f4 (1)

Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.7 (1), January 2009 19

www.world-food.netJournal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.7 (1) : 19-23. 2009

WFL PublisherScience and Technology

Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980

Helsinki, Finland

e-mail: [email protected]

Evaluation of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) production in Italy: Effects of the age of

saffron fields and plant density

Olindo Temperini 1*, Roberto Rea 2, Andrea Temperini 1, Giuseppe Colla 1 and Youssef Rouphael 3*

1Dipartimento di Geologia e Ingegneria Meccanica, Naturalistica e Idraulica per il Territorio, Università della Tuscia, 01100

Viterbo, Italy. 2ARSIAL, Agenzia Regionale per lo Sviluppo e l’Innovazione dell’Agricoltura del Lazio, Roma. 3Department of

Crop Production, Faculty of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, Lebanese University, Dekwaneh-Al Maten, Lebanon.*e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Received 3 October 2008, accepted 20 December 2008.

Abstract

In order to establish profitable saffron (Crocus sativus L.) crops in the Mediterranean countries, information on cultural management factors such as

the lifespan and the optimal plant density is needed. Two experiments were conducted, one for four consecutive years 2003-2006 (Experiment 1) and

another in 2004 (Experiment 2) at the experimental station of ARSIAL located in Alvito (Frosinone), central Italy, to investigate the effect of the age

of saffron fields (one, two, three or four years) and the influence of plant density [three low density (P1 76, P2 91 and P3 93 corms m-2), three medium

density (P4 111, P5 114 and P6 119 corms m-2) and three high density (P7 139, P8 143 and P9 179 corms m-2)] on the productivity of saffron under

open-field conditions. The saffron grew, flowered and produced successfully when the two-year crop cycle was adopted, whereas in the three-year

treatment the spice yield was lower and declined drastically after four years. Yields of saffron recorded in the current experiment were 7.2, 15.2, 11.3

and 3.3 kg ha-1 for the one-, two-, three- and four-year cycle treatments, respectively. The number of flowers per square metre observed in the two-

and three-year treatments (avg. 370) was significantly higher by 112% and 174% in comparison with the number of flowers recorded in the annual

and four-year treatments, respectively. The highest dry spice was observed in the two medium (P4 and P6) and the three high density treatments (P7,

P8 and P9), followed by the P5 treatment, while the lowest dry spice was recorded in the low density treatments (P1, P2 and especially P3). The

number of flowers per square metre observed in the high density treatments (avg. 218) was significantly higher by 10% and 28% in comparison with

the number of flowers recorded in the medium and low density, respectively. Unless corms can be purchased at markedly lower prices, farmers are

recommended to plant corms at medium density due to the similar spice yield and the highest daughter corms produced in comparison with high

density treatments. The results show that in a Mediterranean environment appropriate crop techniques (e.g. lifespan and plant density) can improve

the quantitative characteristics of saffron.

Key words: Corms, Crocus sativus L., flowers, lifespan, plant density, spice yield.

Introduction

Saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L.) has been cultivated in the

Mediterranean basin since the late Bronze Age 1, 2. Its long scarlet

stigmas were highly valued for flavoring foods and for coloring

them golden-yellow. They were also used for dying textiles. The

appreciation for saffron as a food additive continues today and it

has become the world’s highest priced spice 3. There is also a long

tradition of saffron use in the traditional medicine of many

cultures 4, 5. More recently, there has been increasing interest in

the biological effects of the components of saffron and their

potential medical applications, particularly those based on their

cytotoxic, anticarcinogenic and antitumor properties 6, 7. Despite

these apparently bright prospects, there was a marked reduction

in saffron production during the last three decades in some of the

traditional countries, such as Italy, Spain and Greece 2, 8, 9. This

reduction in production has been most marked in Italy, a country

rightly considered in the near past as one of the leading producing

countries in Europe, where the land area devoted to saffron

cultivation was drastically reduced. The main reason for this

reduction in production are the increasing labor costs that have

turned saffron production unprofitable despite its high market

price, add to that the lack of information on the cultural practices

in saffron production since the technology of saffron has not

changed from the ancient times 9.

