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16-1 EMERGENCY SITUATIONS This chapter contains information on dealing with non-normal and emergency situations that may occur in flight. The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough familiarity with, and adherence to, the procedures developed by the airplane manufacturer and contained in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH). The following guidelines are generic and are not meant to replace the airplane manufacturer’s recommended procedures. Rather, they are meant to enhance the pilot’s general knowledge in the area of non-normal and emergency operations. If any of the guidance in this chapter conflicts in any way with the manufacturer’s recommended procedures for a particular make and model airplane, the manufacturer’s recommended procedures take precedence. EMERGENCY LANDINGS This section contains information on emergency land- ing techniques in small fixed-wing airplanes. The guidelines that are presented apply to the more adverse terrain conditions for which no practical training is possible. The objective is to instill in the pilot the knowledge that almost any terrain can be considered “suitable” for a survivable crash landing if the pilot knows how to use the airplane structure for self-protection and the protection of passengers. TYPES OF EMERGENCY LANDINGS The different types of emergency landings are defined as follows. Forced landing. An immediate landing, on or off an airport, necessitated by the inability to con- tinue further flight. A typical example of which is an airplane forced down by engine failure. Precautionary landing. A premeditated landing, on or off an airport, when further flight is possi- ble but inadvisable. Examples of conditions that may call for a precautionary landing include deteriorating weather, being lost, fuel shortage, and gradually developing engine trouble. Ditching. A forced or precautionary landing on water. A precautionary landing, generally, is less hazardous than a forced landing because the pilot has more time for terrain selection and the planning of the approach. In addition, the pilot can use power to compensate for errors in judgment or technique. The pilot should be aware that too many situations calling for a precaution- ary landing are allowed to develop into immediate forced landings, when the pilot uses wishful thinking instead of reason, especially when dealing with a self-inflicted predicament. The non-instrument rated pilot trapped by weather, or the pilot facing imminent fuel exhaustion who does not give any thought to the feasibility of a precautionary landing accepts an extremely hazardous alternative. PSYCHOLOGICAL HAZARDS There are several factors that may interfere with a pilot’s ability to act promptly and properly when faced with an emergency. Reluctance to accept the emergency situation. A pilot who allows the mind to become paralyzed at the thought that the airplane will be on the ground, in a very short time, regardless of the pilot’s actions or hopes, is severely handicapped in the handling of the emergency. An unconscious desire to delay the dreaded moment may lead to such errors as: failure to lower the nose to main- tain flying speed, delay in the selection of the most suitable landing area within reach, and indecision in general. Desperate attempts to correct whatever went wrong, at the expense of airplane control, fall into the same category. Desire to save the airplane. The pilot who has been conditioned during training to expect to find a relatively safe landing area, whenever the flight instructor closed the throttle for a simulated forced landing, may ignore all basic rules of airmanship to avoid a touchdown in terrain where airplane damage is unavoidable. Typical con- sequences are: making a 180° turn back to the runway when available altitude is insufficient; stretching the glide without regard for minimum control speed in order to reach a more appealing field; accepting an approach and touchdown situation that leaves no margin for error. The desire to save the airplane, regardless of the risks involved, may be influenced by two other factors: the pilot’s financial stake in the airplane and the Ch 16.qxd 5/7/04 10:30 AM Page 16-1

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EMERGENCY SITUATIONSThis chapter contains information on dealing withnon-normal and emergency situations that may occur inflight. The key to successful management of anemergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normalsituation from progressing into a true emergency, isa thorough familiarity with, and adherence to, theprocedures developed by the airplane manufacturer andcontained in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manualand/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH). Thefollowing guidelines are generic and are not meant toreplace the airplane manufacturer’s recommendedprocedures. Rather, they are meant to enhance thepilot’s general knowledge in the area of non-normal andemergency operations. If any of the guidance in thischapter conflicts in any way with the manufacturer’srecommended procedures for a particular make andmodel airplane, the manufacturer’s recommendedprocedures take precedence.

EMERGENCY LANDINGSThis section contains information on emergency land-ing techniques in small fixed-wing airplanes. Theguidelines that are presented apply to the more adverseterrain conditions for which no practical training ispossible. The objective is to instill in the pilot theknowledge that almost any terrain can be considered“suitable” for a survivable crash landing if the pilotknows how to use the airplane structure for self-protectionand the protection of passengers.

TYPES OF EMERGENCY LANDINGSThe different types of emergency landings are definedas follows.

• Forced landing. An immediate landing, on or offan airport, necessitated by the inability to con-tinue further flight. A typical example of which isan airplane forced down by engine failure.

• Precautionary landing. A premeditated landing,on or off an airport, when further flight is possi-ble but inadvisable. Examples of conditions thatmay call for a precautionary landing includedeteriorating weather, being lost, fuel shortage,and gradually developing engine trouble.

• Ditching. A forced or precautionary landing onwater.

A precautionary landing, generally, is less hazardousthan a forced landing because the pilot has more timefor terrain selection and the planning of the approach.In addition, the pilot can use power to compensate forerrors in judgment or technique. The pilot should beaware that too many situations calling for a precaution-ary landing are allowed to develop into immediateforced landings, when the pilot uses wishful thinkinginstead of reason, especially when dealing with aself-inflicted predicament. The non-instrument ratedpilot trapped by weather, or the pilot facing imminentfuel exhaustion who does not give any thought to thefeasibility of a precautionary landing accepts anextremely hazardous alternative.

PSYCHOLOGICAL HAZARDSThere are several factors that may interfere with apilot’s ability to act promptly and properly when facedwith an emergency.

• Reluctance to accept the emergency situation.A pilot who allows the mind to become paralyzedat the thought that the airplane will be on theground, in a very short time, regardless of thepilot’s actions or hopes, is severely handicappedin the handling of the emergency. An unconsciousdesire to delay the dreaded moment may lead tosuch errors as: failure to lower the nose to main-tain flying speed, delay in the selection of themost suitable landing area within reach, andindecision in general. Desperate attempts tocorrect whatever went wrong, at the expense ofairplane control, fall into the same category.

• Desire to save the airplane. The pilot who hasbeen conditioned during training to expect to finda relatively safe landing area, whenever the flightinstructor closed the throttle for a simulatedforced landing, may ignore all basic rules ofairmanship to avoid a touchdown in terrain whereairplane damage is unavoidable. Typical con-sequences are: making a 180° turn back to therunway when available altitude is insufficient;stretching the glide without regard for minimumcontrol speed in order to reach a more appealingfield; accepting an approach and touchdownsituation that leaves no margin for error. Thedesire to save the airplane, regardless of the risksinvolved, may be influenced by two other factors:the pilot’s financial stake in the airplane and the

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certainty that an undamaged airplane implies nobodily harm. There are times, however, when apilot should be more interested in sacrificing theairplane so that the occupants can safely walkaway from it.

• Undue concern about getting hurt. Fear is avital part of the self-preservation mechanism.However, when fear leads to panic, we invite thatwhich we want most to avoid. The survivalrecords favor pilots who maintain their compo-sure and know how to apply the general conceptsand procedures that have been developed throughthe years. The success of an emergency landing isas much a matter of the mind as of skills.

BASIC SAFETY CONCEPTS

GENERALA pilot who is faced with an emergency landing in ter-rain that makes extensive airplane damage inevitableshould keep in mind that the avoidance of crashinjuries is largely a matter of: (1) keeping vitalstructure (cockpit/cabin area) relatively intact by usingdispensable structure (such as wings, landing gear, andfuselage bottom) to absorb the violence of the stoppingprocess before it affects the occupants, (2) avoidingforceful bodily contact with interior structure.

The advantage of sacrificing dispensable structure isdemonstrated daily on the highways. A head-on carimpact against a tree at 20 miles per hour (m.p.h.) isless hazardous for a properly restrained driver than asimilar impact against the driver’s door. Accidentexperience shows that the extent of crushable structurebetween the occupants and the principal point ofimpact on the airplane has a direct bearing on theseverity of the transmitted crash forces and, therefore,on survivability.

Avoiding forcible contact with interior structure is amatter of seat and body security. Unless the occupantdecelerates at the same rate as the surroundingstructure, no benefit will be realized from its relativeintactness. The occupant will be brought to a stop vio-lently in the form of a secondary collision.

Dispensable airplane structure is not the only availableenergy absorbing medium in an emergency situation.Vegetation, trees, and even manmade structures maybe used for this purpose. Cultivated fields with densecrops, such as mature corn and grain, are almost aseffective in bringing an airplane to a stop withrepairable damage as an emergency arresting deviceon a runway. [Figure 16-1] Brush and small treesprovide considerable cushioning and braking effectwithout destroying the airplane. When dealing withnatural and manmade obstacles with greater strengththan the dispensable airplane structure, the pilot must

plan the touchdown in such a manner that only non-essential structure is “used up” in the principalslowing down process.

The overall severity of a deceleration process isgoverned by speed (groundspeed) and stoppingdistance. The most critical of these is speed; doublingthe groundspeed means quadrupling the total destruc-tive energy, and vice versa. Even a small change ingroundspeed at touchdown—be it as a result of windor pilot technique—will affect the outcome of acontrolled crash. It is important that the actualtouchdown during an emergency landing be made atthe lowest possible controllable airspeed, using allavailable aerodynamic devices.

Most pilots will instinctively—and correctly—lookfor the largest available flat and open field for an emer-gency landing. Actually, very little stopping distanceis required if the speed can be dissipated uniformly;that is, if the deceleration forces can be spread evenlyover the available distance. This concept is designedinto the arresting gear of aircraft carriers that providesa nearly constant stopping force from the moment ofhookup.

The typical light airplane is designed to provideprotection in crash landings that expose the occupantsto nine times the acceleration of gravity (9 G) in aforward direction. Assuming a uniform 9 G decelera-tion, at 50 m.p.h. the required stopping distance isabout 9.4 feet. While at 100 m.p.h. the stopping dis-tance is about 37.6 feet—about four times as great.[Figure 16-2] Although these figures are based on anideal deceleration process, it is interesting to note whatcan be accomplished in an effectively used short stop-ping distance. Understanding the need for a firmbut uniform deceleration process in very poor terrainenables the pilot to select touchdown conditions thatwill spread the breakup of dispensable structure over ashort distance, thereby reducing the peak decelerationof the cockpit/cabin area.

Figure 16-1. Using vegetation to absorb energy.

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ATTITUDE AND SINK RATE CONTROLThe most critical and often the most inexcusable errorthat can be made in the planning and execution of anemergency landing, even in ideal terrain, is the loss ofinitiative over the airplane’s attitude and sink rate attouchdown. When the touchdown is made on flat, openterrain, an excessive nose-low pitch attitude brings therisk of “sticking” the nose in the ground. Steep bankangles just before touchdown should also be avoided,as they increase the stalling speed and the likelihood ofa wingtip strike.

Since the airplane’s vertical component of velocity willbe immediately reduced to zero upon ground contact, itmust be kept well under control. A flat touchdown at ahigh sink rate (well in excess of 500 feet per minute(f.p.m.)) on a hard surface can be injurious withoutdestroying the cockpit/cabin structure, especially duringgear up landings in low-wing airplanes. A rigid bottomconstruction of these airplanes may preclude adequatecushioning by structural deformation. Similar impactconditions may cause structural collapse of the overheadstructure in high-wing airplanes. On soft terrain, anexcessive sink rate may cause digging in of the lowernose structure and severe forward deceleration.

TERRAIN SELECTIONA pilot’s choice of emergency landing sites is governedby:

• The route selected during preflight planning.

• The height above the ground when the emergencyoccurs.

• Excess airspeed (excess airspeed can be con-verted into distance and/or altitude).

The only time the pilot has a very limited choice is dur-ing the low and slow portion of the takeoff. However,even under these conditions, the ability to change theimpact heading only a few degrees may ensure asurvivable crash.

If beyond gliding distance of a suitable open area, thepilot should judge the available terrain for its energyabsorbing capability. If the emergency starts at aconsiderable height above the ground, the pilot shouldbe more concerned about first selecting the desiredgeneral area than a specific spot. Terrain appearancesfrom altitude can be very misleading and considerablealtitude may be lost before the best spot can bepinpointed. For this reason, the pilot should nothesitate to discard the original plan for one that is obvi-ously better. However, as a general rule, the pilotshould not change his or her mind more than once; awell-executed crash landing in poor terrain can be lesshazardous than an uncontrolled touchdown on anestablished field.

AIRPLANE CONFIGURATIONSince flaps improve maneuverability at slow speed,and lower the stalling speed, their use during finalapproach is recommended when time and circum-stances permit. However, the associated increase indrag and decrease in gliding distance call for caution inthe timing and the extent of their application;premature use of flap, and dissipation of altitude,may jeopardize an otherwise sound plan.

A hard and fast rule concerning the position of aretractable landing gear at touchdown cannot be given.In rugged terrain and trees, or during impacts at highsink rate, an extended gear would definitely have aprotective effect on the cockpit/cabin area. However,this advantage has to be weighed against the possibleside effects of a collapsing gear, such as a ruptured fueltank. As always, the manufacturer’s recommendationsas outlined in the AFM/POH should be followed.

When a normal touchdown is assured, and ample stop-ping distance is available, a gear up landing on level, butsoft terrain, or across a plowed field, may result in lessairplane damage than a gear down landing. [Figure 16-3]

9g Deceleration

37.6 ft.

50 m.p.h. 100 m.p.h.

9.4 ft.

Figure 16-2. Stopping distance vs. groundspeed.

Figure 16-3. Intentional gear up landing.

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Deactivation of the airplane’s electrical system beforetouchdown reduces the likelihood of a post-crash fire.However, the battery master switch should not beturned off until the pilot no longer has any need forelectrical power to operate vital airplane systems.Positive airplane control during the final part of theapproach has priority over all other considerations,including airplane configuration and cockpit checks.The pilot should attempt to exploit the power availablefrom an irregularly running engine; however, it is gen-erally better to switch the engine and fuel off justbefore touchdown. This not only ensures the pilot’sinitiative over the situation, but a cooled down enginereduces the fire hazard considerably.

APPROACHWhen the pilot has time to maneuver, the planning ofthe approach should be governed by three factors.

• Wind direction and velocity.

• Dimensions and slope of the chosen field.

• Obstacles in the final approach path.

These three factors are seldom compatible. When com-promises have to be made, the pilot should aim for awind/obstacle/terrain combination that permits a finalapproach with some margin for error in judgment ortechnique. A pilot who overestimates the gliding rangemay be tempted to stretch the glide across obstacles inthe approach path. For this reason, it is sometimesbetter to plan the approach over an unobstructed area,regardless of wind direction. Experience shows that acollision with obstacles at the end of a ground roll, orslide, is much less hazardous than striking an obstacleat flying speed before the touchdown point is reached.

TERRAIN TYPESSince an emergency landing on suitable terrain resem-bles a situation in which the pilot should be familiarthrough training, only the more unusual situation willbe discussed.

CONFINED AREASThe natural preference to set the airplane down on theground should not lead to the selection of an open spotbetween trees or obstacles where the ground cannot bereached without making a steep descent.

Once the intended touchdown point is reached, and theremaining open and unobstructed space is very lim-ited, it may be better to force the airplane down on theground than to delay touchdown until it stalls (settles).An airplane decelerates faster after it is on the groundthan while airborne. Thought may also be given to thedesirability of ground-looping or retracting the landinggear in certain conditions.

A river or creek can be an inviting alternative in other-wise rugged terrain. The pilot should ensure that the

water or creek bed can be reached without snaggingthe wings. The same concept applies to road landingswith one additional reason for caution; manmadeobstacles on either side of a road may not be visibleuntil the final portion of the approach.

When planning the approach across a road, it shouldbe remembered that most highways, and even ruraldirt roads, are paralleled by power or telephone lines.Only a sharp lookout for the supporting structures, orpoles, may provide timely warning.

TREES (FOREST)Although a tree landing is not an attractive prospect,the following general guidelines will help to make theexperience survivable.

• Use the normal landing configuration (full flaps,gear down).

• Keep the groundspeed low by heading into thewind.

• Make contact at minimum indicated airspeed, butnot below stall speed, and “hang” the airplane inthe tree branches in a nose-high landing attitude.Involving the underside of the fuselage and bothwings in the initial tree contact provides a moreeven and positive cushioning effect, while pre-venting penetration of the windshield. [Figure16-4]

• Avoid direct contact of the fuselage with heavytree trunks.

• Low, closely spaced trees with wide, densecrowns (branches) close to the ground are muchbetter than tall trees with thin tops; the latterallow too much free fall height. (A free fall from75 feet results in an impact speed of about 40knots, or about 4,000 f.p.m.)

• Ideally, initial tree contact should be symmet-rical; that is, both wings should meet equalresistance in the tree branches. This distributionof the load helps to maintain proper airplaneattitude. It may also preclude the loss of onewing, which invariably leads to a more rapid andless predictable descent to the ground.

• If heavy tree trunk contact is unavoidable oncethe airplane is on the ground, it is best to involveboth wings simultaneously by directing the air-plane between two properly spaced trees. Do notattempt this maneuver, however, while stillairborne.

WATER (DITCHING) AND SNOWA well-executed water landing normally involves lessdeceleration violence than a poor tree landing or a

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touchdown on extremely rough terrain. Also anairplane that is ditched at minimum speed and in a nor-mal landing attitude will not immediately sink upontouchdown. Intact wings and fuel tanks (especiallywhen empty) provide floatation for at least severalminutes even if the cockpit may be just below thewater line in a high-wing airplane.

Loss of depth perception may occur when landing on awide expanse of smooth water, with the risk of flyinginto the water or stalling in from excessive altitude. Toavoid this hazard, the airplane should be “dragged in”when possible. Use no more than intermediate flaps onlow-wing airplanes. The water resistance of fullyextended flaps may result in asymmetrical flap failureand slowing of the airplane. Keep a retractable gear upunless the AFM/POH advises otherwise.

A landing in snow should be executed like a ditching,in the same configuration and with the same regard forloss of depth perception (white out) in reduced visibil-ity and on wide open terrain.

ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKEOFF(SINGLE-ENGINE)The altitude available is, in many ways, the controllingfactor in the successful accomplishment of an emer-gency landing. If an actual engine failure should occurimmediately after takeoff and before a safe maneuveringaltitude is attained, it is usually inadvisable to attemptto turn back to the field from where the takeoff wasmade. Instead, it is safer to immediately establish the

proper glide attitude, and select a field directly aheador slightly to either side of the takeoff path.

