______________________________________________________________________ Facies Architecture of the Volcanic Sedimentary Complex of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, Portugal and Spain ______________________________________________________________________

by

Carlos J.P. Rosa B.Sc. (Hons) University of Lisbon

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

University of Tasmania Australia

January, 2007

II

STATEMENT AND AUTHORITY OF ACCESS

This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for a degree or diploma by the University or any other institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, no material previously published or written by another person except where due acknowledgement is made in the text of the thesis. This thesis may be made available for loan and limited copying in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. Date: Carlos J.P. Rosa

III

ABSTRACT The Iberian Pyrite Belt is the richest massive sulfide province in the world. The massive sulfide

ore deposits occur in a felsic volcanic and sedimentary succession (VS Complex) of late

Famennian (Upper Devonian) to late Visean (Middle Carboniferous) age. Volcanic facies

analysis has been carried out on three areas in Portugal, including the Neves Corvo mine, and

five sections in Spain. In all sections studied, the depositional setting during accumulation of the

VS Complex was submarine and below wave base.

The principal felsic volcanic facies are: (1) coherent rhyolite and dacite, associated with

monomictic breccia; (2) fiamme-rich breccia (with variable amounts of dense volcanic and

sedimentary clasts), fiamme-rich sandstone and fiamme-bearing mudstone; and (3) crystal-rich

sandstone and mudstone. Mafic units are minor, dominated by coherent facies and have

uncertain mode of emplacement (intrusions or lavas). Fiamme typically have lenticular shape

and quartz- or quartz- and feldspar-phyric texture, and are interpreted to be altered and

compacted pumice clasts. The volcanic facies are typically interleaved with, and regionally less

voluminous than, the non-volcanic facies, which are dominated by mudstone.

The felsic volcanic facies are interpreted to be the products of numerous, relatively small

intrabasinal volcanic centres that generated abundant lavas, domes and pyroclastic units. Some

volcanic centres are dominated by lavas, whereas others have similar proportions of lavas and

pyroclastic units. The domes and lavas are more voluminous but less laterally extensive than the

pyroclastic units. A sediment-matrix breccia typically occurs at the top contact of the felsic

lavas with sedimentary units. This sediment-matrix breccia formed from the infiltration of fine

sediment into interclast spaces in previously formed hyaloclastite, and could be misinterpreted

as peperite. Felsic intrusions are less voluminous than lavas, and were emplaced as cryptodomes

and partly extrusive cryptodomes, late in the evolution of the VS Complex. The architecture of

the different study areas reflects differences in the eruption style, emplacement processes and

proximity to source. Parts of the succession interpreted to be proximal are dominated by thick

lavas/domes and intrusions, and coarse pyroclastic deposits. Medial parts comprise

resedimented autoclastic facies derived from the lavas and domes, and relatively thin pyroclastic

units. Distal parts comprise relatively thinly bedded crystal-rich sandstone and siliceous

mudstone. Regional correlations in the VS Complex are impossible, as none of the volcanic

facies are regionally extensive and each of the volcanic centres has a unique internal

architecture.

At Neves Corvo mine, the massive sulfide ore deposits are close to one of the felsic volcanic

centre(s), occurring immediately above the rhyolitic lavas/domes.

IV

RESUMO A Faixa Piritosa Ibérica é a província de sulfuretos maciços mais importante do mundo. Os jazigos

ocorrem no Complexo Vulcano-Sedimentar, que tem idade compreendida entre o Fameniano

(Devónico Superior) e o Viseano (Carbónico Médio). A análise de fácies vulcânicas e sedimentares do

Complexo Vulcano-Sedimentar foi efectuada em três áreas de Portugal, incluindo a mina de Neves

Corvo, e em cinco zonas de Espanha. Em todas as áreas e zonas estudadas o ambiente de deposição

das unidades do Complexo Vulcano-Sedimentar é submarino.

As principais fácies do Complexo Vulcano-Sedimentar são: (1) facies félsicas (riolíticas e dacíticas)

coerentes e autoclasticas; (2) brechas polimicticas constituídas por “fiamme” e clastos líticos (félsicos

não vesiculares e sedimentares); (3) arenitos com “fiamme” e fragmentos de fenocristais, e argilitos

siliciosos. “Fiamme” tem tipicamente forma lenticular, textura quartzo-feldspática e é interpretada

como tendo resultado da compactação de clastos vesiculares. Nas áreas estudadas as unidades máficas

são acessórias relativamente às félsicas, constituídas essencialmente por fácies coerentes, e

correspondem a lavas ou intrusões. As fácies vulcânicas ocorrem intercaladas com fácies sedimentares

que à escala regional constituem aproximadamente 75% do Complexo Vulcano-Sedimentar.

