AIRPORT TRAFFICPATTERNS AND OPERATIONSJust as roads and streets are needed in order to utilizeautomobiles, airports or airstrips are needed to utilizeairplanes. Every flight begins and ends at an airport orother suitable landing field. For that reason, it isessential that the pilot learn the traffic rules, trafficprocedures, and traffic pattern layouts that may be inuse at various airports.

When an automobile is driven on congested city streets,it can be brought to a stop to give way to conflicting traf-fic; however, an airplane can only be slowed down.Consequently, specific traffic patterns and traffic controlprocedures have been established at designated airports.The traffic patterns provide specific routes for takeoffs,departures, arrivals, and landings. The exact nature ofeach airport traffic pattern is dependent on the runway inuse, wind conditions, obstructions, and other factors.

Control towers and radar facilities provide a means ofadjusting the flow of arriving and departing aircraft,and render assistance to pilots in busy terminal areas.Airport lighting and runway marking systems are usedfrequently to alert pilots to abnormal conditions andhazards, so arrivals and departures can be made safely.

Airports vary in complexity from small grass or sodstrips to major terminals having many paved runwaysand taxiways. Regardless of the type of airport, thepilot must know and abide by the rules and generaloperating procedures applicable to the airport beingused. These rules and procedures are based not only onlogic or common sense, but also on courtesy, and theirobjective is to keep air traffic moving with maximumsafety and efficiency. The use of any traffic pattern,service, or procedure does not alter the responsibilityof pilots to see and avoid other aircraft.

STANDARD AIRPORTTRAFFIC PATTERNSTo assure that air traffic flows into and out of an airportin an orderly manner, an airport traffic pattern is estab-lished appropriate to the local conditions, including thedirection and placement of the pattern, the altitude tobe flown, and the procedures for entering and leavingthe pattern. Unless the airport displays approved visualmarkings indicating that turns should be made to the

right, the pilot should make all turns in the pattern tothe left.

When operating at an airport with an operating controltower, the pilot receives, by radio, a clearance toapproach or depart, as well as pertinent informationabout the traffic pattern. If there is not a control tower,it is the pilot’s responsibility to determine the directionof the traffic pattern, to comply with the appropriatetraffic rules, and to display common courtesy towardother pilots operating in the area.

The pilot is not expected to have extensive knowledgeof all traffic patterns at all airports, but if the pilot isfamiliar with the basic rectangular pattern, it will beeasy to make proper approaches and departures frommost airports, regardless of whether they have controltowers. At airports with operating control towers, thetower operator may instruct pilots to enter the trafficpattern at any point or to make a straight-in approachwithout flying the usual rectangular pattern. Manyother deviations are possible if the tower operator andthe pilot work together in an effort to keep trafficmoving smoothly. Jets or heavy airplanes willfrequently be flying wider and/or higher patterns thanlighter airplanes, and in many cases will make astraight-in approach for landing.

Compliance with the basic rectangular traffic patternreduces the possibility of conflicts at airports withoutan operating control tower. It is imperative that the pilotform the habit of exercising constant vigilance in thevicinity of airports even though the air traffic appearsto be light.

The standard rectangular traffic pattern is illustrated infigure 7-1 (on next page). The traffic pattern altitude isusually 1,000 feet above the elevation of the airport sur-face. The use of a common altitude at a given airport is thekey factor in minimizing the risk of collisions at airportswithout operating control towers.

It is recommended that while operating in the trafficpattern at an airport without an operating controltower the pilot maintain an airspeed that conformswith the limits established by Title 14 of the Code ofFederal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 for such an air-port: no more than 200 knots (230 miles per hour(m.p.h.)). In any case, the speed should be adjusted,

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Figure 7-1.Traffic patterns.

LEFT-HAND TRAFFIC PATTERN

Entry

Crosswind

Departure

Final

Base

Downwind

RIGHT-HAND TRAFFIC PATTERN

Crosswind

Final

Base

Downwind

Entry

Departure

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when practicable, so that it is compatible with thespeed of other airplanes in the pattern.

When entering the traffic pattern at an airport withoutan operating control tower, inbound pilots are expectedto observe other aircraft already in the pattern and toconform to the traffic pattern in use. If other aircraftare not in the pattern, then traffic indicators on theground and wind indicators must be checked to deter-mine which runway and traffic pattern direction shouldbe used. [Figure 7-2] Many airports have L-shapedtraffic pattern indicators displayed with a segmentedcircle adjacent to the runway. The short member of theL shows the direction in which the traffic pattern turnsshould be made when using the runway parallel to thelong member. These indicators should be checkedwhile at a distance well away from any pattern thatmight be in use, or while at a safe height well abovegenerally used pattern altitudes. When the proper traf-fic pattern direction has been determined, the pilotshould then proceed to a point well clear of the patternbefore descending to the pattern altitude.

When approaching an airport for landing, the traffic pat-tern should be entered at a 45° angle to the downwindleg, headed toward a point abeam of the midpoint of therunway to be used for landing. Arriving airplanes shouldbe at the proper traffic pattern altitude before enteringthe pattern, and should stay clear of the traffic flow untilestablished on the entry leg. Entries into traffic patternswhile descending create specific collision hazards andshould always be avoided.

The entry leg should be of sufficient length to providea clear view of the entire traffic pattern, and to allowthe pilot adequate time for planning the intended pathin the pattern and the landing approach.

The downwind leg is a course flown parallel to thelanding runway, but in a direction opposite to theintended landing direction. This leg should be

approximately 1/2 to 1 mile out from the landing run-way, and at the specified traffic pattern altitude.During this leg, the before landing check should becompleted and the landing gear extended ifretractable. Pattern altitude should be maintaineduntil abeam the approach end of the landing runway.At this point, power should be reduced and a descentbegun. The downwind leg continues past a pointabeam the approach end of the runway to a pointapproximately 45° from the approach end of the run-way, and a medium bank turn is made onto the baseleg.

The base leg is the transitional part of the traffic pat-tern between the downwind leg and the final approachleg. Depending on the wind condition, it is establishedat a sufficient distance from the approach end of thelanding runway to permit a gradual descent to theintended touchdown point. The ground track of the air-plane while on the base leg should be perpendicular tothe extended centerline of the landing runway,although the longitudinal axis of the airplane may notbe aligned with the ground track when it is necessaryto turn into the wind to counteract drift. While on thebase leg, the pilot must ensure, before turning onto thefinal approach, that there is no danger of colliding withanother aircraft that may be already on the finalapproach.

The final approach leg is a descending flightpath start-ing from the completion of the base-to-final turn andextending to the point of touchdown. This is probablythe most important leg of the entire pattern, becausehere the pilot’s judgment and procedures must be thesharpest to accurately control the airspeed and descentangle while approaching the intended touchdownpoint.

As stipulated in 14 CFR part 91, aircraft while onfinal approach to land or while landing, have theright-of-way over other aircraft in flight or operatingon the surface. When two or more aircraft areapproaching an airport for the purpose of landing, theaircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way.Pilots should not take advantage of this rule to cut infront of another aircraft that is on final approach toland, or to overtake that aircraft.

The upwind leg is a course flown parallel to the land-ing runway, but in the same direction to the intendedlanding direction. The upwind leg continues past apoint abeam of the departure end of the runway towhere a medium bank 90° turn is made onto thecrosswind leg.

The upwind leg is also the transitional part of the traf-fic pattern when on the final approach and a go-aroundis initiated and climb attitude is established. When aFigure 7-2.Traffic pattern indicators.

Windsock

Segmented Circle

Traffic Pattern Indicator(indicates location of base leg)

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safe altitude is attained, the pilot should commence ashallow bank turn to the upwind side of the airport.This will allow better visibility of the runway fordeparting aircraft.

The departure leg of the rectangular pattern is astraight course aligned with, and leading from, thetakeoff runway. This leg begins at the point the air-plane leaves the ground and continues until the 90°turn onto the crosswind leg is started.

On the departure leg after takeoff, the pilot should con-tinue climbing straight ahead, and, if remaining in thetraffic pattern, commence a turn to the crosswind legbeyond the departure end of the runway within 300 feetof pattern altitude. If departing the traffic pattern, con-tinue straight out or exit with a 45° turn (to the leftwhen in a left-hand traffic pattern; to the right when in

a right-hand traffic pattern) beyond the departure endof the runway after reaching pattern altitude.

The crosswind leg is the part of the rectangular patternthat is horizontally perpendicular to the extended cen-terline of the takeoff runway and is entered by makingapproximately a 90° turn from the upwind leg. On thecrosswind leg, the airplane proceeds to the downwindleg position.

Since in most cases the takeoff is made into the wind,the wind will now be approximately perpendicular tothe airplane’s flightpath. As a result, the airplane willhave to be turned or headed slightly into the windwhile on the crosswind leg to maintain a ground trackthat is perpendicular to the runway centerline exten-sion.

Additional information on airport operations can befound in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).

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NORMAL APPROACH AND LANDINGA normal approach and landing involves the use ofprocedures for what is considered a normal situation;that is, when engine power is available, the wind islight or the final approach is made directly into thewind, the final approach path has no obstacles, and thelanding surface is firm and of ample length togradually bring the airplane to a stop. The selectedlanding point should be beyond the runway’s approachthreshold but within the first one-third portion ofthe runway.

The factors involved and the procedures described forthe normal approach and landing also have applicationsto the other-than-normal approaches and landingswhich are discussed later in this chapter. This being thecase, the principles of normal operations are explainedfirst and must be understood before proceeding to themore complex operations. So that the pilot may betterunderstand the factors that will influence judgment andprocedures, that last part of the approach pattern andthe actual landing will be divided into five phases: thebase leg, the final approach, the roundout, thetouchdown, and the after-landing roll.

It must be remembered that the manufacturer’srecommended procedures, including airplaneconfiguration and airspeeds, and other informationrelevant to approaches and landings in a specific makeand model airplane are contained in the FAA-approvedAirplane Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s OperatingHandbook (AFM/POH) for that airplane. If any of theinformation in this chapter differs from the airplanemanufacturer’s recommendations as contained inthe AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’srecommendations take precedence.

BASE LEGThe placement of the base leg is one of the moreimportant judgments made by the pilot in any landingapproach. [Figure 8-1] The pilot must accurately judgethe altitude and distance from which a gradual descentwill result in landing at the desired spot. The distancewill depend on the altitude of the base leg, the effect ofwind, and the amount of wing flaps used. When there isa strong wind on final approach or the flaps will beused to produce a steep angle of descent, the base legmust be positioned closer to the approach end of therunway than would be required with a light wind or no

Figure 8-1. Base leg and final approach.

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flaps. Normally, the landing gear should be extendedand the before landing check completed priorto reaching the base leg.

After turning onto the base leg, the pilot should startthe descent with reduced power and airspeed ofapproximately 1.4 VSO. (VSO—the stalling speedwith power off, landing gears and flaps down.) Forexample, if VSO is 60 knots, the speed should be 1.4times 60, or 84 knots. Landing flaps may be partiallylowered, if desired, at this time. Full flaps are notrecommended until the final approach is established.Drift correction should be established andmaintained to follow a ground track perpendicularto the extension of the centerline of the runway onwhich the landing is to be made. Since the finalapproach and landing will normally be made intothe wind, there will be somewhat of a crosswindduring the base leg. This requires that the airplane beangled sufficiently into the wind to prevent driftingfarther away from the intended landing spot.

The base leg should be continued to the point where amedium to shallow-banked turn will align theairplane’s path directly with the centerline of thelanding runway. This descending turn should becompleted at a safe altitude that will be dependentupon the height of the terrain and any obstructionsalong the ground track. The turn to the final approachshould also be sufficiently above the airport elevationto permit a final approach long enough for the pilot toaccurately estimate the resultant point of touchdown,while maintaining the proper approach airspeed. Thiswill require careful planning as to the starting pointand the radius of the turn. Normally, it is recommendedthat the angle of bank not exceed a medium bankbecause the steeper the angle of bank, the higher theairspeed at which the airplane stalls. Since the base-to-final turn is made at a relatively low altitude, it isimportant that a stall not occur at this point. If anextremely steep bank is needed to preventovershooting the proper final approach path, it is

advisable to discontinue the approach, go around, andplan to start the turn earlier on the next approach ratherthan risk a hazardous situation.

FINAL APPROACHAfter the base-to-final approach turn is completed, thelongitudinal axis of the airplane should be aligned withthe centerline of the runway or landing surface, so thatdrift (if any) will be recognized immediately. On anormal approach, with no wind drift, the longitudinalaxis should be kept aligned with the runway centerlinethroughout the approach and landing. (The proper wayto correct for a crosswind will be explained under thesection, Crosswind Approach and Landing. For now,only an approach and landing where the wind isstraight down the runway will be discussed.)

After aligning the airplane with the runway centerline,the final flap setting should be completed and the pitchattitude adjusted as required for the desired rate ofdescent. Slight adjustments in pitch and power maybe necessary to maintain the descent attitude and thedesired approach airspeed. In the absence of themanufacturer’s recommended airspeed, a speedequal to 1.3 VSO should be used. If VSO is 60 knots,the speed should be 78 knots. When the pitchattitude and airspeed have been stabilized, theairplane should be retrimmed to relieve thepressures being held on the controls.

The descent angle should be controlled throughout theapproach so that the airplane will land in the centerof the first third of the runway. The descent angle isaffected by all four fundamental forces that act on anairplane (lift, drag, thrust, and weight). If all theforces are constant, the descent angle will be constantin a no-wind condition. The pilot can control theseforces by adjusting the airspeed, attitude, power, anddrag (flaps or forward slip). The wind also plays aprominent part in the gliding distance over theground [Figure 8-2]; naturally, the pilot does not havecontrol over the wind but may correct for its effecton the airplane’s descent by appropriate pitch andpower adjustments.

Increased Airspeed Flightpath

Normal Best Glide SpeedFlightpath

Figure 8-2. Effect of headwind on final approach.

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Considering the factors that affect the descent angle onthe final approach, for all practical purposes at a givenpitch attitude there is only one power setting for oneairspeed, one flap setting, and one wind condition.A change in any one of these variables will requirean appropriate coordinated change in the other con-trollable variables. For example, if the pitch attitudeis raised too high without an increase of power, theairplane will settle very rapidly and touch downshort of the desired spot. For this reason, the pilotshould never try to stretch a glide by applying back-elevator pressure alone to reach the desired landingspot. This will shorten the gliding distance if power isnot added simultaneously. The proper angle of descentand airspeed should be maintained by coordinatingpitch attitude changes and power changes.

The objective of a good final approach is to descend atan angle and airspeed that will permit the airplane toreach the desired touchdown point at an airspeedwhich will result in minimum floating just beforetouchdown; in essence, a semi-stalled condition. Toaccomplish this, it is essential that both the descentangle and the airspeed be accurately controlled. Sinceon a normal approach the power setting is not fixed asin a power-off approach, the power and pitch attitudeshould be adjusted simultaneously as necessary, tocontrol the airspeed, and the descent angle, or to attainthe desired altitudes along the approach path. By low-ering the nose and reducing power to keep approachairspeed constant, a descent at a higher rate can be

made to correct for being too high in the approach.This is one reason for performing approaches with par-tial power; if the approach is too high, merely lowerthe nose and reduce the power. When the approach istoo low, add power and raise the nose.

USE OF FLAPSThe lift/drag factors may also be varied by the pilot toadjust the descent through the use of landing flaps.[Figures 8-3 and 8-4] Flap extension during landingsprovides several advantages by:

• Producing greater lift and permitting lowerlanding speed.

• Producing greater drag, permitting a steepdescent angle without airspeed increase.

• Reducing the length of the landing roll.

