfur States 29

5. Preparations- Meetings and Consultations in Khartoum 31

5.1. National Energy Administration-Geothermal Committee 31

5.2. UNESCO NatCom - UNESCO Renewable Energy Committee 32

5.3. Other Meetings in Khartoum 33

PART 2 - OVERVIEW ON GEOTHERMAL ENERGY/ TECHNICAL REVIEW

AND FINDINGS ON GEOTHERMAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THE JEBEL

MARRA AREA 35

1. Introduction 35

2. General features of geothermal systems 36

3. Geological setting of Sudan 38

4. Geothermal areas in Sudan 41

5. Field Work in the Jebel Marra Area 48

6.Technical Considerations, Findings and Follow up 52

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PART 3 - OVERALL ASSESSMENT OF THE MISSION

RECOMMENDATIONS, FOLLOW- UPS AND POSSIBLE PLAN OF ACTION

FOR FUTURE WORK 62

1. Debriefing Field Work 62

1.1. Public Lecture 62

1.2. Discussions of activities in Darfur States( a regional development plan)...63

2. Other Meetings/Consultations - Linkages to UNESCO's Programmes 65

3. Conclusions/Recommendations 69

4. Follow-Up Activities 71

4.1 Detailed Feasibility Study (Geothermal Prospecting) 71

4.2. A Regional Project - Seminar/Workshop on Geothermal

Energy Development in Africa 73

REFERENCES 75

ANNEXES

Annex 1 - Letter of lead international expert to Authorities in Sudan announcing

the start of the Mission

Annex 2 - Detailed Programme of the Mission

Annex 3 - Invitation leaflet for the public lecture

Annex 4 - Photocopies of business cards of the relevant people met in Sudan

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ACKNOW LEDGEMENTS

The Consultants wish to thank the staff of the Ministry of Energy and Mining,

National Energy Affairs (NEA), the members of the National Geothermal

Committee, and the UNESCO National Commission for their full support and

good spirit of co-operation, in enabling this mission to come to term successfully.

Many thanks also to the UNESCO Chair on Water Resources, the members of

the UNESCO renewable energy committee and all others who took time off their

very busy schedule to discuss with us the environment and energy activities, in

particular those related to geothermal energy development in Sudan. Very

special thanks also to the members of the National Geothermal Committee and

others who accompanied us to the Jebel Marra (Darfur), the local guides and

the drivers for their motivation, support and endurance during the fieldwork.

We feel very privileged to have been part of this noble UNESCO mission in

Sudan and would like to express our sincere appreciation as well to the

UNESCO Science Sector (Paris), in particular for the confidence vested in us by

finally selecting us to undertake the assignment and for the necessary

backstopping initiatives from Paris. In this regard, many thanks to Mr. El-Tayeb

(UNESCO, Science/PAO), whose Division provided the necessary funding for

this fact-finding initiative, hence making it possible for this mission to be

undertaken.

Finally our heart-felt appreciation to our respective employers, Bisschop &

Partners b.v. (the Netherlands) and the International Institute for Geothermal

Research (Italy) for allowing us the time to undertake this assignment within

their structure, hence enabling us to carry out the necessary mission

preparation, follow-ups and final report preparation from Utrecht and Pisa. In

particular, in the case of Bisschop & Partners for also treating this assignment

as part of the company's partnership and international operations development

strategy.

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FOREWORD

It is well known that geothermal energy has made significant contribution to the

electricity generation capabilities of many countries. Preliminary studies show

that Sudan has a number of areas which could have geothermal energy

resources. This resource base could prove to be of considerable importance to

the economic development of Sudan, but unfortunately this resource is not

quantified.

Due to the growing energy demand, the Government has already started to

search for alternative sources of energy other than hydrocarbon, hydropower,

charcoal and wood. Therefore as part of the long-range power planning study,

in which there are plans to develop new and renewable energy sources, the

Ministry of Energy and Mining would like to carry out studies for geothermal

energy resources in the whole country.

In this regard, UNESCO was approached to provide the necessary assistance.

Hence, under the auspices of UNESCO's Science Sector, a fact-finding mission

was conducted in Sudan from May 8th to 20th 2001 by a team of international

and national experts, in order to evaluate the geothermal characteristics of some

areas of the country.

This technical report, which include precise information and practical

recommendations, is a result of this undertaking. The report is divided into three

parts:

Part 1 - provides a general overview of the context within which the mission

was undertaken from UNESCO's perspective, according to the needs identified

by the Sudanese authorities. In this regard, it attempts to situate the energy

sector of Sudan within the framework of the major national challenges,

economic development, social issues and the environment, with an emphasis on

geothermal energy resources.

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In addition, the report also provides a brief perspective of geothermal resources

in the African region. Finally, it looks at the overall preparations of the mission

and outlines the different meetings held and relevant people met in Khartoum.

Part 2 - reports on the technical fieldwork of the geothermal reconnaissance

mission in the Jebel Marra area. It also provides a general overview of the

geothermal situation in Sudan, together with an analysis of the scientific and

technical data collected during this fieldwork and from previous undertakings. It

discusses the findings, briefly examines resource availability of this renewable

resource and, considers these findings within the general context of geothermal

systems developed elsewhere in Africa and other parts of the world.

Part 3 - looks at some of the debriefing activities in Khartoum associated with

the field work (e.g. further consultations, public lecture) and provide the

necessary conclusions/recommendations and possible follow-up activities which

could be undertaken under the umbrella of UNESCO as a result of this fact­

finding mission.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. Upon the request of the Government of Sudan (GOS), UNESCO is providing

assistance to the country, through the Ministry of Energy and Mining, in

collaboration with the Ministry of Higher Education and the UNESCO

National Commission (Renewable Energy Committee), by investigating the

country's geothermal energy resources. The aim is to obtain the needed

scientific & technical information for appropriate decision-making concerning

the further development of the country's geothermal energy resources.

2. In this regard, a mission was launched from 8 to 20 May 2001. The work,

carried out by two international experts under contract with UNESCO,

included (i) Analyses of the report of and data collected by the National

Geothermal Committee in Sudan, which is a body formed to follow-up this

project and to work with the international consultants, (ii) Data collection and

networking with relevant stakeholders through a series of meetings, including

a meeting with UNESCO's National Renewable Energy Committee, (iii)

capacity-building through a public lecture on geothermal as option for

energy, (iv) and the necessary fieldwork.

3. Delays in expanding power generation capacity, largely due to lack of

finance, has had dramatic effects on the performance of the industrial sector

in Sudan. With the current development in the oil industry, the GOS hopes

to have increasing development financing available for other sectors and

alternative energy resources.

4. Several renewable energy options are being explored especially in the

remote areas of the country. Apart from hydropower and geothermal

resources, solar, wind and biomass sources receive full attention.

5. Geothermal Energy may have potential for supplying large-scale sustainable

energy supply to a number of developing countries and small island states. It

is known that different countries in the African region are exploiting their

geothermal resources, e.g. Kenya, Djibouti.

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6. The country's policy-making entity for energy, Ministry of Energy and Mining,

National Energy Administration (NEA), has identified geothermal energy as

a potential contributor to satisfy demand for additional power.

7. This reliable energy source could be vital for the Darfur region, especially

considering the remoteness of this area from the capital Khartoum. Most of

all, there is also the desire of the national and regional Government(s) in

Sudan to move the country from the heavy dependence on agriculture in the

region to a more industrialized - based.

8. Several constructive meetings were held in Khartoum prior to the fieldwork

in the Jebel Marra area. Namely with the National Energy Administration

(NEA), the Geothermal Energy Committee, the Ministry of Planning and

International Co-operation, the Higher Council for Environment and Natural

Resources, the UNESCO Renewable Energy Committee and the UNESCO

Chair on Water Resources. All the participants expressed support to this

UNESCO initiative and are looking forward to the results of the mission.

9. Although Sudan has some prospective geothermal areas, the mission

focussed mainly on the Jebel Marra area, as this area was classified by

national authorities, as being the most promising, in terms of geothermal

energy development potential, in relation to regional development strategies

of the Government.

10. According to the collected data (technical reports and scientific papers), the

Jebel Marra volcanic complex is considered to be situated at a possible triple

junction in the African lithosphère and lies in the middle of a wide negative

Bouguer anomaly, 50 mGal in amplitude. Possible presence of more or less

shallow magmatic chambers are indicated as well as recent volcanic activity.

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11. Even though, there is little data and reliable information on the existence and

location of geothermal manifestations, three thermal springs areas were

visited. Unfortunately due to the inaccessibility of the area and the lack of

available time, it was impossible to visit the crater where fumaroles and hot

springs are present.

12. The samples collected at the springs are all of the Na-HC03 type with

presence of gas. This type of water is considered to occur at the margins of

geothermal fields and is unreliable for application of geoindicators. Rough

estimates of deep temperature through quartz geothermometry are in the

range 100 - 170 °C. Further, detailed studies based on a larger number of

samples including gases and cold springs should be carried out in this area

before any conclusions are drawn.

13. The Jebel Marra area seems to be the most interesting from the geothermal

point of view because of the existence of the following rather favorable

features: a) regional geological setting; b) possible presence of magma

chambers at more or less shallow depths; c) recent to historical volcanism;

d) presence of geothermal manifestations which, although seemingly modest

in numbers and types, do suggest the existence of some geothermal activity

in the area. Therefore, an exploratory geothermal project is recommended in

this area.

14. On the final day of the mission, a seminar entitled "Geothermal as an option

for energy" was held in Khartoum in order to present the initial findings of

the fieldwork, exchange information with and mobilize the relevant

stakeholders. Several high-level officials from Government, NGO's and the

private sector were present. The lecture was also very well attended by

people working in the renewable energy field in the country.

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15. A meeting was held with the Secretary General of the MEM on 19/5/2001, in

the presence of the Director General of the National Energy Affairs. This

meeting was very useful as it enabled a high-level discussion of the

important issues concerning this mission within the context of the national

challenges.

16. In a meeting with the Ministry of Planning of the Darfur region in Nyala, the

Minister emphasized the fact that one of the main problems of the region

was the lack of energy and reliable electricity supply. This in turn hampers

industrial development in a region which is full of resources. The Minister

also highlighted some of the other problems the region is facing, one of the

major ones being the water shortage problem, which also gives rise to

several conflicts between communities and user groups.

17. In summary, the following could be said about the Darfur region: Enormous

fruit potential in Darfur - fertile soil, Enormous number of livestock, Several

minerals deposits (Cu, Pb, Zn.Au,...). One of the main problems is lack of

electricity (which hampers the development of the food-processing and other

industries, etc). Water management needs attention to avoid further water

conflicts, Infrastructure needs to be improved, It's distance from Khartoum

requires self-sufficiency of energy needs (opportunity for to use indigenous

and reliable energy resources). Others - problems of land desertification

(indirectly the result of energy problem, as people use wood as energy

source), erosion, and other environmental and social difficulties.

18. On 19 May 2001, a series of meetings were also organized with several

Universities and other Institutions of Higher Education. This was also

necessary in order to assess the in-country capacity of several of the

universities and other institutions of higher education, with the aim to fulfill

objective (5) of this fact-finding mission -: "In addition, the experts were

requested to advise in outlining a training programme in this field and

strengthening the capability of the national experts".

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19. Meetings were held with the following univeristies and Institutions of Higher

Education; University of Khartoum, Sudan University of Science and

Technology, College of Technological Sciences, Ahfad University for

Women, Computerman College. The following was achieved as a result of

these meetings; (i) exchanged ideas and inform them of the possibilities of

training on geothermal resources development under the UNESCO/UNU

programme in Iceland, (ii) they learned more about UNESCO programmes

and some possible linkages of their activities with those carried out by the

Organisation.

20. Main Conclusions

• The geothermal manifestations observed in the Jebel Marra during this

reconnaissance field work appear to be modest. However the Jebel Marra

lies in an attractive area, geologically speaking, and the possibility of

geothermal resources being present is not excluded.

• Further studies need to be done and further data need to be collected. It was

highlighted that hopefully this could be the beginning of a long-term co­

operation with UNESCO to assist in developing and utilising these resources

with which the country is endowed.

• The geothermal committee established to help in this undertaking did a

good job. It has the potential to further assist and play a significant role in this

undertaking e.g. preparing the national workshop and facilitating the

interdisciplinairy consultations.

• The main universities in Sudan also have the necessary capacity to assist in

carrying out this undertaking to the next level.

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21. Main Recommendations

• Because of the potential economic importance of cheap indigenous power

supply being available in Sudan, it is recommended that a programme be

undertaken to assess the full extent of this potential.

• It is recommended that as a first step, back to back national and regional

workshops be held on the issue on geothermal energy development.

• It is recommended that, a detailed feasibility study (geothermal prospecting)

be undertaken in the Jebel Marra area. This will include a systematic

programme following the steps as outlined in Part 2 of this report:

reconnaissance, fieldwork, physical and chemical analyses, a programme of

shallow drilling, etc. The costs of this programme are currently estimated

between USD 1 to 2 million (however, a detailed costs estimate will be made

following the decision making process).

- Providing the needed resources could be found, it is recommended to take

this UNESCO initiative to the next level.

22. Suggested Follow-up activities

These would include:

I. Seminar/Workshop(s) on Geothermal Energy Development in Sudan

(Africa)

Back to back national and regional seminars/workshops covering both policy

and technical issues surrounding the development of geothermal energy

resources could be conducted. These workshops would be in khartoum, with

around 20 participants from neighbouring countries attending the 3 day regional

workshop. The 2 day national workshop which would follow depend on the

number of interested institutions and organizations in Sudan. Target dates for

the organization of these workshops could be around the second week of

February 2002.

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Some of the objectives of this workshops would be:

- National: mainly to enhance consultation between relevant stakeholders,

enchange information and define a common approach in developing this

resource in Sudan.

- Regional: mainly to exchange information and enhance understanding of the

basic and scientific characteristics of the geothermal resources in the African

region (both for the experts and the public), and

- to develop a strategy for the suitable development of this resource in these

countries

The regional workshop could be part of a project, similar to the project organised

for the LAC region under the European Union Synergy project.

II. Detailed Feasibility Study, which would entail:

a) An exploration geothermal project

b) Under this umbrella, the Establishment of a Regional Development Plan for

the Darfur Region (Province).