As fácies vulcânicas félsicas resultam da actividade de inúmeros centros vulcânicos relativamente

pequenos e intrabasinais, que produziram abundantes lavas, domas e unidades piroclásticas. Alguns

centros vulcânicos são maioritariamente constituídos por lavas, enquanto outros têm proporções

idênticas de lavas e piroclastos. O contacto de topo das lavas/domas com as unidades sedimentares é

uma brecha constituída por elementos vulcânicos, com domínios sedimentares entre eles. Esta brecha

resulta da infiltração de sedimentos na carapaça clástica das lavas/domas, e pode-se confundir com

peperito. As intrusões félsicas são acessórias comparativamente às lavas e constituem criptodomas e

criptodomas parcialmente extrusivos. As intrusões instalaram-se tardiamente na evolução do

Complexo Vulcano-Sedimentar.

As diferenças na arquitectura vulcânica das diferentes áreas de estudo resultam de diferenças no estilo

eruptivo e proximidade à fonte vulcânica. As zonas proximais são dominadas por lavas/domas

relativamente espessos, intrusões e depósitos piroclásticos grosseiros. As zonas intermédias contêm

fácies remobilizadas a partir das margens autoclásticas das lavas/domas e depósitos piroclásticos

relativamente finos. As zonas distais são constituídas por arenitos vulcanogénicos e argilitos siliciosos.

Correlações regionais no Complexo Vulcano-Sedimentar são difíceis, devido a diferenças nas

sucessões vulcânicas dos diferentes centros eruptivos.

Na mina de Neves Corvo, a mineralização ocorre próximo de um centro vulcânico, possivelmente

associada a lavas/domas de composição riolítica.

V

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT, Portugal), the

Arquimedes research project (University of Lisbon), the Instituto Nacional de Engenharia Tecnologia

e Inovação (INETI, Portugal), the Centre for Ore Deposit Research (CODES, Tasmania) and a Hugh

McKinstry Grant from the Society of Economic Geologists Foundation.

I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Jocelyn McPhie for her constant support, guidance,

encouragement, and advice throughout this study. I am grateful for the fruitful discussions, and

Jocelyn’s great enthusiasm and ability to teach in the field, even under the hot sun of southern Portugal

in summer. I also would like to thank Jocelyn for the time, patience and effort in reviewing my work.

I would like to thank my research supervisor Professor Jorge Relvas for the constant encouragement

and assistance, in particular, for the valuable discussions concerning the regional geology of the

Iberian Pyrite Belt and the geology of the Neves Corvo mine. I also would like to thank Jorge for

promoting the initial contacts with CODES, his amazing ability to solve logistic problems and for his

time and effort in reviewing my work.

I am especially grateful for the logistic support provided by Luis Martins for the field work. Great

thanks are also due to the staff of the geology department of the Neves Corvo mine for sharing their

detailed knowledge of the mine geology. In particular, to Nelson Pacheco and Alfredo Ferreira for also

providing precious assistance in arranging access to drill core.

Helpful discussions with Diogo Rosa, Zélia Pereira, Patrícia Moita, Pedro Madureira, Raquel Costa,

Kate Bull, Mike Solomon, Sharon Allen, Ricardo Pereira and numerous others contributed to improve

this study. Special thanks go to Professor Fernando Barriga for including me in the research project

that made this study possible and for sharing his vast collection of videos from the ocean floor, and to

Dr. Vitor Oliveira for sharing his comprehensive knowledge of the geology of the Iberian Pyrite Belt.

Many others have in many ways helped me during this study, in particular, António Gomes, Alberto

Verde, Carlos Monge, João Fernandes, Dianne Steffens, Phil Robinson, June Pongratz and Peter

Cornish. They are all thanked for expert technical or administrative assistance.

To all my close friends and other PhD students thank you for the continued support during the good

and bad moments. Unconditional love and support from my parents and sister made this an easier

journey to take. Finally, a special thanks to Patrícia. I am especially grateful for all her graphic editing

work and text reviewing. Her love and constant joyful presence was a strong motivation throughout

the PhD. Thanks for being so supportive and for sharing happiness and frustration.

Table of Contents VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS This thesis contains a total 372 pages

Statement and authority of access IIAbstract IIIResumo IVAcknowledgements VTable of contents VIList of figures XVList of tables XIX

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Aims and significance 1-11.2 Location and access 1-31.3 Methods of investigation 1-41.4 Volcanic facies description and terminology 1-51.5 Thesis organisation 1-7

CHAPTER 2: REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF THE IBERIAN PYRITE BELT 2.1 Introduction 2-12.2 The South Portuguese Zone 2-1

2.2.1 Introduction 2-1 2.2.2 Geology of the South Portuguese Zone 2-2 Beja-Acebuches Complex 2-2 Pulo do Lobo Antiform 2-2 Iberian Pyrite Belt 2-5 Baixo Alentejo Flysch Group 2-5 SW Portuguese Domain 2-5