Among the cultural management factors affecting saffron

production, the age of saffron fields and the plant density usually

have large and predominant influences. In Khorasan province at

northeast Iran, Mollafilabi 10 found that shortening the average

age of saffron fields from 8 to 4-5 years, significantly increased

the agronomic performance of saffron. Moreover, in a recent study

carried out in the Bekaa valley of Lebanon, Yau and Nimah 11

indicated that the 20 cm × 20 cm spacing gave heavier corms and

higher flower numbers and red stigma yield per corm cluster than

the 20 cm × 10 cm and 10 cm × 10 cm spacing. However, the most

appropriate management techniques for the best quantitative and

qualitative traits in Mediterranean areas have not been defined,

and it is also necessary to explore the transferability of results of

experimentation carried out in environments with very different

climates (e.g. India, Iran and Lebanon). To our knowledge, the

lifespan and the optimal plant density of saffron crocus in cooler

Mediterranean areas, like central Italy, is currently unknown. In

20 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.7 (1), January 2009

order to establish profitable saffron crops in the Mediterranean

countries, information on new methods of cultivation is needed.

Taking into account that saffron may represent for the

Mediterranean environment an alternative crop with considerable

potential for improved exploitation of marginal lands 9, two

experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of the age

of saffron fields (1 to 4 years) and plant density (low, medium and

high) on the productivity of saffron under open-field conditions.

Materials and Methods

Experimental site and climatic data: Two experiments were

conducted, one for four consecutive years 2003-2006 (Experiment

1) and another in 2004 (Experiment 2) at the experimental station

of ARSIAL located in Alvito (Frosinone), central Italy. The soil

was a loamy clay soil (bulk density 1.1 g·cm-3, pH 7.7, organic

matter 1.8%, available P 88 mg·kg-1, exchangeable K 3180 mg·kg-1,

with a textural analysis of 6% sand, 48% silt and 46% clay). Alvito

has a well-defined hot and dry season from May to August and a

very cold one for the remainder of the year. Average seasonal rain

is 1200 mm, with 90% of the rain occurring between September

and April. Table 1 summarizes the monthly climate data during the

four growing seasons.

Crop management and experimental design: The soil was under

fallow for the last two consecutive years and was prepared using

a moldboard plow, disk harrow, leveler and furrower, respectively.

No fertilizer was applied, though an equivalent of 30 t ha-1 animal

manure was mixed with soil during the seedbed preparations. In

Experiment 1 (age of saffron fields experiment) saffron corms (mean

weight 35 g) were purchased from “Cooperativa Altopiano di

Navelli” located in Civitaretenga (Aquila-Italy) in August 2003.

To guard against possible fungal or bacterial diseases before

planting, the corms were dipped for 5 minutes in a solution of 20 g

Benlate® and 10 g Captan® mixed in 10 litres of water. Corms were

planted immediately after their arrival on 18 August, at a depth of

15 cm and at a density of 111 corms m-2 (18 cm between rows and

5 cm between corms in row). Total plot size was 1.65 m-2 and

consisted of 5 rows. A 2 cm layer of untreated sawdust was applied

as mulch after planting and topped up during the dormant period

each year. Weeding was done by hand. In the following years

(2004, 2005 and 2006), the saffron corms were planted during the

same period (August) near the previous plots following the same

crop management as in 2003. A randomized complete block design

with three replicates was used to compare the influence of the age

of saffron fields of one, two, three or four years.

In Experiment 2 (plant density experiment), the saffron corms

were planted on 20 August 2004 following the same cultural

practices adopted in Experiment 1. Corms were grown at three

between-row distances (14, 18 or 22 cm) and three within-row

plant distances (4, 5 or 6 cm) giving a nine plant density treatments:

three low density (P1 76, P2 91 and P3 93 corms m-2), three medium

density (P4 111, P5 114 and P6 119 corms m-2) and three high

density (P7 139, P8 143 and P9 179 corms m-2). Each experimental

unit consisted of 5 rows. The experimental design was completely

randomized with three replicates for each density.