Ad a) This project proposal would have the following main components:

1. Capacity building

2. Institutional strengthening

3. Equipment and technology transfer (e.g. state of the art remote sensing and

other technologies)

1 & 2. Institutional strengthening and capacity-building initiatives.

Upgrading the institutions and building the necessary capacity in Sudan (through

this project in Jebel Marra) would enable all these other areas to be explored

and investigated by Sudan at a later stage, as the needed capacity to do so

would have already been developed.

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3. Equipment and Technology Transfer - Remote Sensing Techniques:

With the new satellite technology available, data on hydrothermal alterations can

be picked and it is possible to provide further good and reliable information. This

would help with the geothermal prospecting. In addition, the remote sensing unit

(to be developed under the institutional strengthening component of the

proposed project) would also serve the capacity building/institutional

strengthening interest to help with the regional development plan and could

serve in combatting other environmental disasters (e.g. erosion, desertification,

etc) for the Darfur region.

Ad b) A Regional Development plan for Darfur States

The proposed geothermal prospecting should be viewed against the backdrop of

a regional development plan for the Darfur area.

- From a scientific/technical point of view - This could help to fill the lack of

information and try to remove some of the obstacles which would encourage

investors and businesspeople.

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".^;WVK¿::-S,.; Partí General Introduction and Preparations of Mission/Fieldwork

1. Background on UNESCO Mission - A Multidisciplinary Approach

Background on UNESCO Mission

Upon the request of the Government of Sudan (GOS), UNESCO is providing

assistance to the country, through the Ministry of Energy and Mining, in

collaboration with the Ministry of Higher Education and the UNESCO National

Commission (Renewable Energy Committee), by investigating it's geothermal

energy resources. The aim is to obtain the needed scientific information for

appropriate decision-making concerning the further development of the

country's geothermal energy resources. In the first instance, UNESCO's

assistance is channeled through a fact-finding mission. Within the framework of

this fact-finding mission, two international experts: (1) one expert on energy and

environment from Bisschop & Partners, the Netherlands, under a co-operation

agreement with UNESCO and (2) one expert on geothermal resources (c/o

International Institute on Geothermal Research of the Italian National Research

Council), under a Special Service Agreement (SSA) with the Organisation. In

the Job Description/Terms of Reference (TOR) of the SSA and the Letter Of

Agreement (LOA) between UNESCO and Bisschop & Partners Ltd, the experts

were requested to provide consultancy services for this project, in order to :

(1) Carry out the necessary data gathering and assessment of scientific

information concerning geothermal resources in the country

(2) Undertake some fieldwork, carry out field observations, an inventory and

survey of suggested target site(s).

(3) Provide an initial assessment of the resource and analyse the possible

development of the country's geothermal energy resources

(4) In case of encouraging results, prepare a possible plan of action for future

work.

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(5) In addition, the experts were requested to provide advise in outlining a

training programme in this field and strengthening the capability of the

national experts.

In line with the request of the lead international expert (annex 1), a detailed

programme (annex 2) was established for this mission by the national

counterparts. This programme was slightly modified after discussion with the

international experts upon their arrival in Khartoum.

The mission was a 12 - day undertaking (8 to 20 May 2001). The work included

(i) Analyses of the report of the National Geothermal Committee in Sudan which

is a body formed to follow-up this project and to work with the international

consultants, (ii) Data collection and networking with relevant stakeholders

through a series of meetings, including a meeting with UNESCO's National

Renewable Energy Committee, (iii) capacity-building through a public lecture on

geothermal as option for energy, (¡v) and the necessary fieldwork.

Although Sudan has some prospective geothermal areas, the mission focussed

mainly on the Jebel Marra area, as this area was classified by national

authorities, as being the most promising, in terms of geothermal energy

development potential, in relation to regional development strategies of the

Government.

However, in the absence of an evaluation of a regional development

programme, it is difficult to outline the best scenario for a large area under

development. The mission therefore, during this fact-finding phase of the project,

also looked at the Jebel Marra area from this regional development perspective,

in case the project would be brought to the next level. In line with UNESCO's

initiatives, an integrated and multidisciplinary approach was followed, which in

general contributes to solving the problems associated with large-scale

developments and huge undertakings. This approach is also reflected in this

final report.

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A Multidisciplinarv Approach

In view of the fact that the Government of Sudan intends in the near future to

actively promote the development of geothermal energy sources, this initiative

under the auspices of UNESCO, should provide the scientific results and the

necessary data for the future development of this clean and reliable energy

source. In case of encouraging results, the project should in the long-term

contribute to the 3 pillars of sustainable development of the country:

• Economic development - by utilising indigenous renewable energy sources,

the creation of jobs, improved trade balance, the payment of taxes and by

increasing labour productivity.

• Environmental protection - by delivering a renewable and clean source of

energy avoiding greenhouse gas emissions and in addition, reduce the need

for power generated from fossil fuel (and this would in turn result in the

increase of exports earning for Sudan, as an oil producer)

• Social development - by delivering reliable electricity.

In the short term, the project aims to accomplish the following:

• To encourage research, development and use of geothermal energy in the

country and facilitate collection and dissemination of relevant data

• To advance and promote the establishment of criteria and appropriate

policies for the exploration and development of geothermal resources in a

manner compatible with the natural environment

• To support enactment and adoption of uniform and appropriate legislation,

rules and regulations for the development and utilization of geothermal

energy resources in the country

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• To conduct the necessary institutional strengthening and capacity-building in

the country as regards resource assessment and geothermal energy

development

Hence, it could be observed from the foregoing that geothermal energy

development has several components and clearly requires a multidisciplinar/

approach.

UNESCO's Entry Point

The mission falls under UNESCO's science sector and is in compliance with

30th General Conference Resolution which: Authorised the Director -General to

increase regional and international co-operation in research and capacity

building in the basic and applied geosciences.

The principal task of UNESCO in the field of science is to find ways of using

parallel contributions of the various branches - exact sciences, environmental

sciences, ecology, hydrology, earth and marine sciences, engineering sciences

- with a view to contributing to sustainable development through the solutions of

problems of society and of natural environment.

Within the UNESCO Science Sector, the two Divisions which would be directly

concerned with the preparation and implementation of this project are SC/GEO

and SC/PAO.

UNESCO's Division for Policy Analysis and Operations, Science Sector

(SC/PAO) is responsible for the quality control of UNESCO's projects in the area

of science & technology. PAO also implements a few large scale and/or

multidisciplinar/ projects.

UNESCO's Geoscience (SC/GEO) programme aims at serving the geo-

scientific needs of society, including awareness raising in geo-scientific and

engineering geological questions.

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In this respect, it considers that national and regional scientific capacity building

is essential in striving for sustainable development.

2. Background on Sudan - The Energy Sector

Background

An independent republic, Sudan is the largest country in Africa and has a

population of around 35 million. The official language is Arabic but over 100

other languages are spoken. English is spoken in business and government

circles. It's economy is primarily agriculture - a mix of subsistence farming and

production of cash crops such as cotton and gum Arabic.

The agricultural sector employs the majority of the work force and produce is

processed by the manufacturing industry. Poor performance in the agricultural

sector has been due to declining annual rainfall. The disappointing performance

of the industrial sector, however, has traditionally been blamed on shortages of

input, unreliable electricity and fuel supplies and shortage of foreign exchange.

In addition, there are still severe constraints which stem from the erosion of

basic infrastructure and an external debt at the end of 1999 of nearly USD 24

billion, representing a debt-to-GDP ratio of 218.3%.

The civil war has been the primary obstacle to economic policymaking and

development as defense expenditures drain resources that could otherwise be

directed to support investments in infrastructure and social services. (Over the

past two decades the civil war has claimed around 1.5 million Sudanese lives.)

In the past four years, however, Sudan's economic performance has been

strong; annual GDP growth has averaged 5.5%, while inflation has slowed down

from 133% to 16%. Exports have grown by one-quarter to $780 million, while

Sudan's current account deficit has dropped from nearly 8% of GDP to 2.4%.

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Sudan's real GDP growth rate is currently around 7% while inflation has reached

the 9% target set by the Government.

In May 2000, the international Monetary Fund (IMF) expressed its satisfaction

with Sudan's implementation of a 1999-2001 structural adjustment programme.

However, representatives of the IMF advised the Sudanese government to

move to full market liberalization in the petroleum product sector as quickly as

possible and to adopt full public disclosure of oil revenue data. In August 2000,

the IMF lifted the suspension - in place since 1993 - of Sudan's voting rights in

the IMF.

Sudan recently, has also become more engaged in the global economy. In

February 2000, Sudan opened its Red Sea Free Trade Zone, designed to

encourage foreign direct investment, and in March 2000, Sudan publicly

repeated its desire to join the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Since the end of

1999, Sudan has signed various trade and investment agreements with Saudi

Arabia, Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, Ethiopia, and Syria while simultaneously

predicting that Malaysian investment in Sudan, particularly in the oil, gas and

petrochemical industries, would exceed $1 billion by the end of 2001.

Most recently, Sudan has benefited from a USD 2 billion private investment in

oil production which is expected to reduce the country's import bill and improve

the availability of foreign exchange for development financing.

Currently, the main export commodities in Sudan include animals, cotton, cut

flowers, fish, Arabic gum, olibanum, sesame and sugar. The main import

commodities include automotive components, building materials, agricultural

fertilisers, food ingredients, medicines, various petroleum products and textiles.

Major trading partners are Saudi Arabia, China, France, Italy, Germany, Egypt

and Japan

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Essentially, donor support has been limited so far to humanitarian assistance

and disaster relief - UNDP has been taking the lead in co-ordinating such

efforts. Other UN Agencies, NGO's and religious organisations have further

contributed by providing safety nets for vulnerable groups. Although Sudan Is

not in a position to meet its financial obligations to all its creditors, it has begun

taking steps towards re-building its relations with multilateral and regional banks,

including the IMF, the World Bank, the OPEC Fund, the AfDB and the Arab

Fund for Economic and Social Development.

Energy Overview

Oil and Gas Industry

The Sudan oil industry is a key sector in the economy of the country. In

particular the upstream oil industry is a major source of foreign exchange.

Crude oil production is currently at around 210,000 bbl/day of which around

160,000 bbl/d are exported and the rest around 50,000 bbl/day is used for

national consumption. The major oil fields are in Heglig/Unity (200,000 bbl/d)

and Adar (10,000 bbl/d).

Production has been rising steadily since the completion of a vital 930 miles

(1500 km) pipeline from the oil fields to the export terminal near port Sudan in

July 1999. Originally built to transport 150,000 bbl/d, the pipeline has a current

capacity of 250,000 bbl/d and can be expanded to 450,000 bbl/d.

The above-mentioned activities take place under the Greater Nile Oil Project

(GNOP)l, a consortium consisting of China national Petroleum Corporation

(40%), Petronas of Malaysia (30%), Talisman of Canada (25%) and the

Sudanese Petroleum Corporation, Sudapet (5%).

Major Foreign Oil Company involvement so far in the Sudan oil Industry are: Agip, CNPC, Gulf Petroleum Corp (GPC), Lundin Oil Corp., Exxon Mobil, National Iranian gas Company (NIGC), OMV (Austria), Petronas, Royal Dutch/Shell, Talisman Energy, TotalFina Elf. Trafigura Beheer B.V.

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Sudanese officials recently announced plans to begin oil exploration in

Northwest Sudan, the Blue Nile Basin in southeastern Sudan, and the Red Sea

area in eastern Sudan. Oil exploration in Sudan previously was limited largely to

the central and south-central regions, which , according to Khartoum officials,

represent only 15% of the national oil reserves. Sudanese Energy Ministry

representatives place estimated total reserves in the country at 3 billion barrels

and estimated proven reserves at 700 million barrels. However, due to security

problems only 50% could be considered exploitable at the moment. It was

reported that several Japanese, European and Middle East companies

expressed interest in new oil concessions.

The country has currently three oil refineries. A 50,000 bbl/d oil refinery in

Khartoum, a 21,700 bbl/d facility in Port Sudan and a smaller facility in central

Sudan near El Obeid with a capacity of 10,000 bbl/d. A petroleum products

pipeline links the two smaller facilities.

The Khartoum refinery, built and jointly operated by CNPC, produces benzene

and butane gas for domestic consumption and export, as well as gasoline for

local consumption. A portion of the surplus gas will eventually be used for the

production of electricity, according to Khartoum officials. Plans have been

announced to expand the capacity of the facility in Port Sudan by 70%.

With the June 2000 opening of the 50,000bbl/d Oil Refinery in the Jayli area, 30

miles north of Khartoum, Sudan became self-sufficient in all petroleum products

except for jet fuel.

The Government of Sudan hopes that further private investment in the oil sector

will reduce import costs and increase foreign exchange for development

financing.

23

Natural Gas

There are natural gas reserves estimated at 3 trillion cubic feet (tcf) in Sudan.

Currently, there is no production or consumption of natural gas.2 Activities

related to gas exploration have been at a standstill for some time but will most

probably be continued in the near future.

Electricity

Electric Generation capacity is around 500 megawatts (MW) which is under the

management of the state-owned National Electricity Corporation (NEC).

Although hydropower accounts for only 45% of installed capacity (225 MW), it

generated 72% of Sudan's electricity in 1997. The electricity Generation was

1,815 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh)

Two interconnected electric grid exist - the Blue Nile grid and the Western grid.

Much of Sudan, however, is not served by the electric grids. Some towns

outside the two grids are served by their own small-scale diesel-fired plants. It

has been observed that, some of the isolated grids of the NEC (the authorised

body for generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in Sudan) are in

need of upgrading and reinforcement.

Sudan has plans to develop additional generating capacity, especially

hydropower. The largest projects are the proposed Kajbar and Merow

hydroelectric facilities in Nothern Sudan. The Ajbar dam (USD 270 million)

located at the Nile's second cataract is currently under construction and will

have a 300MW capacity.

2 Being a major agricultural country, today Sudan is still a major importer of fertilisers. It will therefore be necessary in the near future to develop the fertiliser industry in the country. For example, Sudan's annual consumption of urea is about 200,000mt which is expected to increase to 600,000 mt within the coming 4 years. An existing urea plant in Khartoum, built in 1985 was never used. The plant basic raw material is naphtha, but can also operate by natural gas or LPG.