2.3 Regional geology of the Iberian Pyrite Belt 2-62.4 Metamorphism 2-102.5 Geotectonic setting of the South Portuguese Zone 2-10

CHAPTER 3: THE VOLCANIC SEDIMENTARY COMPLEX AT NEVES CORVO 3.1 Introduction 3-1

3.1.1 Location 3-1 3.1.2 General geology 3-1

Table of Contents VII

3.1.3 Massive sulfide ore deposits 3-3 3.1.4 Stratigraphy 3-4 3.1.5 Structure and metamorphism 3-7 3.1.6 Methods 3-11

3.2 Facies associations, descriptions and interpretations 3-11 3.2.1 Rhyolite facies association 3-14 Coherent rhyolite facies 3-14 Jigsaw-fit breccia facies 3-18 Clast-rotated breccia facies 3-18 Stratified poorly sorted breccia facies 3-21 Crystal-rich sandstone facies 3-21 Siliceous siltstone facies 3-21 Rhyolite-sediment breccia facies 3-24 Interpretation of the rhyolite facies association 3-24 3.2.2 Dacite breccia facies 3-27 Interpretation of the dacite breccia facies 3-27 3.2.3 Fiamme-rich facies association 3-29 Coarse fiamme breccia facies 3-31 Fine fiamme breccia facies 3-31 Fiamme mudstone facies 3-34 Polymictic-lithic breccia facies 3-34 Fiamme-crystal sandstone facies 3-36 Stratigraphic units composed of fiamme 3-38 Interpretation of the fiamme-rich facies association 3-40 3.2.4 Polymictic sandstone facies 3-42 Interpretation of the polymictic sandstone facies 3-42 3.2.5 Chert and carbonate facies association 3-45 Chert facies 3-45 Carbonate facies 3-45 Interpretation of the chert and carbonate facies association 3-45 3.2.6 Mudstone facies 3-45 Interpretation of the mudstone facies 3-46 3.2.7 Limestone facies 3-46 Interpretation of the limestone facies 3-46

3.3 Stratigraphy and lateral correlations of the VS Complex at Neves Corvo 3-473.4 Biostratigraphic age of the VS Complex at Neves Corvo 3-49

3.4.1 Introduction 3-49 3.4.2 Age of the volcanic rocks 3-49 3.4.3 Age of the massive sulfide deposits 3-50 3.4.4 Summary 3-50

3.5 Composition of the principal facies associations at Neves Corvo 3-51

Table of Contents VIII

3.5.1 Introduction 3-51 3.5.2 Results 3-51 Binary plots 3-52 Classification diagrams 3-54 3.5.3 Summary 3-56

3.6 Evolution, facies architecture and water depth at Neves Corvo 3-57 3.6.1 Environment of deposition and water depth 3-57 3.6.2 Evolution and facies architecture of the Neves Corvo volcanic succession 3-57 Late Famennian volcanism 3-58 Early Strunian 3-58 Late Strunian volcanism 3-61 Early Visean volcanism 3-63

3.7 Summary 3-64

CHAPTER 4: THE VOLCANIC SEDIMENTARY COMPLEX AT ALBERNOA 4.1 Introduction 4-1

4.1.1 Geological setting 4-1 4.1.2 Methods 4-3

4.2 Facies associations, descriptions and interpretations 4-4 4.2.1 Dacite facies association 4-7 Coherent dacite facies 4-8 Non-stratified dacite breccia facies 4-10 Stratified dacite breccia facies 4-13 Dacite sandstone facies 4-13 Siliceous mudstone facies 4-13 Stratigraphic units 4-15 Sediment-matrix dacite breccia facies 4-15 Mud-matrix dacite breccia facies 4-23 Non-stratified sediment-matrix dacite breccia facies 4-23 Interpretation of the dacite facies association 4-23 4.2.2 Crystal-rich sandstone and laminated mudstone facies association 4-29 Crystal-rich sandstone facies 4-29 Laminated mudstone facies 4-29 Outsize dacite clasts 4-29

Interpretation of the crystal-rich sandstone and laminated mudstone facies association 4-31

4.2.3 Quartz-rich dacite facies association 4-32 Coherent quartz-rich dacite facies 4-32 Sediment-matrix quartz-rich dacite breccia facies 4-32 Interpretation of the quartz-rich dacite facies association 4-34

Table of Contents IX

4.2.4 Fiamme-rich facies association 4-34 Quartz-feldspar-phyric fiamme breccia facies 4-34 Crystal- and fiamme-rich sandstone facies 4-36 Fiamme-rich mudstone facies 4-37 Interpretation of the fiamme-rich facies association 4-38 4.2.5 Mafic facies association 4-39 Coherent basalt facies 4-39 Coherent dolerite facies 4-39 Interpretation of the mafic facies association 4-39 4.2.6 Jasper and mudstone facies association 4-41 Mudstone facies 4-41 Jasper facies 4-41 Composition of the Albernoa jasper 4-43 Interpretation of the jasper and mudstone facies association 4-44