Flap extension has a definite effect on the airplane’spitch behavior. The increased camber from flap deflec-tion produces lift primarily on the rear portion of thewing. This produces a nosedown pitching moment;however, the change in tail loads from the downwashdeflected by the flaps over the horizontal tail has asignificant influence on the pitching moment.Consequently, pitch behavior depends on the designfeatures of the particular airplane.

Flap deflection of up to 15° primarily produces lift withminimal drag. The airplane has a tendency to balloon

No FlapsHalf Flaps

Full Flaps

With: Constant Airspeed Constant Power

Flatter Descent Angle

Steeper Descent Angle

With: Constant Airspeed Constant Power

No Flaps Half Flaps Full Flaps

Figure 8-3. Effect of flaps on the landing point.

Figure 8-4. Effect of flaps on the approach angle.

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up with initial flap deflection because of the liftincrease. The nosedown pitching moment, however,tends to offset the balloon. Flap deflection beyond 15°produces a large increase in drag. Also, deflectionbeyond 15° produces a significant noseup pitchingmoment in high-wing airplanes because the resultingdownwash increases the airflow over the horizontal tail.

The time of flap extension and the degree of deflectionare related. Large flap deflections at one single point inthe landing pattern produce large lift changes thatrequire significant pitch and power changes in order tomaintain airspeed and descent angle. Consequently, thedeflection of flaps at certain positions in the landingpattern has definite advantages. Incremental deflectionof flaps on downwind, base leg, and final approachallow smaller adjustment of pitch and power comparedto extension of full flaps all at one time.

When the flaps are lowered, the airspeed will decreaseunless the power is increased or the pitch attitudelowered. On final approach, therefore, the pilot mustestimate where the airplane will land throughdiscerning judgment of the descent angle. If it appearsthat the airplane is going to overshoot the desiredlanding spot, more flaps may be used if not fullyextended or the power reduced further, and the pitchattitude lowered. This will result in a steeper approach.If the desired landing spot is being undershot and ashallower approach is needed, both power and pitchattitude should be increased to readjust the descentangle. Never retract the flaps to correct for undershoot-ing since that will suddenly decrease the lift and causethe airplane to sink even more rapidly.

The airplane must be retrimmed on the final approachto compensate for the change in aerodynamic forces.With the reduced power and with a slower airspeed,the airflow produces less lift on the wings and lessdownward force on the horizontal stabilizer, resultingin a significant nosedown tendency. The elevator mustthen be trimmed more noseup.

It will be found that the roundout, touchdown, andlanding roll are much easier to accomplish when theyare preceded by a proper final approach with precisecontrol of airspeed, attitude, power, and drag resultingin a stabilized descent angle.

ESTIMATING HEIGHT AND MOVEMENTDuring the approach, roundout, and touchdown, visionis of prime importance. To provide a wide scope ofvision and to foster good judgment of height andmovement, the pilot’s head should assume a natural,straight-ahead position. The pilot’s visual focus shouldnot be fixed on any one side or any one spot ahead ofthe airplane, but should be changing slowly from apoint just over the airplane’s nose to the desiredtouchdown zone and back again, while maintaining a

deliberate awareness of distance from either side ofthe runway within the pilot’s peripheral field of vision.

Accurate estimation of distance is, besides being amatter of practice, dependent upon how clearly objectsare seen; it requires that the vision be focused properlyin order that the important objects stand out as clearlyas possible.

Speed blurs objects at close range. For example,most everyone has noted this in an automobilemoving at high speed. Nearby objects seem to mergetogether in a blur, while objects farther away standout clearly. The driver subconsciously focuses theeyes sufficiently far ahead of the automobile to seeobjects distinctly.

The distance at which the pilot’s vision is focusedshould be proportionate to the speed at which theairplane is traveling over the ground. Thus, as speed isreduced during the roundout, the distance ahead of theairplane at which it is possible to focus should bebrought closer accordingly.

If the pilot attempts to focus on a reference that is tooclose or looks directly down, the reference willbecome blurred, [Figure 8-5] and the reaction will beeither too abrupt or too late. In this case, the pilot’stendency will be to overcontrol, round out high, andmake full-stall, drop-in landings. When the pilotfocuses too far ahead, accuracy in judging thecloseness of the ground is lost and the consequentreaction will be too slow since there will not appear tobe a necessity for action. This will result in theairplane flying into the ground nose first. The changeof visual focus from a long distance to a short distancerequires a definite time interval and even though thetime is brief, the airplane’s speed during this interval issuch that the airplane travels an appreciable distance,both forward and downward toward the ground.

Figure 8-5. Focusing too close blurs vision.

If the focus is changed gradually, being brought pro-gressively closer as speed is reduced, the time interval

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and the pilot’s reaction will be reduced, and the wholelanding process smoothed out.

ROUNDOUT (FLARE)The roundout is a slow, smooth transition from a nor-mal approach attitude to a landing attitude, graduallyrounding out the flightpath to one that is parallel with,and within a very few inches above, the runway. Whenthe airplane, in a normal descent, approaches withinwhat appears to be 10 to 20 feet above the ground, theroundout or flare should be started, and once startedshould be a continuous process until the airplanetouches down on the ground.

As the airplane reaches a height above the groundwhere a timely change can be made into the properlanding attitude, back-elevator pressure should begradually applied to slowly increase the pitch attitudeand angle of attack. [Figure 8-6] This will cause theairplane’s nose to gradually rise toward the desiredlanding attitude. The angle of attack should beincreased at a rate that will allow the airplane to con-tinue settling slowly as forward speed decreases.

When the angle of attack is increased, the lift is momen-tarily increased, which decreases the rate of descent.Since power normally is reduced to idle during theroundout, the airspeed will also gradually decrease.This will cause lift to decrease again, and it must becontrolled by raising the nose and further increasing theangle of attack. During the roundout, the airspeed isbeing decreased to touchdown speed while the lift is

being controlled so the airplane will settle gently ontothe landing surface. The roundout should be executedat a rate that the proper landing attitude and the propertouchdown airspeed are attained simultaneously just asthe wheels contact the landing surface.

The rate at which the roundout is executed depends onthe airplane’s height above the ground, the rate ofdescent, and the pitch attitude. A roundout startedexcessively high must be executed more slowly thanone from a lower height to allow the airplane todescend to the ground while the proper landing attitudeis being established. The rate of rounding out must alsobe proportionate to the rate of closure with the ground.When the airplane appears to be descending veryslowly, the increase in pitch attitude must be made at acorrespondingly slow rate.

Visual cues are important in flaring at the proper alti-tude and maintaining the wheels a few inches abovethe runway until eventual touchdown. Flare cues areprimarily dependent on the angle at which the pilot’scentral vision intersects the ground (or runway) aheadand slightly to the side. Proper depth perception is afactor in a successful flare, but the visual cues usedmost are those related to changes in runway or terrainperspective and to changes in the size of familiarobjects near the landing area such as fences, bushes,trees, hangars, and even sod or runway texture. Thepilot should direct central vision at a shallow down-ward angle of from 10° to 15° toward the runway asthe roundout/flare is initiated. [Figure 8-7]Maintaining the same viewing angle causes the point

IncreaseAngle ofAttack

IncreaseAngle ofAttack

IncreaseAngle ofAttack

78 Knots

70 Knots

65 Knots60 Knots

10° to 15°

Figure 8-7.To obtain necessary visual cues, the pilot should look toward the runway at a shallow angle.

Figure 8-6. Changing angle of attack during roundout.

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of visual interception with the runway to moveprogressively rearward toward the pilot as the airplaneloses altitude. This is an important visual cue inassessing the rate of altitude loss. Conversely, forwardmovement of the visual interception point will indicatean increase in altitude, and would mean that the pitchangle was increased too rapidly, resulting in an overflare. Location of the visual interception point inconjunction with assessment of flow velocity of nearbyoff-runway terrain, as well as the similarity ofappearance of height above the runway ahead of theairplane (in comparison to the way it looked when theairplane was taxied prior to takeoff) is also used tojudge when the wheels are just a few inches abovethe runway.

The pitch attitude of the airplane in a full-flap approachis considerably lower than in a no-flap approach. Toattain the proper landing attitude before touchingdown, the nose must travel through a greater pitchchange when flaps are fully extended. Since the round-out is usually started at approximately the same heightabove the ground regardless of the degree of flapsused, the pitch attitude must be increased at a fasterrate when full flaps are used; however, the roundoutshould still be executed at a rate proportionate to theairplane’s downward motion.

Once the actual process of rounding out is started, theelevator control should not be pushed forward. If toomuch back-elevator pressure has been exerted, thispressure should be either slightly relaxed or heldconstant, depending on the degree of the error. In somecases, it may be necessary to advance the throttleslightly to prevent an excessive rate of sink, or a stall, allof which would result in a hard, drop-in type landing.

It is recommended that the student pilot form the habitof keeping one hand on the throttle throughout theapproach and landing, should a sudden and unexpectedhazardous situation require an immediate applicationof power.

TOUCHDOWNThe touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplaneonto the landing surface. The roundout and touchdownshould be made with the engine idling, and the airplaneat minimum controllable airspeed, so that the airplanewill touch down on the main gear at approximatelystalling speed. As the airplane settles, the properlanding attitude is attained by application of whateverback-elevator pressure is necessary.

Some pilots may try to force or fly the airplane ontothe ground without establishing the proper landingattitude. The airplane should never be flown onthe runway with excessive speed. It is paradoxical thatthe way to make an ideal landing is to try to hold theairplane’s wheels a few inches off the ground aslong as possible with the elevators. In most cases,when the wheels are within 2 or 3 feet off theground, the airplane will still be settling too fast fora gentle touchdown; therefore, this descent must beretarded by further back-elevator pressure. Sincethe airplane is already close to its stalling speed andis settling, this added back-elevator pressure willonly slow up the settling instead of stopping it. Atthe same time, it will result in the airplane touchingthe ground in the proper landing attitude, and themain wheels touching down first so that little or noweight is on the nosewheel. [Figure 8-8]

After the main wheels make initial contact with theground, back-elevator pressure should be held tomaintain a positive angle of attack for aerodynamicbraking, and to hold the nosewheel off the ground untilthe airplane decelerates. As the airplane’s momentumdecreases, back-elevator pressure may be graduallyrelaxed to allow the nosewheel to gently settle onto therunway. This will permit steering with the nosewheel.At the same time, it will cause a low angle of attackand negative lift on the wings to prevent floating orskipping, and will allow the full weight of the airplaneto rest on the wheels for better braking action.

Near-Zero Rate of Descent

15 Feet

1 Foot2 to 3 Feet

Figure 8-8. A well executed roundout results in attaining the proper landing attitude.

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It is extremely important that the touchdown occurwith the airplane’s longitudinal axis exactly parallel tothe direction in which the airplane is moving along therunway. Failure to accomplish this imposes severe sideloads on the landing gear. To avoid these side stresses,the pilot should not allow the airplane to touch downwhile turned into the wind or drifting.

AFTER-LANDING ROLLThe landing process must never be considered com-plete until the airplane decelerates to the normal taxispeed during the landing roll or has been brought to acomplete stop when clear of the landing area. Manyaccidents have occurred as a result of pilots abandon-ing their vigilance and positive control after getting theairplane on the ground.

The pilot must be alert for directional control difficul-ties immediately upon and after touchdown due to theground friction on the wheels. The friction creates a pivotpoint on which a moment arm can act. Loss of directionalcontrol may lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tightturn on the ground, or a ground loop. The combinationof centrifugal force acting on the center of gravity (CG)and ground friction of the main wheels resisting it duringthe ground loop may cause the airplane to tip or leanenough for the outside wingtip to contact the ground.This may even impose a sideward force, which couldcollapse the landing gear.

The rudder serves the same purpose on the ground as itdoes in the air—it controls the yawing of the airplane.The effectiveness of the rudder is dependent on the air-flow, which depends on the speed of the airplane. Asthe speed decreases and the nosewheel has been low-ered to the ground, the steerable nose provides morepositive directional control.

The brakes of an airplane serve the same primarypurpose as the brakes of an automobile—to reducespeed on the ground. In airplanes, they may also beused as an aid in directional control when more pos-itive control is required than could be obtained withrudder or nosewheel steering alone.

To use brakes, on an airplane equipped with toe brakes,the pilot should slide the toes or feet up from the rud-der pedals to the brake pedals. If rudder pressure isbeing held at the time braking action is needed, thatpressure should not be released as the feet or toes arebeing slid up to the brake pedals, because control maybe lost before brakes can be applied.

Putting maximum weight on the wheels after touch-down is an important factor in obtaining optimumbraking performance. During the early part of rollout,some lift may continue to be generated by the wing.After touchdown, the nosewheel should be lowered to

the runway to maintain directional control. Duringdeceleration, the nose may be pitched down by brakingand the weight transferred to the nosewheel from themain wheels. This does not aid in braking action, soback pressure should be applied to the controls withoutlifting the nosewheel off the runway. This will enablethe pilot to maintain directional control while keepingweight on the main wheels.

Careful application of the brakes can be initiated afterthe nosewheel is on the ground and directional controlis established. Maximum brake effectiveness is justshort of the point where skidding occurs. If the brakesare applied so hard that skidding takes place, brakingbecomes ineffective. Skidding can be stopped by releas-ing the brake pressure. Also, braking effectiveness is notenhanced by alternately applying and reapplying brakepressure. The brakes should be applied firmly andsmoothly as necessary.

During the ground roll, the airplane’s direction ofmovement can be changed by carefully applying pres-sure on one brake or uneven pressures on each brake inthe desired direction. Caution must be exercised whenapplying brakes to avoid overcontrolling.

The ailerons serve the same purpose on the ground asthey do in the air—they change the lift and drag com-ponents of the wings. During the after-landing roll,they should be used to keep the wings level in muchthe same way they were used in flight. If a wing startsto rise, aileron control should be applied toward thatwing to lower it. The amount required will depend onspeed because as the forward speed of the airplanedecreases, the ailerons will become less effective.Procedures for using ailerons in crosswind conditionsare explained further in this chapter, in the CrosswindApproach and Landing section.

After the airplane is on the ground, back-elevator pres-sure may be gradually relaxed to place normal weight onthe nosewheel to aid in better steering. If availablerunway permits, the speed of the airplane should beallowed to dissipate in a normal manner. Once theairplane has slowed sufficiently and has turned on tothe taxiway and stopped, the pilot should retract theflaps and clean up the airplane. Many accidents haveoccurred as a result of the pilot unintentionally operatingthe landing gear control and retracting the gear insteadof the flap control when the airplane was stillrolling. The habit of positively identifying both of thesecontrols, before actuating them, should be formed fromthe very beginning of flight training and continued in allfuture flying activities.

STABILIZED APPROACH CONCEPTA stabilized approach is one in which the pilot estab-lishes and maintains a constant angle glidepath

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towards a predetermined point on the landing runway.It is based on the pilot’s judgment of certain visualclues, and depends on the maintenance of a constantfinal descent airspeed and configuration.

An airplane descending on final approach at a constantrate and airspeed will be traveling in a straight linetoward a spot on the ground ahead. This spot will notbe the spot on which the airplane will touch down,because some float will inevitably occur during theroundout (flare). [Figure 8-9] Neither will it be the spottoward which the airplane’s nose is pointed, becausethe airplane is flying at a fairly high angle of attack,and the component of lift exerted parallel to the Earth’ssurface by the wings tends to carry the airplane for-ward horizontally.

The point toward which the airplane is progressing istermed the “aiming point.” [Figure 8-9] It is the pointon the ground at which, if the airplane maintains aconstant glidepath, and was not flared for landing, itwould strike the ground. To a pilot moving straightahead toward an object, it appears to be stationary. Itdoes not “move.” This is how the aiming point can bedistinguished—it does not move. However, objects infront of and beyond the aiming point do appear to moveas the distance is closed, and they appear to move inopposite directions. During instruction in landings, oneof the most important skills a student pilot must acquireis how to use visual cues to accurately determine thetrue aiming point from any distance out on finalapproach. From this, the pilot will not only be able todetermine if the glidepath will result in an undershootor overshoot, but, taking into account float duringroundout, the pilot will be able to predict the touch-down point to within a very few feet.