Data collection: In Experiment 1, flowers were harvested every

1-2 days except when it rained in all treatments (one, two, three or

four year’s crop cycle) from 14 October to 13 November 2006.

Whole, fully-open flowers were plucked by hand close to ground

level after any moisture had dried. Stigmas were removed from the

flowers on the same day with fingernails, leaving the yellow stalk

behind. Collected stigmas were dried in an oven at 30ºC for 24

hours 12. Pale-colored parts of the style were not collected, so the

product had an even, glossy, dark-red color. Total number of flowers

harvested and the dry weights of collected stigmas were recorded.

In Experiment 2, flowers were harvested every 1-2 days for each

density treatment from 23 October to 18 November 2004. Flower

numbers and the dry weights of red stigmas were recorded.

Moreover, corms were dug up and the total number of corms per

square metre was recorded.

Statistical analysis: All data were statistically analyzed by

analysis of variance using the SPSS software package (SPSS 10

for Windows, 2001). Duncan’s multiple range test was performed

at P = 0.05 on each of the variables measured.

Results and Discussion

Age of saffron field trial: The spice yield was significantly affected

by the age of saffron fields. The highest dry spice was observed

in the two-year cycle, followed by the three- and one-year cycle,

while the lowest saffron yield was recorded on four-year planting

treatment with a reduction of 78% compared to the two-year cycle

(Fig. 1A). The number of flowers per square metre observed in the

two- and three-year treatments (avg. 370) was significantly higher

by 112% and 174% in comparison with the number of flowers

recorded in the annual and four-year treatments, respectively, with

no significant differences between the two- and three-year

treatments (Fig. 1B). Moreover, the stigmas mean dry weight was

significantly higher in the one- and two-year cycle (avg. 7.1 mg)

in comparison to the three- and four-year treatments (avg. 5.7

mg). Finally the lowest spice yield recorded in the three-year cycle

in comparison to the two-year treatment was due to a reduction in

the stigmas mean dry weight and not to the number of flowers per

square metre, whereas the lower saffron yield in the four-year

treatment was mainly attributed to a reduction in both stigmas

mean dry weight and the number of flowers per square metre.

A wide range of yields has been reported from various countries

under different growing conditions. Yields are strongly influenced

by environment and cultural methods, e.g. irrigation and

fertilization. The average yield kg ha-1 is 2-2.5 in Morocco, 6-29 in

Spain13, 14, 4-7 in Greece 12 and 2-7 in India 13. We have calculated

our production using a system of beds, 0.7 m wide, planted at a

density of 111 corms m-2 with lane ways, 0.6 m wide, between beds

to allow access and ease hand picking, i.e. 57% of the total land

area planted in crop. Using this system, yields of saffron recorded

in the current experiment were 7.2, 15.2, 11.3 and 3.3 kg ha-1 for the

one-, two-, three- and four-year cycle treatments, respectively.

In Italy, annual planting of saffron crocus is widely adopted

among farmers, whereas in other traditional producer countries

such as Iran, saffron farms are kept up to 10 years 2, 15, 16. So the

optimal lifespan of saffron crocus in Italy is currently unknown

but with good management the present study indicates that saffron

grew, flowered and produced successfully when the two-year crop

cycle was adopted, whereas in the three-year treatment the spice

yield was lower and declined drastically after four years. Reduced

yields in the three- and especially four-year treatment were not

because of disease problems, as no pests or diseases were


observed, and plants appeared healthy in the four years. The

decline in spice production in the four-year treatment could be

related to overcrowding and associated competition for water and

nutrients.

Plant density trial: The spice yield was significantly affected by

plant density. The highest dry spice was observed in two medium

(P4 and P6) and three high density treatments (P7, P8 and P9),

followed by P5 treatment, while the lowest dry spice was recorded

in the low density treatments (P1, P2 and especially P3; Table 2).