4.3 Composition of the volcanic facies association at Albernoa 4-474.4 Age and stratigraphic relations of the VS Complex at Albernoa 4-47

4.4.1 Age of the VS Complex at Albernoa 4-47 4.4.2 Stratigraphic relations among the principal volcanic facies at Albernoa 4-49

4.5 Discussion 4-51 4.5.1 Environment of deposition and water depth 4-51 4.5.2 Types of sediment-matrix dacite breccias at Albernoa 4-52 4.5.3 The origin and significance of textures in jasper at Albernoa 4-55 4.5.4 Facies architecture and evolution of the VS Complex at Albernoa 4-59 Effusive dacitic volcanism 4-59 Effusive quartz-rich volcanism 4-59 Syn-eruptive resedimentation 4-61 Post-eruptive resedimentation 4-61 Explosive felsic volcanism 4-61 Mafic igneous activity 4-61 Sedimentation 4-61

4.6 Summary 4.63

CHAPTER 5: THE VOLCANIC SEDIMENTARY COMPLEX AT SERRA BRANCA 5.1 Introduction 5-1

5.1.1 Location 5-1 5.1.2 General Geology 5-1 5.1.3 Methods 5-3

5.2 Facies associations, descriptions and interpretations 5-6 5.2.1 Dacite facies association 5-8 Coherent dacite facies 5-8

Table of Contents X

Massive or banded coherent dacite sub-facies 5-8 Large-scale banded coherent dacite sub-facies 5-11 Foliated coherent dacite sub-facies 5-11 Monomictic dacite breccia facies 5-11 Stratified monomictic dacite breccia facies 5-13 Diffusely stratified crystal-rich sandstone facies 5-13 Stratified siltstone facies 5-16 Sediment-matrix dacite breccia facies 5-16 Non-stratified sediment-matrix dacitic breccia facies 5-16 Stratigraphic units 5-16 Interpretation of the dacite facies association 5-19 5.2.2 Banded feldspar-phyric dacite facies association 5-20 Coherent banded feldspar-phyric dacite facies 5-22 Jigsaw-fit feldspar-phyric dacite breccia facies 5-22 Massive feldspar-phyric dacite breccia facies 5-22 Interpretation of the banded feldspar-phyric dacite facies association 5-23 5.2.3 Banded quartz-phyric rhyolite facies association 5-23 Coherent banded quartz-phyric rhyolite facies 5-23 Monomictic banded quartz-phyric rhyolite breccia facies 5-26 Fiamme-rhyolite breccia facies 5-26 Interpretation of the banded quartz-phyric rhyolite facies association 5-27 5.2.4 Perlitic dacite breccia facies 5-28 Interpretation of the perlitic dacite breccia facies 5-30 5.2.5 Coherent andesite facies 5-30 Interpretation of the coherent andesite facies 5-32 5.2.6 Fiamme-rich facies association 5-32 Fiamme breccia facies 5-32 Polymictic lithic-fiamme breccia facies 5-35 Crystal- and fiamme-rich mudstone facies 5-35 Fiamme-rich purple sandstone facies 5-38 Interpretation of the fiamme-rich facies association 5-38 5.2.7 Graded breccia facies association 5-40 Lithic-rich coarse breccia facies 5-40 Lithic-rich fine breccia facies 5-44 Fiamme sandstone facies 5-44 Interpretation of the graded breccia facies association 5-45 5.2.8 Massive polymictic breccia facies 5-46 Interpretation of the massive polymictic breccia facies 5-47 5.2.9 Crystal-rich sandstone and siliceous mudstone facies association 5-49 Crystal-rich sandstone facies 5-49 Siliceous mudstone facies 5-49

Table of Contents XI

Interpretation of the crystal-rich sandstone and siliceous mudstone facies association 5-51

5.2.10 Mudstone and jasper facies association 5-51 Mudstone facies 5-51 Jasper facies 5-51 Interpretation of the mudstone and jasper facies association 5-53

5.3 Composition of the volcanic facies at Serra Branca 5-535.4 Stratigraphy and correlations of the VS Complex at Serra Branca 5-535.5 Biostratigraphic age of the VS Complex at Serra Branca 5-565.6 Environment of deposition and water depth at Serra Branca 5-575.7 Facies architecture and types of volcanoes of the Serra Branca volcanic succession 5-57