For a constant angle glidepath, the distance betweenthe horizon and the aiming point will remain constant.If a final approach descent has been established but thedistance between the perceived aiming point and the

horizon appears to increase (aiming point movingdown away from the horizon), then the true aimingpoint, and subsequent touchdown point, is fartherdown the runway. If the distance between the per-ceived aiming point and the horizon decreases (aimingpoint moving up toward the horizon), the true aimingpoint is closer than perceived.

When the airplane is established on final approach, theshape of the runway image also presents clues as towhat must be done to maintain a stabilized approachto a safe landing.

A runway, obviously, is normally shaped in the formof an elongated rectangle. When viewed from theair during the approach, the phenomenon known as

perspective causes the runway to assume the shape ofa trapezoid with the far end looking narrower than theapproach end, and the edge lines converging ahead.If the airplane continues down the glidepath at aconstant angle (stabilized), the image the pilot seeswill still be trapezoidal but of proportionately largerdimensions. In other words, during a stabilizedapproach the runway shape does not change. [Figure8-10]

If the approach becomes shallower, however, therunway will appear to shorten and become wider.Conversely, if the approach is steepened, the run-way will appear to become longer and narrower.[Figure 8-11]

The objective of a stabilized approach is to select anappropriate touchdown point on the runway, andadjust the glidepath so that the true aiming point andthe desired touchdown point basically coincide.Immediately after rolling out on final approach, thepilot should adjust the pitch attitude and power so thatthe airplane is descending directly toward the aimingpoint at the appropriate airspeed. The airplane should

Distance Traveled in Flare

Touchdown

Aiming Point (Descent Angle Intersects Ground)

Figure 8-9. Stabilized approach.

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be in the landing configuration, and trimmed for“hands off” flight. With the approach set up in thismanner, the pilot will be free to devote full attentiontoward outside references. The pilot should not stare atany one place, but rather scan from one point toanother, such as from the aiming point to the horizon,to the trees and bushes along the runway, to an areawell short of the runway, and back to the aiming point.In this way, the pilot will be more apt to perceive adeviation from the desired glidepath, and whether ornot the airplane is proceeding directly toward theaiming point.

If the pilot perceives any indication that the aimingpoint on the runway is not where desired, an adjustmentmust be made to the glidepath. This in turn will movethe aiming point. For instance, if the pilot perceives thatthe aiming point is short of the desired touchdownpoint and will result in an undershoot, an increase inpitch attitude and engine power is warranted. A constantairspeed must be maintained. The pitch and powerchange, therefore, must be made smoothly andsimultaneously. This will result in a shallowing ofthe glidepath with the resultant aiming point movingtowards the desired touchdown point. Conversely,if the pilot perceives that the aiming point is fartherdown the runway than the desired touchdown pointand will result in an overshoot, the glidepath should besteepened by a simultaneous decrease in pitch attitudeand power. Once again, the airspeed must be held con-stant. It is essential that deviations from the desiredglidepath be detected early, so that only slight andinfrequent adjustments to glidepath are required.

3°Approach Angle4000' x 100' Runway1600' From Threshold

105' Altitude

Same Runway, Same Approach Angle800' From Threshold

52' Altitude

Same Runway, Same Approach Angle400' From Threshold

26' Altitude

Figure 8-10. Runway shape during stabilized approach.

Too High

Proper Descent Angle

Too Low

Figure 8-11. Change in runway shape if approach becomesnarrow or steep.

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The closer the airplane gets to the runway, the larger(and possibly more frequent) the required correctionsbecome, resulting in an unstabilized approach.

Common errors in the performance of normalapproaches and landings are:

• Inadequate wind drift correction on the base leg.

• Overshooting or undershooting the turn ontofinal approach resulting in too steep or too shal-low a turn onto final approach.

• Flat or skidding turns from base leg to finalapproach as a result of overshooting/inadequatewind drift correction.

• Poor coordination during turn from base to finalapproach.

• Failure to complete the landing checklist in atimely manner.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Failure to adequately compensate for flap exten-sion.

• Poor trim technique on final approach.

• Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the run-way using elevator alone.

• Focusing too close to the airplane resulting in atoo high roundout.

• Focusing too far from the airplane resulting in atoo low roundout.

• Touching down prior to attaining proper landingattitude.

• Failure to hold sufficient back-elevator pressureafter touchdown.

• Excessive braking after touchdown.

INTENTIONAL SLIPSA slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is toosteep for the existing rate of turn. Unintentional slipsare most often the result of uncoordinatedrudder/aileron application. Intentional slips, however,are used to dissipate altitude without increasing air-speed, and/or to adjust airplane ground track during acrosswind. Intentional slips are especially useful inforced landings, and in situations where obstacles mustbe cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slipcan also be used as an emergency means of rapidly

reducing airspeed in situations where wing flaps areinoperative or not installed.

A slip is a combination of forward movement andsideward (with respect to the longitudinal axis of theairplane) movement, the lateral axis being inclinedand the sideward movement being toward the lowend of this axis (low wing). An airplane in a slip is infact flying sideways. This results in a change in thedirection the relative wind strikes the airplane. Slipsare characterized by a marked increase in drag andcorresponding decrease in airplane climb, cruise, andglide performance. It is the increase in drag, how-ever, that makes it possible for an airplane in a slip todescend rapidly without an increase in airspeed.

Most airplanes exhibit the characteristic of positivestatic directional stability and, therefore, have a natu-ral tendency to compensate for slipping. An intentionalslip, therefore, requires deliberate cross-controllingailerons and rudder throughout the maneuver.

A “sideslip” is entered by lowering a wing and applyingjust enough opposite rudder to prevent a turn. In asideslip, the airplane’s longitudinal axis remains par-allel to the original flightpath, but the airplane nolonger flies straight ahead. Instead the horizontalcomponent of wing lift forces the airplane also tomove somewhat sideways toward the low wing.[Figure 8-12] The amount of slip, and therefore therate of sideward movement, is determined by the bankangle. The steeper the bank—the greater the degree ofslip. As bank angle is increased, however, additionalopposite rudder is required to prevent turning.

A “forward slip” is one in which the airplane’sdirection of motion continues the same as before theslip was begun. Assuming the airplane is originallyin straight flight, the wing on the side toward which

Direction of M

ovement

Relative W

ind

Sideslip

Figure 8-12. Sideslip.

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the slip is to be made should be lowered by use of theailerons. Simultaneously, the airplane’s nose must beyawed in the opposite direction by applying oppositerudder so that the airplane’s longitudinal axis is at anangle to its original flightpath. [Figure 8-13] Thedegree to which the nose is yawed in the oppositedirection from the bank should be such that theoriginal ground track is maintained. In a forward slip,the amount of slip, and therefore the sink rate, isdetermined by the bank angle. The steeper the bank—the steeper the descent.

In most light airplanes, the steepness of a slip islimited by the amount of rudder travel available. Inboth sideslips and forward slips, the point may bereached where full rudder is required to maintainheading even though the ailerons are capable of furthersteepening the bank angle. This is the practical sliplimit, because any additional bank would cause theairplane to turn even though full opposite rudder isbeing applied. If there is a need to descend morerapidly even though the practical slip limit has beenreached, lowering the nose will not only increase thesink rate but will also increase airspeed. The increasein airspeed increases rudder effectiveness permittinga steeper slip. Conversely, when the nose is raised,rudder effectiveness decreases and the bank angle mustbe reduced.

Discontinuing a slip is accomplished by leveling thewings and simultaneously releasing the rudderpressure while readjusting the pitch attitude to thenormal glide attitude. If the pressure on the rudder isreleased abruptly, the nose will swing too quickly intoline and the airplane will tend to acquire excess speed.

Because of the location of the pitot tube and staticvents, airspeed indicators in some airplanes may haveconsiderable error when the airplane is in a slip. Thepilot must be aware of this possibility and recognize a

properly performed slip by the attitude of the airplane,the sound of the airflow, and the feel of the flightcontrols. Unlike skids, however, if an airplane in a slipis made to stall, it displays very little of the yawingtendency that causes a skidding stall to develop into aspin. The airplane in a slip may do little more than tendto roll into a wings level attitude. In fact, in someairplanes stall characteristics may even be improved.

GO-AROUNDS (REJECTED LANDINGS)Whenever landing conditions are not satisfactory, ago-around is warranted. There are many factors thatcan contribute to unsatisfactory landing conditions.Situations such as air traffic control requirements,unexpected appearance of hazards on the runway,overtaking another airplane, wind shear,wake turbulence, mechanical failure and/or anunstabilized approach are all examples of reasons todiscontinue a landing approach and make anotherapproach under more favorable conditions. Theassumption that an aborted landing is invariably theconsequence of a poor approach, which in turn is dueto insufficient experience or skill, is a fallacy. Thego-around is not strictly an emergency procedure. Itis a normal maneuver that may at times be used in anemergency situation. Like any other normal maneuver,the go-around must be practiced and perfected. The flightinstructor should emphasize early on, and the studentpilot should be made to understand, that the go-aroundmaneuver is an alternative to any approachand/or landing.

Although the need to discontinue a landing may ariseat any point in the landing process, the most criticalgo-around will be one started when very close to theground. Therefore, the earlier a condition that warrants ago-around is recognized, the safer the go-around/rejectedlanding will be. The go-around maneuver is notinherently dangerous in itself. It becomes dangerousonly when delayed unduly or executed improperly.Delay in initiating the go-around normally stems fromtwo sources: (1) landing expectancy, or set—theanticipatory belief that conditions are not asthreatening as they are and that the approach willsurely be terminated with a safe landing, and (2)pride—the mistaken belief that the act of going aroundis an admission of failure—failure to execute theapproach properly. The improper execution of the go-around maneuver stems from a lack of familiarity withthe three cardinal principles of the procedure: power,attitude, and configuration.

POWERPower is the pilot’s first concern. The instant thepilot decides to go around, full or maximum allow-able takeoff power must be applied smoothly andwithout hesitation, and held until flying speed andcontrollability are restored. Applying only partialpower in a go-around is never appropriate. The pilot

Dire

ctio

n of

Mov

emen

t

Rel

ativ

e W

ind

Forward Slip

Figure 8-13. Forward slip.

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must be aware of the degree of inertia that must beovercome, before an airplane that is settling towardsthe ground can regain sufficient airspeed to becomefully controllable and capable of turning safely orclimbing. The application of power should be smoothas well as positive. Abrupt movements of the throttlein some airplanes will cause the engine to falter.Carburetor heat should be turned off for maximumpower.

ATTITUDEAttitude is always critical when close to the ground,and when power is added, a deliberate effort on the partof the pilot will be required to keep the nose frompitching up prematurely. The airplane executing a go-around must be maintained in an attitude that permits abuildup of airspeed well beyond the stall point beforeany effort is made to gain altitude, or to execute a turn.Raising the nose too early may produce a stall fromwhich the airplane could not be recovered if thego-around is performed at a low altitude.

A concern for quickly regaining altitude during a go-around produces a natural tendency to pull the nose up.The pilot executing a go-around must accept the factthat an airplane will not climb until it can fly, and itwill not fly below stall speed. In some circumstances,it may be desirable to lower the nose briefly to gainairspeed. As soon as the appropriate climb airspeed andpitch attitude are attained, the pilot should “roughtrim” the airplane to relieve any adverse control pres-sures. Later, more precise trim adjustments can bemade when flight conditions have stabilized.

CONFIGURATIONIn cleaning up the airplane during the go-around, thepilot should be concerned first with flaps and secondlywith the landing gear (if retractable). When the deci-sion is made to perform a go-around, takeoff powershould be applied immediately and the pitch attitudechanged so as to slow or stop the descent. After thedescent has been stopped, the landing flaps may be

partially retracted or placed in the takeoff position asrecommended by the manufacturer. Caution must beused, however, in retracting the flaps. Depending onthe airplane’s altitude and airspeed, it may be wise toretract the flaps intermittently in small increments toallow time for the airplane to accelerate progressivelyas they are being raised. A sudden and complete retrac-tion of the flaps could cause a loss of lift resulting inthe airplane settling into the ground. [Figure 8-14]

Unless otherwise specified in the AFM/POH, it is gen-erally recommended that the flaps be retracted (at leastpartially) before retracting the landing gear—for tworeasons. First, on most airplanes full flaps producemore drag than the landing gear; and second, in casethe airplane should inadvertently touch down as thego-around is initiated, it is most desirable to have thelanding gear in the down-and-locked position. After apositive rate of climb is established, the landing gearcan be retracted.

When takeoff power is applied, it will usually be nec-essary to hold considerable pressure on the controls tomaintain straight flight and a safe climb attitude. Sincethe airplane has been trimmed for the approach (a lowpower and low airspeed condition), application ofmaximum allowable power will require considerablecontrol pressure to maintain a climb pitch attitude. Theaddition of power will tend to raise the airplane’s nosesuddenly and veer to the left. Forward elevator pressuremust be anticipated and applied to hold the nose in asafe climb attitude. Right rudder pressure must beincreased to counteract torque and P-factor, and to keepthe nose straight. The airplane must be held in the properflight attitude regardless of the amount of controlpressure that is required. Trim should be used torelieve adverse control pressures and assist the pilot inmaintaining a proper pitch attitude. On airplanes thatproduce high control pressures when using maximumpower on go-arounds, pilots should use caution whenreaching for the flap handle. Airplane control maybecome critical during this high workload phase.

Retract RemainingFlapsPositive Rate

of Climb, RetractGear, Climb

at VY

500'Cruise Climb

Timely Decision toMake Go-Around Apply Max Power

Adjust Pitch AttitudeAllow Airspeed to Increase

Assume Climb AtttudeFlaps to

Intermediate

Figure 8-14. Go-around procedure.

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The landing gear should be retracted only after the ini-tial or rough trim has been accomplished and when it iscertain the airplane will remain airborne. During theinitial part of an extremely low go-around, the airplanemay settle onto the runway and bounce. This situationis not particularly dangerous if the airplane is keptstraight and a constant, safe pitch attitude is main-tained. The airplane will be approaching safe flyingspeed rapidly and the advanced power will cushion anysecondary touchdown.

If the pitch attitude is increased excessively in an effortto keep the airplane from contacting the runway, it maycause the airplane to stall. This would be especiallylikely if no trim correction is made and the flapsremain fully extended. The pilot should not attempt toretract the landing gear until after a rough trim isaccomplished and a positive rate of climb is estab-lished.

GROUND EFFECTGround effect is a factor in every landing and everytakeoff in fixed-wing airplanes. Ground effect can alsobe an important factor in go-arounds. If the go-aroundis made close to the ground, the airplane may be in theground effect area. Pilots are often lulled into a senseof false security by the apparent “cushion of air” underthe wings that initially assists in the transition from anapproach descent to a climb. This “cushion of air,”however, is imaginary. The apparent increase in air-plane performance is, in fact, due to a reduction ininduced drag in the ground effect area. It is “borrowed”performance that must be repaid when the airplaneclimbs out of the ground effect area. The pilot mustfactor in ground effect when initiating a go-aroundclose to the ground. An attempt to climb prematurelymay result in the airplane not being able to climb, oreven maintain altitude at full power.

Common errors in the performance of go-arounds(rejected landings) are:

• Failure to recognize a condition that warrants arejected landing.

• Indecision.

• Delay in initiating a go-round.

• Failure to apply maximum allowable power in atimely manner.

• Abrupt power application.

• Improper pitch attitude.

• Failure to configure the airplane appropriately.

• Attempting to climb out of ground effect prema-turely.

• Failure to adequately compensate for torque/P-factor.