The number of flowers per square metre observed in the high

density treatments (avg. 218) was significantly higher by 10%

and 28% in comparison with the number of flowers recorded in

the medium and low density, respectively (Table 2). Moreover, no

significant difference among treatments was observed for the

stigmas mean dry weight (avg. 7.5 mg flower-1). Finally, the density

of planting had significant effect on the total number of corms

References1Zohary, D. and Hopf, M. 1994. Domestication of Plants in the Old

World. 2nd edn. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 2Negbi, M. 1999. Saffron cultivation: past, present and future prospects.

In Negbi, M. (ed.). Saffron: Crocus sativus L. Harwood Academic

Publishers, Australia, pp. 1-18. 3Winterhalter, P. and Straubinger, M. 2000. Saffron: Renewed interest in

an ancient specie. Food Rev. Int. 16:39-59.4Abdullaev, F.I. 1993. Biological effects of saffron. Biofactors 4:83-86.5Ma, X.Q., Zhu, D.Y., Li, S.P., Dong, T.T.X. and Tsim, K.W.K. 2001.

Authentic indentification of stigma croci (stigma of Crocus sativus)

from its adulterants by molecular genetics analysis. Planta Med. 67:

183-186.6Abdullaev, F.I. and Frenkel, G.D. 1999. Saffron in biological and medical

research. In Negbi, M. (ed.). Saffron: Crocus sativus L. Harwood

Academic Publishers, Australia, pp. 103-114.

0

1

2

3

4

Saff

ron

dry

wei

gh

t (

g m

-2)

500

400

300

200

100

0

Nu

mb

er o

f fl

ow

ers

(no. m

-2)

Figure 1. The effect of the age of saffron fields on the dry weight of

saffron (A), the number of flowers (B) and the stigmas mean dry weight

(C). Data are means of three replicates. Vertical bars indicate ± SE of

means. Columns marked with the same lower case letter are not

significantly different based on Duncan’s test (P = 0.05).

Age of saffron fields (years)

A

c

a

b

d

1 3 4 2

B

b

aa

c

1 4 32



1 2 3 4

C

aa

bb

0

2

4

6

8

10

Sti

gm

as

mea

n d

ry w

eigh

t(m

g f

low

er-1)

produced at the end of the cultural cycle, with the highest number

recorded under medium densities (avg. 323), followed by those

observed in high density treatments (avg. 295), whereas the

number of corms under the low density treatments was markedly

lower (avg. 243).

The highest stigma yield recorded in the current experiment with

medium density (111-119 corms m-2) and especially with high

density (139-179 corms m-2). Also in a single-year study in Spain

planting at high density gave the highest spice yield 17. It was

pointed out that if the corms were planted in higher densities,

saffron yield would be increased in the first one or two years, but

would soon become overcrowded and need to be dug up and

replanted earlier 18, 19.

Since corms are expensive, farmers should initially maximize

flower production from each planted corm, instead of maximizing

production per unit area. Keeping in mind that digging up the

corms and replanting them every one or two years is labor intensive

and costly, they should plant the corms in a medium density.

Later, they may plant at higher densities to maximize the stigma

yield per unit area when the corms become relatively inexpensive

and in abundant supply.

In the initial stage of saffron cultivation in central Italy,

multiplication of corms by the farmers themselves will be as or

even more important than flower and stigma production. This is

because corms are expensive and need to be imported. As a cheaper

alternative, farmers may multiply corms for the expansion of their

cultivation areas. They may also sell the corms to other farmers.

Whether farmers aim to produce flowers (stigma production) or

corms, results of this study suggest that they should plant the

corms at the medium density.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated clearly that under a Mediterranean

environment, cultural management factors such as the age of the

saffron fields and the plant density have large and predominant

influence on saffron production. The highest saffron yield and

the number of flowers was recorded when the two-year crop cycle

was adopted, whereas in the three-year treatment the spice yield

was lower and declined drastically after four years. The results

also indicate, that farmers should plant corms at medium density

(111-119 corms m-2) due to the similar spice yield and the highest

daughter corms produced in comparison with high density (139-

179 corms m-2) treatments.