The decision to continue straight ahead is oftendifficult to make unless the problems involved inattempting to turn back are seriously considered. In thefirst place, the takeoff was in all probability made intothe wind. To get back to the takeoff field, a downwindturn must be made. This increases the groundspeed andrushes the pilot even more in the performance ofprocedures and in planning the landing approach.Secondly, the airplane will be losing considerablealtitude during the turn and might still be in a bankwhen the ground is contacted, resulting in the airplanecartwheeling (which would be a catastrophe for theoccupants, as well as the airplane). After turning down-wind, the apparent increase in groundspeed couldmislead the pilot into attempting to prematurely slowdown the airplane and cause it to stall. On the otherhand, continuing straight ahead or making a slight turnallows the pilot more time to establish a safe landingattitude, and the landing can be made as slowly aspossible, but more importantly, the airplane can belanded while under control.

Concerning the subject of turning back to the runwayfollowing an engine failure on takeoff, the pilot shoulddetermine the minimum altitude an attempt of such amaneuver should be made in a particular airplane.Experimentation at a safe altitude should give the pilotan approximation of height lost in a descending 180°turn at idle power. By adding a safety factor of about25 percent, the pilot should arrive at a practical deci-sion height. The ability to make a 180° turn does notnecessarily mean that the departure runway can bereached in a power-off glide; this depends on the wind,the distance traveled during the climb, the heightreached, and the glide distance of the airplane withoutpower. The pilot should also remember that a turn backto the departure runway may in fact require more thana 180° change in direction.

Consider the following example of an airplane whichhas taken off and climbed to an altitude of 300 feetAGL when the engine fails. [Figure 16-5 on nextpage]. After a typical 4 second reaction time, the pilotelects to turn back to the runway. Using a standard rate(3° change in direction per second) turn, it will take 1minute to turn 180°. At a glide speed of 65 knots, theradius of the turn is 2,100 feet, so at the completion ofthe turn, the airplane will be 4,200 feet to one side ofthe runway. The pilot must turn another 45° to head theairplane toward the runway. By this time the totalchange in direction is 225° equating to 75 seconds plusthe 4 second reaction time. If the airplane in a power-off glide descends at approximately 1,000 f.p.m., it

Figure 16-4.Tree landing.

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will have descended 1,316, feet placing it 1,016 feetbelow the runway.

EMERGENCY DESCENTSAn emergency descent is a maneuver for descendingas rapidly as possible to a lower altitude or to theground for an emergency landing. [Figure 16-6] Theneed for this maneuver may result from an uncontrol-lable fire, a sudden loss of cabin pressurization, or anyother situation demanding an immediate and rapiddescent. The objective is to descend the airplane assoon and as rapidly as possible, within the structurallimitations of the airplane. Simulated emergencydescents should be made in a turn to check for other airtraffic below and to look around for a possibleemergency landing area. A radio call announcingdescent intentions may be appropriate to alert otheraircraft in the area. When initiating the descent, a bankof approximately 30 to 45° should be established tomaintain positive load factors (“G” forces) on theairplane.

Emergency descent training should be performed asrecommended by the manufacturer, including the con-figuration and airspeeds. Except when prohibited bythe manufacturer, the power should be reduced to idle,and the propeller control (if equipped) should beplaced in the low pitch (or high revolutions per minute

(r.p.m.)) position. This will allow the propeller to actas an aerodynamic brake to help prevent an excessiveairspeed buildup during the descent. The landing gearand flaps should be extended as recommended by themanufacturer. This will provide maximum drag so thatthe descent can be made as rapidly as possible, with-out excessive airspeed. The pilot should not allow theairplane’s airspeed to pass the never-exceed speed(VNE), the maximum landing gear extended speed(VLE), or the maximum flap extended speed (VFE), asapplicable. In the case of an engine fire, a highairspeed descent could blow out the fire. However, theweakening of the airplane structure is a major concernand descent at low airspeed would place less stress onthe airplane. If the descent is conducted in turbulentconditions, the pilot must also comply with the designmaneuvering speed (VA) limitations. The descentshould be made at the maximum allowable airspeedconsistent with the procedure used. This will provideincreased drag and therefore the loss of altitude asquickly as possible. The recovery from an emergencydescent should be initiated at a high enough altitude toensure a safe recovery back to level flight or aprecautionary landing.

When the descent is established and stabilized duringtraining and practice, the descent should be terminated.

Figure 16-5. Turning back to the runway after engine failure.

4,480 Ft.

180°

225°

300 Ft. AGL

1,016 Ft.

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In airplanes with piston engines, prolonged practice ofemergency descents should be avoided to preventexcessive cooling of the engine cylinders.

IN-FLIGHT FIREA fire in flight demands immediate and decisive action.The pilot therefore must be familiar with the proceduresoutlined to meet this emergency contained in theAFM/POH for the particular airplane. For the purposesof this handbook, in-flight fires are classified as: in-flight engine fires, electrical fires, and cabin fires.

ENGINE FIREAn in-flight engine compartment fire is usually causedby a failure that allows a flammable substance such asfuel, oil or hydraulic fluid to come in contact with a hotsurface. This may be caused by a mechanical failure ofthe engine itself, an engine-driven accessory, adefective induction or exhaust system, or a brokenline. Engine compartment fires may also result frommaintenance errors, such as improperly installed/fas-tened lines and/or fittings resulting in leaks.

Engine compartment fires can be indicated by smokeand/or flames coming from the engine cowling area.They can also be indicated by discoloration, bubbling,and/or melting of the engine cowling skin in caseswhere flames and/or smoke is not visible to the pilot.By the time a pilot becomes aware of an in-flightengine compartment fire, it usually is well developed.Unless the airplane manufacturer directs otherwise inthe AFM/POH, the first step on discovering a fireshould be to shut off the fuel supply to the engine byplacing the mixture control in the idle cut off positionand the fuel selector shutoff valve to the OFF position.The ignition switch should be left ON in order to useup the fuel that remains in the fuel lines and com-ponents between the fuel selector/shutoff valve andthe engine. This procedure may starve the enginecompartment of fuel and cause the fire to die naturally.If the flames are snuffed out, no attempt should bemade to restart the engine.

If the engine compartment fire is oil-fed, as evidencedby thick black smoke, as opposed to a fuel-fed firewhich produces bright orange flames, the pilot shouldconsider stopping the propeller rotation by featheringor other means, such as (with constant-speed pro-pellers) placing the pitch control lever to the minimumr.p.m. position and raising the nose to reduce airspeeduntil the propeller stops rotating. This procedure willstop an engine-driven oil (or hydraulic) pump fromcontinuing to pump the flammable fluid which isfeeding the fire.

Some light airplane emergency checklists direct thepilot to shut off the electrical master switch. However,the pilot should consider that unless the fire is electricalin nature, or a crash landing is imminent, deactivatingthe electrical system prevents the use of panel radiosfor transmitting distress messages and will also causeair traffic control (ATC) to lose transponder returns.

Pilots of powerless single-engine airplanes are leftwith no choice but to make a forced landing. Pilots oftwin-engine airplanes may elect to continue the flightto the nearest airport. However, consideration must begiven to the possibility that a wing could be seriouslyimpaired and lead to structural failure. Even a brief butintense fire could cause dangerous structural damage.In some cases, the fire could continue to burn underthe wing (or engine cowling in the case of a single-engine airplane) out of view of the pilot. Enginecompartment fires which appear to have beenextinguished have been known to rekindle withchanges in airflow pattern and airspeed.

The pilot must be familiar with the airplane’s emer-gency descent procedures. The pilot must bear in mindthat:

• The airplane may be severely structurally dam-aged to the point that its ability to remain undercontrol could be lost at any moment.

• The airplane may still be on fire and susceptibleto explosion.

• The airplane is expendable and the only thing thatmatters is the safety of those on board.

ELECTRICAL FIRESThe initial indication of an electrical fire is usually thedistinct odor of burning insulation. Once an electricalfire is detected, the pilot should attempt to identify thefaulty circuit by checking circuit breakers, instruments,avionics, and lights. If the faulty circuit cannot be read-ily detected and isolated, and flight conditions permit,the battery master switch and alternator/generatorswitches should be turned off to remove the possiblesource of the fire. However, any materials which havebeen ignited may continue to burn.

Figure 16-6. Emergency descent.

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If electrical power is absolutely essential for the flight,an attempt may be made to identify and isolate thefaulty circuit by:

1. Turning the electrical master switch OFF.

2. Turning all individual electrical switches OFF.

3. Turning the master switch back ON.

4. Selecting electrical switches that were ON beforethe fire indication one at a time, permitting a shorttime lapse after each switch is turned on to checkfor signs of odor, smoke, or sparks.

This procedure, however, has the effect of recreatingthe original problem. The most prudent course ofaction is to land as soon as possible.

CABIN FIRECabin fires generally result from one of three sources:(1) careless smoking on the part of the pilot and/orpassengers; (2) electrical system malfunctions; (3)heating system malfunctions. A fire in the cabin pres-ents the pilot with two immediate demands: attackingthe fire, and getting the airplane safely on the groundas quickly as possible. A fire or smoke in the cabinshould be controlled by identifying and shutting downthe faulty system. In many cases, smoke may beremoved from the cabin by opening the cabin air vents.This should be done only after the fire extinguisher (ifavailable) is used. Then the cabin air control can beopened to purge the cabin of both smoke and fumes. Ifsmoke increases in intensity when the cabin air ventsare opened, they should be immediately closed. Thisindicates a possible fire in the heating system, nosecompartment baggage area (if so equipped), or that theincrease in airflow is feeding the fire.

On pressurized airplanes, the pressurization air systemwill remove smoke from the cabin; however, if thesmoke is intense, it may be necessary to either depres-surize at altitude, if oxygen is available for alloccupants, or execute an emergency descent.

In unpressurized single-engine and light twin-engineairplanes, the pilot can attempt to expel the smokefrom the cabin by opening the foul weather windows.These windows should be closed immediately if thefire becomes more intense. If the smoke is severe, thepassengers and crew should use oxygen masks if avail-able, and the pilot should initiate an immediatedescent. The pilot should also be aware that on someairplanes, lowering the landing gear and/or wing flapscan aggravate a cabin smoke problem.

FLIGHT CONTROLMALFUNCTION/FAILURE

TOTAL FLAP FAILUREThe inability to extend the wing flaps will necessitatea no-flap approach and landing. In light airplanes a no-flap approach and landing is not particularly difficultor dangerous. However, there are certain factors whichmust be considered in the execution of this maneuver. A no-flap landing requires substantially more runwaythan normal. The increase in required landing distancecould be as much as 50 percent.

When flying in the traffic pattern with the wing flapsretracted, the airplane must be flown in a relativelynose-high attitude to maintain altitude, as compared toflight with flaps extended. Losing altitude can be moreof a problem without the benefit of the drag normallyprovided by flaps. A wider, longer traffic pattern maybe required in order to avoid the necessity of diving tolose altitude and consequently building up excessiveairspeed.

On final approach, a nose-high attitude can make itdifficult to see the runway. This situation, if not antic-ipated, can result in serious errors in judgment ofheight and distance. Approaching the runway in arelatively nose-high attitude can also cause theperception that the airplane is close to a stall. This maycause the pilot to lower the nose abruptly and risktouching down on the nosewheel.

With the flaps retracted and the power reduced forlanding, the airplane is slightly less stable in the pitchand roll axes. Without flaps, the airplane will tend tofloat considerably during roundout. The pilot shouldavoid the temptation to force the airplane onto the run-way at an excessively high speed. Neither should thepilot flare excessively, because without flaps thismight cause the tail to strike the runway.

ASYMMETRIC (SPLIT) FLAPAn asymmetric “split” flap situation is one in whichone flap deploys or retracts while the other remains inposition. The problem is indicated by a pronouncedroll toward the wing with the least flap deflectionwhen wing flaps are extended/retracted.

The roll encountered in a split flap situation is coun-tered with opposite aileron. The yaw caused by theadditional drag created by the extended flap willrequire substantial opposite rudder, resulting in across-control condition. Almost full aileron may berequired to maintain a wings-level attitude, especiallyat the reduced airspeed necessary for approach andlanding. The pilot therefore should not attempt to land

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with a crosswind from the side of the deployed flap,because the additional roll control required to counter-act the crosswind may not be available.

The pilot must be aware of the difference in stallspeeds between one wing and the other in a split flapsituation. The wing with the retracted flap will stallconsiderably earlier than the wing with the deployedflap. This type of asymmetrical stall will result in anuncontrollable roll in the direction of the stalled (clean)wing. If altitude permits, a spin will result.

The approach to landing with a split flap conditionshould be flown at a higher than normal airspeed. Thepilot should not risk an asymmetric stall and subse-quent loss of control by flaring excessively. Rather, theairplane should be flown onto the runway so that thetouchdown occurs at an airspeed consistent with a safemargin above flaps-up stall speed.

LOSS OF ELEVATOR CONTROLIn many airplanes, the elevator is controlled by twocables: a “down” cable and an “up” cable. Normally,a break or disconnect in only one of these cables willnot result in a total loss of elevator control. In mostairplanes, a failed cable results in a partial loss ofpitch control. In the failure of the “up” elevator cable(the “down” elevator being intact and functional) thecontrol yoke will move aft easily but produce noresponse. Forward yoke movement, however, beyondthe neutral position produces a nosedown attitude.Conversely, a failure of the “down” elevator cable,forward movement of the control yoke produces noeffect. The pilot will, however, have partial control ofpitch attitude with aft movement.

When experiencing a loss of up-elevator control, thepilot can retain pitch control by:

• Applying considerable nose-up trim.

• Pushing the control yoke forward to attain andmaintain desired attitude.

• Increasing forward pressure to lower the nose andrelaxing forward pressure to raise the nose.

• Releasing forward pressure to flare for landing.

When experiencing a loss of down-elevator control,the pilot can retain pitch control by:

• Applying considerable nosedown trim.

• Pulling the control yoke aft to attain and maintainattitude.

• Releasing back pressure to lower the nose andincreasing back pressure to raise the nose.

• Increasing back pressure to flare for landing.

Trim mechanisms can be useful in the event of anin-flight primary control failure. For example, if thelinkage between the cockpit and the elevator fails inflight, leaving the elevator free to weathervane in thewind, the trim tab can be used to raise or lower theelevator, within limits. The trim tabs are not as effec-tive as normal linkage control in conditions such aslow airspeed, but they do have some positive effect—usually enough to bring about a safe landing.

If an elevator becomes jammed, resulting in a total lossof elevator control movement, various combinations ofpower and flap extension offer a limited amount ofpitch control. A successful landing under these condi-tions, however, is problematical.

LANDING GEAR MALFUNCTIONOnce the pilot has confirmed that the landing gear hasin fact malfunctioned, and that one or more gear legsrefuses to respond to the conventional or alternatemethods of gear extension contained in the AFM/POH,there are several methods that may be useful inattempting to force the gear down. One method is todive the airplane (in smooth air only) to VNE speed (redline on the airspeed indicator) and (within the limits ofsafety) execute a rapid pull up. In normal categoryairplanes, this procedure will create a 3.8 G load on thestructure, in effect making the landing gear weigh 3.8times normal. In some cases, this may force the land-ing gear into the down and locked position. Thisprocedure requires a fine control touch and good feelfor the airplane. The pilot must avoid exceeding thedesign stress limits of the airplane while attempting tolower the landing gear. The pilot must also avoid anaccelerated stall and possible loss of control whileattention is directed to solving the landing gearproblem.

Another method that has proven useful in some casesis to induce rapid yawing. After stabilizing at orslightly less than maneuvering speed (VA), the pilotshould alternately and aggressively apply rudder in onedirection and then the other in rapid sequence. Theresulting yawing action may cause the landing gear tofall into place.

If all efforts to extend the landing gear have failed, anda gear up landing is inevitable, the pilot should selectan airport with crash and rescue facilities. The pilotshould not hesitate to request that emergency equip-ment be standing by.

When selecting a landing surface, the pilot should con-sider that a smooth, hard-surface runway usuallycauses less damage than rough, unimproved grassstrips. A hard surface does, however, create sparks thatcan ignite fuel. If the airport is so equipped, the pilot

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can request that the runway surface be foamed. Thepilot should consider burning off excess fuel. This willreduce landing speed and fire potential.

If the landing gear malfunction is limited to one mainlanding gear leg, the pilot should consume as muchfuel from that side of the airplane as practicable,thereby reducing the weight of the wing on that side.The reduced weight makes it possible to delay theunsupported wing from contacting the surface duringthe landing roll until the last possible moment.Reduced impact speeds result in less damage.

If only one landing gear leg fails to extend, the pilothas the option of landing on the available gear legs, orlanding with all the gear legs retracted. Landing ononly one main gear usually causes the airplane to veerstrongly in the direction of the faulty gear leg aftertouchdown. If the landing runway is narrow, and/orditches and obstacles line the runway edge, maximumdirectional control after touchdown is a necessity. Inthis situation, a landing with all three gear retractedmay be the safest course of action.

If the pilot elects to land with one main gear retracted(and the other main gear and nose gear down andlocked), the landing should be made in a nose-highattitude with the wings level. As airspeed decays, thepilot should apply whatever aileron control is neces-sary to keep the unsupported wing airborne as long aspossible. [Figure 16-7] Once the wing contacts thesurface, the pilot can anticipate a strong yaw in thatdirection. The pilot must be prepared to use fullopposite rudder and aggressive braking to maintainsome degree of directional control.

When landing with a retracted nosewheel (and themain gear extended and locked) the pilot should holdthe nose off the ground until almost full up-elevatorhas been applied. [Figure 16-8] The pilot should thenrelease back pressure in such a manner that the nosesettles slowly to the surface. Applying and holding fullup-elevator will result in the nose abruptly dropping tothe surface as airspeed decays, possibly resulting inburrowing and/or additional damage. Brake pressureshould not be applied during the landing roll unlessabsolutely necessary to avoid a collision with obstacles.

If the landing must be made with only the nose gearextended, the initial contact should be made on the aftfuselage structure with a nose-high attitude. Thisprocedure will help prevent porpoising and/or wheel-barrowing. The pilot should then allow the nosewheelto gradually touch down, using nosewheel steering asnecessary for directional control.

SYSTEMS MALFUNCTIONS

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMThe loss of electrical power can deprive the pilot ofnumerous critical systems, and therefore should notbe taken lightly even in day/VFR conditions. Mostin-flight failures of the electrical system are locatedin the generator or alternator. Once the generator oralternator system goes off line, the electrical sourcein a typical light airplane is a battery. If a warninglight or ammeter indicates the probability of an alter-nator or generator failure in an airplane with only onegenerating system, however, the pilot may have verylittle time available from the battery.