CROSSWIND APPROACH AND LANDINGMany runways or landing areas are such that landingsmust be made while the wind is blowing across ratherthan parallel to the landing direction. All pilots shouldbe prepared to cope with these situations when theyarise. The same basic principles and factors involvedin a normal approach and landing apply to a crosswindapproach and landing; therefore, only the additionalprocedures required for correcting for wind drift arediscussed here.

Crosswind landings are a little more difficult to per-form than crosswind takeoffs, mainly due to differentproblems involved in maintaining accurate control ofthe airplane while its speed is decreasing rather thanincreasing as on takeoff.

There are two usual methods of accomplishing a cross-wind approach and landing—the crab method and thewing-low (sideslip) method. Although the crab methodmay be easier for the pilot to maintain during finalapproach, it requires a high degree of judgment andtiming in removing the crab immediately prior totouchdown. The wing-low method is recommended inmost cases, although a combination of both methodsmay be used.

CROSSWIND FINAL APPROACHThe crab method is executed by establishing a heading(crab) toward the wind with the wings level so that theairplane’s ground track remains aligned with the cen-terline of the runway. [Figure 8-15] This crab angle ismaintained until just prior to touchdown, when thelongitudinal axis of the airplane must be aligned withthe runway to avoid sideward contact of the wheelswith the runway. If a long final approach is beingflown, the pilot may use the crab method until justbefore the roundout is started and then smoothlychange to the wing-low method for the remainder ofthe landing.

Figure 8-15. Crabbed approach.

The wing-low (sideslip) method will compensate for acrosswind from any angle, but more important, it

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enables the pilot to simultaneously keep the airplane’sground track and longitudinal axis aligned with therunway centerline throughout the final approach,roundout, touchdown, and after-landing roll. Thisprevents the airplane from touching down in a side-ward motion and imposing damaging side loads onthe landing gear.

To use the wing-low method, the pilot aligns the air-plane’s heading with the centerline of the runway,notes the rate and direction of drift, and then promptlyapplies drift correction by lowering the upwind wing.[Figure 8-16] The amount the wing must be lowereddepends on the rate of drift. When the wing is lowered,

the airplane will tend to turn in that direction. It is thennecessary to simultaneously apply sufficient oppositerudder pressure to prevent the turn and keep the air-plane’s longitudinal axis aligned with the runway. Inother words, the drift is controlled with aileron, andthe heading with rudder. The airplane will now besideslipping into the wind just enough that both theresultant flightpath and the ground track are alignedwith the runway. If the crosswind diminishes, thiscrosswind correction is reduced accordingly, or theairplane will begin slipping away from the desiredapproach path. [Figure 8-17]

To correct for strong crosswind, the slip into the windis increased by lowering the upwind wing a consider-able amount. As a consequence, this will result in agreater tendency of the airplane to turn. Since turningis not desired, considerable opposite rudder must beapplied to keep the airplane’s longitudinal axis alignedwith the runway. In some airplanes, there may not besufficient rudder travel available to compensate for thestrong turning tendency caused by the steep bank. Ifthe required bank is such that full opposite rudder willnot prevent a turn, the wind is too strong to safely landthe airplane on that particular runway with those windconditions. Since the airplane’s capability will beexceeded, it is imperative that the landing be made on

Figure 8-16. Sideslip approach.

Figure 8-17. Crosswind approach and landing.

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a more favorable runway either at that airport or at analternate airport.

Flaps can and should be used during most approachessince they tend to have a stabilizing effect on the air-plane. The degree to which flaps should be extendedwill vary with the airplane’s handling characteristics,as well as the wind velocity.

CROSSWIND ROUNDOUT (FLARE)Generally, the roundout can be made like a normallanding approach, but the application of a crosswindcorrection is continued as necessary to preventdrifting.

Since the airspeed decreases as the roundout pro-gresses, the flight controls gradually become lesseffective. As a result, the crosswind correction beingheld will become inadequate. When using the wing-low method, it is necessary to gradually increase thedeflection of the rudder and ailerons to maintain theproper amount of drift correction.

Do not level the wings; keep the upwind wing downthroughout the roundout. If the wings are leveled, theairplane will begin drifting and the touchdown willoccur while drifting. Remember, the primary objectiveis to land the airplane without subjecting it to any sideloads that result from touching down while drifting.

CROSSWIND TOUCHDOWNIf the crab method of drift correction has been usedthroughout the final approach and roundout, the crabmust be removed the instant before touchdown byapplying rudder to align the airplane’s longitudinalaxis with its direction of movement. This requirestimely and accurate action. Failure to accomplish thiswill result in severe side loads being imposed on thelanding gear.

If the wing-low method is used, the crosswind correc-tion (aileron into the wind and opposite rudder)should be maintained throughout the roundout, andthe touchdown made on the upwind main wheel.

During gusty or high wind conditions, prompt adjust-ments must be made in the crosswind correction toassure that the airplane does not drift as the airplanetouches down.

As the forward momentum decreases after initialcontact, the weight of the airplane will cause thedownwind main wheel to gradually settle onto therunway.

In those airplanes having nosewheel steering intercon-nected with the rudder, the nosewheel may not bealigned with the runway as the wheels touch down

because opposite rudder is being held in the crosswindcorrection. To prevent swerving in the direction thenosewheel is offset, the corrective rudder pressuremust be promptly relaxed just as the nosewheeltouches down.

CROSSWIND AFTER-LANDING ROLLParticularly during the after-landing roll, specialattention must be given to maintaining directionalcontrol by the use of rudder or nosewheel steering,while keeping the upwind wing from rising by the useof aileron.

When an airplane is airborne, it moves with the airmass in which it is flying regardless of the airplane’sheading and speed. When an airplane is on the ground,it is unable to move with the air mass (crosswind)because of the resistance created by ground friction onthe wheels.

Characteristically, an airplane has a greater profile orside area, behind the main landing gear than forwardof it does. With the main wheels acting as a pivot pointand the greater surface area exposed to the crosswindbehind that pivot point, the airplane will tend to turn orweathervane into the wind.

Wind acting on an airplane during crosswind landingsis the result of two factors. One is the natural wind,which acts in the direction the air mass is traveling, whilethe other is induced by the movement of the airplane andacts parallel to the direction of movement. Consequently,a crosswind has a headwind component acting alongthe airplane’s ground track and a crosswind componentacting 90° to its track. The resultant or relative wind issomewhere between the two components. As theairplane’s forward speed decreases during the after-landing roll, the headwind component decreases and therelative wind has more of a crosswind component. Thegreater the crosswind component, the more difficult it isto prevent weathervaning.

Retaining control on the ground is a critical part of theafter-landing roll, because of the weathervaning effectof the wind on the airplane. Additionally, tire side loadfrom runway contact while drifting frequently gener-ates roll-overs in tricycle geared airplanes. The basicfactors involved are cornering angle and side load.

Cornering angle is the angular difference between theheading of a tire and its path. Whenever a load bearingtire’s path and heading diverge, a side load is created.It is accompanied by tire distortion. Although side loaddiffers in varying tires and air pressures, it is completelyindependent of speed, and through a considerablerange, is directional proportional to the cornering angleand the weight supported by the tire. As little as 10° ofcornering angle will create a side load equal to half the

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-15

supported weight; after 20° the side load does notincrease with increasing cornering angle. For eachhigh-wing, tricycle geared airplane, there is a corner-ing angle at which roll-over is inevitable. The roll-overaxis being the line linking the nose and main wheels.At lesser angles, the roll-over may be avoided by useof ailerons, rudder, or steerable nosewheel but notbrakes.

While the airplane is decelerating during the after-landing roll, more and more aileron is applied to keepthe upwind wing from rising. Since the airplane isslowing down, there is less airflow around the aileronsand they become less effective. At the same time, therelative wind is becoming more of a crosswind andexerting a greater lifting force on the upwind wing.When the airplane is coming to a stop, the aileron con-trol must be held fully toward the wind.

MAXIMUM SAFE CROSSWIND VELOCITIESTakeoffs and landings in certain crosswind conditionsare inadvisable or even dangerous. [Figure 8-18] If thecrosswind is great enough to warrant an extreme driftcorrection, a hazardous landing condition may result.Therefore, the takeoff and landing capabilities withrespect to the reported surface wind conditions and theavailable landing directions must be considered.

Figure 8-18. Crosswind chart.

Before an airplane is type certificated by the FederalAviation Administration (FAA), it must be flight testedto meet certain requirements. Among these is thedemonstration of being satisfactorily controllable withno exceptional degree of skill or alertness on the partof the pilot in 90° crosswinds up to a velocity equal to0.2 VSO. This means a windspeed of two-tenths of theairplane’s stalling speed with power off and landinggear/flaps down. Regulations require that the demon-strated crosswind velocity be included on a placard inairplanes certificated after May 3, 1962.

The headwind component and the crosswind componentfor a given situation can be determined by referenceto a crosswind component chart. [Figure 8-19] It isimperative that pilots determine the maximumcrosswind component of each airplane they fly, andavoid operations in wind conditions that exceed thecapability of the airplane.

Figure 8-19. Crosswind component chart.

Common errors in the performance of crosswindapproaches and landings are:

• Attempting to land in crosswinds that exceed theairplane’s maximum demonstrated crosswindcomponent.

• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on theturn from base leg to final approach, resulting inundershooting or overshooting.

• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on finalapproach.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Failure to compensate for increased drag duringsideslip resulting in excessive sink rate and/ortoo low an airspeed.

• Touchdown while drifting.

60

50

40

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20

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0

Win

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MP

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20 40 60 80 100Wind Angle – Degrees

DirectCrosswind

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50

40

30

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0

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10 20 30 40 50 60Crosswind Component

10°0°20°

30°40°

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WINDVELO

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Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-16

• Excessive airspeed on touchdown.

• Failure to apply appropriate flight control inputsduring rollout.

• Failure to maintain direction control on rollout.

• Excessive braking.

TURBULENT AIR APPROACH AND LANDINGPower-on approaches at an airspeed slightly above thenormal approach speed should be used for landing inturbulent air. This provides for more positive controlof the airplane when strong horizontal wind gusts, orup and down drafts, are experienced. Like otherpower-on approaches (when the pilot can vary theamount of power), a coordinated combination of bothpitch and power adjustments is usually required. As inmost other landing approaches, the proper approachattitude and airspeed require a minimum roundout andshould result in little or no floating during the landing.

To maintain good control, the approach in turbulent airwith gusty crosswind may require the use of partialwing flaps. With less than full flaps, the airplane willbe in a higher pitch attitude. Thus, it will require lessof a pitch change to establish the landing attitude, andthe touchdown will be at a higher airspeed to ensuremore positive control. The speed should not be soexcessive that the airplane will float past the desiredlanding area.

One procedure is to use the normal approach speedplus one-half of the wind gust factors. If the normalspeed is 70 knots, and the wind gusts increase 15 knots,airspeed of 77 knots is appropriate. In any case, the air-speed and the amount of flaps should be as the airplanemanufacturer recommends.

An adequate amount of power should be used to main-tain the proper airspeed and descent path throughoutthe approach, and the throttle retarded to idling positiononly after the main wheels contact the landing surface.Care must be exercised in closing the throttle before thepilot is ready for touchdown. In this situation, the suddenor premature closing of the throttle may cause a suddenincrease in the descent rate that could result in a hardlanding.

Landings from power approaches in turbulence shouldbe such that the touchdown is made with the airplanein approximately level flight attitude. The pitch attitudeat touchdown should be only enough to prevent thenosewheel from contacting the surface before the mainwheels have touched the surface. After touchdown, thepilot should avoid the tendency to apply forward pres-sure on the yoke as this may result in wheelbarrowingand possible loss of control. The airplane should beallowed to decelerate normally, assisted by careful useof wheel brakes. Heavy braking should be avoided untilthe wings are devoid of lift and the airplane’s fullweight is resting on the landing gear.

SHORT-FIELD APPROACH AND LANDINGShort-field approaches and landings require the use ofprocedures for approaches and landings at fields with arelatively short landing area or where an approach ismade over obstacles that limit the available landing area.[Figures 8-20 and 8-21] As in short-field takeoffs, it isone of the most critical of the maximum performanceoperations. It requires that the pilot fly the airplane atone of its crucial performance capabilities while close tothe ground in order to safely land within confined areas.This low-speed type of power-on approach is closelyrelated to the performance of flight at minimumcontrollable airspeeds.

8-17

Effective RunwayLength

Obstacle Clearance

Figure 8-20. Landing over an obstacle.

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To land within a short-field or a confined area, the pilotmust have precise, positive control of the rate ofdescent and airspeed to produce an approach that willclear any obstacles, result in little or no floating duringthe roundout, and permit the airplane to be stopped inthe shortest possible distance.

The procedures for landing in a short-field or for land-ing approaches over obstacles, as recommended in theAFM/POH, should be used. A stabilized approach isessential. [Figures 8-22 and 8-23] These proceduresgenerally involve the use of full flaps, and the finalapproach started from an altitude of at least 500 feethigher than the touchdown area. A wider than normalpattern should be used so that the airplane can beproperly configured and trimmed. In the absence ofthe manufacturer’s recommended approach speed, aspeed of not more than 1.3 VSO should be used. Forexample, in an airplane that stalls at 60 knots withpower off, and flaps and landing gear extended, theapproach speed should not be higher than 78 knots. Ingusty air, no more than one-half the gust factor shouldbe added. An excessive amount of airspeed could resultin a touchdown too far from the runway threshold oran after-landing roll that exceeds the available landingarea.

After the landing gear and full flaps have beenextended, the pilot should simultaneously adjust thepower and the pitch attitude to establish and maintainthe proper descent angle and airspeed. A coordinatedcombination of both pitch and power adjustments isrequired. When this is done properly, very little changein the airplane’s pitch attitude and power setting isnecessary to make corrections in the angle of descentand airspeed.

The short-field approach and landing is in reality anaccuracy approach to a spot landing. The procedurespreviously outlined in the section on the stabilizedapproach concept should be used. If it appears thatthe obstacle clearance is excessive and touchdownwill occur well beyond the desired spot, leavinginsufficient room to stop, power may be reducedwhile lowering the pitch attitude to steepen thedescent path and increase the rate of descent. If itappears that the descent angle will not ensure safeclearance of obstacles, power should be increasedwhile simultaneously raising the pitch attitude toshallow the descent path and decrease the rate ofdescent. Care must be taken to avoid an excessivelylow airspeed. If the speed is allowed to become tooslow, an increase in pitch and application of full power

Effective Runway LengthNon-Obstacle Clearance

Figure 8-21. Landing on a short-field.

Figure 8-22. Stabilized approach.

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Stabilized

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may only result in a further rate of descent. This occurswhen the angle of attack is so great and creating somuch drag that the maximum available power isinsufficient to overcome it. This is generally referredto as operating in the region of reversed commandor operating on the back side of the power curve.

Because the final approach over obstacles is made at arelatively steep approach angle and close to the air-plane’s stalling speed, the initiation of the roundout orflare must be judged accurately to avoid flying into theground, or stalling prematurely and sinking rapidly. Alack of floating during the flare, with sufficient controlto touch down properly, is one verification that theapproach speed was correct.

Touchdown should occur at the minimum controllableairspeed with the airplane in approximately the pitchattitude that will result in a power-off stall when thethrottle is closed. Care must be exercised to avoid clos-ing the throttle too rapidly before the pilot is ready fortouchdown, as closing the throttle may result in animmediate increase in the rate of descent and a hardlanding.

Upon touchdown, the airplane should be held in thispositive pitch attitude as long as the elevators remaineffective. This will provide aerodynamic braking toassist in deceleration.