22 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.7 (1), January 2009

7Fernández Pérez, J.A. and Escribano Martínez, J. 2000. Biotecnología

del azafrán. Ediciones del la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha,

Cuenca.8Molina, R.V., Valero, M., Navarro, Y., García-Luis, A. and Guardiola,

J.L. 2005. Low temperature storage of corms extends the flowering

season of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). J. Hort. Sci. Biotechnol. 80:

319-326.9Gresta, F., Lombardo, G.M., Siracusa, L. and Ruberto, G. 2008. Saffron,

an alternative crop for sustainable agricultural systems. A review. Agron.

Sustain. Dev. 28:95-112. 10Mollafilabi, A. 2004. Experimental findings of production and echo

physiological aspects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Acta Hort. 650:

195-200.11Yau, S.K. and Nimah, M. 2004. Spacing effects on corm and flower

production of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Leb. Sci. J. 5:13-20.12McGimpsey, J.A., Douglas, M.H. and Wallace, A.R. 1997. Evaluation

of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) production in New Zealand. New Zeal.

J. Hort. Sci. 25:159-168.13Sampathu, S.R., Shivashankar, S. and Lewis, Y.S. 1984. Saffron (Crocus

sativus L.) cultivation processing, chemistry and standardization. CRC

Critical Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 20:123-157.14Dhar, A.K., Sapru, R. and Rekha, K. 1988. Studies on saffron in Kashmir.

1. Variation in natural population and its cytological behaviour. Crop

Improvement 15:48-52.15Behnia, M.R. 1991. Saffron Cultivation. Teheran University Press,

Teheran. 16Kafi, M., Rashed, M.H., Koocheki, A. and Mollafilabi, A. 2002. Saffron

(Crocus sativus L.), Production and Processing. Center of Excellence

for Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of

Mashhad, Iran. 17Juan, J.A., de Moya, A., Lopez, S., Botella, O., Lopez, H. and Munoz,

R. 2003. Influence of the corm size and the density of planting on the

yield and quality of corm produced in Crocus sativus L. Production

Vegetal 99:169-180.18McGimpsey, J.A. 1993. Saffron - Crocus sativus.Crop & Food Research

Broadsheet No. 20, 4 p. 19Ait-Oubahou, A. and El-Otmani, M. 1999. Saffron cultivation in

Marocco. In Negbi, M. (ed.). Saffron: Crocus sativus L. Harwood

Academic Publisher, pp. 87-94.


Tab

le 1

. Min

imum

, mea

n a

nd m

axim

um

air

tem

per

ature

and to

tal r

ainfa

ll p

revai

led d

uri

ng th

e fo

ur

gro

win

g s

easo

ns

(2003-2

006).

Ja

n

Feb

M

ar

Apr

May

Ju

n

Jul

Aug

Sep

O

ct

Nov

Dec

A

ve/

tot

20

03

Min

. ai

r te

mp

erat

ure

(°C

) -2

.0

-4.7

0.3

-2

.3

9.4

14.1

17.0

15.4

11.8

6.6

2.5

-1

.8

5.5

Mea

n a

ir t

emper

atu

re (

°C)