The rating of the airplane battery provides a clue to howlong it may last. With batteries, the higher the amperageload, the less the usable total amperage. Thus a 25-amphour battery could produce 5 amps per hour for 5 hours,but if the load were increased to 10 amps, it might lastonly 2 hours. A 40-amp load might discharge the batteryfully in about 10 or 15 minutes. Much depends on thebattery condition at the time of the system failure. If thebattery has been in service for a few years, its power maybe reduced substantially because of internal resistance.Or if the system failure was not detected immediately,much of the stored energy may have already been used. Itis essential, therefore, that the pilot immediately shednon-essential loads when the generating source fails.[Figure 16-9] The pilot should then plan to land at thenearest suitable airport.

What constitutes an “emergency” load following agenerating system failure cannot be predetermined,because the actual circumstances will always besomewhat different—for example, whether the flightis VFR or IFR, conducted in day or at night, in cloudsor in the clear. Distance to nearest suitable airport canalso be a factor.

Figure 16-7. Landing with one main gear retracted.

Figure 16-8. Landing with nosewheel retracted.

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The pilot should remember that the electrically powered(or electrically selected) landing gear and flaps will notfunction properly on the power left in a partiallydepleted battery. Landing gear and flap motors use uppower at rates much greater than most other types ofelectrical equipment. The result of selecting thesemotors on a partially depleted battery may well result inan immediate total loss of electrical power.

If the pilot should experience a complete in-flight lossof electrical power, the following steps should betaken:

• Shed all but the most necessary electrically-driven equipment.

• Understand that any loss of electrical power iscritical in a small airplane—notify ATC of the sit-uation immediately. Request radar vectors for alanding at the nearest suitable airport.

• If landing gear or flaps are electrically controlledor operated, plan the arrival well ahead of time.Expect to make a no-flap landing, and anticipatea manual landing gear extension.

PITOT-STATIC SYSTEMThe source of the pressure for operating the airspeedindicator, the vertical speed indicator, and the altimeteris the pitot-static system. The major components of thepitot-static system are the impact pressure chamberand lines, and the static pressure chamber and lines,each of which are subject to total or partial blockageby ice, dirt, and/or other foreign matter. Blockage ofthe pitot-static system will adversely affect instrumentoperation. [Figure 16-10 on next page]

Partial static system blockage is insidious in that itmay go unrecognized until a critical phase of flight.During takeoff, climb, and level-off at cruise altitudethe altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speedindicator may operate normally. No indication ofmalfunction may be present until the airplane beginsa descent.

If the static reference system is severely restricted, butnot entirely blocked, as the airplane descends, thestatic reference pressure at the instruments begins tolag behind the actual outside air pressure. Whiledescending, the altimeter may indicate that the airplaneis higher than actual because the obstruction slows theairflow from the static port to the altimeter. Thevertical speed indicator confirms the altimeter’s infor-mation regarding rate of change, because the referencepressure is not changing at the same rate as the outsideair pressure. The airspeed indicator, unable to tellwhether it is experiencing more airspeed pitot pressureor less static reference pressure, indicates a higherairspeed than actual. To the pilot, the instrumentsindicate that the airplane is too high, too fast, anddescending at a rate much less than desired.

If the pilot levels off and then begins a climb, thealtitude indication may still lag. The vertical speedindicator will indicate that the airplane is not climbingas fast as actual. The indicated airspeed, however, maybegin to decrease at an alarming rate. The least amountof pitch-up attitude may cause the airspeed needle toindicate dangerously near stall speed.

Managing a static system malfunction requires that thepilot know and understand the airplane’s pitot-staticsystem. If a system malfunction is suspected, the pilotshould confirm it by opening the alternate staticsource. This should be done while the airplane isclimbing or descending. If the instrument needlesmove significantly when this is done, a static pressureproblem exists and the alternate source should be usedduring the remainder of the flight.

ABNORMAL ENGINE INSTRUMENTINDICATIONSThe AFM/POH for the specific airplane contains infor-mation that should be followed in the event of any

A. Continuous Load

Pitot Heating (Operating)Wingtip LightsHeater Igniter**Navigation Receivers**Communications ReceiversFuel IndicatorInstrument Lights (overhead)Engine IndicatorCompass LightLanding Gear IndicatorFlap Indicator

B. Intermittent Load

StarterLanding LightsHeater Blower MotorFlap MotorLanding Gear MotorCigarette LighterTransceiver (keyed)Fuel Boost PumpCowl Flap MotorStall Warning Horn

** Amperage for radios varies with equipment. In general, the more recent the model, the less amperage required.NOTE: Panel and indicator lights usually draw less than one amp.

141

1-41-2121111

1211111111

3.303.001-20

1-2 each1-2 each

0.400.600.300.200.170.17

100.0017.8014.0013.0010.007.505-72.001.001.50

Electrical Loads forLight Single

Numberof Units

TotalAmperes

Figure 16-9. Electrical load for light single.

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abnormal engine instrument indications. The table onthe next page offers generic information on some ofthe more commonly experienced in-flight abnormalengine instrument indications, their possible causes,and corrective actions. [Table 1]

DOOR OPENING IN FLIGHTIn most instances, the occurrence of an inadvertentdoor opening is not of great concern to the safety of aflight, but rather, the pilot’s reaction at the moment theincident happens. A door opening in flight may beaccompanied by a sudden loud noise, sustained noiselevel and possible vibration or buffeting. If a pilotallows himself or herself to become distracted to thepoint where attention is focused on the open doorrather than maintaining control of the airplane, loss ofcontrol may result, even though disruption of airflowby the door is minimal.

In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight oron takeoff, the pilot should adhere to the following.

• Concentrate on flying the airplane. Particularly inlight single- and twin-engine airplanes; a cabindoor that opens in flight seldom if ever compro-mises the airplane’s ability to fly. There may besome handling effects such as roll and/or yaw, butin most instances these can be easily overcome.

• If the door opens after lift-off, do not rush to land.Climb to normal traffic pattern altitude, fly a nor-mal traffic pattern, and make a normal landing.

• Do not release the seat belt and shoulder harnessin an attempt to reach the door. Leave the dooralone. Land as soon as practicable, and close thedoor once safely on the ground.

• Remember that most doors will not stay wideopen. They will usually bang open, then settlepartly closed. A slip towards the door may causeit to open wider; a slip away from the door maypush it closed.

• Do not panic. Try to ignore the unfamiliar noiseand vibration. Also, do not rush. Attempting toget the airplane on the ground as quickly as pos-sible may result in steep turns at low altitude.

• Complete all items on the landing checklist.

• Remember that accidents are almost nevercaused by an open door. Rather, an open dooraccident is caused by the pilot’s distraction orfailure to maintain control of the airplane.

INADVERTENT VFR FLIGHT INTO IMC

GENERALIt is beyond the scope of this handbook to incorpo-rate a course of training in basic attitude instrumentflying. This information is contained in FAA-H-8083-15, Instrument Flying Handbook. Certainpilot certificates and/or associated ratings requiretraining in instrument flying and a demonstration ofspecific instrument flying tasks on the practical test.

Effect of BlockedPitot/Static

Sources on Airspeed,Altimeter and

Vertical Speed Indications

Pitot Source Blocked

One StaticSource Blocked

Both StaticSources Blocked

Both Static andPitot Sources Blocked

Increases with altitudegain; decreases

with altitude loss.

Decreases with altitudegain; increases

with altitude loss.

Unaffected Unaffected

Does not changewith actual gain or

loss of altitude.

Does not changewith actual variations

in vertical speed.

Inaccurate while sideslipping; very sensitive in turbulence.

All indications remain constant, regardless of actual changesin airspeed, altitude and vertical speed.

Indicated Airspeed Indicated AltitudeIndicated

Vertical Speed

Figure 16-10. Effects of blocked pitot-static sources.

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Pilots and flight instructors should refer to FAA-H-8083-15 for guidance in the performance of thesetasks, and to the appropriate practical test standardsfor information on the standards to which theserequired tasks must be performed for the particularcertificate level and/or rating. The pilot shouldremember, however, that unless these tasks are prac-ticed on a continuing and regular basis, skill erosionbegins almost immediately. In a very short time, thepilot’s assumed level of confidence will be muchhigher than the performance he or she will actuallybe able to demonstrate should the need arise.

Accident statistics show that the pilot who has notbeen trained in attitude instrument flying, or onewhose instrument skills have eroded, will lose con-trol of the airplane in about 10 minutes once forcedto rely solely on instrument reference. The purposeof this section is to provide guidance on practicalemergency measures to maintain airplane control fora limited period of time in the event a VFR pilotencounters IMC conditions. The main goal is notprecision instrument flying; rather, it is to help theVFR pilot keep the airplane under adequate controluntil suitable visual references are regained.

MALFUNCTION PROBABLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTIONLoss of r.p.m. during cruise flight(non-altitude engines)

Carburetor or induction icing or air filterclogging

Apply carburetor heat. If dirty filter issuspected and non-filtered air is available,switch selector to unfiltered position.

Loss of manifold pressure during cruiseflight

Same as above Same as above.

Turbocharger failure Possible exhaust leak. Shut down engineor use lowest practicable power setting.Land as soon as possible.

Gain of manifold pressure during cruise flight

Throttle has opened, propeller control hasdecreased r.p.m., or improper method ofpower reduction

Readjust throttle and tighten friction lock.Reduce manifold pressure prior toreducing r.p.m.

High oil temperature Oil congealed in cooler Reduce power. Land. Preheat engine.Inadequate engine cooling Reduce power. Increase airspeed.Detonation or preignition Observe cylinder head temperatures for

high reading. Reduce manifold pressure.Enrich mixture.

Forth coming internal engine faiure Land as soon as possible or featherpropeller and stop engine.

Land as soon as possible or featherpropeller and stop engine.

Defective thermostatic oil cooler control Land as soon as possible. Consultmaintenance personnel.

Low oil temperature Engine not warmed up to operatingtemperature

Warm engine in prescribed manner.

High oil pressure Cold oil Same as above.

Same as above.

Same as above.

Same as above.

Same as above.Same as above.

Possible internal plugging Reduce power. Land as soon as possible.Low oil pressure Broken pressure relief valve

Insufficient oilBurned out bearings

Fluctuating oil pressure Low oil supply, loose oil lines, defectivepressure relief valveImproper cowl flap adjustment Adjust cowl flaps.

Adjust cowl flaps.

Insufficient airspeed for cooling Increase airspeed.Improper mixture adjustment Adjust mixture.Detonation or preignition Reduce power, enrich mixture, increase

cooling airflow.Low cylinder head temperature

High cylinder head temperature

Excessive cowl flap openingExcessively rich mixture Adjust mixture control.Exteneded glides without clearing engine Clear engine long enough to keep

temperatures at minimum range.Ammeter indicating discharge Alternator or generator failure Shed unnecessary electrical load. Land

as soon as practicable.Load meter indicating zero Same as aboveSurging r.p.m. and overspeeding Defective propeller

Defective propeller governor

Adjust propeller r.p.m.Defective engine Consult maintenance.

Consult maintenance personnel.

Consult maintenance.

Adjust propeller control. Attempt torestore normal operation.

Defective tachometerImproper mixture setting Readjust mixture for smooth operation.

Adjust mixture for smooth operation.

Loss of airspeed in cruise flight withmanifold pressure and r.p.m. constant

Possible loss of one or more cylinders Land as soon as possible.

Rough running engine Improper mixture control settingDefective ignition or valvesDetonation or preignition Reduce power, enrich mixture, open cowl

flaps to reduce cylinder head temp. Landas soon as practicable.

Induction air leak Reduce power. Consult maintenance.Plugged fuel nozzle (Fuel injection)Excessive fuel pressure or fuel flow Lean mixture control.

Loss of fuel pressure Engine driven pump failure Turn on boost tanks.No fuel Switch tanks, turn on fuel.

Table 1.

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The first steps necessary for surviving an encounterwith instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) by aVFR pilot are:

• Recognition and acceptance of the seriousness ofthe situation and the need for immediate remedialaction.

• Maintaining control of the airplane.

• Obtaining the appropriate assistance in getting theairplane safely on the ground.

RECOGNITIONA VFR pilot is in IMC conditions anytime he or she isunable to maintain airplane attitude control by referenceto the natural horizon, regardless of the circumstancesor the prevailing weather conditions. Additionally, theVFR pilot is, in effect, in IMC anytime he or she is inad-vertently, or intentionally for an indeterminate period oftime, unable to navigate or establish geographicalposition by visual reference to landmarks on thesurface. These situations must be accepted by the pilotinvolved as a genuine emergency, requiring appropriateaction.

The pilot must understand that unless he or she istrained, qualified, and current in the control of an air-plane solely by reference to flight instruments, he or shewill be unable to do so for any length of time. Manyhours of VFR flying using the attitude indicator as areference for airplane control may lull a pilot into a falsesense of security based on an overestimation of his orher personal ability to control the airplane solely byinstrument reference. In VFR conditions, even thoughthe pilot thinks he or she is controlling the airplane byinstrument reference, the pilot also receives an overviewof the natural horizon and may subconsciously rely on itmore than the cockpit attitude indicator. If the naturalhorizon were to suddenly disappear, the untrainedinstrument pilot would be subject to vertigo, spatialdisorientation, and inevitable control loss.

MAINTAINING AIRPLANE CONTROLOnce the pilot recognizes and accepts the situation, heor she must understand that the only way to control theairplane safely is by using and trusting the flight instru-ments. Attempts to control the airplane partially byreference to flight instruments while searching outsidethe cockpit for visual confirmation of the informationprovided by those instruments will result in inadequateairplane control. This may be followed by spatialdisorientation and complete control loss.

The most important point to be stressed is that the pilotmust not panic. The task at hand may seem over-whelming, and the situation may be compounded byextreme apprehension. The pilot therefore must makea conscious effort to relax.

The pilot must understand the most important con-cern—in fact the only concern at this point—is to keepthe wings level. An uncontrolled turn or bank usuallyleads to difficulty in achieving the objectives of anydesired flight condition. The pilot will find that goodbank control has the effect of making pitch controlmuch easier.

The pilot should remember that a person cannot feelcontrol pressures with a tight grip on the controls.Relaxing and learning to “control with the eyes andthe brain” instead of only the muscles, usually takesconsiderable conscious effort.

The pilot must believe what the flight instrumentsshow about the airplane’s attitude regardless of whatthe natural senses tell. The vestibular sense (motionsensing by the inner ear) can and will confuse the pilot.Because of inertia, the sensory areas of the inner earcannot detect slight changes in airplane attitude, norcan they accurately sense attitude changes which occurat a uniform rate over a period of time. On the otherhand, false sensations are often generated, leading thepilot to believe the attitude of the airplane has changedwhen, in fact, it has not. These false sensations resultin the pilot experiencing spatial disorientation.

ATTITUDE CONTROLAn airplane is, by design, an inherently stable platformand, except in turbulent air, will maintain approx-imately straight-and-level flight if properly trimmedand left alone. It is designed to maintain a state ofequilibrium in pitch, roll, and yaw. The pilot must beaware, however, that a change about one axis willaffect the stability of the others. The typical lightairplane exhibits a good deal of stability in the yawaxis, slightly less in the pitch axis, and even lesser stillin the roll axis. The key to emergency airplane attitudecontrol, therefore, is to:

• Trim the airplane with the elevator trim so that itwill maintain hands-off level flight at cruise air-speed.

• Resist the tendency to over control the airplane.Fly the attitude indicator with fingertip control.No attitude changes should be made unless theflight instruments indicate a definite need for achange.

• Make all attitude changes smooth and small, yetwith positive pressure. Remember that a smallchange as indicated on the horizon bar corre-sponds to a proportionately much larger changein actual airplane attitude.

• Make use of any available aid in attitude controlsuch as autopilot or wing leveler.

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The primary instrument for attitude control is the atti-tude indicator. [Figure 16-11] Once the airplane istrimmed so that it will maintain hands-off level flightat cruise airspeed, that airspeed need not vary until theairplane must be slowed for landing. All turns, climbsand descents can and should be made at this airspeed.Straight flight is maintained by keeping the wings levelusing “fingertip pressure” on the control wheel. Anypitch attitude change should be made by using no morethan one bar width up or down.

TURNSTurns are perhaps the most potentially dangerousmaneuver for the untrained instrument pilot for tworeasons.

• The normal tendency of the pilot to over control,leading to steep banks and the possibility of a“graveyard spiral.”

• The inability of the pilot to cope with the instabil-ity resulting from the turn.

When a turn must be made, the pilot must anticipateand cope with the relative instability of the roll axis.The smallest practical bank angle should be used—inany case no more than 10° bank angle. [Figure 16-12]A shallow bank will take very little vertical lift fromthe wings resulting in little if any deviation in altitude.It may be helpful to turn a few degrees and then returnto level flight, if a large change in heading must bemade. Repeat the process until the desired heading isreached. This process may relieve the progressiveoverbanking that often results from prolonged turns.

CLIMBSIf a climb is necessary, the pilot should raise theminiature airplane on the attitude indicator no more

than one bar width and apply power. [Figure 16-13]The pilot should not attempt to attain a specific climbspeed but accept whatever speed results. The objec-tive is to deviate as little as possible from level flightattitude in order to disturb the airplane’s equilibriumas little as possible. If the airplane is properlytrimmed, it will assume a nose-up attitude on its owncommensurate with the amount of power applied.Torque and P-factor will cause the airplane to have a

Figure 16-11. Attitude indicator.

Figure 16-12. Level turn.

Figure 16-13. Level climb.

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tendency to bank and turn to the left. This must beanticipated and compensated for. If the initial powerapplication results in an inadequate rate of climb,power should be increased in increments of 100 r.p.m.or 1 inch of manifold pressure until the desired rate ofclimb is attained. Maximum available power isseldom necessary. The more power used the more theairplane will want to bank and turn to the left.Resuming level flight is accomplished by firstdecreasing pitch attitude to level on the attitudeindicator using slow but deliberate pressure, allowingairspeed to increase to near cruise value, and thendecreasing power.

