F l Effi i IFuel Efficiency In Transportation SystemsTransportation Systems

Dr. John M. SeinerDr. John M. SeinerNational Center for Physical AcousticsP f f M h i l E i iProfessor of Mechanical Engineering

The University of Mississippi

Outline of Lecture

The Issue Global Warming Motivation forThe Issue – Global Warming, Motivation for Transportation EfficiencyCarbon Emissions by Light Duty VehiclesCarbon Emissions by Light Duty VehiclesAlternate Engine ConceptsAlt t F lAlternate FuelsAlternate Power SourcesRole of Aerodynamic Efficiency

The Issue

Milankovitch cyclesCaused by gravitational attractionbetween planets of the solar systemand Earth due to changes in theeccentricity of the Earth’s orbit,obliquity of the Earth’s axis andprecession of the Earth’s axis ofrotation.

•Wobble Cycles 19,000 & 23,000 Yrs.obb e Cyc es 9,000 & 3,000 s•Tilt Cycle 41,000 Yrs.•Earth Orbit 100,000 & 400,000 Yrs.

Below a chart showing CO & temperatureBelow a chart showing CO2 & temperatureOf Antarctica Ice Surface by year.

National Geographic, September, 2004

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Fossil Fuel Combustion Sources of CO2

Note: Pre-Industrial Levels 260-280 ppm CO2 eq.

(% contributions for 2000–2004)•Solid fuels (e.g. coal): 35% •Liquid fuels (e.g. gasoline): 36% •Gaseous fuels (e g natural gas): 20%•Gaseous fuels (e.g. natural gas): 20% •Flaring gas industrially and at wells: <1% •Cement production: 3% •Non-fuel hydrocarbons: <1%

IPCC AR4, 2007

•Shipping and air transport: 4%

Source: Wikipedia, Global Fossil Fuel Emissions

Artic Sea Ice Extent & ThicknessNOAA Projected Artic Changes

In a typical year, the daily rate of ice loss starts to slow in August as the Arctic begins to cool. By contrast, in August 2008, the daily decline rate remained steadily downward and strong.

Source: National Snow & Ice Data Center

Quote From Tim Flannery:Quote From Tim Flannery:“The Weather Makers: How Man Is Changingthe Climate And What It Means for Life Onthe Climate And What It Means for Life On Earth”

“To stay below the threshold for melting ofthe ice sheets in Greenland and Westthe ice sheets in Greenland and WestAntarctica, we need to reduce CO2emissions by 80% and achieve a diet of noemissions by 80% and achieve a diet of nomore than 30 pounds of CO2 per personper day.”per day.

C b E i i b Li ht D tCarbon Emissions by Light Duty Vehicles

US Transportation Energy Book DataUS Transportation Energy Book Data((((US Dept. of Energy, June 2008)US Dept. of Energy, June 2008)

Transport ModeAverage

Passengers EfficiencyPer PassengerPer Vehicle Per Passenger

Vanpool 6.1 1322 BTU/mi 2.7 L/100 km (87 MPGeUS)

Motorcycles 1.2 1855 BTU/mi 3.8 L/100 km (62 MPGeUS)

Rail (Amtrak) 20 5 2650 BTU/mi 5 4 L/100 km (43 MPGe )Rail (Amtrak) 20.5 2650 BTU/mi 5.4 L/100 km (43 MPGeUS)

Rail (Transit Light & Heavy) 22.5 2784 BTU/mi 5.7 L/100 km (41 MPGeUS)

Rail (Commuter) 31.3 2996 BTU/mi 6.1 L/100 km (38 MPGeUS)

Air 96.2 3261 BTU/mi 6.7 L/100 km (35 MPGeUS)Air 96.2 3261 BTU/mi 6.7 L/100 km (35 MPGeUS)

Cars 1.57 3512 BTU/mi 7.2 L/100 km (33 MPGeUS)

Personal Trucks 1.72 3944 BTU/mi 8.1 L/100 km (29 MPGeUS)

Buses (Transit) 8.8 4235 BTU/mi 8.7 L/100 km (27 MPGeUS)

Bicycling - 653 PMPG Cruise Ship - 17 PMPGW lki 235 PMPG G lf t G550 16 PMPG

Passenger Miles Per Gallon (PMPG)