24

Sudan and Ethiopia are also planning to inter-connect electric grids, and have

recently set-up a joint committee to speed up the process. This project is

estimated to cost USD 45 million and would enable Sudan to benefit from

Ethiopia's surplus electric power.

Renewable Energy

Several renewable energy options are being explored especially in the remote

areas of the country. Since 1984 renewable energies have been assessed in the

country and both the National Research Council and the Ministry of Science and

Technology play an important part in these undertakings. Currently 3 other

sources (apart from hydropower and geothermal resources) receive full

attention:

Solar: Solar energy is considered one of the most important sources for the

future in particular for rural electrification programmes. It represents a vast

source in Sudan. Duration of sunshine in Sudan is 10 to 12 hours per day with

high-level of solar radiation at an average of 20 to 25 MJ/m2/day. The lowest

radiation is in Juba in the southern part of the country where it is cloudy and the

rainy season is relatively long. In other parts of the country direct radiation is

affected by dust and storms. At present several technologies (PV cells) are

being imported to exploit this resource, however it was mentioned (during our

meeting with the renewable energy committee) that Sudan has plans to produce

and commercialise some of these equipment in the country in the near future.

Wind : Sudan lies in the Northeast Trade wind where the pattern of wind flow

does not vary much from year to year with the consequence that the average

wind speed remains nearly constant throughout the year. Generally, useful

power can be obtained in areas where the annual average wind speed exceeds

8 mph, and where the installation of the proper type of windmills is considered

to be a practical and an economical preposition. Studies have shown that the

whole area of Sudan South of Malakal is not suitable for wind power utilisation

while the northern area together with the coastal strip along the Red Sea, could

be investigated further for suitable sites for windmills.

25

The National Electricity Corporation (NEC) is currently carrying out several

feasibility studies with the support of international consultancy firms in order to

assess the wind energy potential at identified locations in the country.

Biomass: The biomass energy supplies is currently a very important source of

energy in Sudan. In 1992, it accounted for almost 87% of the total primary

energy supplies (NEA estimates, 1993). This figure has decreased due to the

developments in the oil industry, the current difficulties in obtaining biomass

material and the alternative sources being considered. The bulk of biomass

energy comes from firewood, charcoal and agricultural residues. Obtaining

wood for fuel is becoming a serious problem in both rural and urban areas. It

has been observed that there is a growing fuel - wood problem in the country,

which can not be ignored The main problem of fuel-wood in the country is the

regular shrinking of forests area annually. The gradual depletion of forests and

the lack of such basic fuels extend far beyond the individual or family. It

endangers the nature of the rural society, it's agricultural base and the stability of

the environment.

Environment

Currently the major Environmental issues in Sudan are:

• Adverse weather conditions

• Inadequate supplies of potable water

• Wildlife populations threatened by excessive hunting

• Soil erosion

• Desertification

• Limited use of environmental technologies

Sudan is a signatory of major international environmental agreements. It is a

party to Conventions on Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification,

Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test ban, Ozone layer Protection

and Whaling. It is a non - annex 1 country under the Framework Convention on

Climate Change (ratified in 1993). It will soon sign (has signed) the Kyoto

Protocol.

26

The sectoral share of Energy Consumption is as follows:

Transportation 47.8%

Industrial 25.1% (Industrial sector includes textiles, cement,

vegetable oil, soap, and food factories)

Residential 18.8%

Commercial 8.9%

While the sectoral share of Carbon Emissions is as follows:

Transportation 60.7%

Industrial 20.8%

Residential 15.5%

Commercial 3.2%

In general, the Sudanese economy is not energy intensive, except in the

transport sector, due to the large size of the country and distances between

cities and long paved roads. However, performance of the key sectors in the

economy, virtually all depend on the availability and regularity of energy

supplies. Industry is generally not energy intensive, however, energy is a critical

input for most industries. The direct losses caused by frequent power out-ages

and load shedding has led most industrial firms to develop their own generation

capacities resulting in a substantial capital outlays.

3. Geothermal Energy as an Option - A Regional Perspective

Geothermal Energy as an Option in Sudan

The Sudanese economy has been in a state of stagnation for a number of

years. A chronic shortage of power, coupled with a growing energy demand, has

significantly hampered economic development in the country. In fact, the poor

performance of the Sudanese economy in the last two decades can be partially

explained by the continuous shortage in energy supply.

Delays in expanding power generation capacity, largely due to lack of finance,

has had dramatic effects on the performance of the industrial sector.

27

With the current development in the oil industry, the aim is to have increasing

development financing available for other sectors and alternative energy

resources.

The country's policy-making entity for energy, Ministry of Energy and Mining,

National Energy Administration (NEA), has identified geothermal energy as a

potential contributor to satisfy demand for additional power. Geothermal

resources are one of the alternative energy sources with a lot of potential in the

country. During the data collection process in Khartoum, several reports on

geothermal energy in Sudan (some dating back to several years) were obtained.

Even though these reports collected treat geothermal aspects from different

points of view and at different levels of detail, they point out at least 4 areas in

the country that are potentially interesting from the geothermal perspective: the

area of the Jabel Marra volcano, the Tagbo and Meidob hills, the Bayud volcanic

field and the Red Sea coast.

A Regional perspective - African region

The active East African Rift (an incipient plate boundary) runs through various

african countries; Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia and

Djibouti and touches six other countries.

Active volcanoes occur in Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania. It is known that

different countries are exploiting their geothermal resources within the region. In

Kenya and Djibouti a few geothermal plants are already in operation. An

experimental 200 kWh electrical generator operates in Zambia, and at Olkaria,

Kenya there is a 48Mwe geothermal power plant and an additional 64Mwe plant

recently came on line.

Intensive exploration is under way in Kenya to increase electricity production to

keep pace with population growth. In dry parts of the area, nomadic tribes

condense steam from fumaroles to water sheep and goats. Earlier this year, a

USUI (US initiative on Joint Implementation, under the Department of Energy )

28

financed project was started in Djibouti - the 30 Mwe Assal geothermal power

project. The facility will provide base load power to the national utility, Electricité

de Djibouti (EdB), for distribution to the Djibouti market.

Geothermal as an option - Special Consideration

It should be observed that only a small fraction of world's available geothermal

resources are being used today (see box 1 ). Many geothermal resources could

be used if better technology were available and if government and utilities

actively promoted their development.

Geothermal energy may have potential for supplying large-scale sustainable

energy supply to a number of developing countries and small island states. This

UNESCO initiative could therefore provide the necessary scientific data and

case study material for capacity-building/knowledge transfer for similar

sustainable energy projects to other countries in the African region and other

parts of the world.

Box 1 - Some Geothermal Energy Facts and Figures

• Twenty - one countries generate 8,000 megawatts of electricity from geothermal

resources and there are 11,300 thermal megawatts being used in more than 27

countries for direct use applications such as aquaculture and greenhouse

operations and industrial processing

• U.S geothermal companies have installed geothermal plants overseas that generate

more than 1,500 megawatts of electricity and represent an investment of more than

$ 3 billion

• Geothermal power can be generated from modular units ranging in size from a few

hundred kilowatts to more than 100 megawatts

• There are nearly 80,000 megawatts of electrical power that could be brought on-line

in foreign countries in the next two or three decades using geothermal resources

(Source: International Geothermal Association)

29

Preparation of Mission/Fieldwork

4. Fieldwork Preparation

4.1. Planning and Timing

The mission was planned against the a backdrop of time constraints: (i) due to

other professional commitments of the international experts in other parts of the

world, immediately following this Sudan mission and (ii) as a result of the

limited international flights available to and from Khartoum.

During this twelve-day mission, five days were spent carrying out field

reconnaissance in the Jabel Marra area, around four days on travelling (both

international connections and in - country journeys) and the remaining three

days attending various meetings with authorities in Khartoum and members of

the geothermal committee as part of the mission's process of data collection and

stakeholder consultation.

The field work in the suggested site in the Jebel Marra could be carefully

planned due to the fact that the Members of the Geothermal Committee

undertook a mission to the area a few months earlier, in preparation for the

mission of the international experts.

4.2. Focus on the Jebel Marra area

The initial work under this fact-finding focused the activities on the Jebel Marra

area. This of course, in line with and as part of (i) the long-range power planning

study of the Ministry of Energy and Mining, to carry out studies for geothermal

energy source in the whole country and (ii) in accordance with the regional

development strategies of the Government (in this case for the Darfur region/or

province).

30

The foregoing, testifies that the Government is fully aware of the fact that

especially in developing countries like Sudan, access to energy plays a critical

role in alleviating poverty through rural job creation, education and improved

health and living conditions and that there is a strong interconnection of energy

with other development projects:

Whether it is a housing or school construction project, an Irrigation or improved

drinking water initiative, a hospital, clinic or health programme, a scheme to

create jobs or small enterprises, a programme to improve conditions for women

and children, or, agro-industrial water reduction-pollution prevention projects,

integrating sustainable energy components with these activities can leverage

additional social, financial and environmental dividends.

The Jebel Marra lies within the boundaries of three States, Southeast Darfur

(Nyala), North Darfur (El Fasher), and West Darfur (Genena). This reliable

energy source could be vital for the region, especially considering the

remoteness of this area from the capital Khartoum.

It was mentioned by the Sudanese Authorities in Khartoum, that there are

enough produce in the area which need to be stored and geothermal energy

could be a solution.

Most of all, there is also the desire of the national and regional Govemment(s) in

Sudan to move the country from the heavy dependence on agriculture in the

region to a more industrialized - based: economic management of the country is

undermined by the country's reliance on agriculture - agricultural production

accounted for 48% of GDP in 1998 - which is inherently vulnerable to climatic

conditions and to fluctuations in international commodity prices.

The Darfur States (region or province), has also an abundance of mineral

resources. There are several metal deposits - lead, zinc, iron, and copper in the

area and closer to the border with Chad, enormous gold deposits have been

identified.

31

Within the regional development strategy, geothermal in Sudan could be used

for several purposes including power and electricity generation, metal extraction

and processing, hence benefitting the simultaneous development of several

sectors in the region.

5. Preparations - Meetings and Consultations in Khartoum

As part of the data collection process, consultation with stakeholders and

networking opportunities, several meetings were held prior to commencing the

fieldwork. Hereunder, is a summary of the meetings:

5.1. Meeting with the N.E.A - Geothermal Committee (9/05/2001 )

We met with the Director General (DG) and Staff of the National Energy Affairs

(N.E.A) and members of the Geothermal Energy Committee (GEC). The

meeting focussed on the preparations for the fieldtrip. In addition, the DG gave

some insight into the work of NEA and its organisation structure. The three

Departments ((i) Renewable Energy, (ii) Planning and (iii) Energy Conservation

and Efficiency), which make up the administration were highlighted. In this

framework, examples were given of their work in environmental legislation for

the petroleum industry, their monitoring role in the oil exports branch of the

country, and their activities on energy efficiency in the sugar and cement

industry. It was mentioned that recently, the administration has also been

approached to set up a UNIDO/UNEP Cleaner Production Centre, as energy

efficiency form an integral part of the Cleaner Production process.

• Meeting with the National Geothermal Energy Committee

A geothermal energy committee was established to assist us in this undertaking.

The meeting was quite helpful as members of this committee have done some

preparatory work before our arrival. They undertook a mission to the Jebel

Marra area and prepared a report, which was handed to us during the meeting.

We also obtained several maps from them.

32

The members of the geothermal energy committee gave an overview of the

work carried out so far and what we could expect during the fieldtrip. They also

gave a couple of concrete examples of the geothermal manifestations, which

they observed during their field trip as well as their personal experiences.

It was recommended that some of the members of this committee would assist

us during the fieldwork.

5.2. Meeting with the UNESCO National Commission - UNESCO Renewable

Energy Committee (10/05/2001)

• Meeting with the Minister of Higher Education (Mr. AH Tamim Fartak)

10/5/2001

This undertaking being an UNESCO mission, we were understandably also

received by the Minister of Higher Education. Unfortunately due to a delay in our

time schedule and the fact that the Minister had some other urgent

commitments (meeting with the President), the meeting with him was very short.

Nevertheless, we were just in time for him to welcome us and to wish us

success with our mission.

Thereafter we had the meeting with the UNESCO renewable energy Committee

in the presence of the UNESCO Secretary General. The meeting was quite

constructive as several of the participants were able to give an overview of their

work on renewable energy in Sudan and which other renewable energy options

were possible apart from geothermal, e.g. Solar energy, Wind Energy, Biomass,

etc. All the participants expressed support to this UNESCO initiative and are

looking forward to the results of the mission.

33

5.3. Other Meetings in Khartoum (10/05/2001)

• Meeting with Staff-Members of the Ministry of Planning and International Co­

operation

This meeting was requested with a view to planning the continuation of this

project, in case of encouraging results. While it was a very brief meeting, it was

nonetheless possible to learn about the role of the Ministry and which were

some of the bi-lateral sponsored projects currently in the pipeline (e.g. GEF,

UNDP, projects financed by the Dutch, Italian, other Governments).

It is in the intention to look for additional support from bi-lateral & multi-lateral

donors and hence it was necessary to get a brief overview of on-going technical

assistance by the different donors.

• Meeting with the Secretary General of Higher Council for Environment and

Natural Resources

The Chief of the council provided some background on the council and its

activities. It is a governmental, multifaced and interdisciplinary central body,

established for the protection and conservation of the environment. In addition to

policy formulation, planning and follow-up, the council is mainly expected to

enhance coordination between the various institutions working in the field of

environment. It recently prepared a comprehensive environmental law (which is

now being translated into English). The council is active in mainly all the areas of

GEF (climate change, biodiversity, protected areas.etc). A project on capacity-

building environmental sustainable development 2001 is currently one of their

key activities. Other activities include: Developing national sustainable

development strategies + Guidelines on Environmental Policy Act (which is an

umbrella Act under which you also find Ozone depletion ¡sues of the Montreal

Protocol,etc).During this meeting we received some interesting information of

work done a couple of years ago by some consultants in the Jebel Marra area.

The Council is also represented in the UNESCO renewable energy committee.