Immediately upon touchdown, and closing the throttle,appropriate braking should be applied to minimize theafter-landing roll. The airplane should be stoppedwithin the shortest possible distance consistent withsafety and controllability. If the proper approach speedhas been maintained, resulting in minimum floatduring the roundout, and the touchdown made atminimum control speed, minimum braking will berequired.

Common errors in the performance of short-fieldapproaches and landings are:

• Failure to allow enough room on final to set upthe approach, necessitating an overly steepapproach and high sink rate.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Undue delay in initiating glidepath corrections.

• Too low an airspeed on final resulting in inabilityto flare properly and landing hard.

• Too high an airspeed resulting in floating onroundout.

• Prematurely reducing power to idle on roundoutresulting in hard landing.

• Touchdown with excessive airspeed.

• Excessive and/or unnecessary braking aftertouchdown.

• Failure to maintain directional control.

SOFT-FIELD APPROACH AND LANDINGLanding on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces,such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass requires uniqueprocedures. When landing on such surfaces, theobjective is to touch down as smoothly as possible,and at the slowest possible landing speed. The pilotmust control the airplane in a manner that the wingssupport the weight of the airplane as long as practi-cal, to minimize drag and stresses imposed on thelanding gear by the rough or soft surface.

The approach for the soft-field landing is similar to thenormal approach used for operating into long, firmlanding areas. The major difference between the two is

Figure 8-23. Unstabilized approach.

Unstabilized

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that, during the soft-field landing, the airplane is held1 to 2 feet off the surface in ground effect as long aspossible. This permits a more gradual dissipation offorward speed to allow the wheels to touch down gen-tly at minimum speed. This technique minimizes thenose-over forces that suddenly affect the airplane atthe moment of touchdown. Power can be usedthroughout the level-off and touchdown to ensuretouchdown at the slowest possible airspeed, and theairplane should be flown onto the ground with theweight fully supported by the wings. [Figure 8-24]

The use of flaps during soft-field landings will aid intouching down at minimum speed and is recommendedwhenever practical. In low-wing airplanes, the flapsmay suffer damage from mud, stones, or slush thrownup by the wheels. If flaps are used, it is generally inad-visable to retract them during the after-landing rollbecause the need for flap retraction is usually lessimportant than the need for total concentration onmaintaining full control of the airplane.

The final approach airspeed used for short-field land-ings is equally appropriate to soft-field landings. Theuse of higher approach speeds may result in excessivefloat in ground effect, and floating makes a smooth,controlled touchdown even more difficult. There is,however, no reason for a steep angle of descent unlessobstacles are present in the approach path.

Touchdown on a soft or rough field should be made atthe lowest possible airspeed with the airplane in anose-high pitch attitude. In nosewheel-type airplanes,after the main wheels touch the surface, the pilotshould hold sufficient back-elevator pressure to keepthe nosewheel off the surface. Using back-elevatorpressure and engine power, the pilot can control therate at which the weight of the airplane is transferredfrom the wings to the wheels.

Field conditions may warrant that the pilot maintain aflight condition in which the main wheels are just

touching the surface but the weight of the airplane isstill being supported by the wings, until a suitable taxisurface is reached. At any time during this transitionphase, before the weight of the airplane is being sup-ported by the wheels, and before the nosewheel is onthe surface, the pilot should be able to apply fullpower and perform a safe takeoff (obstacle clearanceand field length permitting) should the pilot elect toabandon the landing. Once committed to a landing,the pilot should gently lower the nosewheel to thesurface. A slight addition of power usually will aid ineasing the nosewheel down.

The use of brakes on a soft field is not needed andshould be avoided as this may tend to impose a heavyload on the nose gear due to premature or hard contactwith the landing surface, causing the nosewheel to digin. The soft or rough surface itself will provide suffi-cient reduction in the airplane’s forward speed. Often itwill be found that upon landing on a very soft field, thepilot will need to increase power to keep the airplanemoving and from becoming stuck in the soft surface.

Common errors in the performance of soft-fieldapproaches and landings are:

• Excessive descent rate on final approach.

• Excessive airspeed on final approach.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Roundout too high above the runway surface.

• Poor power management during roundout andtouchdown.

• Hard touchdown.

• Inadequate control of the airplane weight trans-fer from wings to wheels after touchdown.

• Allowing the nosewheel to “fall” to the runwayafter touchdown rather than controlling itsdescent.

Figure 8-24. Soft/rough field approach and landing.

8-20

Ground Effect

TransitionArea

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8-21

POWER-OFF ACCURACYAPPROACHESPower-off accuracy approaches are approaches andlandings made by gliding with the engine idling,through a specific pattern to a touchdown beyond andwithin 200 feet of a designated line or mark on the run-way. The objective is to instill in the pilot the judgmentand procedures necessary for accurately flying the air-plane, without power, to a safe landing.

The ability to estimate the distance an airplane will glideto a landing is the real basis of all power-off accuracyapproaches and landings. This will largely determine theamount of maneuvering that may be done from a givenaltitude. In addition to the ability to estimate distance, itrequires the ability to maintain the proper glide whilemaneuvering the airplane.

With experience and practice, altitudes up to approxi-mately 1,000 feet can be estimated with fair accuracy,while above this level the accuracy in judgment of heightabove the ground decreases, since all features tend tomerge. The best aid in perfecting the ability to judgeheight above this altitude is through the indications of thealtimeter and associating them with the generalappearance of the Earth.

The judgment of altitude in feet, hundreds of feet, orthousands of feet is not as important as the ability toestimate gliding angle and its resultant distance. Thepilot who knows the normal glide angle of the airplanecan estimate with reasonable accuracy, the approximatespot along a given ground path at which the airplanewill land, regardless of altitude. The pilot, who also hasthe ability to accurately estimate altitude, can judgehow much maneuvering is possible during the glide,which is important to the choice of landing areas in anactual emergency.

The objective of a good final approach is to descend atan angle that will permit the airplane to reach thedesired landing area, and at an airspeed that will resultin minimum floating just before touchdown. Toaccomplish this, it is essential that both the descentangle and the airspeed be accurately controlled.

Unlike a normal approach when the power setting isvariable, on a power-off approach the power is fixed atthe idle setting. Pitch attitude is adjusted to control theairspeed. This will also change the glide or descentangle. By lowering the nose to keep the approach airspeedconstant, the descent angle will steepen. If the airspeed istoo high, raise the nose, and when the airspeed is too low,lower the nose. If the pitch attitude is raised too high, theairplane will settle rapidly due to a slow airspeed andinsufficient lift. For this reason, never try to stretch a glideto reach the desired landing spot.

Uniform approach patterns such as the 90°, 180°, or360° power-off approaches are described further in thischapter. Practice in these approaches provides the pilotwith a basis on which to develop judgment in glidingdistance and in planning an approach.

The basic procedure in these approaches involves clos-ing the throttle at a given altitude, and gliding to a keyposition. This position, like the pattern itself, must notbe allowed to become the primary objective; it ismerely a convenient point in the air from which thepilot can judge whether the glide will safely terminateat the desired spot. The selected key position should beone that is appropriate for the available altitude and thewind condition. From the key position, the pilot mustconstantly evaluate the situation.

It must be emphasized that, although accurate spottouchdowns are important, safe and properly executedapproaches and landings are vital. The pilot must neversacrifice a good approach or landing just to land on thedesired spot.

90° POWER-OFF APPROACHThe 90° power-off approach is made from a base leg andrequires only a 90° turn onto the final approach. Theapproach path may be varied by positioning the base legcloser to or farther out from the approach end of the run-way according to wind conditions. [Figure 8-25]

The glide from the key position on the base leg throughthe 90° turn to the final approach is the final part of allaccuracy landing maneuvers.

The 90° power-off approach usually begins from arectangular pattern at approximately 1,000 feet abovethe ground or at normal traffic pattern altitude. Theairplane should be flown onto a downwind leg at thesame distance from the landing surface as in a normaltraffic pattern. The before landing checklist should becompleted on the downwind leg, including extensionof the landing gear if the airplane is equipped withretractable gear.

After a medium-banked turn onto the base leg is com-pleted, the throttle should be retarded slightly and theairspeed allowed to decrease to the normal base-legspeed. [Figure 8-26] On the base leg, the airspeed,wind drift correction, and altitude should be maintainedwhile proceeding to the 45° key position. At thisposition, the intended landing spot will appear to beon a 45° angle from the airplane’s nose.

The pilot can determine the strength and direction ofthe wind from the amount of crab necessary to hold thedesired ground track on the base leg. This will help inplanning the turn onto the final approach and in lower-ing the correct amount of flaps.

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At the 45° key position, the throttle should be closedcompletely, the propeller control (if equipped)advanced to the full increase r.p.m. position, and alti-tude maintained until the airspeed decreases to themanufacturer’s recommended glide speed. In theabsence of a recommended speed, use 1.4 VSO. Whenthis airspeed is attained, the nose should be lowered tomaintain the gliding speed and the controls retrimmed.

The base-to-final turn should be planned and accom-plished so that upon rolling out of the turn the airplanewill be aligned with the runway centerline. When onfinal approach, the wing flaps are lowered and thepitch attitude adjusted, as necessary, to establish theproper descent angle and airspeed (1.3 VSO), then thecontrols retrimmed. Slight adjustments in pitch attitudeor flaps setting may be necessary to control the glide

Light Wind

Medium Wind

Strong Wind

Figure 8-25. Plan the base leg for wind conditions.

Figure 8-26. 90° power-off approach.

8-22

45°

Power ReducedBase Leg Speed

Close ThrottleEstablished 1.4 V

Base KeyPosition

Lower Partial FlapsMaintain 1.4 V

Lower Full Flaps(As Needed)

Establish 1.3 V

S0

S0

S0

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-22

8-23

angle and airspeed. However, NEVER TRY TOSTRETCH THE GLIDE OR RETRACT THE FLAPSto reach the desired landing spot. The final approachmay be made with or without the use of slips.

After the final approach glide has been established, fullattention is then given to making a good, safe landingrather than concentrating on the selected landing spot.The base-leg position and the flap setting alreadydetermined the probability of landing on the spot. Inany event, it is better to execute a good landing 200feet from the spot than to make a poor landing pre-cisely on the spot.

180° POWER-OFF APPROACHThe 180° power-off approach is executed by glidingwith the power off from a given point on a downwindleg to a preselected landing spot. [Figure 8-27] It is anextension of the principles involved in the 90° power-off approach just described. Its objective is to furtherdevelop judgment in estimating distances and glideratios, in that the airplane is flown without power froma higher altitude and through a 90° turn to reach thebase-leg position at a proper altitude for executing the90° approach.

The 180° power-off approach requires more planningand judgment than the 90° power-off approach. In theexecution of 180° power-off approaches, the airplaneis flown on a downwind heading parallel to the landingrunway. The altitude from which this type of approachshould be started will vary with the type of airplane,

but it should usually not exceed 1,000 feet above theground, except with large airplanes. Greater accuracyin judgment and maneuvering is required at higheraltitudes.

When abreast of or opposite the desired landing spot,the throttle should be closed and altitude maintainedwhile decelerating to the manufacturer’s recommendedglide speed, or 1.4 VSO. The point at which the throttleis closed is the downwind key position.

The turn from the downwind leg to the base leg shouldbe a uniform turn with a medium or slightly steeperbank. The degree of bank and amount of this initialturn will depend upon the glide angle of the airplaneand the velocity of the wind. Again, the base leg shouldbe positioned as needed for the altitude, or wind con-dition. Position the base leg to conserve or dissipatealtitude so as to reach the desired landing spot.

The turn onto the base leg should be made at an alti-tude high enough and close enough to permit theairplane to glide to what would normally be thebase key position in a 90° power-off approach.

Although the key position is important, it must not beoveremphasized nor considered as a fixed point onthe ground. Many inexperienced pilots may gain aconception of it as a particular landmark, such as atree, crossroad, or other visual reference, to bereached at a certain altitude. This will result in amechanical conception and leave the pilot at a total

Figure 8-27. 180° power-off approach.

Medium orSteeper Bank

Lower Partial FlapsMaintain 1.4 Vs0

Lower Full Flaps(as Needed)

Establish 1.3 Vs0

Key Position

Close ThrottleNormal Glide Speed

90°

Downwind LegKey Position

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-23

8-24

loss any time such objects are not present. Both alti-tude and geographical location should be varied asmuch as is practical to eliminate any such conception.After reaching the base key position, the approach andlanding are the same as in the 90° power-off approach.

360° POWER-OFF APPROACHThe 360° power-off approach is one in which the air-plane glides through a 360° change of direction tothe preselected landing spot. The entire pattern isdesigned to be circular, but the turn may be shallowed,steepened, or discontinued at any point to adjust theaccuracy of the flightpath.

The 360° approach is started from a position over theapproach end of the landing runway or slightly to theside of it, with the airplane headed in the proposedlanding direction and the landing gear and flapsretracted. [Figure 8-28]

It is usually initiated from approximately 2,000 feet ormore above the ground—where the wind may vary sig-nificantly from that at lower altitudes. This must betaken into account when maneuvering the airplane to apoint from which a 90° or 180° power-off approachcan be completed.

After the throttle is closed over the intended point oflanding, the proper glide speed should immediately beestablished, and a medium-banked turn made in thedesired direction so as to arrive at the downwind keyposition opposite the intended landing spot. At or just

beyond the downwind key position, the landing gearmay be extended if the airplane is equipped withretractable gear. The altitude at the downwind keyposition should be approximately 1,000 to 1,200 feetabove the ground.

After reaching that point, the turn should be continuedto arrive at a base-leg key position, at an altitude ofabout 800 feet above the terrain. Flaps may be used atthis position, as necessary, but full flaps should not beused until established on the final approach.

The angle of bank can be varied as needed throughoutthe pattern to correct for wind conditions and to alignthe airplane with the final approach. The turn-to-finalshould be completed at a minimum altitude of 300 feetabove the terrain.

Common errors in the performance of power-off accu-racy approaches are:

• Downwind leg too far from the runway/landingarea.

• Overextension of downwind leg resulting fromtailwind.

• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on baseleg.

• Skidding turns in an effort to increase glidingdistance.

Figure 8-28. 360° power-off approach.

Normal Glide Speed

Normal GlideSpeed

Lower Partial FlapsMaintain 1.4 Vs0

Lower Flapsas Needed

Establish 1.3 Vs0

Key Position

Key Position

Close Throttle, Retract Flaps

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• Failure to lower landing gear in retractable gearairplanes.

• Attempting to “stretch” the glide during under-shoot.

• Premature flap extension/landing gear extension.

• Use of throttle to increase the glide instead ofmerely clearing the engine.

• Forcing the airplane onto the runway in order toavoid overshooting the designated landing spot.

EMERGENCY APPROACHES ANDLANDINGS (SIMULATED)From time to time on dual flights, the instructor shouldgive simulated emergency landings by retarding thethrottle and calling “simulated emergency landing.”The objective of these simulated emergency landingsis to develop the pilot’s accuracy, judgment, planning,procedures, and confidence when little or no power isavailable.

A simulated emergency landing may be given with theairplane in any configuration. When the instructor calls“simulated emergency landing,” the pilot shouldimmediately establish a glide attitude and ensure thatthe flaps and landing gear are in the proper configura-tion for the existing situation. When the proper glidespeed is attained, the nose should then be lowered andthe airplane trimmed to maintain that speed.

A constant gliding speed should be maintained becausevariations of gliding speed nullify all attempts at accu-racy in judgment of gliding distance and the landingspot. The many variables, such as altitude, obstruction,wind direction, landing direction, landing surface andgradient, and landing distance requirements of theairplane will determine the pattern and approach pro-cedures to use.

Utilizing any combination of normal gliding maneuvers,from wings level to spirals, the pilot should eventuallyarrive at the normal key position at a normal traffic pat-tern altitude for the selected landing area. From thispoint on, the approach will be as nearly as possible anormal power-off approach. [Figure 8-29]

With the greater choice of fields afforded by higheraltitudes, the inexperienced pilot may be inclined todelay making a decision, and with considerable alti-tude in which to maneuver, errors in maneuvering andestimation of glide distance may develop.