5.7.1 Lavas 5-58 Dacite lavas 5-58 Perlitic dacite lava 5-59 5.7.2 Syn-volcanic intrusions 5-59 Banded quartz-phyric rhyolite 5-59 Banded feldspar-phyric dacite 5-59 Coherent andesite 5-60 5.7.3 Pyroclastic facies 5-60 Fiamme-rich facies association 5-60 Graded breccia facies association 5-60 Massive polymictic breccia facies 5-61 5.7.4 Volcanogenic sedimentation 5-61 5.7.5 Non-volcanic sedimentation 5-61 5.7.6 Mineralisation 5-62 5.7.7 Type of volcanoes 5-62

5.8 Evolution of the VS Complex at Serra Branca 5-635.9 Summary 5-66

CHAPTER 6: THE VOLCANIC SEDIMENTARY COMPLEX IN SPAIN 6.1 Introduction 6-1

6.1.1 Previous work 6-1 Peperite 6-1 Felsic pyroclastic facies 6-2

6.2 Facies associations and organisation 6-36.3 Characteristics of the VS Complex at Paymogo quarry 6-5

6.3.1 Lower graded volcaniclastic unit 6-5 Massive coarse breccia facies 6-5 Coarse sandstone facies 6-5 Laminated mudstone facies 6-8

Table of Contents XII

6.3.2 Upper graded volcaniclastic unit 6-8 Polymictic coarse breccia facies 6-8 Polymictic sandstone facies 6-8 Mudstone facies 6-8 6.3.3 Jasper 6-8 6.3.4 Dacite facies association 6-9 Coherent dacite facies 6-9 Monomictic dacite breccia facies 6-9 Dacite-sediment breccia facies 6-9 6.3.5 Massive brown mudstone 6-10 6.3.6 Interpretation of the VS Complex at Paymogo quarry 6-10

6.4 Characteristics of the VS Complex in the El Almendro-Villanueva de los Castillejos road section 6-11

6.4.1 Lower volcaniclastic unit 6-11 Coarse fiamme breccia facies 6-13 Massive fiamme sandstone facies 6-13 Laminated mudstone facies 6-13 6.4.2 Intermediate volcaniclastic unit 6-13 Polymictic breccia facies 6-13 Fine breccia facies 6-15 Coarse sandstone facies 6-15 6.4.3 Upper volcaniclastic unit 6-15 Breccia facies 6-15 Sandstone facies 6-16 6.4.4 Lower mafic unit 6-16 Coherent dolerite facies 6-16 Monomictic dolerite breccia facies 6-16 6.4.5 Upper mafic unit 6-16 Fine coherent basalt facies 6-16 6.4.6 Felsic coherent unit 6-16

6.4.7 Interpretation of the VS Complex in the El Almendro-Villanueva de los Castillejos road section 6-17

6.5 Characteristics of the VS Complex in the Cerro de Andévalo road section 6-18 6.5.1 Polymictic volcaniclastic interval 6-20 Very coarse polymictic breccia facies 6-20 6.5.2 Fiamme-rich volcaniclastic interval 6-20 Fiamme breccia facies 6-22 Fiamme- and crystal-rich sandstone facies 6-22 6.5.3 Interpretation of the VS Complex in the Cerro de Andévalo road section 6-22

6.6 Characteristics of the VS Complex in the Odiel River section 6-23 6.6.1 Polymictic volcaniclastic units 6-23 Coarse polymictic breccia facies 6-26

Table of Contents XIII

Fine polymictic breccia facies 6-26 Coarse sandstone facies 6-26 Laminated mudstone facies 6-26 6.6.2 Felsic units 6-27 Coherent dacite facies 6-27 Dacite breccia facies 6-27 Dacite-sediment breccia facies 6-27 6.6.3 Mafic unit 6-28 Mafic breccia facies 6-28 Mafic-sediment breccia facies 6-28 6.6.4 Interpretation of the VS Complex in the Odiel River section 6-28

6.7 Characteristics of the VS Complex in the Aulaga road section 6-29 6.7.1 Mafic unit 6-31 Interpretation 6-31 6.7.2 Felsic unit 6-31 Interpretation 6-31 6.7.3 Parallel bedded brown mudstone and chert 6-31 Interpretation 6-31 6.7.4 Volcaniclastic units 6-32 Volcaniclastic units A and F 6-32 Massive coarse fiamme breccia facies 6-32 Massive fine fiamme breccia facies 6-32 Massive to diffusely stratified sandstone facies 6-32 Interpretation 6-34 Volcaniclastic units B and E 6-34 Coarse polymictic breccia facies 6-34 Coarse sandstone facies 6-35 Fine sandstone facies 6-35 Interpretation 6-35 Volcaniclastic units C and D 6-35 Interpretation 6-36

6.8 Discussion 6-37 6.8.1 Depositional setting 6-37 6.8.2 Eruption styles and volcanic centres 6-37

6.9 Summary 6-38

CHAPTER 7: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VS COMPLEX AND COMPARISON WITH THE BATHURST MINING CAMP, AND THE MODERN OKINAWA TROUGH