34

• Meeting with the UNESCO Chair on Water Resources

The UNESCO Chair on Water Resources is a very active body operating under

the UNESCO National Committee. They are preparing several project proposals

in order to tackle some of the environmental problems currently facing the

country. Although their activities are not directly linked to the geothermal

initiatives, it was quite useful discussing with this body. Members of this

UNESCO Chair (some of them former Ministers) who are very experienced)

provided very useful information for this geothermal project, as several of them

have been very busy in the Jebel Marra carrying out hydro-geological work. A

main project proposal in the pipeline of this body is a project to combat soil

erosion and management of sand encroachment on the Nile. This seems to be

a very serious environmental problem facing several of the Nile countries .

35

1. Introduction

Geothermal energy is the energy which can be efficiently extracted from earth's

interior. It is a domestic energy source with cost, reliability and environmental

advantages over conventional energy sources. It could contribute to both,

energy supply, with electrical power generation and direct-heat uses, and to

reduced energy demand, with savings in electricity and natural gas through use

of geothermal heat pumps to heat and cool buildings.

As a source of electrical power, it has several natural advantages over oil, coal

and even hydropower generation. These advantages can be summarised as

follows:

• Kilowatt for Kilowatt geothermal energy is one of the cheapest means of

generating electricity. Only very large-scale hydropower plants run with very

cheap oil (less than $ 10/bbl) can compete on an equal financial footing.

• The exploitation of a geothermal energy resource is infinitely flexible and can

be easily geared to the precise economic requirements of an area. For

example, if 1.5 or 50 MW(e) of power generation is required, the resource

can be exploited and financed at this precise level. With cascaded use, a

resource can also be totally exploited if maximum financial return is required.

• Exploitation of indigenous geothermal energy allows reduction on the

dependency of imported oil. Even if a country has an abundance of oil

reserves, the use of geothermal resources still makes economic sense as it

allows a larger proportion of these valuable and mobile fuels to be exported.

• A geothermal resource requires little maintenance providing a constant

output of power over a very long period of time (25 to 30 years). There are

no major exploitation costs once the resource has been developed.

36

2. General Features of Geothermal Systems

A geothermal system is made up of three main elements:

a) a heat source, generally represented by magmatic intrusions found in the

crust at more or less shallow depths (5-10 km); b) a reservoir, which is a volume

of hot permeable rock from which heat can be extracted economically through

wells at depths usually in the range of 2000-3000 m. Such reservoirs are often

linked to the surface, which replenishes them with meteoric water; c) a

geothermal resource, which is water in either the liquid or vapour phase, often

bearing gases such as CO2, H2S, etc. The areas where geothermal systems

occur are characterised by high heat flow and, usually accompanied by surface

geothermal manifestations, such as thermal springs, fumaroles and gas vents.

Geothermal systems are mostly found in zones of structural weakness, where

repeated magmatism is to be expected; thus, they occur especially around the

plate margins, where active volcanism is associated with the presence of more

or less shallow magmatic chambers and/or intrusions. They are classified

according to the resource temperatures, thus, low, intermediate and high-

temperature systems are generally distinguished. A practical distinction between

low (T < 150 °C) and high- (T > 150 °C) temperature systems has been

suggested by Haenel and al. (1988), and is based above all on the fluid's

capacity to produce electricity. Actually, the reservoir temperatures and steam

enthalpies found in the geothermal fields currently generating electricity vary

within a wide range, as shown in Table 1.

37

Table 1 Reservoir temperatures and enthalpies of geothermal fields generating electricity. (From: Sommaruga and Zan, 1995).

GEOTHERMAL FIELDS

VAPOUR-DOMINATED SYSTEMS

THE GEYSERS (USA) LARDERELLO (Italy) AMIATA (ttalv) MATSUKAWA (Japan) KAMOJANG (Indonesia)

WATER-DOMINATED SYSTEMS

WAIRAKEI (New Zealand) BROADLANDS (New Zealand) IMPERIAL VALLEY fields (USA) CERRO PRIETO (Mexico) LOS AZUFRES (Mexico) LOS HUMEROS (Mexico) MOMOTOMBO (Nicaragua) AHUACHAPAN (El Salvador) TIWI (Philippines) MAC-BAN (Philippines) HATCHOBARU (Japan) OLKARIA (Kenya) KRAFLA (Iceland)

RESERVOIR TEMP.

C° ( ) mat Temp.

237 (310) 200 (420) 154 (344) 220 175 (248)

230 (290) 280 (326) 160 (370)

265 (388) 175 (300) 310 (418) 210 (327) 210 (240) 273 (309) 207 (313) 218 (308) 205 (330) 205 (344)

ENTHALPY max kcal/kg (kJ/kg)

718 (3000) 742 (3100) 622 (2600)

665 (2780)

281 (1175) 401 (1675) 239 (1000) 581 (2430) 646 (2700) 622 (2600) 646 (2700) 660 (2760) 670 (2800) 428 (1790) 538 (2250) 574 (2400) 641 (2680)

The possible direct uses of geothermal fluids with temperature from 20 to 180

°C are schematically reported in the Lindal diagram ( Fridleifsson and

Freeston,1994) in figure 1

The L i n d a l D i a g r a m (Modified)

5 <

UJ

<0

Q UJ

< rr »-<

200 -i <°C)

'OS tu »-<

i -O X

1 8 0 -

1 6 0 -

1 4 0 -

1 2 0 -

1 0 0 -

8 0 -

6 0 -

4 0 -

2 0 -

Refrigeration by ammonia absorbtion -*-—

Digestion in paper pulp

Drying of fish meal

Alumina via 8ay«r's process -"

Canning of food "*

Evaporation in sugar refining

Evaporation

Drying and curing of cement blocks

Drying of agricultural products

Drying of stock fish

Space heating (buildings and greenhouses)

Cold storage

Air conditioning «

Animal husbandry

Soil warming

Swimming pools, de-icing

Fish farming "•

C O N V E N T I O N A L

)- E L E C T R I C

G E N E R A T I O N

B I N A R Y F L U I D >- E L E C T R I C

G E N E R A T I O N

S P A C E H E A T I N G

" W I T H HEAT P U M P S

Fig. 1

38

3. Geological Setting of Sudan

The rocks in Sudan can be ascribed to

a) Precambrian basement complex

Granitic gneiss, schist, granites masses, metasedimentary and metavolcanic

sequences, which are mainly found in the southwestern, central and

northeastern regions.

b) Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks

These are mainly represented by sandstones that are as a whole relatively

undeformed. The Nubian sandstone is the most widespread formation of this

group. The Red Sea littoral group, found in a narrow belt along the Red Sea

coast, is made up of clastic sediments, evaporites and fossiliferous limestones.

c) Tertiary to Quaternary sedimentary rocks

The Umm Rumwaba and Gezira formations, made up of sands, gravels, silts

and clay, represent the infilling of the basins in the Central Sudan rift Zone

d) Intrusive igneous rocks

Many granitic intrusions occur in the Precambrian basement and, in some

cases, in the overlying sedimentary cover. Late Proterozoic and possibly

Paleozoic granites, diorites and quartz diorites occur as batholites throughout

the country. More recent granites are believed to be from Paleozoic to upper

Mesozoic in age.

e) Volcanic rocks

These occur as the trap series of the Ethiopian highland, along the Sudanese

border, and as a line of volcanic centers running along a northeasterly direction

across Jebel Marra, the Meidob hills, and the Bayuda field to the Red Sea hills.

From Tertiary up to recent, there has been widespread tectonic activity

associated with the opening of the Red Sea, the formation of the East African

Rift (35-40 Ma) and the doming of the Darfur region, which actually began in the

Cretaceous. The major results related to these volcano-tectonic activities are

(Fig. 2) :

39

- A major volcanic alignment which runs NE-SW along the Western Red Sea

Hills, Bayuda Melh, Merdob, Tagabo and Jebel Marra, and trends through

southern Chad towards the Cameroon Line volcanic chain coursing along the

Ngaoundere lineament (see Fig. 4 ). This lineament is considered to represent a

dextral shear zone of Pan-African origin probably reactivated as a rift due to the

Mesozoic opening of the Atlantic Ocean. In Sudan historical volcanic events

have been reported for the Jebel Marra volcano (3250 years B.P) and in the

Bayuda volcanic field (1100 years B.P.).

- Activation of fractures and faults, trending NW-SE and NNE-SSW.

- The formation of the Central Sudan Rift. This structure is made up of huge

grabens trending NW-SE, which host large, oil-bearing sedimentary basins,

represented by the Bahr el Arab Rift Basin, White Nile Rift Zone and Blue Nile

Rift Zone.

40

m&¿éx wm§imm&

- t . • ' ^ ^ **i& Surface Manifestations

¡p Hot Springs

Jk. Fumaroles

Subsurface Manifestations

fSSS] Area with high temperatura ^ ^ gradients and/or high heat flows

measured in exploratory oil/gas wells

Legend

QO Central Sudan Rift ¿one Tertiary to Recent Volcanics Coastal Plain

P09M9.01 MR

National Electric Corporation of the Sudan Long Term Power System Planning Study

Areas of Potential Geothermal Resources

Fig. 2. From ACRES (1992)

41

4. Geothermal Areas in Sudan

The areas (Fig.2) which seem to have some geothermal potential are related to

the geological evolution of Sudan during the Tertiary.

Red Sea Coast

The oil wells drilled in the seabed and along the shoreline of the Sudan coastal

plain, which represent the western edge of this active tectonic structure, have

highlighted that generally higher heat-flow values are found in the middle of the

trough, with decreasing values towards the flanks. High heat-flow values, with a

maximum of more than 3000 (mWm"2) and an average of 116 mWm"2, have

been indicated by Evans and Tammemagi (1974) within the trough. They then

decline rapidly towards the coast, though always remaining above the world

average of 61.5 mWm-2. Table 2 reports the data on the different wells whose

locations are shown in figure 3

According to the ACRES (1992), on the basis of the low geothermal gradient

(30-34 °C/km) measured down to depths between 1500 and 2500 in the

Dungunab-1, Abu Shagara-1 and Maghersum-1 wells, located in the

Mohammed Q area (Fig.2) about 140-180 km north of Port Sudan, the area

does not possess any significant geothermal potential.

Significant potential has instead been reported for the Suakin area (Fig.2), about

100-170 km south of Port Sudan. Here, according to the NEA report, on the

basis of data from Chevron, "a sizeable geopressurized geothermal resource

exists". The geothermal gradients in the Suakin-1 well increase from 51 °C/km,

in a depth range of 1500-2300 m, to 180 °C/km from 2300 to 2432 m, with an

estimated bottom-hole temperature of 196 °C. The Bashayer-1 a well has yielded

temperatures increasing from 118 °C to 216 °C from 2585 m to 3700 m depth.

For the Durwara 2 well, a bottom hole temperature of 193 CC has been reported

at a depth of 4142 m (regarding depth data there are some small discrepancies

between the NEA and ACRES reports). The Durwara 2 well, found on the edge

of Durwara island close to the mainland (while the other wells are offshore) has

been indicated as a possible producer of geothermal fluids for the Suakin basin.

42

For the Suakin area, NEA estimates the geothermal reservoir to have a volume

of 1.2x1010 m3, with a total heat of 4.8 x 1018 J.

% "-\ r-i «ir

" » ^ U0»««« 105 J

r.-1» t

Arabia

Source: Evans & Tammemagi, 1974

' - „ . 7 .

National Electric Corporation of the Sudan Long Term Powar Systam Planning Study

Heal Flow Data in Ihe Central Red Sea Region

Temperature Data from Exioratory Wells in the Red Sea Coastal Area

.¿ftBotSurrt

tf«ríwa&.v\

Dungunab-1

Abu Stiagara-

Maghersum

Durwara-2

Marallt-1

Suakln-t

BashayeMA

(2)

1 (2)

(1)

(1)

(2)

(2)

(2) |

21

21

20

te

18

18

18

08'

03>

491

«9'

20>

53'

31'

37

37

37

37

37

38

38

05'

17>

tv

38'

421

03'

02 ' J

15001

25001

2S00t

4152

2254

2744

2787

-

95t

100l

193

79

196

218 |

34.5

30.2

34.5

40.0(bal(w2O0Om)

22.7

51 (Irom 1341 to

2315 m)

81 (below 2315 m)

up to 73

88.7

99.6

100.1

126.4

-

-

-

Source ol Inlormalion (1) tons and Tamnwmagl (1974)

(2) National Erwgy Administration. E/wgy n«ourc« Group

Fig. 3 and Table 2 from ACRES (1992)

43

Tagbo and Meidob Hills

These extend 100 to 300 km northeast of Jebel Marra. They consist of basic to

intermediate volcanic flows, and their eruption history is believed to be similar to

that of Jebel Marra. Apart from their lying on the eastern side of an important

negative gravity anomaly centered on the Jebel Marra volcano, there are no

other clues regarding the possible presence of geothermal resources; surface

geothermal manifestation are also lacking. On this point however, we must note

that, according to the map by Bermingham et al. 1983, redrawn by Vail (1978), a

hot spring seems to be present at the Meidob hills.

Bayuda Volcanic Field

A large number of recent scoria cones associated to basaltic lavas are found

over an area of about 520 km2, situated roughly 200-350 km north of Khartoum,

near Merowe. Many volcanic centers, some of which are explosive in type, are

from Pleistocene to Recent in age. According to Vail (1988) in ACRES (1992),

carbon 14 dating indicates volcanic events in this area dating to 1100 years B.P.

However, no surface geothermal manifestations seem to be present. The

existence of a saline lake has been reported (Almond et al., 1969 in ACRES,

1992), and these authors seem to believe that crustal doming affects this area.

Jebel Marra Volcano

The Jebel Marra intra-plate alkalic volcanic complex, which elongates N-S with a

maximum elevation of 3042 m and covers an area of about 8000 km2, lies in a

strategic position with respect to Africa's volcano-tectonic characteristics. In fact,

it is considered to be situated at a possible triple junction in the African

lithosphère, as shown in figure 4 (Davidson and Wilson 1989). The Abu Gabra

Rift in this figure corresponds to the Bhar el Arab graben in figure 2.