DESCENTSDescents are very much the opposite of the climbprocedure if the airplane is properly trimmed forhands-off straight-and-level flight. In this configura-tion, the airplane requires a certain amount of thrust tomaintain altitude. The pitch attitude is controlling theairspeed. The engine power, therefore, (translated intothrust by the propeller) is maintaining the selectedaltitude. Following a power reduction, however slight,there will be an almost imperceptible decrease inairspeed. However, even a slight change in speedresults in less down load on the tail, whereupon thedesigned nose heaviness of the airplane causes it topitch down just enough to maintain the airspeed forwhich it was trimmed. The airplane will then descendat a rate directly proportionate to the amount of thrustthat has been removed. Power reductions should bemade in increments of 100 r.p.m. or 1 inch of manifoldpressure and the resulting rate of descent should neverexceed 500 f.p.m. The wings should be held level onthe attitude indicator, and the pitch attitude should notexceed one bar width below level. [Figure 16-14]

COMBINED MANEUVERSCombined maneuvers, such as climbing or descendingturns should be avoided if at all possible by anuntrained instrument pilot already under the stress ofan emergency situation. Combining maneuvers willonly compound the problems encountered in individualmaneuvers and increase the risk of control loss.Remember that the objective is to maintain airplanecontrol by deviating as little as possible from straight-and-level flight attitude and thereby maintaining asmuch of the airplane’s natural equilibrium as possible.

When being assisted by air traffic controllers from theground, the pilot may detect a sense of urgency as heor she is being directed to change heading and/or alti-tude. This sense of urgency reflects a normal concernfor safety on the part of the controller. But the pilotmust not let this prompt him or her to attempt a maneuverthat could result in loss of control.

TRANSITION TO VISUAL FLIGHTOne of the most difficult tasks a trained and qualifiedinstrument pilot must contend with is the transitionfrom instrument to visual flight prior to landing. Forthe untrained instrument pilot, these difficulties aremagnified.

The difficulties center around acclimatization andorientation. On an instrument approach the trainedinstrument pilot must prepare in advance for thetransition to visual flight. The pilot must have amental picture of what he or she expects to see oncethe transition to visual flight is made and quicklyacclimatize to the new environment. Geographicalorientation must also begin before the transition as thepilot must visualize where the airplane will be in rela-tion to the airport/runway when the transition occursso that the approach and landing may be completed byvisual reference to the ground.

In an ideal situation the transition to visual flight ismade with ample time, at a sufficient altitude aboveterrain, and to visibility conditions sufficient toaccommodate acclimatization and geographicalorientation. This, however, is not always the case. Theuntrained instrument pilot may find the visibility stilllimited, the terrain completely unfamiliar, and altitudeabove terrain such that a “normal” airport trafficpattern and landing approach is not possible.Additionally, the pilot will most likely be underconsiderable self-induced psychological pressure to

Figure 16-14. Level descent.

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get the airplane on the ground. The pilot must take thisinto account and, if possible, allow time to becomeacclimatized and geographically oriented before

attempting an approach and landing, even if it meansflying straight and level for a time or circling theairport. This is especially true at night.

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100-HOUR INSPECTION—An inspection, identical in scope to anannual inspection. Must be conductedevery 100 hours of flight on aircraft ofunder 12,500 pounds that are usedfor hire.

ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE—The vertical distance of an airplaneabove the terrain, or above groundlevel (AGL).

ABSOLUTE CEILING—The altitude at which a climb is nolonger possible.

ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE—The distance required to accelerate toV1 with all engines at takeoff power,experience an engine failure at V1 andcontinue the takeoff on the remainingengine(s). The runway requiredincludes the distance required toclimb to 35 feet by which time V2

speed must be attained.

ACCELERATE-STOPDISTANCE—The distance requiredto accelerate to V1 with all engines attakeoff power, experience an enginefailure at V1, and abort the takeoff andbring the airplane to a stop using brak-ing action only (use of thrust revers-ing is not considered).

ACCELERATION—Force involvedin overcoming inertia, and which maybe defined as a change in velocity perunit of time.

ACCESSORIES—Components thatare used with an engine, but are not apart of the engine itself. Units such asmagnetos, carburetors, generators,and fuel pumps are commonlyinstalled engine accessories.

ADJUSTABLE STABILIZER—A stabilizer that can be adjusted inflight to trim the airplane, thereby

even a trim tab, which providesaerodynamic force when it interactswith a moving stream of air.

AIRMANSHIP SKILLS—The skillsof coordination, timing, control touch,and speed sense in addition to themotor skills required to fly an aircraft.

AIRMANSHIP—A sound acquaintance with theprinciples of flight, the ability tooperate an airplane with competenceand precision both on the ground andin the air, and the exercise of soundjudgment that results in optimaloperational safety and efficiency.

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL(AFM)—A document developed bythe airplane manufacturer andapproved by the Federal AviationAdministration (FAA). It is specific toa particular make and model airplaneby serial number and it containsoperating procedures and limitations.

AIRPLANE OWNER/INFORMATION MANUAL—Adocument developed by the airplanemanufacturer containing generalinformation about the make andmodel of an airplane. The airplaneowner’s manual is not FAA-approvedand is not specific to a particular serialnumbered airplane. This manual is notkept current, and therefore cannot besubstituted for the AFM/POH.

AIRPORT/FACILITYDIRECTORY—A publication designed primarily as apilot’s operational manual containingall airports, seaplane bases, andheliports open to the public includingcommunications data, navigationalfacilities, and certain special noticesand procedures. This publication isissued in seven volumes according togeographical area.

allowing the airplane to fly hands-offat any given airspeed.

ADVERSE YAW—A condition offlight in which the nose of an airplanetends to yaw toward the outside of theturn. This is caused by the higherinduced drag on the outside wing,which is also producing more lift.Induced drag is a by-product of the liftassociated with the outside wing.

AERODYNAMIC CEILING—The point (altitude) at which, as theindicated airspeed decreases with alti-tude, it progressively merges with thelow speed buffet boundary where pre-stall buffet occurs for the airplane at aload factor of 1.0 G.

AERODYNAMICS—The science ofthe action of air on an object, and withthe motion of air on other gases.Aerodynamics deals with theproduction of lift by the aircraft, therelative wind, and the atmosphere.

AILERONS—Primary flight controlsurfaces mounted on the trailing edgeof an airplane wing, near the tip.Ailerons control roll about the longi-tudinal axis.

AIR START—The act or instance ofstarting an aircraft’s engine while inflight, especially a jet engine afterflameout.

AIRCRAFT LOGBOOKS—Journals containing a record of totaloperating time, repairs, alterations orinspections performed, and allAirworthiness Directive (AD) notescomplied with. A maintenancelogbook should be kept for theairframe, each engine, and eachpropeller.

AIRFOIL—An airfoil is any surface,such as a wing, propeller, rudder, or

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AIRWORTHINESS—A conditionin which the aircraft conforms to itstype certificated design includingsupplemental type certificates, andfield approved alterations. Theaircraft must also be in a condition forsafe flight as determined by annual,100 hour, preflight and any otherrequired inspections.

AIRWORTHINESSCERTIFICATE—A certificate issued by the FAA to allaircraft that have been proven to meetthe minimum standards set down bythe Code of Federal Regulations.

AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVE—A regulatory noticesent out by the FAA to the registeredowner of an aircraft informing theowner of a condition that prevents theaircraft from continuing to meetits conditions for airworthiness.Airworthiness Directives (AD notes)must be complied with within therequired time limit, and the fact ofcompliance, the date of compliance,and the method of compliance must berecorded in the aircraft’s maintenancerecords.

ALPHA MODE OFOPERATION—The operation of aturboprop engine that includes all ofthe flight operations, from takeoff tolanding. Alpha operation is typicallybetween 95 percent to 100 percent ofthe engine operating speed.

ALTERNATE AIR—A devicewhich opens, either automaticallyor manually, to allow induction air-flow to continue should the primaryinduction air opening becomeblocked.

ALTERNATE STATIC SOURCE—A manual port that when openedallows the pitot static instruments tosense static pressure from an alternatelocation should the primary static portbecome blocked.

ALTERNATOR/GENERATOR—Adevice that uses engine power to gen-erate electrical power.

ALTIMETER—A flight instrumentthat indicates altitude by sensingpressure changes.

pitch, which is the up and downmovement of the airplane’s nose.

ATTITUDE— The position of anaircraft as determined by therelationship of its axes and a refer-ence, usually the earth’s horizon.

AUTOKINESIS—This is caused bystaring at a single point of lightagainst a dark background for morethan a few seconds. After a fewmoments, the light appears to moveon its own.

AUTOPILOT—An automatic flightcontrol system which keeps an aircraftin level flight or on a set course.Automatic pilots can be directed bythe pilot, or they may be coupled to aradio navigation signal.

AXES OF AN AIRCRAFT—Threeimaginary lines that pass through anaircraft’s center of gravity. The axescan be considered as imaginary axlesaround which the aircraft turns. Thethree axes pass through the center ofgravity at 90° angles to each other.The axis from nose to tail is thelongitudinal axis, the axis that passesfrom wingtip to wingtip is the lateralaxis, and the axis that passes verticallythrough the center of gravity is thevertical axis.

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR—A type of compressor used in a turbineengine in which the airflow throughthe compressor is essentially linear.An axial-flow compressor is made upof several stages of alternate rotorsand stators. The compressor ratio isdetermined by the decrease in area ofthe succeeding stages.

BACK SIDE OF THE POWERCURVE— Flight regime in whichflight at a higher airspeed requires alower power setting and a lowerairspeed requires a higher powersetting in order to maintain altitude.

BALKED LANDING—A go-around.

BALLAST—Removable or perma-nently installed weight in an aircraft

ALTITUDE (AGL)—The actualheight above ground level (AGL) atwhich the aircraft is flying.

ALTITUDE (MSL)—The actualheight above mean sea level (MSL) atwhich the aircraft is flying.

ALTITUDE CHAMBER—A devicethat simulates high altitude conditionsby reducing the interior pressure. Theoccupants will suffer from the samephysiological conditions as flight athigh altitude in an unpressurizedaircraft.

ALTITUDE ENGINE—A reciprocating aircraft engine havinga rated takeoff power that isproducible from sea level to anestablished higher altitude.

ANGLE OF ATTACK—The acuteangle between the chord line of theairfoil and the direction of the relativewind.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE—The angle formed by the chord line ofthe wing and a line parallel to thelongitudinal axis of the airplane.

ANNUAL INSPECTION—A complete inspection of an aircraftand engine, required by the Codeof Federal Regulations, to beaccomplished every 12 calendarmonths on all certificated aircraft.Only an A&P technician holding anInspection Authorization can conductan annual inspection.

ANTI-ICING—The prevention ofthe formation of ice on a surface. Icemay be prevented by using heat or bycovering the surface with a chemicalthat prevents water from reaching thesurface. Anti-icing should not be con-fused with deicing, which is theremoval of ice after it has formed onthe surface.

ATTITUDE INDICATOR—An instrument which uses an artificialhorizon and miniature airplane todepict the position of the airplane inrelation to the true horizon. Theattitude indicator senses roll as well as

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used to bring the center of gravity intothe allowable range.

BALLOON—The result of a tooaggressive flare during landingcausing the aircraft to climb.

BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT(GAMA)—Basic empty weightincludes the standard empty weightplus optional and special equipmentthat has been installed.

BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB (VX)—The speed at which the aircraft willproduce the most gain in altitude in agiven distance.

BEST GLIDE—The airspeed inwhich the aircraft glides the furthestfor the least altitude lost when innon-powered flight.

BEST RATE OF CLIMB (VY)—The speed at which the aircraft willproduce the most gain in altitude inthe least amount of time.

BLADE FACE—The flat portion of apropeller blade, resembling thebottom portion of an airfoil.

BLEED AIR—Compressed airtapped from the compressor stages ofa turbine engine by use of ducts andtubing. Bleed air can be used fordeice, anti-ice, cabin pressurization,heating, and cooling systems.

BLEED VALVE—In a turbineengine, a flapper valve, a popoffvalve, or a bleed band designed tobleed off a portion of the compressorair to the atmosphere. Used tomaintain blade angle of attack andprovide stall-free engine accelerationand deceleration.

BOOST PUMP—An electricallydriven fuel pump, usually of thecentrifugal type, located in one of thefuel tanks. It is used to provide fuel tothe engine for starting and providingfuel pressure in the event of failure ofthe engine driven pump. It alsopressurizes the fuel lines to preventvapor lock.

CAMBERED—The camber of anairfoil is the characteristic curve of itsupper and lower surfaces. The uppercamber is more pronounced, while thelower camber is comparatively flat.This causes the velocity of the airflowimmediately above the wing to bemuch higher than that below the wing.

CARBURETOR ICE— Ice thatforms inside the carburetor due to thetemperature drop caused by thevaporization of the fuel. Inductionsystem icing is an operational hazardbecause it can cut off the flow of thefuel/air charge or vary the fuel/airratio.

CARBURETOR—1. Pressure: Ahydromechanical device employing aclosed feed system from the fuelpump to the discharge nozzle. Itmeters fuel through fixed jetsaccording to the mass airflow throughthe throttle body and discharges itunder a positive pressure. Pressurecarburetors are distinctly differentfrom float-type carburetors, as they donot incorporate a vented floatchamber or suction pickup from adischarge nozzle located in the venturitube. 2. Float-type: Consistsessentially of a main air passagethrough which the engine draws itssupply of air, a mechanism to controlthe quantity of fuel discharged inrelation to the flow of air, and a meansof regulating the quantity of fuel/airmixture delivered to the enginecylinders.

CASCADE REVERSER—A thrustreverser normally found on turbofanengines in which a blocker door and aseries of cascade vanes are used toredirect exhaust gases in a forwarddirection.

CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG)—The point at which an airplane wouldbalance if it were possible to suspendit at that point. It is the mass center ofthe airplane, or the theoretical point atwhich the entire weight of the airplaneis assumed to be concentrated. It maybe expressed in inches from the refer-ence datum, or in percent of meanaerodynamic chord (MAC). The loca-tion depends on the distribution ofweight in the airplane.

BUFFETING—The beating of anaerodynamic structure or surface byunsteady flow, gusts, etc.; the irregu-lar shaking or oscillation of a vehiclecomponent owing to turbulent air orseparated flow.

BUS BAR—An electrical powerdistribution point to which severalcircuits may be connected. It is often asolid metal strip having a number ofterminals installed on it.

BUS TIE—A switch that connectstwo or more bus bars. It is usuallyused when one generator fails andpower is lost to its bus. By closing theswitch, the operating generatorpowers both busses.

BYPASS AIR—The part of aturbofan’s induction air that bypassesthe engine core.

BYPASS RATIO—The ratio of themass airflow in pounds per secondthrough the fan section of a turbofanengine to the mass airflow that passesthrough the gas generator portion ofthe engine. Or, the ratio between fanmass airflow (lb/sec.) and core enginemass airflow (lb/sec.).

CABIN PRESSURIZATION—Acondition where pressurized air isforced into the cabin simulatingpressure conditions at a much loweraltitude and increasing the aircraftoccupants comfort.

CALIBRATED AIRSPEED(CAS)—Indicated airspeed correctedfor installation error and instrumenterror. Although manufacturers attemptto keep airspeed errors to a minimum,it is not possible to eliminate all errorsthroughout the airspeed operatingrange. At certain airspeeds and withcertain flap settings, the installationand instrument errors may totalseveral knots. This error is generallygreatest at low airspeeds. In thecruising and higher airspeed ranges,indicated airspeed and calibratedairspeed are approximately the same.Refer to the airspeed calibration chartto correct for possible airspeed errors.

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CENTER-OF-GRAVITYLIMITS—The specified forward andaft points within which the CG mustbe located during flight. These limitsare indicated on pertinent airplanespecifications.

CENTER-OF-GRAVITYRANGE—The distance between theforward and aft CG limits indicated onpertinent airplane specifications.

CENTRIFUGALFLOW COMPRESSOR—An impeller-shaped device that receivesair at its center and slings air outward athigh velocity into a diffuser for increasedpressure. Also referred to as a radial out-flow compressor.

CHORD LINE—An imaginarystraight line drawn through an airfoilfrom the leading edge to the trailingedge.

CIRCUIT BREAKER—A circuit-protecting device that opensthe circuit in case of excess currentflow. A circuit breakers differs from afuse in that it can be reset withouthaving to be replaced.

CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE—Turbulence not associated with anyvisible moisture.

CLIMB GRADIENT—The ratiobetween distance traveled and altitudegained.

COCKPIT RESOURCEMANAGEMENT—Techniquesdesigned to reduce pilot errors andmanage errors that do occur utilizingcockpit human resources. Theassumption is that errors are going tohappen in a complex system witherror-prone humans.

COEFFICIENT OF LIFT—SeeLIFT COEFFICIENT.

COFFIN CORNER—The flightregime where any increase in airspeedwill induce high speed mach buffetand any decrease in airspeed willinduce low speed mach buffet.

CONDITION LEVER—In a turbineengine, a powerplant control that con-trols the flow of fuel to the engine.The condition lever sets the desiredengine r.p.m. within a narrow rangebetween that appropriate for groundand flight operations.

CONFIGURATION—This is ageneral term, which normally refers tothe position of the landing gearand flaps.

CONSTANT SPEEDPROPELLER— A controllable-pitch propeller whose pitch isautomatically varied in flight by agovernor to maintain a constant r.p.m.in spite of varying air loads.

CONTROL TOUCH—The ability tosense the action of the airplane and itsprobable actions in the immediatefuture, with regard to attitude andspeed variations, by sensing andevaluation of varying pressures andresistance of the control surfacestransmitted through the cockpit flightcontrols.

CONTROLLABILITY—A measureof the response of an aircraft relativeto the pilot’s flight control inputs.

CONTROLLABLE PITCHPROPELLER—A propeller in whichthe blade angle can be changed duringflight by a control in the cockpit.

CONVENTIONAL LANDINGGEAR—Landing gear employing athird rear-mounted wheel. Theseairplanes are also sometimes referredto as tailwheel airplanes.

COORDINATED FLIGHT—Application of all appropriate flightand power controls to prevent slippingor skidding in any flight condition.

COORDINATION—The ability touse the hands and feet togethersubconsciously and in the properrelationship to produce desired resultsin the airplane.

CORE AIRFLOW—Air drawn intothe engine for the gas generator.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER— Thesection of the engine into which fuelis injected and burned.

COMMON TRAFFICADVISORY FREQUENCY—Thecommon frequency used by airporttraffic to announce position reports inthe vicinity of the airport.

COMPLEX AIRCRAFT—An aircraft with retractable landinggear, flaps, and a controllable-pitchpropeller, or is turbine powered.