7.1 Introduction 7-17.2 Eruption styles and proximity to source, volcano types and water depth of the VS

Complex 7-1

Table of Contents XIV

7.2.1 Eruption styles and proximity to source 7-1 7.2.2 Volcano types in the VS Complex of the Iberian Pyrite Belt 7-3 7.2.3 Water depth 7-6

7.3 Extrusive versus intrusive emplacement of the felsic units and occurrence of peperite 7-97.4 Massive sulfide deposits and volcanic facies 7-117.5 Regional correlations of the VS Complex 7-137.6 Evolution of the VS Complex 7-157.7 The Bathurst Mining Camp 7-17

7.7.1 Introduction 7-17 7.7.2 General geology 7-19 7.7.3 Massive sulfide deposits 7-21

7.8 Modern analogue: The Okinawa Trough 7-227.9 Summary 7-24

CHAPTER 8: SYNTHESIS 8.1 Introduction 8-18.2 Depositional setting of the VS Complex 8-18.3 Types of volcanoes 8-18.4 Reassessment of syn-volcanic intrusions and peperite 8-38.5 VS Complex volcanism and massive sulfide deposits 8-38.6 Directions for future research 8-4

REFERENCES 9-1

Appendix 1A. Characteristics of the volcanic and sedimentary facies at Neves Corvo Appendix 1B. Stratigraphic logs of the Neves Corvo mine Appendix 2A. Characteristics of the volcanic and sedimentary facies at Albernoa Appendix 2B. Stratigraphic logs of the Albernoa area Appendix 3A. Characteristics of the volcanic and sedimentary facies at Serra Branca Appendix 3B. Stratigraphic logs of the Serra Branca area Appendix 4A. Sampling and analytical techniques Appendix 4B. Geochemical analyses of the Neves Corvo volcanic rocks Appendix 4C. Geochemical analyses of the Albernoa jasper Appendix 5. Rock catalogue

List of Figures XV

LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER 1 Figure 1.1 Location of the study areas 1-4

CHAPTER 2 Figure 2.1 Schematic map of the Variscan Fold Belt in central and western Europe 2-3Figure 2.2 Variscan lithostratigraphic units of the Iberian Massif 2-3Figure 2.3 Geology of the South Portuguese Zone 2-4

CHAPTER 3 Figure 3.1 Location of the Neves Corvo mine in the Rosario-Neves Corvo anticline 3-2Figure 3.2 Neves-Lombador cross-section 3-8Figure 3.3 Graça-Corvo cross-section 3-9Figure 3.4 Zambujal cross-section 3-10Figure 3.5 Map of the Neves Corvo mine metal zonation showing the location of the drill-

holes studied 3-12Figure 3.6 Graphic logs of the rhyolite facies association 3-15Figure 3.7 Graphic logs of the coherent rhyolite facies 3-16Figure 3.8 Textures in the coherent rhyolite facies 3-17Figure 3.9 Graphic logs of the jigsaw-fit breccia facies 3-19Figure 3.10 Textures of the jigsaw-fit breccia facies, clast-rotated breccia facies and

stratified poorly sorted breccia 3-20Figure 3.11 Graphic logs of the stratified poorly sorted breccia facies 3-22Figure 3.12 Graphic logs and texture of the crystal-rich sandstone facies and siliceous

siltstone facies 3-23Figure 3.13 Graphic logs of the rhyolite-sediment breccia facies 3-25Figure 3.14 Graphic log and texture of the dacite breccia facies 3-28Figure 3.15 Graphic logs of the fiamme-rich facies association 3-30Figure 3.16 Graphic logs of the coarse fiamme breccia facies, fine fiamme breccia facies and

fiamme mudstone facies 3-32Figure 3.17 Textures in the fiamme-rich facies association 3-33Figure 3.18 Graphic logs of the polymictic-lithic breccia facies, fiamme-crystal sandstone

facies and fiamme mudstone facies 3-35Figure 3.19 Textures of the fiamme-crystal sandstone facies 3-37Figure 3.20 Graphic logs of the fiamme-rich stratigraphic units 3-39Figure 3.21 Graphic logs of the polymictic sandstone facies 3-43Figure 3.22 Textures of the polymictic sandstone facies 3-44Figure 3.23 Lateral correlation of the Neves Corvo volcanic and sedimentary facies 3-48Figure 3.24 Plots of immobile elements for the volcanic facies associations of Neves Corvo 3-53Figure 3.25 Classification and AFM diagrams for the volcanic facies associations of Neves

Corvo 3-55Figure 3.26 Schematic reconstruction of Neves Corvo in the late Famennian 3-59

Figure 3.27 Schematic reconstruction of Neves Corvo showing the fiamme-rich facies association in the late Famennian 3-59

Figure 3.28 Schematic reconstruction of Neves Corvo showing the polymictic sandstone 3-60