8.1

6

.0

10

.6

14

.0

21.0

2

5.5

27

.0

27.7

2

0.7

16

.5

13.2

8

.4

16

.5

Max

. ai

r te

mper

ature

(°C

) 18.9

13.9

23.2

29.4

34.3

38.4

39.4

41.2

32.7

29.8

25.0

21.0

28.9

Rai

n (

mm

) 2

17

.8

37.3

46

.8

71

.7

16.4

6

4.9

28

.0

22.9

8

9.7

17

0.6

1

41

.7

15

7.2

1

06

5.0

20

04

Min

. ai

r te

mp

erat

ure

(°C

) -0

.7

2.5

2

.3

8.9

9

.7

14

.1

15

.7

16.5

1

3.2

13

.0

4.9

4

.4

8.7

Mea

n a

ir t

emper

ature

(°C

) 6.5

8.5

10.2

13.6

16.1

22.1

25.2

25.3

21.5

18.7

12.4

11.0

15.9

Max

. ai

r te

mper

ature

(°C

) 13.8

15.3

19.2

21.8

24.6

32.4

34.6

34.5

33.6

28.0

21.9

18.9

24.9

Rai

n (

mm

) 1

24

.6

20

1.9

15

4.0

1

32

.7

13

5.2

3

6.8

28

.7

20.4

5

7.1

99

.4

201

.0

20

2.2

1

39

4.0

20

05

Min

. ai

r te

mp

erat

ure

(°C

) 0.5

-0

.6

-0.1

7.0

11.1

14.7

17.4

16.6

14.0

10.8

3.3

1.0

8.0

Mea

n a

ir t

emper

atu

re (

°C)

5.7

5

.8

10

.4

13

.7

20.1

2

3.9

26

.0

23.7

2

1.0

16

.6

11.5

7

.4

15

.5

Max

. ai

r te

mper

ature

(°C

) 13.8

12.7

21.6

24.2

32.2

36.2

37.7

33.7

32.1

25.7

22.8

14.2

25.6

Rai

n (

mm

) 53

.5

86.9

12

5.5

1

26

.4

19.2

6

9.8

29

.8

30.3

18

1.3

16

1.1

2

74

.5

20

1.7

1

36

0.0

20

06

Min

. ai

r te

mp

erat

ure

(°C

) 0.5

1

.7

4.0

8.2

9

.6

9.7

18

.5

17.6

1

4.4

13

.0

2.0

1

.0

8.4

Mea

n a

ir t

emper

atu

re (

°C)

6.5

7

.9

10

.0

15

.0

19.5

2

2.4

26

.6

24.2

2

2.2

16

.6

12.0

8

.0

15

.9

Max

. ai

r te

mper

ature

(°C

) 13.0

14.7

20.5

23.6

31.3

38.0

38.3

34.5

35.0

30.0

23.0

19.0

26.7

Rai

n (

mm

) 1

07

.3

12

8.5

10

9.5

68

.0

30.9

4

3.6

28

.6

37.9

13

3.6

15

0.0

1

89

.0

17

8.0

1

20

4.9

Tab

le 2

. The

effe

ct o

f pla

nt den

sity

on the

dry

wei

ght sa

ffro

n, th

e num

ber

s of

flow

ers,

the

stig

mas

mea

n d

ry w

eight (D

W)

and the

tota

l num

ber

of

corm

s. D

ata

are

mea

ns

of

thre

e re

pli

cate

s.

Colu

mns

mar

ked

wit

h the

sam

e lo

wer

cas

e ar

e not si

gnif

ican

tly d

iffe

rent bas

ed o

n D

unca

n’s

test

(P

= 0

.05).

Pla

nt

den

sity

(pla

nts

m-2

)

Dry

wei

gh

t sa

ffro

n

(g m

-2)

Nu

mb

er o

f fl

ow

ers

(no

. m

-2)

Sti

gm

as m

ean

DW

(mg

flo

wer

-1)

Nu

mb

er o

f co

rms

(no. m

-2)

7

6 (

P1)

1.0

9 d

14

5.9

c

7.5

0 a

23

6 c

9

1 (

P2

) 1

.21

c

16

1.6

c

7.4

8 a

2

41

c

9

3 (

P3

) 1

.20

c

16

2.2

c

7.4

1 a

2

54

c

111

(P

4)

1

.52

ab

20

0.8

b

7.5

9 a

31

7 a

114

(P

5)

1.4

3 b

19

9.3

b

7.2

3 a

31

9 a

119

(P

6)

1

.53

ab

20

1.0

b

7.6

9 a

33

2 a

139

(P

7)

1.6

0 a

21

4.9

a

7.4

6 a

2

90

b

143

(P

8)

1.7

0 a

22

1.9

a

7.6

6 a

2

99

b

179

(P

9)

1.6

5 a

21

9.5

a

7.5

0 a

2

97

b

f4 (1)

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Transcript of f4 (1)