COMPRESSION RATIO—1. In areciprocating engine, the ratio of thevolume of an engine cylinder with thepiston at the bottom center to thevolume with the piston at top center.2. In a turbine engine, the ratio of thepressure of the air at the discharge tothe pressure of air at the inlet.

COMPRESSOR BLEED AIR—See BLEED AIR.

COMPRESSOR BLEEDVALVES—See BLEED VALVE.

COMPRESSOR SECTION— Thesection of a turbine engine thatincreases the pressure and density ofthe air flowing through the engine.

COMPRESSOR STALL—In gasturbine engines, a condition in anaxial-flow compressor in which oneor more stages of rotor blades fail topass air smoothly to the succeedingstages. A stall condition is caused by apressure ratio that is incompatiblewith the engine r.p.m. Compressorstall will be indicated by a rise inexhaust temperature or r.p.m.fluctuation, and if allowed tocontinue, may result in flameout andphysical damage to the engine.

COMPRESSOR SURGE—A severecompressor stall across the entirecompressor that can result in severedamage if not quickly corrected. Thiscondition occurs with a completestoppage of airflow or a reversal ofairflow.

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COWL FLAPS—Devices arrangedaround certain air-cooled enginecowlings which may be opened orclosed to regulate the flow of airaround the engine.

CRAB—A flight condition in whichthe nose of the airplane is pointed intothe wind a sufficient amount to coun-teract a crosswind and maintain adesired track over the ground.

CRAZING—Small fractures inaircraft windshields and windowscaused from being exposed to theultraviolet rays of the sun andtemperature extremes.

CRITICAL ALTITUDE—The maximum altitude under standardatmospheric conditions at which aturbocharged engine can produce itsrated horsepower.

CRITICAL ANGLE OF ATTACK—The angle of attack atwhich a wing stalls regardless ofairspeed, flight attitude, or weight.

CRITICAL ENGINE—The enginewhose failure has the most adverseeffect on directional control.

CROSS CONTROLLED—A condition where aileron deflectionis in the opposite direction of rudderdeflection.

CROSSFEED—A system that allowseither engine on a twin-engineairplane to draw fuel from any fueltank.

CROSSWIND COMPONENT—The wind component, measured inknots, at 90° to the longitudinal axisof the runway.

CURRENT LIMITER—A devicethat limits the generator output to alevel within that rated by thegenerator manufacturer.

DATUM (REFERENCEDATUM)—An imaginary verticalplane or line from which allmeasurements of moment arm aretaken. The datum is established by themanufacturer. Once the datum hasbeen selected, all moment arms and

parasite drag to compensate for theadditional induced drag caused by thedown aileron. This balancing of thedrag forces helps minimize adverseyaw.

DIFFUSION—Reducing the velocityof air causing the pressure to increase.

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY—Stability about the vertical axis of anaircraft, whereby an aircraft tends toreturn, on its own, to flight alignedwith the relative wind when disturbedfrom that equilibrium state. Thevertical tail is the primary contributorto directional stability, causing anairplane in flight to align with therelative wind.

DITCHING—Emergency landing inwater.

DOWNWASH—Air deflected perpendicular to themotion of the airfoil.

DRAG—An aerodynamic force on abody acting parallel and opposite tothe relative wind. The resistance ofthe atmosphere to the relative motionof an aircraft. Drag opposes thrust andlimits the speed of the airplane.

DRAG CURVE—A visual representation of the amountof drag of an aircraft at variousairspeeds.

DRIFT ANGLE—Angle betweenheading and track.

DUCTED-FAN ENGINE—An engine-propeller combination thathas the propeller enclosed in a radialshroud. Enclosing the propellerimproves the efficiency of thepropeller.

DUTCH ROLL—A combination ofrolling and yawing oscillations thatnormally occurs when the dihedraleffects of an aircraft are morepowerful than the directional stability.Usually dynamically stable butobjectionable in an airplane becauseof the oscillatory nature.

the location of CG range are measuredfrom this point.

DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS—A condition where the low pressure athigh altitudes allows bubbles ofnitrogen to form in the blood andjoints causing severe pain. Alsoknown as the bends.

DEICER BOOTS—Inflatable rubberboots attached to the leading edge ofan airfoil. They can be sequentiallyinflated and deflated to break away icethat has formed over their surface.

DEICING—Removing ice after ithas formed.

DELAMINATION—The separationof layers.

DENSITY ALTITUDE—This altitude is pressure altitude cor-rected for variations from standardtemperature. When conditions arestandard, pressure altitude and densityaltitude are the same. If the tempera-ture is above standard, the density alti-tude is higher than pressure altitude. Ifthe temperature is below standard, thedensity altitude is lower than pressurealtitude. This is an important altitudebecause it is directly related to theairplane’s performance.

DESIGNATED PILOTEXAMINER (DPE)—An individualdesignated by the FAA to administerpractical tests to pilot applicants.

DETONATION—The sudden release of heat energyfrom fuel in an aircraft engine causedby the fuel-air mixture reaching itscritical pressure and temperature.Detonation occurs as a violentexplosion rather than a smoothburning process.

DEWPOINT—The temperature atwhich air can hold no more water.

DIFFERENTIAL AILERONS—Control surface rigged such that theaileron moving up moves a greaterdistance than the aileron movingdown. The up aileron produces extra

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DYNAMIC HYDROPLANING—Acondition that exists when landing ona surface with standing water deeperthan the tread depth of the tires. Whenthe brakes are applied, there is apossibility that the brake will lock upand the tire will ride on the surface ofthe water, much like a water ski.When the tires are hydroplaning,directional control and braking actionare virtually impossible. An effectiveanti-skid system can minimize theeffects of hydroplaning.

DYNAMIC STABILITY—The property of an aircraft that causesit, when disturbed from straight-and-level flight, to develop forces ormoments that restore the originalcondition of straight and level.

ELECTRICAL BUS—See BUS BAR.

ELECTROHYDRAULIC—Hydraulic control which is electricallyactuated.

ELEVATOR—The horizontal, movable primarycontrol surface in the tail section, orempennage, of an airplane. Theelevator is hinged to the trailing edgeof the fixed horizontal stabilizer.

EMERGENCY LOCATORTRANSMITTER—A small, self-contained radio transmitter that willautomatically, upon the impact of acrash, transmit an emergency signalon 121.5, 243.0, or 406.0 MHz.

EMPENNAGE—The section of theairplane that consists of the verticalstabilizer, the horizontal stabilizer,and the associated control surfaces.

ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO(EPR)—The ratio of turbinedischarge pressure divided bycompressor inlet pressure that is usedas an indication of the amount ofthrust being developed by a turbineengine.

ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS—In an aircraft, the systems, includingthe supplemental oxygen systems, airconditioning systems, heaters, and

FIXED SHAFT TURBOPROPENGINE—A turboprop enginewhere the gas producer spool isdirectly connected to the output shaft.

FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS—Propellers with fixed blade angles.Fixed-pitch propellers are designed asclimb propellers, cruise propellers, orstandard propellers.

FLAPS—Hinged portion of thetrailing edge between the ailerons andfuselage. In some aircraft, aileronsand flaps are interconnected toproduce full-span “flaperons.” Ineither case, flaps change the lift anddrag on the wing.

FLAT PITCH—A propeller configuration when theblade chord is aligned with the direc-tion of rotation.

FLICKER VERTIGO—A disorientating condition causedfrom flickering light off the blades ofthe propeller.

FLIGHT DIRECTOR—An auto-matic flight control system in whichthe commands needed to fly the air-plane are electronically computed anddisplayed on a flight instrument. Thecommands are followed by the humanpilot with manual control inputs or, inthe case of an autopilot system, sent toservos that move the flight controls.

FLIGHT IDLE—Engine speed,usually in the 70-80 percent range, forminimum flight thrust.

FLOATING—A condition whenlanding where the airplane does notsettle to the runway due to excessiveairspeed.

FORCE (F)—The energy applied toan object that attempts to cause theobject to change its direction, speed,or motion. In aerodynamics, it isexpressed as F, T (thrust), L (lift), W(weight), or D (drag), usually inpounds.

FORM DRAG—The part of parasitedrag on a body resulting from the

pressurization systems, which make itpossible for an occupant to function athigh altitude.

EQUILIBRIUM—A condition thatexists within a body when the sum ofthe moments of all of the forces actingon the body is equal to zero. Inaerodynamics, equilibrium is when allopposing forces acting on an aircraftare balanced (steady, unacceleratedflight conditions).

EQUIVALENT SHAFTHORSEPOWER (ESHP)—A measurement of the total horse-power of a turboprop engine, includ-ing that provided by jet thrust.

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE(EGT)—The temperature of theexhaust gases as they leave thecylinders of a reciprocating engine orthe turbine section of a turbine engine.

EXHAUST MANIFOLD—The partof the engine that collects exhaustgases leaving the cylinders.

EXHAUST—The rear opening of aturbine engine exhaust duct. Thenozzle acts as an orifice, the size ofwhich determines the density andvelocity of the gases as they emergefrom the engine.

FALSE HORIZON—An opticalillusion where the pilot confuses a rowof lights along a road or other straightline as the horizon.

FALSE START—See HUNG START.

FEATHERING PROPELLER(FEATHERED)—A controllablepitch propeller with a pitch rangesufficient to allow the blades to beturned parallel to the line of flight toreduce drag and prevent furtherdamage to an engine that has beenshut down after a malfunction.

FIXATION—A psychological condition where thepilot fixes attention on a single sourceof information and ignores allother sources.

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integrated effect of the static pressureacting normal to its surface resolvedin the drag direction.

FORWARD SLIP—A slip in whichthe airplane’s direction of motion con-tinues the same as before the slip wasbegun. In a forward slip, the airplane’slongitudinal axis is at an angle to itsflightpath.

FREE POWER TURBINEENGINE—A turboprop enginewhere the gas producer spool is on aseparate shaft from the output shaft.The free power turbine spinsindependently of the gas producer anddrives the output shaft.

FRICTION DRAG—The part ofparasitic drag on a body resultingfrom viscous shearing stresses over itswetted surface.

FRISE-TYPE AILERON—Aileronhaving the nose portion projectingahead of the hinge line. When thetrailing edge of the aileron moves up,the nose projects below the wing’slower surface and produces someparasite drag, decreasing the amountof adverse yaw.

FUEL CONTROL UNIT—The fuel-metering device used on aturbine engine that meters the properquantity of fuel to be fed into theburners of the engine. It integrates theparameters of inlet air temperature,compressor speed, compressordischarge pressure, and exhaust gastemperature with the position of thecockpit power control lever.

FUEL EFFICIENCY—Defined asthe amount of fuel used to produce aspecific thrust or horsepower dividedby the total potential power containedin the same amount of fuel.

FUEL HEATERS—A radiator-likedevice which has fuel passing throughthe core. A heat exchange occurs tokeep the fuel temperature above thefreezing point of water so thatentrained water does not form icecrystals, which could block fuel flow.

FUEL INJECTION—A fuel metering system used on someaircraft reciprocating engines in

GO-AROUND—Terminating a landing approach.

GOVERNING RANGE—The rangeof pitch a propeller governor cancontrol during flight.

GOVERNOR—A control whichlimits the maximum rotational speedof a device.

GROSS WEIGHT—The total weight of a fully loadedaircraft including the fuel, oil, crew,passengers, and cargo.

GROUND ADJUSTABLE TRIMTAB—A metal trim tab on a controlsurface that is not adjustable in flight.Bent in one direction or another whileon the ground to apply trim forces tothe control surface.

GROUND EFFECT—A conditionof improved performance encoun-tered when an airplane is operatingvery close to the ground. When anairplane’s wing is under the influenceof ground effect, there is a reductionin upwash, downwash, and wingtipvortices. As a result of the reducedwingtip vortices, induced drag isreduced.

GROUND IDLE—Gas turbineengine speed usually 60-70 percent ofthe maximum r.p.m. range, used as aminimum thrust setting for groundoperations.

GROUND LOOP—A sharp, uncon-trolled change of direction of anairplane on the ground.

GROUND POWER UNIT (GPU)—A type of small gas turbine whosepurpose is to provide electrical power,and/or air pressure for starting aircraftengines. A ground unit is connected tothe aircraft when needed. Similar toan aircraft-installed auxiliary powerunit.

GROUNDSPEED (GS)—The actualspeed of the airplane over the ground.It is true airspeed adjusted forwind. Groundspeed decreases with aheadwind, and increases witha tailwind.

which a constant flow of fuel is fed toinjection nozzles in the heads of allcylinders just outside of the intakevalve. It differs from sequential fuelinjection in which a timed charge ofhigh-pressure fuel is sprayed directlyinto the combustion chamber of thecylinder.

FUEL LOAD—The expendable partof the load of the airplane. It includesonly usable fuel, not fuel required tofill the lines or that which remainstrapped in the tank sumps.

FUEL TANK SUMP—A samplingport in the lowest part of the fuel tankthat the pilot can utilize to check forcontaminants in the fuel.

FUSELAGE—The section of theairplane that consists of the cabinand/or cockpit, containing seats forthe occupants and the controls for theairplane.

GAS GENERATOR—The basicpower producing portion of a gasturbine engine and excluding suchsections as the inlet duct, thefan section, free power turbines,and tailpipe. Each manufacturerdesignates what is included as the gasgenerator, but generally consists ofthe compressor, diffuser, combustor,and turbine.

GAS TURBINE ENGINE—A formof heat engine in which burning fueladds energy to compressed air andaccelerates the air through theremainder of the engine. Some of theenergy is extracted to turn the aircompressor, and the remainderaccelerates the air to produce thrust.Some of this energy can be convertedinto torque to drive a propeller or asystem of rotors for a helicopter.

GLIDE RATIO—The ratio betweendistance traveled and altitude lostduring non-powered flight.

GLIDEPATH—The path of anaircraft relative to the ground whileapproaching a landing.

GLOBAL POSITION SYSTEM(GPS)—A satellite-based radio posi-tioning, navigation, and time-transfersystem.

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GROUND TRACK—The aircraft’spath over the ground when in flight.

GUST PENETRATION SPEED—The speed that gives the greatestmargin between the high and lowmach speed buffets.

GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION—An inherent quality of rotating bodies,which causes an applied force to bemanifested 90º in the direction ofrotation from the point where theforce is applied.

HAND PROPPING—Starting anengine by rotating the propeller byhand.

HEADING—The direction in whichthe nose of the aircraft is pointingduring flight.

HEADING BUG—A marker on theheading indicator that can be rotatedto a specific heading for referencepurposes, or to command an autopilotto fly that heading.

HEADING INDICATOR—An instrument which senses airplanemovement and displays heading basedon a 360º azimuth, with the final zeroomitted. The heading indicator, alsocalled a directional gyro, is funda-mentally a mechanical instrumentdesigned to facilitate the use of themagnetic compass. The heading indi-cator is not affected by the forces thatmake the magnetic compass difficultto interpret.

HEADWIND COMPONENT—Thecomponent of atmospheric winds thatacts opposite to the aircraft’s flight-path.

HIGH PERFORMANCEAIRCRAFT—An aircraft with anengine of more than 200 horsepower.

HORIZON—The line of sightboundary between the earth and thesky.

HORSEPOWER—The term, originated by inventorJames Watt, means the amount ofwork a horse could do in one second.

engine. Some igniters resemble sparkplugs, while others, called glow plugs,have a coil of resistance wire thatglows red hot when electrical currentflows through the coil.

IMPACT ICE—Ice that forms on thewings and control surfaces or on thecarburetor heat valve, the walls of theair scoop, or the carburetor unitsduring flight. Impact ice collecting onthe metering elements of thecarburetor may upset fuel metering orstop carburetor fuel flow.

INCLINOMETER—An instrumentconsisting of a curved glass tube,housing a glass ball, and damped witha fluid similar to kerosene. It may beused to indicate inclination, as a level,or, as used in the turn indicators, toshow the relationship between gravityand centrifugal force in a turn.

INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS)—The direct instrument readingobtained from the airspeed indicator,uncorrected for variations in atmos-pheric density, installation error, orinstrument error. Manufacturers usethis airspeed as the basis for determin-ing airplane performance. Takeoff,landing, and stall speeds listed in theAFM or POH are indicated airspeedsand do not normally vary with altitudeor temperature.

INDICATED ALTITUDE—The altitude read directly from thealtimeter (uncorrected) when it is setto the current altimeter setting.

INDUCED DRAG—That part oftotal drag which is created by theproduction of lift. Induced dragincreases with a decrease in airspeed.

INDUCTION MANIFOLD—Thepart of the engine that distributesintake air to the cylinders.

INERTIA—The opposition which abody offers to a change of motion.

INITIAL CLIMB—This stage of theclimb begins when the airplane leavesthe ground, and a pitch attitude has

One horsepower equals 550foot-pounds per second, or 33,000foot-pounds per minute.

HOT START—In gas turbineengines, a start which occurs withnormal engine rotation, but exhausttemperature exceeds prescribedlimits. This is usually caused by anexcessively rich mixture in thecombustor. The fuel to the enginemust be terminated immediately toprevent engine damage.

HUNG START—In gas turbineengines, a condition of normal lightoff but with r.p.m. remaining at somelow value rather than increasing to thenormal idle r.p.m. This is often theresult of insufficient power to theengine from the starter. In the event ofa hung start, the engine should be shutdown.

HYDRAULICS—The branch ofscience that deals with thetransmission of power by incompress-ible fluids under pressure.

HYDROPLANING—A conditionthat exists when landing on a surfacewith standing water deeper than thetread depth of the tires. When thebrakes are applied, there is apossibility that the brake will lock upand the tire will ride on the surface ofthe water, much like a water ski.When the tires are hydroplaning,directional control and braking actionare virtually impossible. An effectiveanti-skid system can minimize theeffects of hydroplaning.

HYPOXIA—A lack of sufficientoxygen reaching the body tissues.

IFR (INSTRUMENT FLIGHTRULES)—Rules that govern theprocedure for conducting flight inweather conditions below VFRweather minimums. The term “IFR”also is used to define weatherconditions and the type of flight planunder which an aircraft is operating.

IGNITER PLUGS—The electricaldevice used to provide the spark forstarting combustion in a turbine

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been established to climb away fromthe takeoff area.

INTEGRAL FUEL TANK—A portion of the aircraft structure,usually a wing, which is sealed off andused as a fuel tank. When a wing isused as an integral fuel tank, it iscalled a “wet wing.”