All pilots should learn to determine the wind directionand estimate its speed from the windsock at the airport,smoke from factories or houses, dust, brush fires, andwindmills.

Once a field has been selected, the student pilot shouldalways be required to indicate it to the instructor.Normally, the student should be required to plan andfly a pattern for landing on the field first elected untilthe instructor terminates the simulated emergency

Figure 8-29. Remain over intended landing area.

Retract Flaps

Base Key PointLower Flaps

Spiral OverLanding Field

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landing. This will give the instructor an opportunity toexplain and correct any errors; it will also give the stu-dent an opportunity to see the results of the errors.However, if the student realizes during the approachthat a poor field has been selected—one that wouldobviously result in disaster if a landing were to bemade—and there is a more advantageous field withingliding distance, a change to the better field should bepermitted. The hazards involved in these last-minutedecisions, such as excessive maneuvering at very lowaltitudes, should be thoroughly explained by theinstructor.

Slipping the airplane, using flaps, varying the positionof the base leg, and varying the turn onto finalapproach should be stressed as ways of correcting formisjudgment of altitude and glide angle.

Eagerness to get down is one of the most commonfaults of inexperienced pilots during simulated emer-gency landings. In giving way to this, they forget aboutspeed and arrive at the edge of the field with too muchspeed to permit a safe landing. Too much speed may bejust as dangerous as too little; it results in excessivefloating and overshooting the desired landing spot. Itshould be impressed on the students that they cannotdive at a field and expect to land on it.

During all simulated emergency landings, the engineshould be kept warm and cleared. During a simulatedemergency landing, either the instructor or the studentshould have complete control of the throttle. Thereshould be no doubt as to who has control since manynear accidents have occurred from such misunder-standings.

Every simulated emergency landing approach shouldbe terminated as soon as it can be determined whethera safe landing could have been made. In no caseshould it be continued to a point where it creates anundue hazard or an annoyance to persons or propertyon the ground.

In addition to flying the airplane from the point ofsimulated engine failure to where a reasonable safelanding could be made, the student should also betaught certain emergency cockpit procedures. Thehabit of performing these cockpit procedures shouldbe developed to such an extent that, when an enginefailure actually occurs, the student will check the criti-cal items that would be necessary to get the engineoperating again while selecting a field and planningan approach. Combining the two operations—accomplishing emergency procedures and planning

Figure 8-30. Sample emergency checklist.

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and flying the approach—will be difficult for the stu-dent during the early training in emergency landings.

There are definite steps and procedures to be followedin a simulated emergency landing. Although they maydiffer somewhat from the procedures used in an actualemergency, they should be learned thoroughly by thestudent, and each step called out to the instructor. Theuse of a checklist is strongly recommended. Mostairplane manufacturers provide a checklist of theappropriate items. [Figure 8-30]

Critical items to be checked should include the posi-tion of the fuel tank selector, the quantity of fuel in thetank selected, the fuel pressure gauge to see if the elec-tric fuel pump is needed, the position of the mixturecontrol, the position of the magneto switch, and the useof carburetor heat. Many actual emergency landingshave been made and later found to be the result of thefuel selector valve being positioned to an empty tankwhile the other tank had plenty of fuel. It may be wiseto change the position of the fuel selector valve eventhough the fuel gauge indicates fuel in all tanksbecause fuel gauges can be inaccurate. Many actualemergency landings could have been prevented ifthe pilots had developed the habit of checking thesecritical items during flight training to the extent thatit carried over into later flying.

Instruction in emergency procedures should not be lim-ited to simulated emergency landings caused by powerfailures. Other emergencies associated with the operationof the airplane should be explained, demonstrated, andpracticed if practicable. Among these emergencies aresuch occurrences as fire in flight, electrical or hydraulicsystem malfunctions, unexpected severe weatherconditions, engine overheating, imminent fuel

exhaustion, and the emergency operation of airplanesystems and equipment.

FAULTY APPROACHES AND LANDINGS

LOW FINAL APPROACHWhen the base leg is too low, insufficient power is used,landing flaps are extended prematurely, or the velocity ofthe wind is misjudged, sufficient altitude may be lost,which will cause the airplane to be well below the properfinal approach path. In such a situation, the pilot wouldhave to apply considerable power to fly the airplane (atan excessively low altitude) up to the runway threshold.When it is realized the runway will not be reachedunless appropriate action is taken, power must beapplied immediately to maintain the airspeed while thepitch attitude is raised to increase lift and stop thedescent. When the proper approach path has beenintercepted, the correct approach attitude should bereestablished and the power reduced and a stabilizedapproach maintained. [Figure 8-31] DO NOT increasethe pitch attitude without increasing the power, sincethe airplane will decelerate rapidly and may approachthe critical angle of attack and stall. DO NOT retractthe flaps; this will suddenly decrease lift and cause theairplane to sink more rapidly. If there is any doubtabout the approach being safely completed, it is advis-able to EXECUTE AN IMMEDIATE GO-AROUND.

HIGH FINAL APPROACHWhen the final approach is too high, lower the flaps asrequired. Further reduction in power may be necessary,while lowering the nose simultaneously to maintainapproach airspeed and steepen the approach path.[Figure 8-32] When the proper approach path has beenintercepted, adjust the power as required to maintain a

Figure 8-31. Right and wrong methods of correction for low final approach.

8-27

Normal Approach PathAdd Power Nose UpHold Altitude

Wrong (Dragging it in with High Power / High Pitch Altitude)

Intercept Normal GlidepathResume Normal Approach

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-27

stabilized approach. When steepening the approachpath, however, care must be taken that the descent doesnot result in an excessively high sink rate. If a high sinkrate is continued close to the surface, it may be difficultto slow to a proper rate prior to ground contact. Anysink rate in excess of 800 - 1,000 feet per minute is con-sidered excessive. A go-around should be initiated ifthe sink rate becomes excessive.

SLOW FINAL APPROACHWhen the airplane is flown at a slower-than-normalairspeed on the final approach, the pilot’s judgment ofthe rate of sink (descent) and the height of roundoutwill be difficult. During an excessively slow approach,the wing is operating near the critical angle of attackand, depending on the pitch attitude changes and con-trol usage, the airplane may stall or sink rapidly, con-tacting the ground with a hard impact.

Whenever a slow-speed approach is noted, the pilotshould apply power to accelerate the airplane andincrease the lift to reduce the sink rate and to preventa stall. This should be done while still at a highenough altitude to reestablish the correct approachairspeed and attitude. If too slow and too low, it isbest to EXECUTE A GO-AROUND.

USE OF POWERPower can be used effectively during the approach androundout to compensate for errors in judgment. Powercan be added to accelerate the airplane to increase liftwithout increasing the angle of attack; thus, the descentcan be slowed to an acceptable rate. If the properlanding attitude has been attained and the airplane isonly slightly high, the landing attitude should beheld constant and sufficient power applied to helpease the airplane onto the ground. After the airplanehas touched down, it will be necessary to close the

throttle so the additional thrust and lift will beremoved and the airplane will stay on the ground.

HIGH ROUNDOUTSometimes when the airplane appears to temporarilystop moving downward, the roundout has been madetoo rapidly and the airplane is flying level, too highabove the runway. Continuing the roundout wouldfurther reduce the airspeed, resulting in an increasein angle of attack to the critical angle. This wouldresult in the airplane stalling and dropping hard ontothe runway. To prevent this, the pitch attitude shouldbe held constant until the airplane decelerates enoughto again start descending. Then the roundout can becontinued to establish the proper landing attitude.This procedure should only be used when there isadequate airspeed. It may be necessary to add a slightamount of power to keep the airspeed from decreasingexcessively and to avoid losing lift too rapidly.

Although back-elevator pressure may be relaxedslightly, the nose should not be lowered any percepti-ble amount to make the airplane descend when fairlyclose to the runway unless some power is addedmomentarily. The momentary decrease in lift thatwould result from lowering the nose and decreasingthe angle of attack may be so great that the airplanemight contact the ground with the nosewheel first,which could collapse.

When the proper landing attitude is attained, the air-plane is approaching a stall because the airspeed isdecreasing and the critical angle of attack is beingapproached, even though the pitch attitude is no longerbeing increased. [Figure 8-33]

It is recommended that a GO-AROUND be executedany time it appears the nose must be lowered signifi-cantly or that the landing is in any other way uncertain.

Figure 8-32. Change in glidepath and increase in descent rate for high final approach.

No Flaps

Full Flaps

Steeper Descent Angle

Increased Rate of Descent

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LATE OR RAPID ROUNDOUTStarting the roundout too late or pulling the elevatorcontrol back too rapidly to prevent the airplane fromtouching down prematurely can impose a heavy loadfactor on the wing and cause an accelerated stall.

Suddenly increasing the angle of attack and stalling theairplane during a roundout is a dangerous situationsince it may cause the airplane to land extremely hardon the main landing gear, and then bounce back intothe air. As the airplane contacts the ground, the tail willbe forced down very rapidly by the back-elevator pres-sure and by inertia acting downward on the tail.

Recovery from this situation requires prompt andpositive application of power prior to occurrence ofthe stall. This may be followed by a normal landing ifsufficient runway is available—otherwise the pilotshould EXECUTE A GO-AROUND immediately.

If the roundout is late, the nosewheel may strike therunway first, causing the nose to bounce upward. No

attempt should be made to force the airplane back ontothe ground; a GO-AROUND should be executedimmediately.

FLOATING DURING ROUNDOUTIf the airspeed on final approach is excessive, it willusually result in the airplane floating. [Figure 8-34]Before touchdown can be made, the airplane may bewell past the desired landing point and the availablerunway may be insufficient. When diving an airplaneon final approach to land at the proper point, there willbe an appreciable increase in airspeed. The propertouchdown attitude cannot be established without pro-ducing an excessive angle of attack and lift. This willcause the airplane to gain altitude or balloon.

Any time the airplane floats, judgment of speed,height, and rate of sink must be especially acute. Thepilot must smoothly and gradually adjust the pitch atti-tude as the airplane decelerates to touchdown speedand starts to settle, so the proper landing attitude isattained at the moment of touchdown. The slightest

Figure 8-33. Rounding out too high.

Figure 8-34. Floating during roundout.

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error in judgment and timing will result in either bal-looning or bouncing.

The recovery from floating will depend on the amountof floating and the effect of any crosswind, as well asthe amount of runway remaining. Since prolongedfloating utilizes considerable runway length, it shouldbe avoided especially on short runways or in strongcrosswinds. If a landing cannot be made on the firstthird of the runway, or the airplane drifts sideways, thepilot should EXECUTE A GO-AROUND.

BALLOONING DURING ROUNDOUTIf the pilot misjudges the rate of sink during a landingand thinks the airplane is descending faster than itshould, there is a tendency to increase the pitch atti-tude and angle of attack too rapidly. This not onlystops the descent, but actually starts the airplaneclimbing. This climbing during the roundout isknown as ballooning. [Figure 8-35] Ballooning canbe dangerous because the height above the ground isincreasing and the airplane may be rapidlyapproaching a stalled condition. The altitude gainedin each instance will depend on the airspeed or thespeed with which the pitch attitude is increased.

When ballooning is slight, a constant landing attitudeshould be held and the airplane allowed to graduallydecelerate and settle onto the runway. Depending onthe severity of ballooning, the use of throttle may behelpful in cushioning the landing. By adding power,thrust can be increased to keep the airspeed fromdecelerating too rapidly and the wings from suddenlylosing lift, but throttle must be closed immediatelyafter touchdown. Remember that torque will be cre-ated as power is applied; therefore, it will be necessaryto use rudder pressure to keep the airplane straight as itsettles onto the runway.

When ballooning is excessive, it is best to EXECUTEA GO-AROUND IMMEDIATELY; DO NOTATTEMPT TO SALVAGE THE LANDING. Powermust be applied before the airplane enters a stalledcondition.

The pilot must be extremely cautious of ballooningwhen there is a crosswind present because the cross-wind correction may be inadvertently released or itmay become inadequate. Because of the lower airspeedafter ballooning, the crosswind affects the airplanemore. Consequently, the wing will have to be loweredeven further to compensate for the increased drift. Itis imperative that the pilot makes certain that theappropriate wing is down and that directional controlis maintained with opposite rudder. If there is anydoubt, or the airplane starts to drift, EXECUTE AGO-AROUND.

BOUNCING DURING TOUCHDOWNWhen the airplane contacts the ground with a sharpimpact as the result of an improper attitude or anexcessive rate of sink, it tends to bounce back into theair. Though the airplane’s tires and shock strutsprovide some springing action, the airplane does notbounce like a rubber ball. Instead, it rebounds intothe air because the wing’s angle of attack wasabruptly increased, producing a sudden addition oflift. [Figure 8-36]

The abrupt change in angle of attack is the result ofinertia instantly forcing the airplane’s tail downwardwhen the main wheels contact the ground sharply. Theseverity of the bounce depends on the airspeed at themoment of contact and the degree to which the angleof attack or pitch attitude was increased.

Since a bounce occurs when the airplane makes con-tact with the ground before the proper touchdown

Figure 8-35. Ballooning during roundout.

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attitude is attained, it is almost invariably accompa-nied by the application of excessive back-elevatorpressure. This is usually the result of the pilot realizingtoo late that the airplane is not in the proper attitudeand attempting to establish it just as the second touch-down occurs.

The corrective action for a bounce is the same as forballooning and similarly depends on its severity. Whenit is very slight and there is no extreme change in theairplane’s pitch attitude, a follow-up landing may beexecuted by applying sufficient power to cushion thesubsequent touchdown, and smoothly adjusting thepitch to the proper touchdown attitude.

In the event a very slight bounce is encountered whilelanding with a crosswind, crosswind correction mustbe maintained while the next touchdown is made.Remember that since the subsequent touchdown willbe made at a slower airspeed, the upwind wing willhave to be lowered even further to compensate fordrift.

Extreme caution and alertness must be exercised anytime a bounce occurs, but particularly when there is acrosswind. Inexperienced pilots will almost invariablyrelease the crosswind correction. When one mainwheel of the airplane strikes the runway, the otherwheel will touch down immediately afterwards, andthe wings will become level. Then, with no crosswindcorrection as the airplane bounces, the wind will causethe airplane to roll with the wind, thus exposing evenmore surface to the crosswind and drifting the airplanemore rapidly.

When a bounce is severe, the safest procedure is toEXECUTE A GO-AROUND IMMEDIATELY. Noattempt to salvage the landing should be made. Full

power should be applied while simultaneously main-taining directional control, and lowering the nose to asafe climb attitude. The go-around procedure shouldbe continued even though the airplane may descendand another bounce may be encountered. It would beextremely foolish to attempt a landing from a badbounce since airspeed diminishes very rapidly in thenose-high attitude, and a stall may occur before asubsequent touchdown could be made.

PORPOISINGIn a bounced landing that is improperly recovered,the airplane comes in nose first setting off a series ofmotions that imitate the jumps and dives of a porpoise—hence the name. [Figure 8-37] The problem is improperairplane attitude at touchdown, sometimes caused byinattention, not knowing where the ground is, mistrim-ming or forcing the airplane onto the runway.

Ground effect decreases elevator control effectivenessand increases the effort required to raise the nose. Notenough elevator or stabilator trim can result in a nose-low contact with the runway and a porpoise develops.

Porpoising can also be caused by improper airspeedcontrol. Usually, if an approach is too fast, the airplanefloats and the pilot tries to force it on the runway whenthe airplane still wants to fly. A gust of wind, a bump inthe runway, or even a slight tug on the control wheelwill send the airplane aloft again.