44

Volcanics | | Oomal Uplifted Areas

Fig. 4 - Location of the Jebel Marra volcanic complex relative to major tectonic

elements in north-central Africa (Davidson and Wilson 1989)

Browne and Fairhed (1983) proposed that the junction area between the

Ngaundere and Abu Gabra Rift arms forms an incipient intraplate, triple junction

with the as yet unfractured, but domally uplifted and volcanically active Darfur

swell. The Darfur uplift, which is believed to have commenced in the

Cretaceous, is associated with a wide negative Bouguer anomaly, 50 mGal in

amplitude and 700 km across (Bermingham et al.,1983). The Jebel Marra

volcanic complex, whose lavas are from Miocene to Recent (Davidson and

Wilson 1989), lies in the middle of this anomaly, as shown in figure 5. The origin

of the uplift, the associated thinning of the lithosphère and the volcanism have

been attributed to upwelling of hot asthenosphere. The origin of magma is

therefore remarkably deep, and this may represent a significant obstacle to

finding geothermal resources because of the low probability of finding shallow

magma chambers.

45

O 200 Km

Fig. 5 - Bouguer gravity map of the Darfur dome contoured at 10 mGal intervals

(Bermingham et al. 1983)

Some considerations, however, follow from taking into account the evolution of

the volcanic products. The Jebel Marra lavas are stratigraphically divided into an

Old and a New Series. Old series lavas are made up of basalts through

trachytes, with rare phonolites. The New series, which are less than 2 Ma old

(Davidson and Wilson 1989), after a period of mafic composition, shifted

towards more differentiated products. Trachytes and pyroclastics are generally

found and differentiation occurs with contamination from the crust material.

Davidson and Wilson (1989) proposed the model presented in figure 6.

46

-(Parental Lovas) Increasing Contamination-

«Nd

*Ni

2 0 7 p D

2 0 4 p b

% «V8 6*

- Rb ppm

2 0 *Pb / M ' , Pb

*

X , I Sosonsl

I. 3£

Hawaiites-Trcchytes

\nrv Mug«ar!tes-Trachytes

[Upper Crust High s s ,

High M>«Pt>/M4R>

ILower Crustl \-\ tow es, Lo« * ° W " " P t

T ^ - ' L O W r

Magma [Asthenosphere| \^Generation

Fig. 6 - Illustration of the processes occurring at Jebel Marra (Davidson and

Wilson, 1989)

They write: "primary liquids at Jebel Marra were generated from an

asthenosphere source similar to that for ocean island basalt.

The ascent of these liquids through the crust is arrested probably at more than

one level in magma chambers." Thus, apart from the primitive deep source,

more or less shallow magma chambers could exist in the upper crust at Jebel

Marra. This is also supported by the presence of basement-rock cobbles and

boulders in the Deriba caldera floor, in the Deriba Crater and in some ash-fall

deposits. The Deriba Caldera is a sub-circular caldera with a diameter of about 6

km and an inner explosion crater within. K/Ar methods have been used to date

two trachites, believed to be associated with the caldera forming eruption, to

0.06 Ma (Davidson and Wilson 1989). Francis and al. (1973) report an age of

3250 years B.P. for carbonized wood found in tuffs outside the caldera.

47

Justifiably, Jebel Marra, where some earth tremors also occur at Jebel Gurgei

(Bermingham et al., 1983), is sometimes defined as a dormant volcano.

A number of surface geothermal manifestations are also present at Jebel Marra.

A fumarole and two hot springs with temperatures of up to 85 °(this temperature,

if verified, should be near boiling point at 3000 m elevation) have been reported

at the Deriba Crater, where two lakes, believed to be fed by hot springs, are also

found.

It is difficult to state the actual number and locations of the thermal

manifestations in Jebel Marra and surrounding area. From Bermingham et al.

(1983), it seems that only five springs existed in this area, whereas the

Robertson report indicates "fumaroles and hot spring common". Moreover, the

springs' locations are often reported vicariously from other sources, without

however being verified. During our field work, we attempted to collect

information regarding springs that, according to the ACRES (1992), are

supposed to be found near Nyedi (see Fig.2), but not even the village was

known.

In short, there are a number of obstacles to finding accurate, reliable information

on the existence and location of thermal manifestations, and efforts are needed

to collect all the existing data.

48

5. Field Work in the Jebel Marra Area

During the period we spent in the field we lodged mainly at Nyala, making nearly

daily journeys to the Jebel Marra zone. Due to both the distances and the

difficult terrain, some portions of which had to be covered on foot, we were able

to visit only three thermal springs' areas.

Unfortunately due to the inaccessibility of the area and the lack of available time,

it was impossible to visit the crater where fumaroles and hot springs are

present.

Three hot springs are reportedly located on the western flank of the caldera, not

far from its rim. The springs would be at 2-4-hour hike from the village of Kronga

(Nyertete area), but because of the difficulty in finding the proper tracks

(probably washed out by slides during the rainy season), we were able to reach

only one of the RojRoia springs (R1), located at 12° 59' 862 N and 24° 13' 573

E. It has a flow rate of about 80 l/s, temperature of 44.7 °C, pH = 6.6 and

electrical conductivity (EC) = 7.2 mScm"1. This spring, which is characterised by

the presence of large amounts of gas (Photo 2) and the existence of travertine

deposits, gives rise to a creek. As reported by ACRES (1992), a number of

creeks and small streams in the area are believed to originate in springs,

possibly hot . This is supported by the fact that during our trip we crossed a

stream exhibiting an EC of 3.65 mScm"1, which is a high value for stream-water

fed by precipitation alone, so a contribution from saline springs seems evident.

Other springs were found at Hami Rotoki (about 45 SW of Kas and 12° 18' 195

N and 24° 13' 020 E). Although eight springs reportedly exist at this location, we

were able to find only two, which are near small, E-W elongated outcrops of

microgranites (Photo 1). Their flow rates are low (1-2 l/s each) and their

temperatures between 52 and 57 °C, with pH = 7 and 7.7 and EC = 0.9 mScm"1.

Both springs are characterised by discontinuous gas bubbling .

49

: % ^ m j B y q

^ K V A ^ i

rm &'" ^:J

*§&£<"•

' ^ T - ï

, jr ^*£5^'-

' V

'^:s$3v; iSK' •*t"í*á

tf^ií-a

Jebel Marra springs: Hami Rotoki (1), Roj Roja (2) and Nabag FilFil (3)

50

Another spring is located at Nabag FilFil, about 44 km SE of Suni, at coordinates

12° 59' 964 N and 24° 34' 039 E. This spring (Photo 3) is found within a wadi on

its right side and is characterized by the presence of gas. Its measured

parameters were: temperature = 37 °C, pH = 7.1 and EC = 4.71 mScm-1.

Reportedly, four years ago the temperature of this water point was 53 °C. During

this trip in the Suni area, we learnt of the existence somewhere of a gas vent

where some people had died probably because of gas exhalations.

We collected 3 raw water samples at the different locations and submitted them

for chemical and isotopic analyses (as proper equipment was lacking, we were

unable to either measure alkalinity or fix cations). It should be noted that soild

precipitation affected the samples before the analyses.

Table 3 reports the chemical and isotope compositions of the waters (chemical

and isotope analyses carried out respectively at the IGCI and IIRG laboratories

of the CNR-Pisa, Italy)

Table 3 - Chemical data in mg/kg, isotope composition in per mille vs. SMOW

Springs Hami Roj Roja Nabag Rotoki FilFil

146

5.6

6.1

0.1

195

44

13.1

83.0

<0.2

84

577

-6.58

-46.7

1384

6.8

26.7

28.7

2566

838

<1.0

<1.0

4.5

164

5022

-1.15

-5.6

1014

59.4

34.2

23.3

2885

43

7.3

12.6

0.3

59

4155

-7.91

-53.3

Na+

K+

Ca++

Mg

HCO3-

Cl-

F-

SO4-

B

SI02

TDS

ô180

Ô2H

51

Differences can be observed among the samples with respect to salinity (TDS),

which depends mainly on Na and HCO3 content. In fact, the sampled waters are

all of the Na-HC03 type with different percentage of CI. Both Roj Roja and

Nabag FilFil water samples seem to be almost saturated with respect to CO2.

Na-HCC-3 waters, generally observed at the margins of geothermal fields, are

considered (Foumier, 1991; Giggenbach, 1991; Nicholson, 93) rather unreliable

for application of geoindicators. Most geoindicators work well for near-neutral,

low sulfate, high chloride waters. Given the uncertainties consequent to the

improper sampling procedure, the precipitation of solids from the solution before

analysis and the peculiar characteristics of these waters, the use of cation

geothermometry becomes meaningless. Some deep temperature estimates can

be attempted with the quartz geothermometer T°C= 1309/( 5.19- log SÍO2)-

273.15 (Foumier, 1981). The results are:

Spring T °C(quartz)

Hami Rotoki 128

Roj Roja 167

Nabag FilFil 109

When applied to spring waters, geothermometry frequently underestimates the

temperatures with respect to those achievable through in-well samplings,

because of the likely occurrence of mixing processes and possible precipitation

near the surface.

Boron is an important diagnostic species in geothermal studies. Spring and well

discharges of chloride fluids usually contain 10-50 mg/kg of boron. In our case,

the B content is low, and together with the CI seems to indicate that Roj Roja,

the "hottest" spring according to the quartz indications, is the one most closely

approaching a "geothermal" water.

The isotope data seem to more or less fit the world meteoric line ( ô2H=8 ô180 +

10). It should however be noted that Roj Roja sample is too positive. It has

probably been subjected to a fractionation processes, which are however

impossible to define with only three samples.

52

We cannot exclude that Roj Roja spring could have some links with the lakes

found in the caldera, as some members of the Geothermal committee have

conjectured.

Further, detailed studies based on a larger number of samples including gases

and cold springs should be carried out in this area before any conclusions are

drawn.

6.Technical Considerations, Findings - Follow-up

The presence and the ages of volcanic rocks in areas such as Meidob- Tagbo

hills and the Bayuda field are considered to suggest some geothermal potential

here, but at the present no other significant evidence points to the presence of a

possible geothermal resource. Moreover, whereas the Bayuda volcanic field is

close to Merowe, an important point in the planned electrical power distribution

system, the area of Tagbo and Meidob is quite far removed from it (ACRES,

1992). In these zones basic reconnaissance should be carried out, addressed

mainly to defining the presence of geothermal manifestations and

hydrothermally altered zones.

Regarding the Red Sea coast, the presence of a resource seems to have been

ascertained in the Suakin zone. However, except for Durwara island, the

geothermal reservoir seems to be almost entirely offshore. This practically

precludes extensive economic exploitation. In the collected reports, the data

furnished regards solely the Marafit well; nothing with respect to the Tokar 1 well

is mentioned. Little seems to be known of the coastal mainland in the Suakin

area. Possibly other exploratory and/or productive wells have been drilled in

recent years. The data from all the existing oil wells (both coastal and offshore)

is in need of updating and "geothermal" interpretation. Also, any data regarding

the chemical characteristics of the expected fluid should be gathered from the oil

industry.

53

The chemical characteristics of the fluid can greatly influence exploitation costs.

Moreover, the potential reservoir in the Suakin area seems to be quite deep.

Any further exploration initiatives in this zone would therefore be based only on

deep geophysical prospecting and exploratory drilling, which are expensive

under current conditions. In any event, we hold that the situation on Durwara

island merits further looking into depending on the actual needs of energy in the

area.

In conclusion, we can state that the Jebel Marra area seems to be the most

interesting from the geothermal point of view because of the existence of the

following rather favorable features: a) regional geological setting; b) possible

presence of magma chambers at more or less shallow depths; c) recent to

historical volcanism; d) presence of geothermal manifestations which, although

seemingly modest in numbers and types, do suggest the existence of some

geothermal activity in the area; and one point not discussed in the foregoing, d)

probable good meteoric recharge due to significant precipitation on the volcano.

Therefore, an exploratory geothermal project is recommended in this area.

• Follow-up - An Exploration Project

In order to minimize the costs involved in any geothermal project, exploration

should be organized in a sequence of steps with increasing associated costs.

Collection and review of the existing data

Different sources of information regarding geothermics exists, but they are likely

to be scattered throughout various offices and archives. Such information, as

well as all scientific documentation regarding the geology, structural geology,

volcanology, geophysics and hydrology of the area should be collected and

updated, together with geological and topographical maps. The data should be

then reviewed from a geothermal perspective. In this phase, a preliminary

inventory of reported thermal manifestations, as well as cold springs in the study

area should also be prepared.

54

Geological reconnaissance

Geology and hydrogeology are the starting point for any exploration program,

and their basic function is that of defining the location and extension of the

area(s) (500-1000 km2) worth investigating in greater detail. Considering the

expanse of Jebel Marra, an important contribution to the preliminary phase could

come from remote sensing. Above and beyond helping to define lineations,

faults, fracture patterns and geological characteristics, remote sensing would

also be a useful and relatively inexpensive technique for locating and defining

zones of hydrothermal alteration. Mineralizations and alterations are of great

importance in geothermal prospecting, as they can provide information about old

hydrothermal circuits that, although having disappeared at the surface, may still

be active at depth. Despite the currently contradictory indications, it is possible

that remote sensing could also help locate zones of anomalous temperatures

and geothermal manifestations. Locating geothermal manifestations and

determining their characteristics both play an important role in geothermal

exploration by virtue of the information they can provide and because they

usually highlight the most promising zones for subsequent investigation. Lastly,

we also recommend that vocanological, petrological and structural studies be

carried out in the area.

Field work

Once the most promising area has been identified, field work should follow in

order to verify the preliminary reconnaissance results obtained by checking

geological characteristics, taking rocks samples to be then analyzed, evaluating

the gross permeability of different units and visiting the geothermal manifestation

measuring, possibly, their main physical-chemical characteristics ( flow-rate, T,

EC, pH). Attention should also be paid to deposits, if any, at the emergence

points. Apart from furnishing useful indications on the type of geothermal fluids

present and their origins, such observations can highlight possible eventuality of

scaling processes during future exploitation. Calcite and silica deposits are the

most common in geothermal areas.

55

Geochemical prospecting

Geochemical studies, which have become an integral part of any geothermal

exploration, provide important information on the geothermal characteristics of

the area and the types of thermal fluids present, which often carry imprints of

their deep histories to the surface.