INTERCOOLER—A device used toreduce the temperature of thecompressed air before it enters thefuel metering device. The resultingcooler air has a higher density, whichpermits the engine to be operated witha higher power setting.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES—An engine that producespower as a result of expanding hotgases from the combustion of fuel andair within the engine itself. A steamengine where coal is burned to heat upwater inside the engine is an exampleof an external combustion engine.

INTERSTAGE TURBINETEMPERATURE (ITT)—The tem-perature of the gases between the highpressure and low pressure turbines.

INVERTER—An electrical devicethat changes DC to AC power.

ISA (INTERNATIONALSTANDARD ATMOSPHERE)—Standard atmospheric conditionsconsisting of a temperature of 59°F(15°C), and a barometric pressure of29.92 in. Hg. (1013.2 mb) at sea level.ISA values can be calculated forvarious altitudes using a standardlapse rate of approximately 2°C per1,000 feet.

JET POWERED AIRPLANE—Anaircraft powered by a turbojet orturbofan engine.

KINESTHESIA—The sensing ofmovements by feel.

LATERAL AXIS—An imaginaryline passing through the center ofgravity of an airplane and extendingacross the airplane from wingtipto wingtip.

the coefficient of drag for any givenangle of attack.

LIFT-OFF—The act of becomingairborne as a result of the wingslifting the airplane off the ground, orthe pilot rotating the nose up,increasing the angle of attack to start aclimb.

LIMIT LOAD FACTOR—Amountof stress, or load factor, that an aircraftcan withstand before structuraldamage or failure occurs.

LOAD FACTOR—The ratio of theload supported by the airplane’s wingsto the actual weight of the aircraft andits contents. Also referred to asG-loading.

LONGITUDINAL AXIS—An imaginary line through an aircraftfrom nose to tail, passing through itscenter of gravity. The longitudinalaxis is also called the roll axis of theaircraft. Movement of the aileronsrotates an airplane about itslongitudinal axis.

LONGITUDINAL STABILITY(PITCHING)—Stability about thelateral axis. A desirable characteristicof an airplane whereby it tends toreturn to its trimmed angle of attackafter displacement.

MACH—Speed relative to the speedof sound. Mach 1 is the speed ofsound.

MACH BUFFET—Airflow separation behind ashock-wave pressure barrier causedby airflow over flight surfacesexceeding the speed of sound.

MACH COMPENSATINGDEVICE—A device to alert the pilotof inadvertent excursions beyond itscertified maximum operating speed.

MACH CRITICAL—The MACHspeed at which some portion of theairflow over the wing first equalsMACH 1.0. This is also the speed atwhich a shock wave first appears onthe airplane.

LATERAL STABILITY(ROLLING)—The stability about thelongitudinal axis of an aircraft.Rolling stability or the ability of anairplane to return to level flight due toa disturbance that causes one of thewings to drop.

LEAD-ACID BATTERY—A commonly used secondary cellhaving lead as its negative plate andlead peroxide as its positive plate.Sulfuric acid and water serve as theelectrolyte.

LEADING EDGE DEVICES—High lift devices which are found onthe leading edge of the airfoil. Themost common types are fixed slots,movable slats, and leading edge flaps.

LEADING EDGE—The part of anairfoil that meets the airflow first.

LEADING EDGE FLAP—A portion of the leading edge of anairplane wing that folds downward toincrease the camber, lift, and drag ofthe wing. The leading-edge flaps areextended for takeoffs and landings toincrease the amount of aerodynamiclift that is produced at any givenairspeed.

LICENSED EMPTY WEIGHT—The empty weight that consists of theairframe, engine(s), unusable fuel,and undrainable oil plus standard andoptional equipment as specified in theequipment list. Some manufacturersused this term prior to GAMAstandardization.

LIFT—One of the four main forcesacting on an aircraft. On a fixed-wingaircraft, an upward force created bythe effect of airflow as it passes overand under the wing.

LIFT COEFFICIENT— A coeffi-cient representing the lift of a givenairfoil. Lift coefficient is obtained bydividing the lift by the free-streamdynamic pressure and the representa-tive area under consideration.

LIFT/DRAG RATIO—The efficiency of an airfoil section. Itis the ratio of the coefficient of lift to

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MACH TUCK—A condition that canoccur when operating a swept-wingairplane in the transonic speed range.A shock wave could form in the rootportion of the wing and cause theair behind it to separate. Thisshock-induced separation causes thecenter of pressure to move aft. This,combined with the increasing amountof nose down force at higher speeds tomaintain left flight, causes the nose to“tuck.” If not corrected, the airplanecould enter a steep, sometimesunrecoverable dive.

MAGNETIC COMPASS—A devicefor determining direction measuredfrom magnetic north.

MAIN GEAR—The wheels of anaircraft’s landing gear that supportsthe major part of the aircraft’s weight.

MANEUVERABILITY—Ability ofan aircraft to change directions alonga flightpath and withstand the stressesimposed upon it.

MANEUVERING SPEED (VA) —The maximum speed where full,abrupt control movement can be usedwithout overstressing the airframe.

MANIFOLD PRESSURE (MP)—The absolute pressure of the fuel/airmixture within the intake manifold,usually indicated in inches ofmercury.

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLETAKEOFF POWER—The maxi-mum power an engine is allowed todevelop for a limited period of time;usually about one minute.

MAXIMUM LANDINGWEIGHT—The greatest weight thatan airplane normally is allowed tohave at landing.

MAXIMUM RAMP WEIGHT—The total weight of a loaded aircraft,including all fuel. It is greater than thetakeoff weight due to the fuel that willbe burned during the taxi and runupoperations. Ramp weight may also bereferred to as taxi weight.

allows air to continue flowing over thetop of the wing and delays airflowseparation.

MUSHING—A flight conditioncaused by slow speed where thecontrol surfaces are marginallyeffective.

N1, N2, N3—Spool speed expressed inpercent rpm. N1 on a turboprop is thegas producer speed. N1 on a turbofanor turbojet engine is the fan speed orlow pressure spool speed. N2 is thehigh pressure spool speed on enginewith 2 spools and medium pressurespool on engines with 3 spools withN3 being the high pressure spool.

NACELLE—A streamlined enclosure on an aircraftin which an engine is mounted.On multiengine propeller-drivenairplanes, the nacelle is normallymounted on the leading edge of thewing.

NEGATIVE STATIC STABILITY—The initial tendencyof an aircraft to continue away fromthe original state of equilibrium afterbeing disturbed.

NEGATIVE TORQUE SENSING(NTS)— A system in a turbopropengine that prevents the engine frombeing driven by the propeller. TheNTS increases the blade angle whenthe propellers try to drive the engine.

NEUTRAL STATICSTABILITY—The initial tendencyof an aircraft to remain in a newcondition after its equilibrium hasbeen disturbed.

NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY(NICAD)— A battery made up ofalkaline secondary cells. The positiveplates are nickel hydroxide, thenegative plates are cadmiumhydroxide, and potassium hydroxideis used as the electrolyte.

NORMAL CATEGORY—An airplane that has a seatingconfiguration, excluding pilot seats,

MAXIMUM TAKEOFFWEIGHT—The maximum allowableweight for takeoff.

MAXIMUM WEIGHT—The maximum authorized weight ofthe aircraft and all of its equipment asspecified in the Type Certificate DataSheets (TCDS) for the aircraft.

MAXIMUM ZERO FUELWEIGHT (GAMA)—The maximumweight, exclusive of usable fuel.

MINIMUM CONTROLLABLEAIRSPEED—An airspeed at whichany further increase in angle of attack,increase in load factor, or reduction inpower, would result in an immediatestall.

MINIMUM DRAG SPEED(L/DMAX)—The point on the totaldrag curve where the lift-to-drag ratiois the greatest. At this speed, total dragis minimized.

MIXTURE—The ratio of fuel to airentering the engine’s cylinders.

MMO—Maximum operating speedexpressed in terms of a decimal ofmach speed.

MOMENT ARM—The distancefrom a datum to the applied force.

MOMENT INDEX (OR INDEX)—A moment divided by a constant suchas 100, 1,000, or 10,000. The purposeof using a moment index is to simplifyweight and balance computations ofairplanes where heavy items and longarms result in large, unmanageablenumbers.

MOMENT—The product of theweight of an item multiplied by itsarm. Moments are expressed inpound-inches (lb-in). Total moment isthe weight of the airplane multipliedby the distance between the datum andthe CG.

MOVABLE SLAT—A movableauxiliary airfoil on the leading edge ofa wing. It is closed in normal flight butextends at high angles of attack. This

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of nine or less, a maximumcertificated takeoff weight of 12,500pounds or less, and intended fornonacrobatic operation.

NORMALIZING(TURBONORMALIZING)—A turbocharger that maintains sealevel pressure in the induction mani-fold at altitude.

OCTANE—The rating system ofaviation gasoline with regard to itsantidetonating qualities.

OVERBOOST—A condition inwhich a reciprocating engine hasexceeded the maximum manifoldpressure allowed by the manufacturer.Can cause damage to enginecomponents.

OVERSPEED—A condition inwhich an engine has produced morer.p.m. than the manufacturerrecommends, or a condition in whichthe actual engine speed is higher thanthe desired engine speed as set on thepropeller control.

OVERTEMP—A condition in whicha device has reached a temperatureabove that approved by themanufacturer or any exhausttemperature that exceeds themaximum allowable for a given oper-ating condition or time limit. Cancause internal damage to an engine.

OVERTORQUE—A condition inwhich an engine has produced moretorque (power) than the manufacturerrecommends, or a condition in aturboprop or turboshaft engine wherethe engine power has exceeded themaximum allowable for a givenoperating condition or time limit. Cancause internal damage to an engine.

PARASITE DRAG—That part oftotal drag created by the design orshape of airplane parts. Parasite dragincreases with an increase in airspeed.

PAYLOAD (GAMA)—The weightof occupants, cargo, and baggage.

P-FACTOR—A tendency for anaircraft to yaw to the left due to the

for scheduling fuel flow to thecombustion chambers of a turbineengine.

POWER—Implies work rate or unitsof work per unit of time, and as such,it is a function of the speed at whichthe force is developed. The term“power required” is generallyassociated with reciprocating engines.

POWERPLANT—A complete engine and propellercombination with accessories.

PRACTICAL SLIP LIMIT—Themaximum slip an aircraft is capable ofperforming due to rudder travel limits.

PRECESSION—The tilting orturning of a gyro in response todeflective forces causing slow driftingand erroneous indications ingyroscopic instruments.

PREIGNITION—Ignition occurringin the cylinder before the time ofnormal ignition. Preignition is oftencaused by a local hot spot in thecombustion chamber igniting thefuel/air mixture.

PRESSURE ALTITUDE—The altitude indicated when thealtimeter setting window (barometricscale) is adjusted to 29.92. This is thealtitude above the standard datumplane, which is a theoretical planewhere air pressure (corrected to 15ºC)equals 29.92 in. Hg. Pressure altitudeis used to compute density altitude,true altitude, true airspeed, and otherperformance data.

PROFILE DRAG—The total of theskin friction drag and form drag for atwo-dimensional airfoil section.

PROPELLER BLADE ANGLE—The angle between the propeller chordand the propeller plane of rotation.

PROPELLER LEVER—

The control on a free power turbineturboprop that controls propellerspeed and the selection for propellerfeathering.

PROPELLER SLIPSTREAM—The volume of air accelerated behinda propeller producing thrust.

descending propeller blade on theright producing more thrust than theascending blade on the left. Thisoccurs when the aircraft’slongitudinal axis is in a climbingattitude in relation to the relativewind. The P-factor would be to theright if the aircraft had a counterclock-wise rotating propeller.

PILOT’S OPERATINGHANDBOOK (POH)—A documentdeveloped by the airplanemanufacturer and contains the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual(AFM) information.

PISTON ENGINE—A reciprocatingengine.

PITCH—The rotation of an airplaneabout its lateral axis, or on a propeller,the blade angle as measured fromplane of rotation.

PIVOTAL ALTITUDE—A specificaltitude at which, when an airplaneturns at a given groundspeed, a pro-jecting of the sighting reference lineto a selected point on the ground willappear to pivot on that point.

PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS—The power system in an aircraft usedfor operating such items as landinggear, brakes, and wing flaps withcompressed air as the operating fluid.

PORPOISING—Oscillating around the lateral axis ofthe aircraft during landing.

POSITION LIGHTS—Lights on anaircraft consisting of a red light on theleft wing, a green light on the rightwing, and a white light on the tail.CFRs require that these lights bedisplayed in flight from sunset tosunrise.

POSITIVE STATIC STABILITY—The initial tendency to return to a stateof equilibrium when disturbed fromthat state.

POWER DISTRIBUTION BUS—See BUS BAR.

POWER LEVER—The cockpitlever connected to the fuel control unit

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PROPELLERSYNCHRONIZATION—A condition in which all ofthe propellers have their pitchautomatically adjusted to maintain aconstant r.p.m. among all of theengines of a multiengine aircraft.

PROPELLER—A device forpropelling an aircraft that, whenrotated, produces by its action onthe air, a thrust approximatelyperpendicular to its plane of rotation.It includes the control componentsnormally supplied by itsmanufacturer.

RAMP WEIGHT—The total weightof the aircraft while on the ramp. Itdiffers from takeoff weight by theweight of the fuel that will beconsumed in taxiing to the point oftakeoff.

RATE OF TURN—The rate indegrees/second of a turn.

RECIPROCATING ENGINE—Anengine that converts the heat energyfrom burning fuel into thereciprocating movement of the pis-tons. This movement is converted intoa rotary motion by the connecting rodsand crankshaft.

REDUCTION GEAR—The geararrangement in an aircraft engine thatallows the engine to turn at a fasterspeed than the propeller.

REGION OF REVERSECOMMAND—Flight regime inwhich flight at a higher airspeedrequires a lower power setting and alower airspeed requires a higherpower setting in order to maintainaltitude.

REGISTRATIONCERTIFICATE—A State and Fed-eral certificate that documentsaircraft ownership.

RELATIVE WIND—The directionof the airflow with respect to the wing.If a wing moves forward horizontally,the relative wind moves backwardhorizontally. Relative wind is parallelto and opposite the flightpath ofthe airplane.

alignment guidance during takeoffand landings. The centerline consistsof a line of uniformly spaced stripesand gaps.

RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS—Runway edge lights are used tooutline the edges of runways duringperiods of darkness or restrictedvisibility conditions. These lightsystems are classified according to theintensity or brightness they arecapable of producing: they are theHigh Intensity Runway Lights(HIRL), Medium Intensity RunwayLights (MIRL), and the Low IntensityRunway Lights (LIRL). The HIRLand MIRL systems have variableintensity controls, whereas the LIRLsnormally have one intensity setting.

RUNWAY END IDENTIFIERLIGHTS (REIL)—One componentof the runway lighting system. Theselights are installed at many airfieldsto provide rapid and positiveidentification of the approach end of aparticular runway.

RUNWAY INCURSION—Any occurrence at an airportinvolving an aircraft, vehicle, person,or object on the ground that creates acollision hazard or results in loss ofseparation with an aircraft taking off,intending to takeoff, landing, orintending to land.

RUNWAY THRESHOLDMARKINGS—Runway thresholdmarkings come in two configura-tions. They either consist of eightlongitudinal stripes of uniformdimensions disposed symmetricallyabout the runway centerline, or thenumber of stripes is related to therunway width. A threshold markinghelps identify the beginning of therunway that is available for landing.In some instances, the landingthreshold may be displaced.

SAFETY (SQUAT) SWITCH—Anelectrical switch mounted on one ofthe landing gear struts. It is used tosense when the weight of the aircraftis on the wheels.

SCAN—A procedure used by thepilot to visually identify all resourcesof information in flight.

REVERSE THRUST—A conditionwhere jet thrust is directed forwardduring landing to increase the rate ofdeceleration.

REVERSING PROPELLER—A propeller system with a pitchchange mechanism that includes fullreversing capability. When the pilotmoves the throttle controls to reverse,the blade angle changes to a pitchangle and produces a reverse thrust,which slows the airplane down duringa landing.

ROLL—The motion of the aircraftabout the longitudinal axis. It iscontrolled by the ailerons.

ROUNDOUT (FLARE)—A pitch-up during landing approach toreduce rate of descent and forwardspeed prior to touchdown.

RUDDER—The movable primarycontrol surface mounted on thetrailing edge of the vertical fin of anairplane. Movement of the rudderrotates the airplane about its verticalaxis.

RUDDERVATOR—A pair of controlsurfaces on the tail of an aircraftarranged in the form of a V. Thesesurfaces, when moved together by thecontrol wheel, serve as elevators, andwhen moved differentially by therudder pedals, serve as a rudder.

RUNWAY CENTERLINELIGHTS—Runway centerline lightsare installed on some precisionapproach runways to facilitate landingunder adverse visibility conditions.They are located along the runwaycenterline and are spaced at 50-footintervals. When viewed from thelanding threshold, the runwaycenterline lights are white until thelast 3,000 feet of the runway. Thewhite lights begin to alternate with redfor the next 2,000 feet, and for the last1,000 feet of the runway, all centerlinelights are red.

RUNWAY CENTERLINEMARKINGS—The runway centerline identifies thecenter of the runway and provides

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SEA LEVEL—A reference heightused to determine standardatmospheric conditions and altitudemeasurements.

SEGMENTED CIRCLE—A visualground based structure to providetraffic pattern information.

SERVICE CEILING—The maximum density altitude wherethe best rate-of-climb airspeed willproduce a 100 feet-per-minute climbat maximum weight while in a cleanconfiguration with maximum continu-ous power.

SERVO TAB—An auxiliary controlmounted on a primary control surface,which automatically moves in thedirection opposite the primary controlto provide an aerodynamic assist inthe movement of the control.

SHAFT HORSE POWER (SHP)—Turboshaft engines are rated in shafthorsepower and calculated by use ofa dynamometer device. Shafthorsepower is exhaust thrustconverted to a rotating shaft.

SHOCK WAVES—A compressionwave formed when a body movesthrough the air at a speed greater thanthe speed of sound.

SIDESLIP—A slip in which theairplane’s longitudinal axis remainsparallel to the original flightpath, but theairplane no longer flies straight ahead.Instead, the horizontal component ofwing lift forces the airplane to movesideways toward the low wing.

SINGLE ENGINE ABSOLUTECEILING—The altitude that a twin-engine airplane can no longer climbwith one engine inoperative.

SINGLE ENGINE SERVICECEILING—The altitude that a twin-engine airplane can no longer climb ata rate greater then 50 f.p.m. with oneengine inoperative.

SKID—A condition where the tail ofthe airplane follows a path outside thepath of the nose during a turn.