The corrective action for a porpoise is the same as fora bounce and similarly depends on its severity. Whenit is very slight and there is no extreme change in theairplane’s pitch attitude, a follow-up landing may beexecuted by applying sufficient power to cushion thesubsequent touchdown, and smoothly adjusting thepitch to the proper touchdown attitude.

Small Angleof Attack

Decreasing Angleof Attack

Rapid Increase inAngle of Attack

Normal Angleof Attack

Figure 8-36. Bouncing during touchdown.

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When a porpoise is severe, the safest procedure is toEXECUTE A GO-AROUND IMMEDIATELY. In asevere porpoise, the airplane’s pitch oscillations canbecome progressively worse, until the airplane strikesthe runway nose first with sufficient force to collapsethe nose gear. Pilot attempts to correct a severe por-poise with flight control and power inputs will mostlikely be untimely and out of sequence with the oscil-lations, and only make the situation worse. No attemptto salvage the landing should be made. Full powershould be applied while simultaneously maintainingdirectional control, and lowering the nose to a safeclimb attitude.

WHEELBARROWINGWhen a pilot permits the airplane weight to becomeconcentrated about the nosewheel during the takeoff orlanding roll, a condition known as wheelbarrowing willoccur. Wheelbarrowing may cause loss of directionalcontrol during the landing roll because braking action isineffective, and the airplane tends to swerve or pivot onthe nosewheel, particularly in crosswind conditions.One of the most common causes of wheelbarrowingduring the landing roll is a simultaneous touchdownof the main and nosewheel, with excessive speed,followed by application of forward pressure on theelevator control. Usually, the situation can be cor-rected by smoothly applying back-elevator pressure.However, if wheelbarrowing is encountered andrunway and other conditions permit, it may be advisableto promptly initiate a go-around. Wheelbarrowing willnot occur if the pilot achieves and maintains the correctlanding attitude, touches down at the proper speed, andgently lowers the nosewheel while losing speed onrollout. If the pilot decides to stay on the ground ratherthan attempt a go-around or if directional control islost, the throttle should be closed and the pitch atti-tude smoothly but firmly rotated to the proper landingattitude. Raise the flaps to reduce lift and to increasethe load on the main wheels for better braking action.

HARD LANDINGWhen the airplane contacts the ground during landings,its vertical speed is instantly reduced to zero. Unlessprovisions are made to slow this vertical speed and

cushion the impact of touchdown, the force of contactwith the ground may be so great it could causestructural damage to the airplane.

The purpose of pneumatic tires, shock absorbing landinggears, and other devices is to cushion the impact and toincrease the time in which the airplane’s vertical descentis stopped. The importance of this cushion may beunderstood from the computation that a 6-inch free fallon landing is roughly equal, to a 340-foot-per-minutedescent. Within a fraction of a second, the airplane mustbe slowed from this rate of vertical descent to zero,without damage.

During this time, the landing gear together with someaid from the lift of the wings must supply whateverforce is needed to counteract the force of the airplane’sinertia and weight. The lift decreases rapidly as theairplane’s forward speed is decreased, and the forceon the landing gear increases by the impact oftouchdown. When the descent stops, the lift will bepractically zero, leaving the landing gear alone tocarry both the airplane’s weight and inertia force.The load imposed at the instant of touchdown mayeasily be three or four times the actual weight of theairplane depending on the severity of contact.

TOUCHDOWN IN A DRIFT OR CRABAt times the pilot may correct for wind drift by crabbingon the final approach. If the roundout and touchdown aremade while the airplane is drifting or in a crab, it willcontact the ground while moving sideways. This willimpose extreme side loads on the landing gear, and ifsevere enough, may cause structural failure.

The most effective method to prevent drift in primarytraining airplanes is the wing-low method. This tech-nique keeps the longitudinal axis of the airplanealigned with both the runway and the direction ofmotion throughout the approach and touchdown.

There are three factors that will cause the longitudinalaxis and the direction of motion to be misalignedduring touchdown: drifting, crabbing, or a combina-tion of both.

Decreasing Angleof Attack

Decreasing Angleof Attack

Rapid Increase inAngle of Attack

Rapid Increase inAngle of Attack

Normal Angleof Attack

Normal Angleof Attack

Figure 8-37. Porpoising.

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If the pilot has not taken adequate corrective action toavoid drift during a crosswind landing, the mainwheels’ tire tread offers resistance to the airplane’ssideward movement in respect to the ground.Consequently, any sidewise velocity of the airplane isabruptly decelerated, with the result that the inertiaforce is as shown in figure 8-38. This creates a momentaround the main wheel when it contacts the ground,tending to overturn or tip the airplane. If the windwardwingtip is raised by the action of this moment, all theweight and shock of landing will be borne by one mainwheel. This could cause structural damage.

Figure 8-38. Drifting during touchdown.

Not only are the same factors present that are attempt-ing to raise a wing, but the crosswind is also acting onthe fuselage surface behind the main wheels, tendingto yaw (weathervane) the airplane into the wind. Thisoften results in a ground loop.

GROUND LOOPA ground loop is an uncontrolled turn during groundoperation that may occur while taxiing or taking off,but especially during the after-landing roll. Drift orweathervaning does not always cause a ground loop,although these things may cause the initial swerve.Careless use of the rudder, an uneven ground surface,or a soft spot that retards one main wheel of the air-plane may also cause a swerve. In any case, the initialswerve tends to make the airplane ground loop,whether it is a tailwheel-type or nosewheel-type.[Figure 8-39]

Nosewheel-type airplanes are somewhat less prone toground loop than tailwheel-type airplanes. Since thecenter of gravity (CG) is located forward of the mainlanding gear on these airplanes, any time a swervedevelops, centrifugal force acting on the CG will tendto stop the swerving action.

If the airplane touches down while drifting or in a crab,the pilot should apply aileron toward the high wing andstop the swerve with the rudder. Brakes should be usedto correct for turns or swerves only when the rudder isinadequate. The pilot must exercise caution whenapplying corrective brake action because it is very easyto overcontrol and aggravate the situation.

If brakes are used, sufficient brake should be appliedon the low-wing wheel (outside of the turn) to stop theswerve. When the wings are approximately level, thenew direction must be maintained until the airplane hasslowed to taxi speed or has stopped.

In nosewheel airplanes, a ground loop is almost alwaysa result of wheelbarrowing. The pilot must be aware thateven though the nosewheel-type airplane is less pronethan the tailwheel-type airplane, virtually every type ofairplane, including large multiengine airplanes, can bemade to ground loop when sufficiently mishandled.

WING RISING AFTER TOUCHDOWNWhen landing in a crosswind, there may be instanceswhen a wing will rise during the after-landing roll. Thismay occur whether or not there is a loss of directional

Wind Force

Center ofGravity

Force ResistingSide Motion

Inertia Force

Weight

Airplane Tipsand Swerves

CG Continues Moving inSame Direction of Drift

Touchdown

Roundout

Roundout

Figure 8-39. Start of a ground loop.

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control, depending on the amount of crosswind and thedegree of corrective action.

Any time an airplane is rolling on the ground in acrosswind condition, the upwind wing is receiving agreater force from the wind than the downwind wing.This causes a lift differential. Also, as the upwind wingrises, there is an increase in the angle of attack, whichincreases lift on the upwind wing, rolling the airplanedownwind.

When the effects of these two factors are great enough,the upwind wing may rise even though directionalcontrol is maintained. If no correction is applied, it ispossible that the upwind wing will rise sufficiently tocause the downwind wing to strike the ground.

In the event a wing starts to rise during the landing roll,the pilot should immediately apply more aileron pres-sure toward the high wing and continue to maintaindirection. The sooner the aileron control is applied,the more effective it will be. The further a wing isallowed to rise before taking corrective action, themore airplane surface is exposed to the force of thecrosswind. This diminishes the effectiveness of theaileron.

HYDROPLANINGHydroplaning is a condition that can exist when anairplane is landed on a runway surface contaminatedwith standing water, slush, and/or wet snow.Hydroplaning can have serious adverse effects onground controllability and braking efficiency. Thethree basic types of hydroplaning are dynamichydroplaning, reverted rubber hydroplaning, and vis-cous hydroplaning. Any one of the three can renderan airplane partially or totally uncontrollable anytimeduring the landing roll.

DYNAMIC HYDROPLANINGDynamic hydroplaning is a relatively high-speedphenomenon that occurs when there is a film of wateron the runway that is at least one-tenth inch deep. As thespeed of the airplane and the depth of the water increase,the water layer builds up an increasing resistance todisplacement, resulting in the formation of a wedge ofwater beneath the tire. At some speed, termed thehydroplaning speed (VP), the water pressure equals theweight of the airplane and the tire is lifted off the runwaysurface. In this condition, the tires no longer contribute todirectional control and braking action is nil.

Dynamic hydroplaning is related to tire inflationpressure. Data obtained during hydroplaning tests haveshown the minimum dynamic hydroplaning speed (VP)of a tire to be 8.6 times the square root of the tirepressure in pounds per square inch (PSI). For anairplane with a main tire pressure of 24 pounds,

the calculated hydroplaning speed would beapproximately 42 knots. It is important to note that thecalculated speed referred to above is for the start ofdynamic hydroplaning. Once hydroplaning hasstarted, it may persist to a significantly slower speeddepending on the type being experienced.

REVERTED RUBBER HYDROPLANINGReverted rubber (steam) hydroplaning occurs duringheavy braking that results in a prolonged locked-wheelskid. Only a thin film of water on the runway isrequired to facilitate this type of hydroplaning.

The tire skidding generates enough heat to cause therubber in contact with the runway to revert to itsoriginal uncured state. The reverted rubber acts as aseal between the tire and the runway, and delayswater exit from the tire footprint area. The waterheats and is converted to steam which supports thetire off the runway.

Reverted rubber hydroplaning frequently follows anencounter with dynamic hydroplaning, during whichtime the pilot may have the brakes locked in an attemptto slow the airplane. Eventually the airplane slowsenough to where the tires make contact with therunway surface and the airplane begins to skid. Theremedy for this type of hydroplane is for the pilot torelease the brakes and allow the wheels to spin upand apply moderate braking. Reverted rubberhydroplaning is insidious in that the pilot may notknow when it begins, and it can persist to very slowgroundspeeds (20 knots or less).

VISCOUS HYDROPLANINGViscous hydroplaning is due to the viscous propertiesof water. A thin film of fluid no more than onethousandth of an inch in depth is all that is needed. Thetire cannot penetrate the fluid and the tire rolls on topof the film. This can occur at a much lower speed thandynamic hydroplane, but requires a smooth or smoothacting surface such as asphalt or a touchdown areacoated with the accumulated rubber of past landings.Such a surface can have the same friction coefficientas wet ice.

When confronted with the possibility of hydroplaning,it is best to land on a grooved runway (if available).Touchdown speed should be as slow as possibleconsistent with safety. After the nosewheel islowered to the runway, moderate braking should beapplied. If deceleration is not detected andhydroplaning is suspected, the nose should be raisedand aerodynamic drag utilized to decelerate to apoint where the brakes do become effective.

Proper braking technique is essential. The brakesshould be applied firmly until reaching a point just

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short of a skid. At the first sign of a skid, the pilotshould release brake pressure and allow the wheels tospin up. Directional control should be maintained asfar as possible with the rudder. Remember that in a

crosswind, if hydroplaning should occur, thecrosswind will cause the airplane to simultaneouslyweathervane into the wind as well as slide downwind.

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9-1

PERFORMANCE MANEUVERSPerformance maneuvers are used to develop a highdegree of pilot skill. They aid the pilot in analyzing theforces acting on the airplane and in developing a finecontrol touch, coordination, timing, and division ofattention for precise maneuvering of the airplane.Performance maneuvers are termed “advanced”maneuvers because the degree of skill required forproper execution is normally not acquired until a pilothas obtained a sense of orientation and control feel in“normal” maneuvers. An important benefit ofperformance maneuvers is the sharpening offundamental skills to the degree that the pilot can copewith unusual or unforeseen circumstances occasionallyencountered in normal flight.

Advanced maneuvers are variations and/orcombinations of the basic maneuvers previouslylearned. They embody the same principles andtechniques as the basic maneuvers, but require a higherdegree of skill for proper execution. The student,therefore, who demonstrates a lack of progress in theperformance of advanced maneuvers, is more thanlikely deficient in one or more of the basic maneuvers.The flight instructor should consider breaking theadvanced maneuver down into its component basic

maneuvers in an attempt to identify and correctthe deficiency before continuing with theadvanced maneuver.

STEEP TURNSThe objective of the maneuver is to develop thesmoothness, coordination, orientation, division ofattention, and control techniques necessary for theexecution of maximum performance turns when theairplane is near its performance limits. Smoothness ofcontrol use, coordination, and accuracy of executionare the important features of this maneuver.

The steep turn maneuver consists of a turn in eitherdirection, using a bank angle between 45 to 60°. Thiswill cause an overbanking tendency during whichmaximum turning performance is attained andrelatively high load factors are imposed. Because of thehigh load factors imposed, these turns should beperformed at an airspeed that does not exceed theairplane’s design maneuvering speed (VA). Theprinciples of an ordinary steep turn apply, but as apractice maneuver the steep turns should be continueduntil 360° or 720° of turn have been completed.[Figure 9-1]

Figure 9-1. Steep turns.

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9-2

An airplane’s maximum turning performance is itsfastest rate of turn and its shortest radius of turn, whichchange with both airspeed and angle of bank. Eachairplane’s turning performance is limited by theamount of power its engine is developing, itslimit load factor (structural strength), and itsaerodynamic characteristics.

The limiting load factor determines the maximumbank, which can be maintained without stalling orexceeding the airplane’s structural limitations. In mostsmall planes, the maximum bank has been found to beapproximately 50° to 60°.

The pilot should realize the tremendous additional loadthat is imposed on an airplane as the bank is increasedbeyond 45°. During a coordinated turn with a 70°bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs is placed onthe airplane’s structure. Most general aviation typeairplanes are stressed for approximately 3.8 Gs.

Regardless of the airspeed or the type of airplanesinvolved, a given angle of bank in a turn, during whichaltitude is maintained, will always produce the sameload factor. Pilots must be aware that an additional loadfactor increases the stalling speed at a significantrate—stalling speed increases with the square root ofthe load factor. For example, a light plane that stalls at60 knots in level flight will stall at nearly 85 knots in a60° bank. The pilot’s understanding and observance ofthis fact is an indispensable safety precaution for theperformance of all maneuvers requiring turns.

Before starting the steep turn, the pilot should ensurethat the area is clear of other air traffic since the rate ofturn will be quite rapid. After establishing themanufacturer’s recommended entry speed or thedesign maneuvering speed, the airplane should besmoothly rolled into a selected bank angle between 45to 60°. As the turn is being established, back-elevatorpressure should be smoothly increased to increase theangle of attack. This provides the additional wing liftrequired to compensate for the increasing load factor.

After the selected bank angle has been reached, thepilot will find that considerable force is required on theelevator control to hold the airplane in level flight—tomaintain altitude. Because of this increase in the forceapplied to the elevators, the load factor increasesrapidly as the bank is increased. Additionalback-elevator pressure increases the angle of attack,which results in an increase in drag. Consequently,power must be added to maintain the entry altitudeand airspeed.

Eventually, as the bank approaches the airplane’smaximum angle, the maximum performance orstructural limit is being reached. If this limit isexceeded, the airplane will be subjected to excessivestructural loads, and will lose altitude, or stall. The

limit load factor must not be exceeded, to preventstructural damage.