Reservoir temperatures, system type (water- or vapor-dominated), the fluid

origins and quality, the deep geology and mineralogy and possible scaling

and/or corrosion problems, all of which can greatly influence exploitation costs,

can be evaluated by studying the fluids' chemical and isotopic compositions.

Geochemical surveying requires proper sampling (UNITAR/UNDP.1992) and

analysis of the fluids (i.e., water and gas) from thermal manifestations. A better

understanding of the hydrogeochemical setting of the study area can however

be achieved by sampling and analyzing the cold waters present in the zone, as

well, in order to discover any possible relationships between these and the

thermal fluids.

Geochemical studies exploit the different properties of the fluid's components,

which may be grouped into chemically "non-reactive" and "reactive"

constituents. Once having entered solution, the "non-reactive", or conservative

components, such as He, Ar in the gas phase and CI, B, Rb, Li and Cs in water,

are not significantly affected by physical-chemical reactions, and can therefore

be used as "markers" or "tracers". The reactive constituents, for their part,

respond in a predictable way to physical-chemical reactions occurring at depth,

and can thereby be used as "geoindicators", for instance, geothermometers.

These reactive constituents are represented, for example, by components such

as Na, K, Mg, Ca and SÍO2, which take part in temperature-dependent reactions

with Al-silicate minerals or H2, H2S, CH4, and C02, involved in temperature- and

pressure-dependent redox reactions, either amongst themselves, or with the

redox system of the rock phase.

56

The various geothermometers available must be applied with caution, bearing in

mind the mineralogical background and basic constraints. Generally, chemical

geothermometry yields the best results when applied to high-temperature

geothermal reservoirs in which water-rock equilibria are likely to occur.

Water and gas chemistry contribute greatly to our understanding the processes

occurring in a reservoir. Chemical investigations can not only furnish

thermometric indications, but also enable assessment of other relevant reservoir

parameters, such as pressure conditions and steam/water ratios.

Geochemical sampling, for which, as previously mentioned, proper technique is

of the utmost importance, is sometimes carried out during the preceding step of

fieldwork. However, it can be performed after definition of the locations, numbers

and types of thermal manifestations present (spring, fumarole, gas vent). Na, K,

Ca, Mg, HC03, CI, S04, F, Br, AI, H2S, NH4, B, Li, Rb, Br, Fe and Cs should be

analyzed in the liquid phase, whereas CO2, H2S, He, H2, Ar, N2 and CH4 in the

gas phase. Chemical analyses of waters could be carried out at local chemical

laboratories, though it is recommended that, at least initially, some analyses be

performed in parallel at experienced European or American facilities.

Geophysical prospecting

Either geological structures, able to contain hot fluids, or anomalies that reflect

the properties of the hydrothermal fluids, and altered rocks are searched by

geophysics. A geothermal reservoir, which is generally characterized by high

temperatures, relatively high porosity and permeability, the presence of

mineralized water and thermally altered rocks, represents an inhomogeneity

with respect to the surrounding colder, unaltered rocks. Such inhomogeneities

can be observed to varying degrees as anomalies measurable at the surface.

Generally, it is recommended that two or more geophysical methods be used for

measuring the various physical parameters. It is unlikely that one method alone

would enable any problems to be solved. In geothermal prospecting, it is

common practice to combine gravimetric and electrical methods.

- Gravity method. The measurement of gravity variations caused by masses with

different rock densities allows recognition of geological features such as

57

intrusions, structures and faults. The Bouguer anomaly map and residuals

anomaly map represent the basic data obtained from gravimetric prospecting.

Generally, qualitative results are obtained from this method, though rough

estimates of the reservoir depth can however be obtained through mathematical

modelling.

Electrical methods. These methods, which include various different

techniques, are based mainly on measurement of the electrical resistance of

rocks. Electrical methods are probably the most widely applied in geothermal

exploration. Resistivity varies as a function of some of the major properties

associated with the occurrence of thermal waters, such as temperature, water

salinity, rock porosity and the existence of alteration minerals. The common

principle underlying all resistivity methods is to monitor the signals generated by

an induced current in the earth. Electrical methods are used to delineate

geothermal systems, locate aquifers and, sometimes, to estimate physical

conditions within a geothermal system. A major drawback of these methods is

the shallow depth of penetration. Deeper penetration can however be achieved

by utilizing electromagnetic methods.

Depending on the existing data, and the results achieved during the preceding

steps, a gravity survey should be carried out to define the major local structural

features of the area. The survey (usually 3 gravity stations per km2) should be

carried out in those areas deemed the most interesting on the basis of the

results of the preceding studies. Once the major local subsurface characteristics

of the most promising zones have been evaluated, an electrical survey should

be carried out with the purpose of determining the possible presence of a

reservoir and estimating its depth. One major drawback to these methods in the

current context are the poor accessibility and the morphology of the Jebel Marra

area.

At this stage, further prospecting, which in practice combines shallow

exploratory drilling and geophysical prospecting is called for. A series of shallow

(generally 300 m) wells of small diameter (4-5 inches) are drilled in the most

favorable area(s) and the temperature measured at different depths once the

well has reached thermal stabilization.

58

This method allows determining the geothermal gradient and, through the rock

thermal conductivity, the heat flow in the area. Once the geological sequence

and thermal conductivity of the different underlying formations are known, a

temperature extrapolation can be made to the reservoir top (indicated by other

geophysical prospecting). Through application of this method, a whole series of

important information can be gained on the area in question's geology,

petrology, rock permeability, water circulation, etc. It goes without saying that in

the event that the wells intersect ground water, sampling and analyses of the

fluids should also be carried out.

Exploratory drilling

The final stage of geothermal prospecting is exploratory well drilling to reach the

reservoir. Usually the final diameters of such wells are on the order of 8 inches,

which allows for the insertion of logging tools and, sometimes, carrying out fluid

production tests. Clearly, the first exploratory holes are to be made in the most

promising zones, where the overall results of the various early probes indicate

the best chance of finding production. Subsequent wells are then sited to test

and confirm the extent of the reservoir.

During drilling, geological data from cuttings and cores, temperatures from

returned mud flow and permeability changes from circulation losses are to be

recorded. Temperature measurements are also made at the hole bottom during

breaks in drilling. Such data are utilized to estimate the rock temperature.

At the end of drilling, cold-water injection tests are generally carried out in order

to estimate the well's gross permeability characteristics. Temperature

measurements are performed during and at the end of injection tests, as well as

during heating up of the well, which can often take a long time before the well

reaches stabile conditions. Temperature and pressure profiles of the well are

prepared in order to evaluate the fluid's thermodynamic characteristics and

highlight any possibly productive zones in the reservoir.

59

The possible project at Jebel Marra could be made of four subsequent stages.

1) Collection and review of the existing data, geological reconnaissance, field

work and geochemical prospecting -> 2) Surface geophysical prospecting -> 3)

Shallow drilling for temperature logging -> 4) Deep exploratory drilling

Electricity generation - Costs aspects

In geothermal development for the generation of electricity, about 50% of total

costs are related to the identification and characterisation of reservoirs and,

above all, to the drilling of production and reinjection wells. Of the remainder,

40% goes to power plants and pipelines, and 10% to other activities.

The cost of the geothermal kWh is characterised by a high share of capital cost

(steamfield and plants), and relatively low operation and maintenance costs. The

investment share in the cost of the geothermal kWh is due to the following

activities:

1) the surface exploration and the surveys preliminary to deep drilling aimed at

identifying the possible existence of a geothermal field;

2) the drilling of exploration, production, and reinjection wells (including non­

productive wells): the first are necessary for the characterisation of the fluid and

the field, while the others serve for its exploitation and development;

3) the construction of surface installations: steam pipelines, water pipelines, fluid

treatment installations and power plants.

Point 3 can vary from 1500 to 1700 US$/kW, in relation to the size of the turbine,

pipeline network, etc. Point 2 may equal or double point 3, and point 1 is

generally negligible compared to the other points. Hence, the cost of realising a

generating geothermal plant may vary, on average, from 2000 to 6000 US$ per

installed kW, all costs included. In any case, the incidence of investments on the

cost of the produced kWh is considerable, depends on the annual rate of

interest, and is affected by the lapse of time necessary to drill the wells and to

build the power plant (Allegrini and Barbier, 1993).

60

Conversely, the cost of operation and maintenance, including the non-routine

maintenance of the geothermal field, done by periodic drilling of new wells to

offset the natural depletion of hydrothermal fields, represents only 10-20% of the

total cost of the kWh. The 80-90% is therefore represented by capital

amortisation. The production cost of the kWh can thus vary in the range 3-12

cents US$ (Allegrini and Barbier, 1993; Gould, 1993).

A relatively recent analysis on the cost of electric energy from oil and from

geothermal (Liguori, 1995) shows that at the cost of the oil barrel of US$15 any

geothermal field with a productivity over 3 MWe/well can produce electricity

more cheaply than a thermal power plant. However, as the geothermal world

average productivity is 1.9 MWe/well, it can be assumed that the cost of

electricity from oil with oil prices at $15/bbl may be the same in some cases as

from geothermal energy. Even if this is the case, the advantage of geothermal

for some countries lies in the fact that the hard currency can be saved by

utilising the indigenous resource.

Estimated costs of the kWh from different energy sources are given in Table 4 .

Table 4

Estimated production cost of kWh (1992) for different energy sources. (From: ' Commission of the European Community, 1994; 2 Allegrini and Barbier, 1993;3 Gould, 1993;

ISES Italia, 1997).

1 Oil/coal/nuclear 6 cents of USS/kWh 'Hydro 3-9 24 Geothermal steam (hydrothermal-flash) 3-12 'Wind 11 3 Solar thermal 15 3Biomass 11 3 Cogeneration 6

An aspect that have to be taken into account at Jebel Marra area, is the cost of

the electric line required to transport electricity to Nyala .

61

In order to facilitate economic evaluation of a possible exploration project, some

estimates (in $ US), excluding deep exploratory drilling, for an area of 500 km2

are provided in the following (Benderitter and Cormy 1990, modified)

Photogeology, remote sensing 30,000 - 60,000

Field geology 20,000 - 80,000

Laboratory analyses 2,000 -10,000

Interpretation of existing geophysical data 0 - 60,000

Hydrogeochemical study, 1-2 months in the field 40,000 -100,000

Water and gas analyses 10,000 - 30,000

Interpretation 10,000-30,000

Surface geophysics 150,000-500,000

Three shallow wells (300 m deep) for heat-flow measurements 200,000-600,000

Such a costs estimate will clearly require major adjustment to reflect current

prices and currencies, as well as to take into account the difficulty of reaching

the area to be investigated.

62

4. Debriefing Field Work

1.1 Public Lecture

On the final day of the mission, a seminar entitled "Geothermal as an option for

energy" was held in Khartoum in order to present the initial findings of the

fieldwork, exchange information with and mobilize the relevant stakeholders. An

information leaflet announcing the lecture (annex 3) together with invitation

letters was distributed a couple of days earlier to the relevant people. This

lecture took place within the modern facilities of the Ministry of Energy and

Mining. Several high-level officials from Government, NGO's and the private

sector were present. The lecture was also very well attended by people working

in the renewable energy field in the country.

Both international experts gave a coherent presentation highlighting the origin

and background of this fact-finding mission, summarising the fieldwork and

providing technical and scientific analysis on the information collected so far.

Thereafter, participants had the opportunity to ask questions. Most of the

questions were quite constructive and provided an opportunity to the experts to

further elaborate on the topic.

In general, there was the feeling that this undertaking was a very worthwhile and

that the National Government, with the assistance of UNESCO and it's partners,

should continue this positive work, which should eventually enable the

exploration and possible exploitation of this renewable energy source.

63

1.2 Discussions of Activities In Darfur

During the field work in the Jebel Marra, travelling for several hours with two

four wheel drive vehicles of the Ministry of Energy and Mining, one could

immediately understand the earlier statements made by officials in Khartoum

that the Darfur area is riche in resources.

Indeed, we had the opportunity to observe and savor several of the region's

valuable commodities: pineapples, mango's, guava, oranges, banana's, grapes,

sugar cane, papaya's, etc. However, most of the products are basically sold

where they are found as it is difficult to move the produce from one place to

another because of the lack of proper transport infrastructure.

The region has a high number of livestock. This is also one of the riches of the

area. A major slaughterhouse is located in Nyala which works closely with the

Faculty of Veterinary science3 (animal health) in the University Nyala. In

discussing with the Dean of the University (17/05/2001), it was highlighted that

this is one of the major sources of income of the area as meat is exported to the

Gulf States, mainly Dubai and Saudi Arabia. They also indicated that they would

welcome any international assistance from UNESCO or other organisations, to

further develop these programmes and activities in the region.

In discussing with the local Government authorities it was confirmed that this

was one of their main worries as the fruits and meat products which could in

principle be exported and generate some foreign exchange for the country

(20% of export comes from this state), had to be thrown away for the lack of

transport and storage facilities which is closely linked to the energy problem.

(12/5/2001 - Meeting with the Ministry of Planning in Darfur State).

Other Faculties of Nyala University are: Education, Engineering Sciences, Economic and Commercial Studies, Institute for technology and Community Development and a Centre for peace building, gender and human rights.

64

In this meeting the Minister emphasized the fact that one of the main problems

of the region is lack of energy and reliable electricity supply. This in turn

hampers industrial development in a region which is full of resources. He also

mentioned the lack of basic infrastructure. He thereby quoted the example of

keeping the food fresh and agro-industry development. He indicated that he is

happy with this mission and is anxiously looking forward and waiting for the

results of this initiative.

The Minister also highlighted some of the other problems the region is facing.

One major one is the water problem. Being a very dry area, water

management has been a high topic on the agenda of the regional government

for many years now. It is a situation which they are desperately trying to solve at

present as it gives rise to several conflicts between communities and user

groups.

In summary the following could be said about the Darfur region:

• Enormous fruit potential in Darfur - fertile soil

• Enormous number of livestock

• Several minerals deposits (Cu, Pb, Zn.Au,...)

• One of the main problems is lack of electricity (which hampers the

development of the food-processing and other industries, etc).

• Water management needs attention to avoid further water conflicts

• Infrastructure needs to be improved4

• It's distance from Khartoum requires self-sufficiency of energy needs

(opportunity for to use indigenous and reliable energy resources)

• Others - problems of land desertification (indirectly the result of energy

problem, as people use wood as energy source) , erosion, and other

environmental and social difficulties.