List of Figures XVI

facies in the late Famennian

Figure 3.29 Schematic reconstruction of Neves Corvo in the late Strunian 3-60

Figure 3.30 Schematic reconstruction of Neves Corvo showing the rhyolite facies association in the late Strunian 3-62

Figure 3.31 Schematic reconstruction of Neves Corvo showing the massive sulfide orebodies in the late Strunian 3-62

CHAPTER 4 Figure 4.1 Simplified geological map of the Albernoa antiform 4-2Figure 4.2 Geological map of the Terges Creek and Beja-C. Verde road 4-5Figure 4.3 Geological map of the Cobres Creek and Malhadinha locality 4-6Figure 4.4 Graphic logs and textures of the coherent dacite facies 4-9Figure 4.5 Graphic logs of the non-stratified dacite breccia facies 4-11Figure 4.6 Textures of the non-stratified dacite breccia facies 4-12Figure 4.7 Graphic logs of the stratified dacite breccia facies, dacite sandstone facies and

siliceous mudstone facies 4-14Figure 4.8 Graphic logs and textures of the dacite breccia-sandstone unit 4-16Figure 4.9 Graphic logs of the sediment-matrix dacite breccia 4-17Figure 4.10 Textures of the sediment-matrix dacite breccia facies 4-18Figure 4.11 Detailed map of the sediment-matrix dacite breccia facies at Malhadinha locality 4-20Figure 4.12 Typical textures of jasper in the sediment-matrix dacite breccia facies 4-21Figure 4.13 Graphic logs and textures of the mud-matrix dacite breccia 4-24Figure 4.14 Graphic logs and textures of the non-stratified sediment-matrix dacite breccia 4-25Figure 4.15 Schematic cartoon showing the position and relationships of the sediment-

matrix dacite breccia and the non-stratified dacite breccia facies 4-27Figure 4.16 Schematic cartoon showing the position and relationships of the mud-matrix

dacite breccia and the non-stratified dacite breccia facies 4-27Figure 4.17 Schematic cartoon showing the position and relationships of the non-stratified

sediment-matrix dacite breccia and the non-stratified dacite breccia facies 4-27Figure 4.18 Graphic log and textures of the crystal-rich sandstone facies and the laminated

mudstone facies 4-30Figure 4.19 Graphic logs and textures of the quartz-rich dacite facies association 4-33Figure 4.20 Graphic logs and textures of the fiamme-rich facies association 4-35Figure 4.21 Graphic logs and textures of the mafic facies association 4-40Figure 4.22 Graphic logs and textures of the jasper and mudstone facies association. Fe-Mn-

(Co+Ni+Cu)*10 diagram and REE diagram for the Malhadinha and the Beja-C. Verde road jasper. 4-42

Figure 4.23 Lateral correlation of the Albernoa volcanic and sedimentary facies 4-50Figure 4.24 Infiltration of fine sediment in autoclastic carapace breccia at Saldanha

seamount (Mid Atlantic ridge) 4-54Figure 4.25 Chalcedony spherules in jasper of the sediment-matrix dacite breccia 4-57Figure 4.26 Schematic cartoon showing the textural differences of jasper in the jasper facies

and in the sediment-matrix dacite breccia 4-58Figure 4.27 Schematic cartoon showing the relative position of facies in the dacite facies

association and the quartz-rich dacite facies association 4-60Figure 4.28 Schematic cartoon of the sediment-matrix dacite breccia in the dacite facies

association and the quartz-rich dacite facies association 4-60Figure 4.29 Schematic cartoon showing the position of the crystal-rich sandstone and 4-62

List of Figures XVII

laminated mudstone facies association, and fiamme-rich facies association in relation to the other facies of Albernoa

Figure 4.30 Schematic cartoon showing the position of the mafic facies association and mudstone facies in relation to the other facies of Albernoa 4-62

CHAPTER 5 Figure 5.1 Simplified geological map of the Serra Branca antiform 5-2Figure 5.2 Geological map of the Guadiana River-Corte Gafo road area 5-4Figure 5.3 Geological map of the Guadiana River area 5-5Figure 5.4 Graphic logs of the coherent dacite facies 5-9Figure 5.5 Textures of the coherent dacite facies 5-10Figure 5.6 Graphic logs and textures of the monomictic dacite breccia facies 5-12Figure 5.7 Graphic log and textures of the stratified monomictic dacite breccia, diffusely

stratified crystal-rich sandstone and stratified siltstone facies 5-14

Figure 5.8 Detailed graphic log of an interval of the diffusely stratified crystal-rich sandstone 5-15

Figure 5.9 Graphic log and textures of the sediment-matrix dacite breccia facies 5-17

Figure 5.10 Graphic log and textures of the non-stratified sediment-matrix dacite breccia facies 5-18

Figure 5.11 Texture and schematic diagrams of the banded feldspar-phyric dacite facies association 5-21