SPLIT SHAFTTURBINE ENGINE—See FREEPOWER TURBINE ENGINE.

SPOILERS—High-drag devices thatcan be raised into the air flowing overan airfoil, reducing lift and increasingdrag. Spoilers are used for roll controlon some aircraft. Deploying spoilerson both wings at the same time allowsthe aircraft to descend without gain-ing speed. Spoilers are also used toshorten the ground roll after landing.

SPOOL—A shaft in a turbine enginewhich drives one or morecompressors with the power derivedfrom one or more turbines.

STABILATOR—A single-piece hor-izontal tail surface on an airplane thatpivots around a central hinge point. Astabilator serves the purposes of boththe horizontal stabilizer andthe elevator.

STABILITY—The inherent qualityof an airplane to correct for conditionsthat may disturb its equilibrium, andto return or to continue on the originalflightpath. It is primarily an airplanedesign characteristic.

STABILIZED APPROACH—Alanding approach in which the pilotestablishes and maintains a constantangle glidepath towards a predeter-mined point on the landing runway. Itis based on the pilot’s judgment ofcertain visual cues, and depends onthe maintenance of a constant finaldescent airspeed and configuration.

STALL—A rapid decrease in liftcaused by the separation of airflowfrom the wing’s surface brought on byexceeding the critical angle of attack.A stall can occur at any pitch attitudeor airspeed.

STALL STRIPS—A spoiler attachedto the inboard leading edge of somewings to cause the center section ofthe wing to stall before the tips. Thisassures lateral control throughout thestall.

SLIP—An intentional maneuver todecrease airspeed or increase rate ofdescent, and to compensate for acrosswind on landing. A slip can alsobe unintentional when the pilot failsto maintain the aircraft in coordinatedflight.

SPECIFIC FUELCONSUMPTION—Number of pounds of fuel consumedin 1 hour to produce 1 HP.

SPEED—The distance traveled in agiven time.

SPEED BRAKES—A controlsystem that extends from the airplanestructure into the airstream toproduce drag and slow the airplane.

SPEED INSTABILITY—A condition in the region of reversecommand where a disturbance thatcauses the airspeed to decrease causestotal drag to increase, which in turn,causes the airspeed to decreasefurther.

SPEED SENSE—The ability tosense instantly and react to anyreasonable variation of airspeed.

SPIN—An aggravated stall thatresults in what is termed an “autorota-tion” wherein the airplane follows adownward corkscrew path. As the air-plane rotates around the vertical axis,the rising wing is less stalled than thedescending wing creating a rolling,yawing, and pitching motion.

SPIRAL INSTABILITY—

A condition that exists when the staticdirectional stability of the airplane isvery strong as compared to the effectof its dihedral in maintaining lateralequilibrium.

SPIRALING SLIPSTREAM—Theslipstream of a propeller-drivenairplane rotates around the airplane.This slipstream strikes the left side ofthe vertical fin, causing the airplane toyaw slightly. Vertical stabilizer offsetis sometimes used by aircraft design-ers to counteract this tendency.

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STANDARD ATMOSPHERE—At sea level, the standard atmosphereconsists of a barometric pressure of29.92 inches of mercury (in. Hg.) or1013.2 millibars, and a temperature of15°C (59°F). Pressure and tempera-ture normally decrease as altitudeincreases. The standard lapse rate inthe lower atmosphere for each 1,000feet of altitude is approximately 1 in.Hg. and 2°C (3.5°F). For example, thestandard pressure and temperature at3,000 feet mean sea level (MSL) is26.92 in. Hg. (29.92 - 3) and 9°C(15°C - 6°C).

STANDARD DAY—See STANDARD ATMOSPHERE.

STANDARD EMPTY WEIGHT(GAMA)—This weight consists ofthe airframe, engines, and all items ofoperating equipment that have fixedlocations and are permanentlyinstalled in the airplane; includingfixed ballast, hydraulic fluid, unusablefuel, and full engine oil.

STANDARD WEIGHTS—Thesehave been established for numerousitems involved in weight and balancecomputations. These weights shouldnot be used if actual weights areavailable.

STANDARD-RATE TURN—A turnat the rate of 3º per second whichenables the airplane to complete a360º turn in 2 minutes.

STARTER/GENERATOR—A combined unit used on turbineengines. The device acts as a starterfor rotating the engine, and afterrunning, internal circuits are shifted toconvert the device into a generator.

STATIC STABILITY—The initialtendency an aircraft displays whendisturbed from a state of equilibrium.

STATION—A location in theairplane that is identified by a numberdesignating its distance in inches fromthe datum. The datum is, therefore,identified as station zero. An itemlocated at station +50 would have anarm of 50 inches.

TAXIWAY LIGHTS—Omnidirectional lights that outline theedges of the taxiway and are blue incolor.

TAXIWAY TURNOFF LIGHTS—Flush lights which emit a steady greencolor.

TETRAHEDRON—A large, triangular-shaped, kite-likeobject installed near the runway.Tetrahedrons are mounted on a pivotand are free to swing with the wind toshow the pilot the direction of thewind as an aid in takeoffs andlandings.

THROTTLE—The valve in acarburetor or fuel control unit thatdetermines the amount of fuel-airmixture that is fed to the engine.

THRUST LINE—An imaginary linepassing through the center of thepropeller hub, perpendicular to theplane of the propeller rotation.

THRUST REVERSERS—Deviceswhich redirect the flow of jet exhaustto reverse the direction of thrust.

THRUST—The force which impartsa change in the velocity of a mass.This force is measured in pounds buthas no element of time or rate. Theterm, thrust required, is generallyassociated with jet engines. A forwardforce which propels the airplanethrough the air.

TIMING—The application ofmuscular coordination at the properinstant to make flight, and allmaneuvers incident thereto, a constantsmooth process.

TIRE CORD—Woven metal wirelaminated into the tire to provide extrastrength. A tire showing any cordmust be replaced prior to any furtherflight.

TORQUE METER—An indicatorused on some large reciprocatingengines or on turboprop engines toindicate the amount of torque theengine is producing.

STICK PULLER—A device thatapplies aft pressure on the controlcolumn when the airplane is approach-ing the maximum operating speed.

STICK PUSHER—A device thatapplies an abrupt and large forwardforce on the control column when theairplane is nearing an angle of attackwhere a stall could occur.

STICK SHAKER—An artificialstall warning device that vibrates thecontrol column.

STRESS RISERS—A scratch, groove, rivet hole, forgingdefect or other structural discontinuitythat causes a concentration of stress.

SUBSONIC—Speed below the speedof sound.

SUPERCHARGER—An engine- orexhaust-driven air compressor used toprovide additional pressure to theinduction air so the engine canproduce additional power.

SUPERSONIC—Speed above thespeed of sound.

SUPPLEMENTAL TYPECERTIFICATE (STC)—A certificate authorizing an alterationto an airframe, engine, or componentthat has been granted an ApprovedType Certificate.

SWEPT WING—A wing planformin which the tips of the wing arefarther back than the wing root.

TAILWHEEL AIRCRAFT—SEE CONVENTIONAL LANDINGGEAR.

TAKEOFF ROLL(GROUND ROLL)—The totaldistance required for an aircraft tobecome airborne.

TARGET REVERSER—A thrustreverser in a jet engine in whichclamshell doors swivel from thestowed position at the engine tailpipeto block all of the outflow and redirectsome component of the thrustforward.

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TORQUE SENSOR—See TORQUE METER.

TORQUE—1. A resistance to turningor twisting. 2. Forces that produce atwisting or rotating motion. 3. In anairplane, the tendency of the aircraftto turn (roll) in the opposite directionof rotation of the engine and propeller.

TOTAL DRAG—The sum of theparasite and induced drag.

TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTS—Two rows of transverse light barsdisposed symmetrically about therunway centerline in the runwaytouchdown zone.

TRACK—The actual path made overthe ground in flight.

TRAILING EDGE—The portion ofthe airfoil where the airflow over theupper surface rejoins the lowersurface airflow.

TRANSITION LINER—The portion of the combustor thatdirects the gases into the turbineplenum.

TRANSONIC—At the speed ofsound.

TRANSPONDER—The airborneportion of the secondary surveillanceradar system. The transponder emits areply when queried by a radar facility.

TRICYCLE GEAR—Landing gearemploying a third wheel located onthe nose of the aircraft.

TRIM TAB—A small auxiliaryhinged portion of a movable controlsurface that can be adjusted duringflight to a position resulting in abalance of control forces.

TRIPLE SPOOL ENGINE—Usually a turbofan engine designwhere the fan is the N1 compressor,followed by the N2 intermediatecompressor, and the N3 high pressurecompressor, all of which rotate onseparate shafts at different speeds.

TURBINE SECTION—The sectionof the engine that converts highpressure high temperature gas intorotational energy.

TURBOCHARGER—An air compressor driven by exhaustgases, which increases the pressure ofthe air going into the engine throughthe carburetor or fuel injectionsystem.

TURBOFAN ENGINE—A turbojetengine in which additional propulsivethrust is gained by extending a portionof the compressor or turbine bladesoutside the inner engine case. Theextended blades propel bypass airalong the engine axis but between theinner and outer casing. The air is notcombusted but does provide addi-tional thrust.

TURBOJET ENGINE—A jetengine incorporating a turbine-drivenair compressor to take in and com-press air for the combustion of fuel,the gases of combustion being usedboth to rotate the turbine and create athrust producing jet.

TURBOPROP ENGINE—A turbineengine that drives a propeller througha reduction gearing arrangement.Most of the energy in the exhaustgases is converted into torque, ratherthan its acceleration being used topropel the aircraft.

TURBULENCE—An occurrence inwhich a flow of fluid is unsteady.

TURN COORDINATOR—A rategyro that senses both roll and yaw dueto the gimbal being canted. Haslargely replaced the turn-and-slipindicator in modern aircraft.

TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR—A flight instrument consisting of a rategyro to indicate the rate of yaw and acurved glass inclinometer to indicatethe relationship between gravity andcentrifugal force. The turn-and-slipindicator indicates the relationshipbetween angle of bank and rate ofyaw. Also called a turn-and-bankindicator.

TROPOPAUSE—The boundarylayer between the troposphere and themesosphere which acts as a lid toconfine most of the water vapor, andthe associated weather, to thetroposphere.

TROPOSPHERE—The layer of theatmosphere extending from thesurface to a height of 20,000 to 60,000feet depending on latitude.

TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS)—Calibrated airspeed corrected for alti-tude and nonstandard temperature.Because air density decreases with anincrease in altitude, an airplane has tobe flown faster at higher altitudes tocause the same pressure differencebetween pitot impact pressure andstatic pressure. Therefore, for a givencalibrated airspeed, true airspeedincreases as altitude increases; or for agiven true airspeed, calibrated air-speed decreases as altitude increases.

TRUE ALTITUDE—The verticaldistance of the airplane above sealevel—the actual altitude. It is oftenexpressed as feet above mean sealevel (MSL). Airport, terrain, andobstacle elevations on aeronauticalcharts are true altitudes.

T-TAIL—An aircraft with thehorizontal stabilizer mounted on thetop of the vertical stabilizer, forminga T.

TURBINE BLADES—The portionof the turbine assembly that absorbsthe energy of the expanding gases andconverts it into rotational energy.

TURBINE OUTLETTEMPERATURE (TOT)—The temperature of the gases as theyexit the turbine section.

TURBINE PLENUM—The portionof the combustor where the gases arecollected to be evenly distributed tothe turbine blades.

TURBINE ROTORS—The portionof the turbine assembly that mounts tothe shaft and holds the turbine bladesin place.

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TURNING ERROR—One of theerrors inherent in a magnetic compasscaused by the dip compensatingweight. It shows up only on turns to orfrom northerly headings in theNorthern Hemisphere and southerlyheadings in the Southern Hemisphere.Turning error causes the compass tolead turns to the north or south and lagturns away from the north or south.

ULTIMATE LOAD FACTOR—In stress analysis, the load that causesphysical breakdown in an aircraft oraircraft component during a strengthtest, or the load that according tocomputations, should cause such abreakdown.

UNFEATHERINGACCUMULATOR—Tanks that holdoil under pressure which can be usedto unfeather a propeller.

UNICOM—A nongovernment air/ground radiocommunication station which mayprovide airport information at publicuse airports where there is no tower orFSS.

UNUSABLE FUEL—Fuel thatcannot be consumed by the engine.This fuel is considered part of theempty weight of the aircraft.

USEFUL LOAD—The weight of thepilot, copilot, passengers, baggage,usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is thebasic empty weight subtracted fromthe maximum allowable gross weight.This term applies to general aviationaircraft only.

UTILITY CATEGORY—An airplane that has a seatingconfiguration, excluding pilot seats,of nine or less, a maximumcertificated takeoff weight of 12,500pounds or less, and intended forlimited acrobatic operation.

V-BARS—The flight directordisplays on the attitude indicator thatprovide control guidance to the pilot.

V-SPEEDS—Designated speeds for aspecific flight condition.

VFE—The maximum speed with theflaps extended. The upper limit of thewhite arc.

VFO—The maximum speed that theflaps can be extended or retracted.

VFR TERMINAL AREACHARTS (1:250,000)—Depict Class B airspace whichprovides for the control orsegregation of all the aircraft withinthe Class B airspace. The chart depictstopographic information andaeronautical information whichincludes visual and radio aidsto navigation, airports, controlledairspace, restricted areas, obstruc-tions, and related data.

V-G DIAGRAM—A chart thatrelates velocity to load factor. It isvalid only for a specific weight,configuration, and altitude and showsthe maximum amount of positive ornegative lift the airplane is capable ofgenerating at a given speed. Alsoshows the safe load factor limits andthe load factor that the aircraft cansustain at various speeds.

VISUAL APPROACH SLOPEINDICATOR (VASI)—The most common visual glidepathsystem in use. The VASI providesobstruction clearance within 10° ofthe extended runway centerline, andto 4 nautical miles (NM) from therunway threshold.

VISUAL FLIGHTRULES (VFR)—Code of Federal Regulations that gov-ern the procedures for conductingflight under visual conditions.

VLE—Landing gear extended speed.The maximum speed at which anairplane can be safely flown with thelanding gear extended.

VLOF—Lift-off speed. The speed atwhich the aircraft departs the runwayduring takeoff.

VLO—Landing gear operating speed.The maximum speed for extending orretracting the landing gear if using anairplane equipped with retractablelanding gear.

VAPOR LOCK—A condition inwhich air enters the fuel system and itmay be difficult, or impossible, torestart the engine. Vapor lock mayoccur as a result of running a fuel tankcompletely dry, allowing air to enterthe fuel system. On fuel-injectedengines, the fuel may become so hot itvaporizes in the fuel line, not allowingfuel to reach the cylinders.

VA—The design maneuvering speed.This is the “rough air” speed and themaximum speed for abruptmaneuvers. If during flight, rough airor severe turbulence is encountered,reduce the airspeed to maneuveringspeed or less to minimize stress on theairplane structure. It is important toconsider weight when referencing thisspeed. For example, VA may be 100knots when an airplane is heavilyloaded, but only 90 knots when theload is light.

VECTOR—A force vector is agraphic representation of a force andshows both the magnitude anddirection of the force.

VELOCITY—The speed or rate ofmovement in a certain direction.

VERTICAL AXIS—An imaginaryline passing vertically through thecenter of gravity of an aircraft. Thevertical axis is called the z-axis or theyaw axis.

VERTICAL CARD COMPASS—A magnetic compass that consists ofan azimuth on a vertical card,resembling a heading indicator with afixed miniature airplane to accuratelypresent the heading of the aircraft.The design uses eddy currentdamping to minimize lead and lagduring turns.

VERTICALSPEED INDICATOR (VSI)—An instrument that uses static pressureto display a rate of climb or descent infeet per minute. The VSI can alsosometimes be called a verticalvelocity indicator (VVI).

VERTICAL STABILITY—Stabilityabout an aircraft’s vertical axis. Alsocalled yawing or directional stability.

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VMC—Minimum control airspeed.This is the minimum flight speed atwhich a twin-engine airplane can besatisfactorily controlled when anengine suddenly becomes inoperativeand the remaining engine is at takeoffpower.

VMD—Minimum drag speed.

VMO—Maximum operating speedexpressed in knots.

VNE—Never-exceed speed. Operatingabove this speed is prohibited since itmay result in damage or structuralfailure. The red line on the airspeedindicator.

VNO—Maximum structural cruisingspeed. Do not exceed this speedexcept in smooth air. The upper limitof the green arc.

VP—Minimum dynamic hydroplan-ing speed. The minimum speedrequired to start dynamichydroplaning.

VR—Rotation speed. The speed thatthe pilot begins rotating the aircraftprior to lift-off.

VS0—Stalling speed or the minimumsteady flight speed in the landing con-figuration. In small airplanes, this isthe power-off stall speed at the maxi-mum landing weight in the landingconfiguration (gear and flaps down).The lower limit of the white arc.

VS1—Stalling speed or the minimumsteady flight speed obtained in aspecified configuration. For mostairplanes, this is the power-off stallspeed at the maximum takeoff weightin the clean configuration (gear up, ifretractable, and flaps up). The lowerlimit of the green arc.

VSSE—Safe, intentional one-engineinoperative speed. The minimumspeed to intentionally render thecritical engine inoperative.

V-TAIL—A design which utilizestwo slanted tail surfaces to perform

equal to the mass of the body timesthe local value of gravitationalacceleration. One of the four mainforces acting on an aircraft.Equivalent to the actual weight of theaircraft. It acts downward through theaircraft’s center of gravity toward thecenter of the Earth. Weight opposeslift.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE—Theaircraft is said to be in weight andbalance when the gross weight of theaircraft is under the max gross weight,and the center of gravity is withinlimits and will remain in limits for theduration of the flight.

WHEELBARROWING—A condition caused when forwardyoke or stick pressure during takeoffor landing causes the aircraft to rideon the nosewheel alone.

WIND CORRECTION ANGLE—Correction applied to the course toestablish a heading so that track willcoincide with course.

WINDDIRECTION INDICATORS—Indicators that include a wind sock,wind tee, or tetrahedron. Visualreference will determine winddirection and runway in use.

WIND SHEAR—A sudden, drasticshift in windspeed, direction, or boththat may occur in the horizontal orvertical plane.

WINDMILLING—When the airmoving through a propeller createsthe rotational energy.

WINDSOCK—A truncated clothcone open at both ends and mountedon a freewheeling pivot that indicatesthe direction from which the wind isblowing.