4 We also observed several other development activities in the region to upgrade the communication infrastructure. Sudantel, the national telephone company, is active in upgrading its telephone lines from Nyala to Genena, and from Nyala to El Fascher.

65

• Meeting with the Secretary General (SG) of the Ministry of Energy and

Mining (MEM)

As part of the debriefing in Khartoum, a meeting was held with the Secretary

General of the MEM on 19/5/2001, in the presence of the Director General of

the National Energy Affairs. This meeting was very useful as it enabled a high-

level discussion of the important issues concerning this mission within the

context of the national challenges. Overall, the feedback received from the SG

was quite positive. The SG also attended the public lecture and indicated the

willingness of the MEM for the possible follow-up activities.

5. Other Meetings/Consultations - Possible linkages to UNESCO's

Programmes

On the last day of our mission (19 /5/2001) in Sudan, a series of meetings were

also organized with several Universities and other Institutions of Higher

Education. This was also necessary in order to assess the in-country capacity

of several of the universities and other institutions of higher education, with the

aim to fulfill objective (5) of this fact-finding mission -: "In addition, the experts

were requested to advise in outlining a training programme in this field and

strengthening the capability of the national experts". It also enabled us to

discuss the institutional strengthening and capacity-building initiatives in light of

the potential follow-up activities planned under this project and to some extent

this also formed part of and contributed to the: (i) Data collection process (ii)

consultation and networking objectives.

Box 2 - Sudan's Universities and Research Institutions

Sudan's universities, faculties and research institutions provide a strong base for

the country's researches. Most of them are well equipped and staffed and

capable of conducting a wide range of quality applied and theoretical

researches. The universities are spread over the entire country with almost a

faculty at every one of the 26 states. In all of them research constitute part of the

degrees offered. Their programmes are designed in accordance with their

locations taking into account the region's resources, climate and culture.

66

Due to the time constraints, it was not possible to carry out the task of outlining a

training programme to the fullest. Nevertheless, it was useful to carry out this

initial assessment of in-country capacity, exchange ideas and inform them of the

possibilities of training on geothermal resources development under the

UNESCO/UNU programme in Iceland.

Although more institutions were placed on the list than initially planned for

(annex 1 ), it was still interesting and positive to visit all of these institutions

(although very brief), as the respective people also got a chance to learn more

about UNESCO programmes (since we were accompanied by some Members

of the UNESCO NatCOM, in addition to a representative of the Ministry of

Energy and Mining, NEA) and some possible linkages of their activities with

those carried out by the Organisation.

A copy of some of the business cards of people met is included in annex 4.

Hereunder follows a brief summary of the meetings:

University of Khartoum

We met here with a delegation of around 7 University staff members, including

the Dean of the Faculty of Science and staff of the geological science

Department. The meeting was constructive with the University members giving

an overall description of the University and the Department and the international

experts providing some details on the background of this geothermal fact­

finding mission.

They claimed to have a well-established geological science department and

some members of the Department expressed some dissatisfaction of the fact

that they were not aware or were not informed of this mission earlier.

Nevertheless, they expressed willingness to collaborate closely with other

partners and stakeholders, in case this project goes to the detailed feasibility

study phase. In this regard, they would make available some students of the

Department to assist with the data collection and research in the Jebel Marra

area. The Department also has around 120 students at the moment.

67

They already have some of their students and other members of the faculty

active in the Red sea area for the oil and gas exploration.

Meeting with the Sudan University of Science and Technology (SUST)

The SUST has established a project proposal to house the UNESCO Chair on

Renewable Energies. A copy of the project proposal was given to the

international experts during the meeting.

The chair would be established within the REC - Renewable Energies Centre,

in order to reinforce its postgraduate teaching and to give it a sub-regional,

regional and international dimension. We met with two staff members (see

annex 4 for business cards) of the university. They expressed eagerness to be

the focal point of the follow-up of this project and to organise a couple of training

programmes/seminars on the issue of geothermal energy, as this would be in

line with the objectives of REC.

They were told that, they would be a good partner to assist in carrying out some

of the promotional and marketing work however as there are no certainties as

regards the follow-up of this geothermal energy project, no commitments could

be made at this point. In any case, they seem willing and capable to also

organise and conduct training workshops and seminars concerning other

renewable energy activities, in close co-operation with UNESCO NatCOM and

the Renewable Energy Committee.

Meeting with a delegation from the College for Technological Sciences (C.T.S.)

CTS is a private university under the dynamic leader ship of the President El

Mutaz M. Ahmed El brier. This college is very popular in Sudan and has

contributed significantly to human resources development initiatives of the

country. CTS started with around 300 students in 1995 and today they have

around 12,000 students on two campus areas. They do not have specific

activities in the area of energy however, based on the needs of the country, CTS

would like to horizontally expand it's programmes by developing an

environmental technologies programme within their institution.

68

The President would also like to give it's institution a sub-regional, regional

and international dimension and in this regard he has expressed interest in

attending the upcoming 31st General Conference of UNESCO in

October/November 2001. UNESCO NatCOM would examine the possibilities of

including some members of the University in the Sudan delegation to UNESCO.

Meeting with the Ahfad University for Women

Ahfad is a university for women in Sudan. It's the only one of its kind. The

university has around 4500 students with an annual intake of 700. Considering

that women are the agent for change, the university is very active in rural

development undertakings and offers postgraduate degree programmes in rural

development. Mental health counselling and medicine are also well represented

in their programme.

In the context of the energy sector, it was observed during the meeting that a

range of social issues must be considered in relation to the energy policy of

Sudan, including access to modern energy services and the effects of energy

supply and production on the situation of women, particularly in rural areas.

Hence, it would be desirable to integrate some of these issues in future

programmes and to seek close co-operation with universities abroad.

Finally, the Dean of the University expressed interest in UNESCO's MOST

programme as was outlined by the NATCOM representative and sees possible

linkages with this programme. It is recommended that the needed follow-up be

undertaken by respective programme specialists from UNESCO HQ.

Computerman College

Computerman College is also a private university, operating in the ICT area.

This meeting with the University was a last minute meeting as the representative

of the College expressed a desire to meet with the UNESCO international

experts.

69

It appeared that they are very interested in UNESCO's Communication and

Information (CI) programme and would like to explore possible areas of co­

operation with UNESCO in further developing their activities. They were

promised the necessary documentation and follow-up communication in this

regard by the NatCOM representative.

3. Conclusions/Recommendations

Conclusions

• The geothermal manifestations observed in the Jebel Marra during this

reconnaissance field work appear to be modest. However the Jebel Marra

lies in an attractive area, geologically speaking, and the possibility of

geothermal resources being present is not excluded.

• Further studies need to be done and further data need to be collected. It was

highlighted that hopefully this could be the beginning of a long-term co­

operation with UNESCO to assist in developing and utilising these resources

with which the country is endowed. This initiative is seen as a phase 1 of an

UNESCO support. It will be necessary to now leverage additional support to

continue this initiative.

• The geothermal committee established to help in this undertaking did a

good job. It has the potential to further assist and play a significant role in this

undertaking e.g. preparing the national workshop and facilitating the

interdisciplinairy consultations.

• The main universities in Sudan also have the necessary capacity to assist in

carrying out this undertaking to the next level.

70

• Although the very long time spent traveling together with other factors (e.g.

no regular flights connecting Nyala and Khartoum due to shortage of jet fuel)

and the related time constraints of this mission, which hampered the

consultants a bit in the execution of the fieldwork as described in the TOR

and LOA, it could be said that the undertaking as a whole was very

successful.

Recommendations

• Because of the potential economic importance of cheap indigenous power

supply being available in Sudan, it is recommended that a programme be

undertaken to assess the full extent of this potential.

• It is recommended that as a first step, a detailed feasibility study (geothermal

prospecting) be undertaken in the Jebel Marra area. This will include a

systematic programme following the steps as outlined in Part 2 of this report:

reconnaissance, fieldwork, physical and chemical analyses, a programme of

shallow drilling, etc. The costs of this programme are currently estimated

between USD 1 to 2 million (however, a detailed costs estimate will be made

following the decision making process).

• Providing the needed resources could be found, it is recommended to take

this UNESCO initiative to the next level for the following reasons:

- It would provide the much needed basic and scientific data

- It would provide the needed institutional strengthening and capacity building

in Sudan and in the region (This should be the main entry point of

UNESCO'support to this project in the next phase)

- It would provide the necessary technology improvements and transfer

- It would give Sudan an opportunity to by pass the polluting energy path of

developed countries.

- It would create several opportunities - for long-term development of Darfur

region

71

- It would give UNESCO the chance to play an important scientific role in

geothermal energy development in the African region

4. Follow-up Activities

4.1. Detailed Feasibility Study

This would include

c) Exploration geothermal project

d) Under this umbrella, the Establishment of a Regional Development Plan for

the Darfur Region (Province).

a) This step by step exploration project should lead to knowledge with more

certainty about the geothermal potential of the Jebel Marra area. This project,

should fall under the responsibility of UNESCO, Science Sector (PAO Division),

considering the multidisciplinary nature of the project.

This project proposal would have the following main components:

6. Capacity building

2. Institutional strengthening

7. Equipment and technology transfer (e.g. state of the art remote sensing and

other technologies)

1 & 2. Institutional strengthening and capacity-building initiatives.

These would be two of the major components in the follow-up activities as

proposed in parts 2 of this report. As was also indicated in part 2 of this report,

there are several other areas with geothermal energy resources in the Sudan.

Some of these lie in politically sensitive areas but could become available as the

situations in the country would stabilise.

Upgrading the institutions and building the necessary capacity in Sudan (through

this project in Jebel Marra) would enable all these other areas to be explored

72

and investigated by Sudan at a later stage, as the needed capacity to do so

would have already been developed.

The investment of the feasibility phase is worthwhile. In assessing the costs of

feasibility phases, one should not only consider the project by itself, but also

consider these operations as an investment in terms of elevation of basic

knowledge of Sudanese geologists and engineers and as an opportunity for

transfer of know-how and technology.

3. Equipment and Technology Transfer - Remote Sensing Techniques:

With the new satellite technology available, data on hydrothermal alterations can

be picked and it is possible to give further good and reliable information. This

would help with the geothermal prospecting. At the same time, upgrading the

remote sensing unit would enable other information to be collected which would

help in establishing reliable scientific and technical data for the Darfur region.

In addition, the remote sensing unit (to be developed under the institutional

strengthening component of the proposed project) would also serve the

capacity building/institutional strengthening interest to help with the regional

development plan and could serve in combating other environmental disasters

(e.g. erosion, desertification, etc) for the Darfur region.

b) A Regional Development plan for Darfur States

Energy is a key factor in economic and social development. A reliable supply of

affordable energy is an economic "good" and the key to achieving socio­

economic growth. Satisfying the energy needs of the poor with modern clean

technologies has the potential to improve standards of living and health, and to

create new jobs and business opportunities.

73

As there will also be growth In commercial and industrial sectors or in the

provision of basic services to rural populations. This initiative, if further

developed, will provide an oportunity to look at the development in the Darfur

region in an integrated fashion. The proposed geothermal prospecting should

hence be viewed against the backdrop of a regional development plan for the

Darfur area.

- From a scientific/technical point of view - This could help to fill the lack of

information and try to remove some of the obstacles which would encourage

investors and businesspeople. As already stated, the region is rich in natural

and human resources (e.g. annual intake of around 500 at the university of

Nyala)

- A consideration - the transmission costs associated with the GRID system

will be quite elevated considering the distances travelled to the sites and the

areas in which the geothermal manifestations have been observed, thus

where the potential plants could be located. It was highlighted by the DG of

NEA the presence of a high-tension line in Darfur to connecting

Europe/Zambia. It would be possible to think in terms of export,

transboundary power generation through the development of this project.

4.2. A Regional Project - Seminar/Workshop on Geothermal Energy

Development in Africa

It is suggested that a back to back national and regional seminar /workshops be

conducted on the issue of geothermal energy under the authority of UNESCO.

In fact, with the recent positive developments on the Kyoto protocol such a

national consultation and regional approach to the issue would be highly well

timed. The objectives of this workshops would be:

- For the national: mainly to enhance consultation between relevant

stakeholders, enchange information and define a common approach in

developing this resource in Sudan.

74

- to enhance understanding of the basic and scientific characteristics of the

geothermal resources in the African region (both for the experts and the

public)

- to develop a strategy for the suitable development of this resource in these

countries

- to provide advise and technical information to government and the private

sector

- the publication of a technical report and facts sheets on the issue of

geothermal energy development in the African region

- To encourage information exchange in the African region on the issue of

geothermal energy

The regional workshop could be part of a project, similar to the project organised

for the LAC region under the European Union Synergy project (see box 3).

Box 3 - EU Synergy Programme - Geothermy in Latin America and the Caribbean

The EU synergy Programme provides funds for projects that could contribute to security supply,

strengthen the security of energy supply and will also support projects that implement the Kyoto

flexibility mechanisms.

In 1998 a project was funded on Geothermy in Latin America and the Caribbean. Twelve

countries were involved in this project including Argentina, Chile and Honduras. The aim was to

look at the institutional and regulatory changes which could extend the area of activity of this

energy source and promote commercial and technical co-operation between the two regions.

Essentially the rationale was to promote geothermy by way of interaction between Latin America

and the EU relating to institutional capacity and the regulatory systems. The activities were

geared towards:

Overcoming the legal obstacles

Promoting the financial solutions

Devising national strategies (promotional events, seminars, publications)

Facilitating commercial exchanges

Particular issues in some countries were targeted e.g. the regulatory situation in Honduras,

strategic studies in Ecuador, regional centre study involving the EU, Guatemala and Costa Rica.

The project provided outputs such as strategic studies, technical reports, promotional activities

and an inter-parliamentary meeting.

75

REFERENCES

ACRES International Limited (1992). Interim Report. Long Term Power System Planning Study. Appendix F1-Geothermal resources; Appendix F2 -Interconnections; Appendix F3 - Other Resources. National Electricity Corporation

African Energy Programme (AEP) of the African Development Bank (1993) -Energy and Environment Interactions in Sudan (Energy and Environment Technical paper no. EE18)

Allegrini, G. and Barbier, E. (1993) the geothermo electric generation in Italy: planning strategies, experience gained during the operation, and cost analysis. In Regenerative Energien, Betriebserfahrungen und Wirtschaftlichkeitsanalysen der Anlagen in Europa, VDI Berichte 1024, pp. 123-139, VDI Verlag, Munich, Germany.