Figure 5.12 Graphic logs of the banded quartz-phyric rhyolite facies association 5-24Figure 5.13 Textures of the banded quartz-phyric rhyolite facies association 5-25Figure 5.14 Graphic log and textures of the perlitic dacite breccia facies 5-29Figure 5.15 Graphic log and textures of the coherent andesite facies 5-31Figure 5.16 Graphic logs of the fiamme breccia facies 5-33Figure 5.17 Textures of the fiamme breccia facies 5-34Figure 5.18 Graphic logs and textures of the polymictic lithic-fiamme breccia facies 5-36Figure 5.19 Graphic logs and textures of the crystal- and fiamme-rich mudstone facies 5-37Figure 5.20 Graphic logs and textures of the fiamme-rich purple mudstone facies 5-39Figure 5.21 Graphic logs of the graded breccia facies association 5-41Figure 5.22 Textures of the graded breccia facies association 5-43Figure 5.23 Schematic diagram showing the possible vent locations and sources of

components in the graded breccia facies association 5-46Figure 5.24 Graphic log and textures of the massive polymictic breccia facies 5-48Figure 5.25 Graphic logs and textures of the crystal-rich sandstone and siliceous mudstone

facies association 5-50Figure 5.26 Graphic logs of the mudstone and jasper facies association 5-52Figure 5.27 Lateral correlation of the Serra Branca volcanic and sedimentary facies 5-55Figure 5.28 Schematic models showing the evolution of the volcanic and sedimentary facies

at Serra Branca 5-64

CHAPTER 6 Figure 6.1 Simplified geological map of the Spanish part of the Iberian Pyrite Belt 6-4Figure 6.2 Graphic log of the Paymogo quarry section 6-6Figure 6.3 The VS Complex in the Paymogo quarry 6-7

List of Figures XVIII

Figure 6.4 Graphic log of the El Almendro-Villanueva de los Castillejos road section 6-12Figure 6.5 The VS Complex in the El Almendro-Villanueva de los Castillejos road section 6-14Figure 6.6 Graphic log of the Cerro de Andévalo road section 6-19Figure 6.7 The VS Complex in the Cerro de Andévalo road section 6-21Figure 6.8 Graphic log of the Odiel River section 6-24Figure 6.9 The VS Complex in the Odiel River section 6-25Figure 6.10 Graphic log of the Aulaga road section 6-30Figure 6.11 The VS Complex in the Aulaga road section 6-33

CHAPTER 7 Figure 7.1 Facies models for the lava/dome pumice-rich volcanoes of the VS Complex 7-5Figure 7.2 Simplified geological map of the Pomarão area 7-14Figure 7.3 Schematic model for the volcanism and sedimentation of the VS Complex 7-16

Figure 7.4 Simplified geological map of the Tetagouche block of the Bathurst Mining Camp 7-18

Figure 7.5 Location of the Okinawa Trough and Jade hydrothermal field 7-24

List of Tables XIX

LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER 2 Table 2.1 Comparison of the Iberian Pyrite Belt with other massive sulfides provinces in the

world number, in terms of size and number of massive sulfide deposits 2-1Table 2.2 Tonnage and metal grades of the most important Iberian Pyrite Belt massive

sulfide deposits 2-7

CHAPTER 3 Table 3.1 Comparison of the Neves Corvo massive sulfide deposits and other Iberian Pyrite

Belt massive sulfide deposits larger than 100 Mt 3-3Table 3.2 Correlation of the nomenclature used at the Neves Corvo mine and by Oliveira et

al. (1997a, 1997b), with the nomenclature defined by Oliveira et al. (2004) 3-6Table 3.3 Summary of the principal facies of Neves Corvo 3-13Table 3.4 Integration of the volcanic facies associations in drill holes of Neves Corvo and

the Oliveira et al. (2004) nomenclature 3-51Table 3.5 Distinctive geochemical characteristics of the principal volcanic facies

associations of Neves Corvo 3-57

CHAPTER 4 Table 4.1 Summary of the principal facies of Albernoa 4-7Table 4.2 Simplified lithostratigraphic chart for Albernoa 4-48Table 4.3 Characteristics of peperite and infiltration breccia 4-55

CHAPTER 5 Table 5.1 Summary of the principal facies of Serra Branca 5-7Table 5.2 Composition of the lithic-rich coarse breccia facies 5-42Table 5.3 Composition of the fiamme sandstone facies 5-44Table 5.4 Composition of the massive polymictic breccia facies 5-47Table 5.5 Simplified lithostratigraphic chart for Serra Branca 5-56

CHAPTER 7 Table 7.1 Absolute ages of some massive sulfide deposits from the Iberian Pyrite Belt 7-12Table 7.2 Simplified stratigraphic divisions of the Tetagouche block of the Bathurst Mining

Camp 7-20