WING—Airfoil attached to each sideof the fuselage and are the mainlifting surfaces that support theairplane in flight.

the same functions as the surfaces of aconventional elevator and rudderconfiguration. The fixed surfaces actas both horizontal and verticalstabilizers.

VX—Best angle-of-climb speed. Theairspeed at which an airplane gains thegreatest amount of altitude in a givendistance. It is used during a short-fieldtakeoff to clear an obstacle.

VXSE—Best angle of climb speed withone engine inoperative. The airspeedat which an airplane gains the greatestamount of altitude in a given distancein a light, twin-engine airplanefollowing an engine failure.

VY—Best rate-of-climb speed. Thisairspeed provides the most altitudegain in a given period of time.

VYSE—Best rate-of-climb speed withone engine inoperative. This airspeedprovides the most altitude gain in agiven period of time in a light, twin-engine airplane following an enginefailure.

WAKE TURBULENCE—Wingtipvortices that are created when anairplane generates lift. When anairplane generates lift, air spills overthe wingtips from the high pressureareas below the wings to the lowpressure areas above them. This flowcauses rapidly rotating whirlpools ofair called wingtip vortices or waketurbulence.

WASTE GATE—A controllablevalve in the tailpipe of an aircraftreciprocating engine equipped with aturbocharger. The valve is controlledto vary the amount of exhaust gasesforced through the turbochargerturbine.

WEATHERVANE—The tendency ofthe aircraft to turn into the relativewind.

WEIGHT—A measure of theheaviness of an object. The force bywhich a body is attracted toward thecenter of the Earth (or anothercelestial body) by gravity. Weight is

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WING AREA—The total surface ofthe wing (square feet), which includescontrol surfaces and may includewing area covered by the fuselage(main body of the airplane), andengine nacelles.

WING SPAN—The maximum distance from wingtipto wingtip.

WINGTIP VORTICES—The rapidly rotating air that spills overan airplane’s wings during flight. Theintensity of the turbulence depends onthe airplane’s weight, speed, andconfiguration. It is also referred to as

ZERO FUEL WEIGHT—The weight of the aircraft to includeall useful load except fuel.

ZERO SIDESLIP—A maneuver in atwin-engine airplane with one engineinoperative that involves a smallamount of bank and slightlyuncoordinated flight to align thefuselage with the direction of traveland minimize drag.

ZERO THRUST(SIMULATED FEATHER)—An engine configuration with a lowpower setting that simulates apropeller feathered condition.

wake turbulence. Vortices from heavyaircraft may be extremely hazardousto small aircraft.

WING TWIST—A design featureincorporated into some wings toimprove aileron control effectivenessat high angles of attack during anapproach to a stall.

YAW—Rotation about the verticalaxis of an aircraft.

YAW STRING—A string on the noseor windshield of an aircraft in view ofthe pilot that indicates any slipping orskidding of the aircraft.

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I-1

180° POWER-OFF APPROACH 8-23360° POWER-OFF APPROACH 8-2490° POWER-OFF APPROACH 8-21

AABSOLUTE CEILING 12-8ACCELERATED STALL 4-9ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE 12-8ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE 12-8ACCURACY APPROACH 8-21

180° power-off 8-23360° power-off 8-2490° power-off 8-21

ADVERSE YAW 3-8AFTER LANDING 2-11

crosswind tailwheel 13-5roll 8-7tailwheel 13-4

AIMING POINT 8-8AIRCRAFT LOGBOOKS 2-1AIRFOIL TYPES 11-1AIRMANSHIP 1-1

skills 1-1AIRPLANE EQUIPMENT, Night 10-3AIRPLANE FEEL 3-2AIRPLANE LIGHTING, Night 10-3AIRPORT LIGHTING 10-4AIRPORT TRAFFIC PATTERN 7-1

base leg 7-3crosswind leg 7-4departure leg 7-4downwind leg 7-3entry leg 7-3final approach leg 7-3upwind leg 7-3

AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES 2-1ALTERNATOR/GENERATOR 12-7ALTITUDE TURBOCHARGING 11-7ANTI-ICING 12-7APPROACH AND LANDING 8-1

after-landing roll 8-7base leg 8-1crosswind 8-15emergency 8-25estimating height and movement 8-4faulty 8-27final approach 8-2

go-around 8-11multiengine 12-14night 10-6normal 8-1roundout (flare) 8-5short-field 8-17soft-field 8-19stabilized approach 8-7touchdown 8-6turbulent air 8-17use of flaps 8-3

ATTITUDE FLYING 3-2AUTOPILOT 12-6AXIAL FLOW 14-5

B

BACK SIDE OF THE POWER CURVE 8-19BALLOONING 8-3, 8-30BANK ATTITUDE 3-2BASE LEG 7-3, 8-1BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECK 2-11BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB (VX) 3-13, 12-1

one engine inoperative (VXSE) 12-1BEST GLIDE SPEED 3-16BEST RATE OF CLIMB 3-13, 12-1

one engine inoperative (VYSE) 12-1BETA RANGE 14-7BLACK HOLE APPROACH 10-2BOUNCING 8-30BUS BAR 14-8BUS TIE 14-9BYPASS AIR 15-2BYPASS RATIO 15-2

C

CASCADE REVERSER 15-14CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

STAGE 14-5CHANDELLE 9-4CHECKLISTS, Use of, 1-6CIRCUIT BREAKER 14-9CLEAR OF RUNWAY 2-11CLIMB GRADIENT 12-8

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CLIMBS 3-13maximum performance 5-8night 10-5

COCKPIT MANAGEMENT 2-7COLLISION AVOIDANCE 1-4COMBUSTION CHAMBER 14-1COMBUSTION HEATER 12-6COMPLEX AIRPLANE 11-1COMPRESSION RATIO 15-1COMPRESSOR 14-1CONDITION LEVER 14-4CONES 10-1CONFINED AREA 16-4CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLER 11-4

blade angle control 11-5governing range 11-5operation 11-5

CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLER 11-3CONVENTIONAL GEAR AIRPLANE 13-1CORE AIRFLOW 15-2CRAZING 2-2CRITICAL ALTITUDE 11-7CRITICAL MACH 15-7CROSS-CONTROL STALL 4-10CROSSWIND APPROACH

AND LANDING 8-13CROSSWIND COMPONENT 5-6CROSSWIND LEG 7-4CROSSWIND TAKEOFF 5-5CURRENT LIMITER 14-9

DDEICING 12-7DEPARTURE LEG 7-4DESCENTS 3-15

minimum safe airspeed 3-16partial power 3-16

DITCHING 16-1DOWNWASH 8-3DOWNWIND LEG 7-3DRAG DEVICES 15-13DRIFT 6-2DUCTED FAN 15-2

EEGT 11-8EIGHTS ACROSS A ROAD 6-11EIGHTS ALONG A ROAD 6-9EIGHTS AROUND PYLONS 6-11EIGHTS-ON-PYLONS 6-12ELEMENTARY EIGHTS 6-9ELEVATOR TRIM STALL 4-11ELT 2-1

EMERGENCIESabnormal instrument indications 16-11door open in flight 16-12electrical system 16-10engine failure 16-5fires 16-7flap failure 16-8landing gear malfunction 16-9loss of elevator control 16-9night 10-8pitot-static system 16-11VFR flight into IMC 16-12

EMERGENCY APPROACHAND LANDING 8-25

EMERGENCY DESCENTS 16-6EMERGENCY GEAR

EXTENSION SYSTEM 11-10EMERGENCY LANDINGS 16-1

airplane configuration 16-3psychological hazards 16-1safety concepts 16-2terrain selection 16-3terrain types 16-4

EMERGENCY LOCATORTRANSMITTER 2-1

ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKEOFF 16-5ENGINE FAILURE, MULTIENGINE

approach and landing 12-22during flight 12-21flight principles 12-23takeoff 12-18

ENGINE SHUTDOWN 2-12ENGINE STARTING 2-7ENTRY LEG 7-3EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE 11-8EXHAUST MANIFOLD 11-7EXHAUST SECTION 14-1

FFALSE START 14-10FAULTY APPROACHES 8-27

ballooning 8-30floating 8-29high final 8-27high roundout 8-28low final 8-27slow final 8-28

FEATHERING 12-3FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA) 1-1FEEL OF THE AIRPLANE 3-2FINAL APPROACH 8-2FINAL APPROACH LEG 7-3FIRES

cabin 16-8electrical 16-7engine 16-7

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FIXED SHAFT ENGINE 14-3FLAP EXTENSION SPEED (VFE) 12-15FLAPS 11-1

effectiveness 11-2function 11-1operational procedures 11-2use of 8-3

FLARE 8-5FLIGHT CONTROLS 3-1FLIGHT DIRECTOR 12-6FLIGHT IDLE 14-7FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR, ROLE OF 1-3FLIGHT SAFETY 1-4FLIGHT STANDARDS DISTRICT

OFFICE (FSDO) 1-2FLIGHT TRAINING SCHOOLS 1-3FLOATING 8-29FORCED LANDING 16-1FORWARD SLIP 8-10FOUR FUNDAMENTALS 3-1FREE TURBINE ENGINE 14-5FUEL CONTROL UNIT 14-6FUEL CONTROLLER 14-1FUEL CROSSFEED 12-5FUEL HEATER 15-3

G

GAS GENERATOR 15-2GAS TURBINE ENGINE 14-1GLIDE 3-16GLIDE RATIO 3-16GO-AROUND (REJECTED LANDING) 8-11, 12-17GOVERNING RANGE 11-5GROUND BOOSTING 11-7GROUND EFFECT 5-7, 8-13GROUND INSPECTION 2-1GROUND LOOP 8-33, 13-6GROUND OPERATIONS 2-7GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS 6-1

drift and ground track control 6-2eights across a road 6-11eights along a road 6-9eights around pylons 6-11eights-on-pylons (pylon eights) 6-12rectangular course 6-4s-turns across a road 6-6turns around a point 6-7

GROUND ROLL 5-1GROUND TRACK CONTROL 6-2GROUNDSPEED 6-3HAND PROPPING 2-8HAND SIGNALS 2-7HIGH PERFORMANCE AIRPLANE 11-1HOT START 14-10

HUNG START 14-10HYDROPLANING 8-34

IILLUSIONS 10-2INITIAL CLIMB 5-1INTAKE MANIFOLD 11-7INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTION 3-3INTENTIONAL SPIN 4-15INVERTER 14-8JET AIRPLANE 15-1

approach and landing 15-19low speed flight 15-10pilot sensations 15-15rotation and lift-off 15-18stalls 15-10takeoff and climb 15-16touchdown and rollout 15-24

JJET ENGINE 15-1

efficiency 15-5fuel heater 15-3ignition 15-3operating 15-2

K

KINESTHESIA 3-2

LL/DMAX 3-16LANDING GEAR

controls 11-10electrical 11-9electrohydraulic 11-9emergency extension 11-10hydraulic 11-9malfunction 16-9operational procedures 11-12position indicators 11-10retractable 11-9 safety devices 11-10tailwheel 13-1

LATERAL AXIS 3-2LAZY EIGHT 9-6LEVEL FLIGHT 3-4LIFT-OFF 5-1LIFT-OFF SPEED (VLOF) 12-1

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LONGITUDINAL AXIS 3-2LOSS OF DIRECTIONAL

CONTROL DEMONSTRATION 12-27

M

MACH 15-7MACH BUFFET BOUNDARIES 15-8MACH TUCK 15-7MANEUVERING SPEED 9-1MAXIMUM OPERATING SPEED 15-6MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE

CLIMB 5-8MAXIMUM SAFE

CROSSWIND VELOCITIES 8-16MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED (VMC) 12-2MINIMUM CONTROLLABLE

AIRSPEED 4-1MINIMUM DRAG SPEED 4-2MULTIENGINE AIRPLANE 12-1

approach and landing 12-14crosswind approach and landing 12-16engine failure during flight 12-21engine failure on takeoff 12-18fuel crossfeed 12-5go-around 12-17ground operation 12-12level off and cruise 12-14one engine inoperative approach and landing 12-22

propeller 12-3propeller synchronization 12-5rejected takeoff 12-18short-field operations 12-16slow flight 12-25stalls 12-25 takeoff and climb 12-12weight and balance 12-10

MUSHING 3-2

N

NIGHT OPERATIONSairplane equipment 10-3airplane lighting 10-3airport and navigation lighting aids 10-4approach and landing 10-6emergencies 10-8illusions 10-2orientation and navigation 10-6pilot equipment 10-3preparation and preflight 10-4start, taxi, and runup 10-5takeoff and climb 10-5

NIGHT VISION 10-1NOISE ABATEMENT 5-11NORMAL TAKEOFF 5-2NOSE BAGGAGE COMPARTMENT 12-7

OONE-ENGINE-INOPERATIVE SPEED (VSSE) 12-1OVERBANKING TENDENCY 3-9OVERBOOST CONDITION 11-9OVERSPEED 15-8

PPARALLAX ERROR 3-11PARKING 2-11PILOT EQUIPMENT, Night 10-3PILOT EXAMINER, Role of 1-2PITCH AND POWER 3-19PITCH ATTITUDE 3-2PIVOTAL ALTITUDE 6-14PORPOISING 8-31POSITION LIGHTS 10-3POSITIVE TRANSFER OF CONTROLS 1-6POSTFLIGHT 2-12POWER CURVE 8-19POWER LEVER 14-4PRACTICAL SLIP LIMIT 8-11PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDS (PTS) 1-4PRECAUTIONARY LANDING 16-1PREFLIGHT INSPECTION 2-2PRESSURE CONTROLLER 11-7PROPELLER 11-3, 12-3PROPELLER BLADE ANGLE 11-4

control 11-5PROPELLER CONTROL 11-4PROPELLER SYNCHRONIZATION 12-5PSYCHOLOGICAL HAZARDS 16-1PYLON EIGHTS 6-12

RRADIUS OF TURN 3-10RECTANGULAR COURSE 6-4REGION OF REVERSE COMMAND 8-19REJECTED LANDING 8-11REJECTED TAKEOFF 5-11, 12-18RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR 11-9

approach and landing 11-13controls 11-10electrical 11-9electrohydraulic 11-9emergency extension 11-10hydraulic 11-9

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operational procedures 11-12position indicators 11-10safety devices 11-10takeoff and climb 11-13transition training 11-14

REVERSE THRUST 14-7RODS 10-1ROTATING BEACON 10-4ROTATION 5-1ROTATION SPEED (VR) 12-1ROUGH-FIELD TAKEOFF 5-10ROUNDOUT 8-5

ballooning 8-3floating 8-29high 8-28late or rapid 8-29

RUNWAY INCURSION 1-5RUNWAY LIGHTS 10-4

S

SAFETY CONCEPTS 16-2SECONDARY STALL 4-9SECURING 2-12SEGMENTED CIRCLE 7-3SERVICE CEILING 12-8SERVICING 2-12SHORT-FIELD

approach and landing 8-17tailwheel 13-3takeoff 5-8

SIDESLIP 5-6, 8-10SINK RATE 16-3SKID 3-8SLIP 3-8, 8-10SLOW FLIGHT 4-1, 12-25SOFT FIELD

approach and landing 8-19tailwheel 13-4takeoff 5-10

SPEED BRAKE 15-13SPEED INSTABILITY 4-2SPIN AWARENESS 12-26SPINS 4-12

developed phase 4-14entry phase 4-13incipient phase 4-13intentional 4-15procedures 4-13recovery phase 4-14weight and balance requirements 4-16

SPLIT SHAFT ENGINE 14-5SPOILERS 15-13SQUAT SWITCH 11-10STABILIZED APPROACH 8-7, 15-21STALL AWARENESS 1-6

STALLS 4-3accelerated 4-9characteristics 4-6cross-control 4-10elevator trim 4-11imminent 4-6jet airplane 15-10multiengine 12-25power-off 4-7power-on 4-8recognition 4-3recovery 4-4secondary 4-9use of ailerons/rudders 4-5

STEEP SPIRAL 9-3STEEP TURNS 9-1STRAIGHT FLIGHT 3-5STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT 3-4S-TURNS ACROSS A ROAD 6-6

TTAILWHEEL AIRPLANES 13-1

crosswind landing 13-5crosswind takeoff 13-3short-field landing 13-6short-field takeoff 13-3soft-field landing 13-6soft-field takeoff 13-4takeoff 13-3takeoff roll 13-2taxiing 13-1touchdown 13-4wheel landing 13-6

TAKEOFFcrosswind 5-5ground effect 5-7multiengine 12-2night 10-5normal 5-2rejected 5-11roll 5-1short field 5-8soft/rough field 5-10tailwheel 13-3tailwheel crosswind 13-3tailwheel short-field 13-3tailwheel soft-field 13-4

TARGET REVERSER 15-14TAXIING 2-9

tailwheel 13-1THRUST LEVER 15-4THRUST REVERSERS 15-14TOUCHDOWN 8-6

bounce 8-30crab 8-32drift 8-32

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ground loop 8-33hard landing 8-32porpoise 8-31tailwheel 13-4wheelbarrowing 8-32wing rise 8-33

TRACK 6-2TRAFFIC PATTERN INDICATOR 7-3TRANSITION TRAINING

complex airplane 11-14high performance airplane 11-14jet powered airplanes 15-1multiengine airplane 12-31tailwheel airplanes 13-1turbopropeller powered airplanes 14-12

TRANSONIC FLOW 15-7TRIM CONTROL 3-6TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE 11-8TURBINE SECTION 14-1TURBOCHARGER 11-7

failure 11-9heat management 11-8operating characteristics 11-8

TURBOFAN ENGINE 15-2TURBOPROP AIRPLANE 14-1

electrical system 14-8operational considerations 14-10

TURBOPROP ENGINES 14-2TURBULENT AIR APPROACH

AND LANDING 8-17TURNS 3-7

climbing 3-15coordinated 3-9gliding 3-18level 3-7medium 3-7

shallow 3-7steep 3-8

TURNS AROUND A POINT 6-7

UUPWIND LEG 7-3

VVFR FLIGHT INTO

IMC CONDITIONS 16-12VISUAL GROUND INSPECTION 2-1V-SPEEDS 12-1, 15-16, 15-19

W WASTE GATE 11-7WEATHERVANE 5-5WEIGHT AND BALANCE 12-10WHEEL LANDING 13-6WHEELBARROWING 5-9, 8-17, 8-32WINDSOCK 7-3WINGTIP WASHOUT 4-5

Y

YAW 3-2YAW DAMPER 12-6

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