Benderitter, Y. and Cormy, G. (1990). Possible approach to geothermal research and relative cost estimate. In Small geothermal resources - A guide to development and utilisation (Edited by Dickson, M.H. and Fanelli, M.) pp. 61-71, UNITAR/UNDP Centre on Small Energy Resources, Rome, Italy.

Bermingham P.M., Fairhead J. D. and G.W. Stuart (1983). Gravity study of the central rift system: a model of the continental disruption 1. The Darfur domal uplift and associated Cainozoic volcanism. Tectonopysics, 94, 205-222

Browne S.E., and J. D. Fairhead (1983). Gravity study of the central rift system: a model of the continental disruption 1. The Ngaoundere and Abu Gabra rifts. Tectonopysics, 94, 187-203

Bureau de recherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM). Proposal for a geothermal reconnaissance study of Darfur region.

Commission of the European Communities (1994) The European renewable energy study. Main report ,119 pp., ISBN 92-826-6950-5 (volumes 1 to 4), Brussels, Luxembourg.

Davidson, J, P and I, R Wilson (1989) . Evolution of an alkali basalt-trachyte suite from Jebel Marra volcano, Sudan, through assimilation and fractional crystallization. Earth and Planetary Sience Letters, 95,141-160

Evans T.R., and H.Y. Tammemagi (1974). Heat flow and heat production in Northeast Africa. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 23, 349-356

Foumier, R. (1981): Application of Water Chemistry to Geothermal Exploration and Reservoir Engineering. In: L. Rybach & L. J. P. Muffler (Eds.), Geothermal Systems: Principles and Case Histories (pp. 109-143). New York: Wiley.

76

Fournier R. (1991). Water geothermometers applied to geothermal energy. Gigggenbach, W.F. (1991). Chemical techniques in geothermal exploration. In: D'Amore F. (coordinator), Application of geochemistry in geothermal reservoir development. UNITAR/UNDP, New York, pp.37-69

Francis P.W, Thorpe R.S. and F. Ahmed (1973). Setting and tectonic significance of Tertiary-Recent volcanism in the Darfur Province of western Sudan, Nature 243, 30-32

Fridleifsson, I.B. and Freeston, D.H. (1994) Geothermal energy research and development. Geothermics 23,175-214.

Geothermal Division Robertson Research International Lt and Salah M Nourand lazzeldin A Youssif Geological research Authority of Sudan "Geological Research Authority of Sudan (1987) "Geothermal Energy in Sudan"

Gigggenbach, W.F. (1991). Chemical techniques in geothermal exploration. Gigggenbach, W.F. (1991). Chemical techniques in geothermal exploration. In: D'Amore F. (coordinator), Application of geochemistry in geothermal reservoir development. UNITAR/UNDP, New York, pp.119-142

Gould, W.R. (1993) Edison's QF experience. Proc. "Geothermal energy-The environmentally responsible energy technology for the nineties." Geothermal Program Review XI, US Dept. of Energy, CONF/30484, pp. 221.

Haenel R., Rybach L. and L. Stegena (1988). Fundamental of Geothermics. In Haenel R., Rybach L. and L. Stegena eds Handbook of terrestrial heat flow-density determination. Dordrecht, Kluver Academic Publishers, 9-57

Liguori, P.E. (1995) Economics of geothermal energy. Proc. World Geoth. Congress, Florence 18-31 May 1995, International Geothermal Association, 4, 2837-2842.

National Energy Administration Energy (NEA). Geothermal Energy in Sudan.

Nicholson, K. (1993). Geothermal fluids-Chemistry and Exploration Techniques. Springer Verlag, Berlin, 263 pp.

Sommaruga, C. and Zan, L. (1995) World geothermal resources - Main characteristics and maximum values. Unpublished data.

UNITAR/UNDP ed. 1992. Technical guide n.3. Fluid sampling for geothermal prospecting. UNITAR/UNDP, Centre on Small Energy Resources, Rome.

UNDP, UNDESA and World Energy Council (1999) - World Energy Assessment Overview (second Draft)

77

Youssif I.A., Farwa A.J., Salih M.K., Moala M. H. (2000). An Interim Report On Geothermal Energy in Sudan. Ministry of Energy and Mining, Sudanese Petroleoum Corporation, National Energy Affairs, Renewable Energies Department.

Websites consulted:

Website of IGA - International Geothermal Association (www.IGA.com) Website of the US Department of Energy/Country Analysis Brief (www.eia.doe.gov) Website of the European Union Synergy Programme (www.cordis.lu/svnergy) Website of the Energy and Geoscience Institute

ANNEX I

B I S S C H O P ¿) PARTNERS

ADVISORY BUREAU ON ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

TELEFAX MESSAGE

To

To the attention of

Fax number

Date

Number of pages

From

cc

Our Reference

Ministry of Energy and Mining

Mr. Ali Osman

Deputy Secretary General

+ 249 1178 0183

3 mei 2001

4

Mr. Lesley R. Blinker,

Manager International Operations

Mr. Ibrahim, Sudan Delegation to UNESCO, Paris, France

Prof.Tag Elsir Basheer Abdalla, UNESCO National Commission

Mr. Sergio Grassi, Member of the Consultant Team (IIGR)

T5119/127/LB

Subject UNESCO Mission - Geothermal Energy Project

Dear Mr. Osman,

I am writing to you in connection with the above-mentioned mission. As you are aware, our company has been selected by UNESCO to be part of the consultant team requested by the Government of Sudan, to carry out the necessary data gathering of scientific information, fieldwork and the analyses of possible development of your country's geothermal energy potential.

I would like to inform you that we - meaning Mr. Grassi (from the International Institute for Geothermal Research (IIGR) in Italy) and myself, will be arriving in Khartoum on Tuesday 8 May 2001 with Lufthansa airline. The intinerary is attached herewith for your information. I should be grateful if you could make the necessary hotel reservations for us in a hotel with reasonable rates. I would also appreciate if you could make arrangements to have us picked up at the airport by yourself or one of your colleagues.

As proposed in the Terms of Reference (TOR) which was drafted by your Ministry some time ago, we plan to carry out the work in close colloboration with the members of the national geothermal committee which was established to follow-up on this undertaking.

..12

' Cleaner Production • Waste Management • Environmental Policies and Management Systems • Human Resources Management

Energy Management

Bisschop & Partners has offices in Arnhem and Utrecht

Reactorweg 301 • Postbus 40308 • 3504 AC Utrecht • Tel. + 31 30 241 57 67 • Fax +31 30 241 63 98 lnfo@bisschop.nl • www.bisschop.nl • KvK Utrecht 30.11.03.98 • Triodosbank N.V. 21.21.76.315

I therefore propose that you prepare a programme for us surrounding the TOR both in Khartoum and in the field. I also wish to suggest that meetings be organised with some other Ministries (Environment, Planning, etc), Universities and other interested stakeholders while in Khartoum, to discuss and examine the situation in further detail.

In looking forward to meeting and working with you soon, I remain.

Yours sincerely,

Lesley R. Blinker^ Manager Infi Operations

Page 2 of 2

ANNEX II

Ministry of Energy and Mining (MEM) Sudanese Petroleum Corporation (SPC)

National Energy Affairs (NEA)

Programme for UNESCO Mission to Sudan In the Field of Geothermal Energy

First Day: 9/5/2001 i Time

Opening Meeting with D.G. (N.E.A) 9:00 -10:00 Meeting with Manager of NEXMSU 10:30 - 11:30 Meeting with Secretary General Of Higher Council for Environment & Natural Resources 12:00 - 12:30 Lunch Break " 12:30-14:00 Meeting with National Geothermal Committee 14:00 - 16:00

Second Day: 10/5/2001

Meeting with Education Minister 9:00 - 9:30 (Ali Tamim Fartak)

Meeting with Renewable Energy Committee 9:45 - 11:15 (in the Presence of the UNESCO Secretary General)

(At UNESCO)

Meeting with UNESCO Chair for Water 11:30- 12:00 Lunch Break 12:00-14:00

Meeting at M.E.M 14:00 - 16:00 (Preparation for the field work)

Third Day: 11/5/2001 j^days)

Field Trip Jebel Mara Area

^rá1'1 Day: 20/5/2001 Meeting with D.G (NEA) 9:00 - 9:30

Meeting with Secretary General (M.E.M) 9:30 - 10:00

Meeting with National Geothermal Committee 10:30 - 12:00 Lunch Break 12:00-14:00 Meeting at SPC Office 14:00 - 16:00

il ñlh Day: 21/5/2001 Meeting with U. K. Vice Chancellor 9:00 - 9:30 Public Lecture: Geothermal as an option for Energy (Presented by international expert) 10:00 - 12Í00 Meeting with Sudan University Vice Chancellor 12:30 - 13:00 Lunch Break 13:00-15:00 Meeting at SPC Office 15:00 - 16:00

1 /4 t h Day: 22/5/2001

Presentation of the output of the Field Work Closing session:

Ministry of Energy & Mining Sudanese Petroleum Corporation

National Energy Affairs

Programme For UNESCO Mission to Sudan In Field of Geothermal Energy

Saturday Day: 19/5/2001

Meeting with D.G (N.E.A) 9:00 - 9:30

Meeting with Secretary General (MEM) 9:30 - 10:00

Public Lecture: 10:00 - 11:30 Geothermal as an Option for Energy

Meeting with Vice Chancellor 11:45 - 12:15

Khartoum University

Meeting with Vice Chancellor 12:30 - 13:00 Sudan University

Meeting with President 14:00 - 14:30 of College of Science Technology

Meeting with Al Ahfad University 15:00 - 15:30 Vice Chancellor

Presentation of the Output of the Field Work 16:00- 17:00

Computer Man College 17:30 - 18:00

ANNEX III

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Mr : Sergio Grassi Mr : Leslie Blinker

Geothermal as an option for Energ

Yasirsallh@yahoo.com

ANNEX IV

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ÍK VS'Í DR. NADIS MOHAMED AWAD

Secretary General Higher Council for Environment & Natural Resources, [HCENR]

Tel: 24*)-l I - 784279. Offices P.O Box:lÜ488 Tel: 24')-15-550305 Home Khartoum Fax: 24')-11- 787617 Sudan Kmail:: nadir nwatlra'vahoo.com

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- - ^ . — - T—- - - — -rr-r-:; P.O.-B.ox-: 1 0 5 5 3 ^ Khar.tonk^^^u3an"^-Tëi.'"i42B550

_ • ' Fax : (0024911)221665 •->eV'HorarT221666 -

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AHFAD UNfVERSrrY FOR WOMEN

P.O.Box: 167 O m d u r m a n - S u d a n Tele Fax:+ 249 (1115533Ó3 E-mail: ahfad@sudanmail.net

GASIM BEDRI P R E S I D E N T

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Prof. E.I. El-NIEMA

Dean, Faculty of Engineering & Arch.

University of Khartoum

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Office Tel. : 776973 v v \ \ v r

Home Tel. : 771536 wior"\

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PÀRTNERS^N DEVELOPMENT

ABDEL BASIT M. A. BABIKER PLANNING AND Hl"M \N

RESOURCES DE\ ELCTMENT SPECIALIST

P--Q-B<>\—8203JOutmunTrSiiclan Tei-^869^8/»-Office

228059 Residence F«*----2-49-4+-467-953-

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Sudan University of Science and Technology

Prof. Dr. ElSadig Hassan ElSadig Deputy

Vice Chancellor

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Tel.. 770319-771327 Home 311467 P.O. Box 71 Fax 249-11-771327 fcffmp elsadighassan ® hotmaiLcotQ

Prof. Abdel-Malik M. Abdel-Rahman B. Sc. (Newcastle), Ph. D. (Liverpool)

Vice • Chancellor

•Professor

Mamidafimed&My Ismail Director

UNESCO Chair in Water Resources w g g ^

University of Khartoum

W : (249 11) 772631 Motto : 012308859 Fax:(249 11)780295 P O. Box- 1244 Khartoum, n i l 1 Sudan

Tel office 784350 Res 778734 F a x / 75253 Email: chairv/r©sudanmail.net

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SC/DAN UNIVERSITY FOR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

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email : is am- abdelmagid @ hotmail. com

J > 2 8 0 5 4 3 ^ 775291 * • *

UNESCO CHAIR IN WATER RESOURCES

Prof. Tag Elsir Basheer Abdalla UCWR, Regional Coordinator

Chairperson of Natural Science Committee P.O.Box: 1244, Khartoum 11111, Sudan Tel: 777489 - 784350 - 221559 (Res)

Fax : 775253 - XUU9 2S 2 > 2 ? E-mail: chairwr@sudanmail.net or

ucwr@hotrr.ail.com ^ " • ^ " " W W a w w M W M

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ISMAIL A. R.ELGIZ0UU Project Coordinator

Climate Change Project Higher Council for Environment

6t Natural Resources.

Tel: (249-11 - 7X7616. 7S(/H)3") Office P.O Box: 1Ó488 Tel: 249-15 - 534369 Res. Khartoum Fax: 249-11 -787617 Sudan l-lmail: jiizoiiliy.Yalioo.eom * ".,

•Professor

Hamiá ¡Afuma 1.1 Ha$ Ismail Director

UNESCO Chair in Water Resources *H.-»,-g<lVf,i

P O. Box- 1244 Khartoum m i l . Sudan Tel office 784350 Res 778734 Fax 775253

Email: chairwr@sudanmail.net

B I S S C H O P ¿) P A R T N E R S

ADVISORY BUREAU ON ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

• Cleaner Production • Waste Management • Environmental Policies and Management Systems • Human Resources Management Energy Management

Bisschop & Partners has offices in Arnhem and Utrecht

Reactorweg 301 • Postbus 40308 • 3504 AC Utrecht • Tel. + 31 30 241 57 67 • Fax +31 30 241 63 98 bisschop.nl • www.bisschop.nl • KvK Utrecht 30.11.03.98 • Triodosbank N.V. 21.21.76.315