During the turn, the pilot should not stare at any oneobject. To maintain altitude, as well as orientation,requires an awareness of the relative position of thenose, the horizon, the wings, and the amount of bank.The pilot who references the aircraft’s turn bywatching only the nose will have difficulty holdingaltitude constant; on the other hand, the pilot whowatches the nose, the horizon, and the wings canusually hold altitude within a few feet. If the altitudebegins to increase, or decrease, relaxing or increasingthe back-elevator pressure will be required asappropriate. This may also require a power adjustmentto maintain the selected airspeed. A small increase ordecrease of 1 to 3° of bank angle may be used tocontrol small altitude deviations. All bank anglechanges should be done with coordinated use ofaileron and rudder.

The rollout from the turn should be timed so that thewings reach level flight when the airplane is exactlyon the heading from which the maneuver was started.While the recovery is being made, back-elevatorpressure is gradually released and power reduced, asnecessary, to maintain the altitude and airspeed.

Common errors in the performance of steep turns are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Excessive pitch change during entry or recovery.

• Attempts to start recovery prematurely.

• Failure to stop the turn on a precise heading.

• Excessive rudder during recovery, resulting inskidding.

• Inadequate power management.

• Inadequate airspeed control.

• Poor coordination.

• Gaining altitude in right turns and/or losingaltitude in left turns.

• Failure to maintain constant bank angle.

• Disorientation.

• Attempting to perform the maneuverby instrument reference rather than visualreference.

• Failure to scan for other traffic during themaneuver.

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9-3

STEEP SPIRALThe objective of this maneuver is to improve pilottechniques for airspeed control, wind drift control,planning, orientation, and division of attention. Thesteep spiral is not only a valuable flight trainingmaneuver, but it has practical application in providinga procedure for dissipating altitude while remainingover a selected spot in preparation for landing,especially for emergency forced landings.

A steep spiral is a constant gliding turn, during which aconstant radius around a point on the ground ismaintained similar to the maneuver, turns around apoint. The radius should be such that the steepest bankwill not exceed 60°. Sufficient altitude must beobtained before starting this maneuver so that thespiral may be continued through a series of at leastthree 360° turns. [Figure 9-2] The maneuver shouldnot be continued below 1,000 feet above the surfaceunless performing an emergency landing inconjunction with the spiral.

Operating the engine at idle speed for a prolongedperiod during the glide may result in excessive enginecooling or spark plug fouling. The engine should becleared periodically by briefly advancing the throttleto normal cruise power, while adjusting the pitchattitude to maintain a constant airspeed. Preferably,this should be done while headed into the wind tominimize any variation in groundspeed and radiusof turn.

After the throttle is closed and gliding speed isestablished, a gliding spiral should be started and a turnof constant radius maintained around the selected spoton the ground. This will require correction for winddrift by steepening the bank on downwind headingsand shallowing the bank on upwind headings, just as inthe maneuver, turns around a point. During thedescending spiral, the pilot must judge the directionand speed of the wind at different altitudes and makeappropriate changes in the angle of bank to maintain auniform radius.

A constant airspeed should also be maintainedthroughout the maneuver. Failure to hold the airspeedconstant will cause the radius of turn and necessaryangle of bank to vary excessively. On the downwindside of the maneuver, the steeper the bank angle, thelower the pitch attitude must be to maintain a givenairspeed. Conversely, on the upwind side, as the bankangle becomes shallower, the pitch attitude must beraised to maintain the proper airspeed. This isnecessary because the airspeed tends to change as thebank is changed from shallow to steep to shallow.

During practice of the maneuver, the pilot shouldexecute three turns and roll out toward a definite objector on a specific heading. During the rollout,smoothness is essential, and the use of controls mustbe so coordinated that no increase or decrease of speedresults when the straight glide is resumed.

Figure 9-2. Steep spiral.

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9-4

Common errors in the performance of steep spirals are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to maintain constant airspeed.

• Poor coordination, resulting in skidding and/orslipping.

• Inadequate wind drift correction.

• Failure to coordinate the controls so that noincrease/decrease in speed results when straightglide is resumed.

• Failure to scan for other traffic.

• Failure to maintain orientation.

CHANDELLEThe objective of this maneuver is to develop the pilot’scoordination, orientation, planning, and accuracy ofcontrol during maximum performance flight.

A chandelle is a maximum performance climbing turnbeginning from approximately straight-and-levelflight, and ending at the completion of a precise 180°of turn in a wings-level, nose-high attitude at theminimum controllable airspeed. [Figure 9-3] Themaneuver demands that the maximum flightperformance of the airplane be obtained; the airplaneshould gain the most altitude possible for a givendegree of bank and power setting without stalling.

Since numerous atmospheric variables beyond controlof the pilot will affect the specific amount of altitudegained, the quality of the performance of themaneuver is not judged solely on the altitude gain, butby the pilot’s overall proficiency as it pertains to climbperformance for the power/bank combination used,and to the elements of piloting skill demonstrated.

Prior to starting a chandelle, the flaps and gear (ifretractable) should be in the UP position, power set tocruise condition, and the airspace behind and aboveclear of other air traffic. The maneuver should beentered from straight-and-level flight (or a shallowdive) and at a speed no greater than the maximumentry speed recommended by the manufacturer—inmost cases not above the airplane’s designmaneuvering speed (VA).

After the appropriate airspeed and power setting havebeen established, the chandelle is started by smoothlyentering a coordinated turn with an angle of bankappropriate for the airplane being flown. Normally,this angle of bank should not exceed approximately30°. After the appropriate bank is established, aclimbing turn should be started by smoothly applyingback-elevator pressure to increase the pitch attitude ata constant rate and to attain the highest pitch attitudeas 90° of turn is completed. As the climb is initiated inairplanes with fixed-pitch propellers, full throttle maybe applied, but is applied gradually so that themaximum allowable r.p.m. is not exceeded. Inairplanes with constant-speed propellers, power maybe left at the normal cruise setting.

Figure 9-3. Chandelle.

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Once the bank has been established, the angle of bankshould remain constant until 90° of turn is completed.Although the degree of bank is fixed during thisclimbing turn, it may appear to increase and, in fact,actually will tend to increase if allowed to do so as themaneuver continues.

When the turn has progressed 90° from the originalheading, the pilot should begin rolling out of the bankat a constant rate while maintaining a constant-pitchattitude. Since the angle of bank will be decreasingduring the rollout, the vertical component of lift willincrease slightly. For this reason, it may be necessaryto release a slight amount of back-elevator pressure inorder to keep the nose of the airplane from risinghigher.

As the wings are being leveled at the completion of180° of turn, the pitch attitude should be noted bychecking the outside references and the attitudeindicator. This pitch attitude should be heldmomentarily while the airplane is at the minimumcontrollable airspeed. Then the pitch attitude may begently reduced to return to straight-and-levelcruise flight.

Since the airspeed is constantly decreasing throughoutthe maneuver, the effects of engine torque becomemore and more prominent. Therefore, right-rudderpressure is gradually increased to control yaw andmaintain a constant rate of turn and to keep the airplanein coordinated flight. The pilot should maintaincoordinated flight by the feel of pressures beingapplied on the controls and by the ball instrument ofthe turn-and-slip indicator. If coordinated flight isbeing maintained, the ball will remain in the center ofthe race.

To roll out of a left chandelle, the left aileron must belowered to raise the left wing. This creates more dragthan the aileron on the right wing, resulting in atendency for the airplane to yaw to the left. With thelow airspeed at this point, torque effect tries to makethe airplane yaw to the left even more. Thus, there aretwo forces pulling the airplane’s nose to the left—aileron drag and torque. To maintain coordinatedflight, considerable right-rudder pressure is requiredduring the rollout to overcome the effects of ailerondrag and torque.

In a chandelle to the right, when control pressure isapplied to begin the rollout, the aileron on the rightwing is lowered. This creates more drag on that wingand tends to make the airplane yaw to the right. At thesame time, the effect of torque at the lower airspeed iscausing the airplane’s nose to yaw to the left. Thus,aileron drag pulling the nose to the right and torquepulling to the left, tend to neutralize each other. If

excessive left-rudder pressure is applied, the rolloutwill be uncoordinated.

The rollout to the left can usually be accomplishedwith very little left rudder, since the effects of ailerondrag and torque tend to neutralize each other.Releasing some right rudder, which has been appliedto correct for torque, will normally give the same effectas applying left-rudder pressure. When the wingsbecome level and the ailerons are neutralized, theaileron drag disappears. Because of the low airspeedand high power, the effects of torque become the moreprominent force and must continue to be controlledwith rudder pressure.

A rollout to the left is accomplished mainly byapplying aileron pressure. During the rollout,right-rudder pressure should be gradually released, andleft rudder applied only as necessary to maintaincoordination. Even when the wings are level andaileron pressure is released, right-rudder pressure mustbe held to counteract torque and hold the nose straight.

Common errors in the performance of chandelles are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Too shallow an initial bank, resulting in a stall.

• Too steep an initial bank, resulting in failure togain maximum performance.

• Allowing the actual bank to increase after estab-lishing initial bank angle.

• Failure to start the recovery at the 90° point inthe turn.

• Allowing the pitch attitude to increase as thebank is rolled out during the second 90° of turn.

• Removing all of the bank before the 180° pointis reached.

• Nose low on recovery, resulting in too muchairspeed.

• Control roughness.

• Poor coordination (slipping or skidding).

• Stalling at any point during the maneuver.

• Execution of a steep turn instead of a climbingmaneuver.

• Failure to scan for other aircraft.

• Attempting to perform the maneuver byinstrument reference rather than visual reference.

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LAZY EIGHTThe lazy eight is a maneuver designed to developperfect coordination of controls through a wide rangeof airspeeds and altitudes so that certain accuracypoints are reached with planned attitude and airspeed.In its execution, the dive, climb, and turn are allcombined, and the combinations are varied and appliedthroughout the performance range of the airplane. It isthe only standard flight training maneuver duringwhich at no time do the forces on the controlsremain constant.

The lazy eight as a training maneuver has great valuesince constantly varying forces and attitudes arerequired. These forces must be constantly coordinated,due not only to the changing combinations of banks,dives, and climbs, but also to the constantly varyingairspeed. The maneuver helps develop subconsciousfeel, planning, orientation, coordination, and speedsense. It is not possible to do a lazy eight mechanically,because the control pressures required for perfectcoordination are never exactly the same.

This maneuver derives its name from the manner inwhich the extended longitudinal axis of the airplane ismade to trace a flight pattern in the form of a figure 8lying on its side (a lazy 8). [Figure 9-4]

A lazy eight consists of two 180° turns, in oppositedirections, while making a climb and a descent in asymmetrical pattern during each of the turns. At notime throughout the lazy eight is the airplane flownstraight and level; instead, it is rolled directly from onebank to the other with the wings level only at the

moment the turn is reversed at the completion of each180° change in heading.

As an aid to making symmetrical loops of the 8 duringeach turn, prominent reference points should beselected on the horizon. The reference points selectedshould be 45°, 90°, and 135° from the direction inwhich the maneuver is begun.

Prior to performing a lazy eight, the airspace behindand above should be clear of other air traffic. Themaneuver should be entered from straight-and-levelflight at normal cruise power and at the airspeedrecommended by the manufacturer or at the airplane’sdesign maneuvering speed.

The maneuver is started from level flight with agradual climbing turn in the direction of the 45°reference point. The climbing turn should be plannedand controlled so that the maximum pitch-up attitudeis reached at the 45° point. The rate of rolling into thebank must be such as to prevent the rate of turn frombecoming too rapid. As the pitch attitude is raised, theairspeed decreases, causing the rate of turn to increase.Since the bank also is being increased, it too causesthe rate of turn to increase. Unless the maneuver isbegun with a slow rate of roll, the combination ofincreasing pitch and increasing bank will cause therate of turn to be so rapid that the 45° reference pointwill be reached before the highest pitch attitudeis attained.

At the 45° point, the pitch attitude should be atmaximum and the angle of bank continuing to

Figure 9-4. Lazy eight.

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increase. Also, at the 45° point, the pitch attitudeshould start to decrease slowly toward the horizon andthe 90° reference point. Since the airspeed is stilldecreasing, right-rudder pressure will have to beapplied to counteract torque.

As the airplane’s nose is being lowered toward the 90°reference point, the bank should continue to increase.Due to the decreasing airspeed, a slight amount ofopposite aileron pressure may be required to preventthe bank from becoming too steep. When the airplanecompletes 90° of the turn, the bank should be at themaximum angle (approximately 30°), the airspeedshould be at its minimum (5 to 10 knots above stallspeed), and the airplane pitch attitude should bepassing through level flight. It is at this time that animaginary line, extending from the pilot’s eye andparallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane, passesthrough the 90° reference point.

Lazy eights normally should be performed with nomore than approximately a 30° bank. Steeper banksmay be used, but control touch and technique must bedeveloped to a much higher degree than when themaneuver is performed with a shallower bank.

The pilot should not hesitate at this point but shouldcontinue to fly the airplane into a descending turn sothat the airplane’s nose describes the same size loopbelow the horizon as it did above. As the pilot’s

reference line passes through the 90° point, the bankshould be decreased gradually, and the airplane’s noseallowed to continue lowering. When the airplane hasturned 135°, the nose should be in its lowest pitchattitude. The airspeed will be increasing during thisdescending turn, so it will be necessary to graduallyrelax rudder and aileron pressure and tosimultaneously raise the nose and roll the wings level.As this is being accomplished, the pilot should note theamount of turn remaining and adjust the rate of rolloutand pitch change so that the wings become level andthe original airspeed is attained in level flight just asthe 180° point is reached. Upon returning to thestarting altitude and the 180° point, a climbing turnshould be started immediately in the opposite directiontoward the selected reference points to complete thesecond half of the eight in the same manner as the firsthalf. [Figure 9-5]

Due to the decreasing airspeed, considerable right-rudder pressure is gradually applied to counteracttorque at the top of the eight in both the right and leftturns. The pressure will be greatest at the point oflowest airspeed.

More right-rudder pressure will be needed during theclimbing turn to the right than in the turn to the leftbecause more torque correction is needed to preventyaw from decreasing the rate of turn. In the leftclimbing turn, the torque will tend to contribute to the

90° POINT1. BANK APPROX 30°2. MINIMUM SPEED3. MAXIMUM ALTITUDE4. LEVEL PITCH ATTITUDE

135° POINT1. MAX. PITCH-DOWN2. BANK 15°(APPROX.)

45° POINT1. MAX. PITCH-UP ATTITUDE2. BANK 15° (APPROX.)

ENTRY:1. LEVEL FLIGHT2. MANEUVERING OR CRUISE SPEED WHICHEVER IS LESS OR MANUFACTURER'S RECOMMENDED SPEED.

180° POINT 1. LEVEL FLIGHT2. ENTRY AIRSPEED3. ALTITUDE SAME AS ENTRY ALTITUDE

Figure 9-5. Lazy eight.

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turn; consequently, less rudder pressure is needed. Itwill be noted that the controls are slightly crossed inthe right climbing turn because of the need for leftaileron pressure to prevent overbanking and rightrudder to overcome torque.

The correct power setting for the lazy eight is thatwhich will maintain the altitude for the maximum andminimum airspeeds used during the climbs anddescents of the eight. Obviously, if excess power wereused, the airplane would have gained altitude when themaneuver is completed; if insufficient power wereused, altitude would have been lost.

Common errors in the performance of lazy eights are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Using the nose, or top of engine cowl, instead ofthe true longitudinal axis, resulting inunsymmetrical loops.

• Watching the airplane instead of thereference points.

• Inadequate planning, resulting in the peaks of theloops both above and below the horizon notcoming in the proper place.

• Control roughness, usually caused by attemptsto counteract poor planning.

• Persistent gain or loss of altitude with thecompletion of each eight.

• Attempting to perform the maneuverrhythmically, resulting in poor patternsymmetry.

• Allowing the airplane to “fall” out of the tops ofthe loops rather than flying the airplane throughthe maneuver.

• Slipping and/or skidding.

• Failure to scan for other traffic.

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