Walking - 235 PMPG Gulfstream G550 - 16 PMPG

Global Fossil Carbon Emissions by Economic Sector

Source: DeCicco et. al., Global Warming on the Road

US Crude Oil Imports Per DayUS Crude Oil Imports Per Day25 Th d B l i FY 200625 Th d B l i FY 200625 Thousand Barrels in FY 200625 Thousand Barrels in FY 2006

Sources of US Oil Imports Product Distribution FrompNote: US Produces 4 Million per Day a Barrel of Oil

Note: 42 gallons of crude oil per barrelSource: Gibson Consulting

Consumption of Petro Products Consumption of Petro Products (Thousand Barrels Per Day) (Thousand Barrels Per Day)

2003 2004 2005 2006

North America 24207.13 25045.96 25220.97 25070.75

Central & South America 5195.683 5349.07 5481.752 5691.713

Eurasia 3910.225 4040.797 4158.806 4197.5

Middle East 5286 231 5539 414 5808 184 6065 3Middle East 5286.231 5539.414 5808.184 6065.3

Africa 2715.094 2819.461 2972.248 2984.93

Asia & Oceania 22158.91 23353.17 23940.05 24526.12

World 79660.39 82407.67 84004.87 84979.39World 79660.39 82407.67 84004.87 84979.39

Energy Information Administration

Factors Determining Auto Sector CO2 Emissions

Travel Demand (2 6 x 1012 miles/year)Travel Demand (2.6 x 1012 miles/year)Fuel Use Rate (51 gallons/1000 miles)Fuel Carbon Content (5.3 pounds of carbon/gallon)

Note: FY 2004 US Auto Sector ResultsNote: FY 2004 US Auto Sector Results Where 314 MMTc Were Emitted

Source: DeCicco et. al., Global Warming on the Road

Amount of CO2 Emitted Per Gallon2

Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR 600.113):Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR 600.113):Gasoline carbon content per gallon: 2,421 gramsDiesel carbon content per gallon: 2,778 grams

To calculate CO2 emissions from a gallon of fuel, carbon emissions are multiplied by the ratio of the molecular weight of CO2 (m.w. 44) to themolecular weight of carbon (m.w.): 44/12.molecular weight of carbon (m.w.): 44/12.

CO2 emissions from a gallon of gasoline = 2,421 grams X 0.99 X (44/12)=8,788 grams = 8.8 kg/gallon = 19.4 pounds/gallon.

CO2 emissions from a gallon of diesel = 2,778 grams X 0.99 X (44/12)=10084 grams = 10.1 kg/gallon = 22.2 pounds/gallon.

Conventional Automotive Engine CyclesConventional Automotive Engine CyclesIdealized Thermo Cycle

4-Stroke SI EngineIdealized Thermo Cycle

4-Stroke CI Engine4-Stroke Engine Concept

The four-stroke enginewas first patented by

Otto Cycle Pv Diagram, Diesel Cycle Pv Diagram,

was first patented byEugenio Barsanti andFelice Matteucci in 1854.The two-stroke cycle wasP t t d b D ld Cl k Otto Cycle Pv Diagram,

Nicolaus Otto, 1876Diesel Cycle Pv Diagram,

Rudolph Diesel, 1892Patented by Dugald ClerkIn 1878.

Obert, Internal Combustion Engines, 1970Cycle Pad Design Library

Ideal Otto Cycle

21

47984712 NOHCONOHC ++→++

Stoichiometric Combustion of Gasoline with AIR

22222188 47984712 NOHCONOHC ++→++

( )( )

23

TTcQTTcQ vArev

=−=

11 111 −−=−=

+= γη RA

t TT

QQQ

( )41 TTcQ vRrev −= 2γvA rTQ

Note: rv is the engine compression ratio

Example: r = 8, Ta = 5400R, Pa = 14.7 psia 11 565.0

81111 4.01 =−=−= −γη

vt r or 56.5%

Factoring in transmission & drive train overall gas power auto efficiency 17%

Obert, Internal Combustion Engines, 1970

Ideal Diesel Cycle( )( )41

23

TTcQTTcQ

vRrev

vArev

−=−=

⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛

1

4

2

3

TT

TT

γ

Since,

( )⎥⎦⎤

⎢⎣

⎡−−

−=⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛−−

⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛−=

+= − 1

11111 123

14

rr

rTTTT

QQQ

vA

RAt γγ

ηγ

γ

2 3 A diesel engine takes in just air, compresses it and

r = 25, ηt = 0.264

2 3

4

A diesel engine takes in just air, compresses it andthen injects fuel into the compressed air. The heatof the compressed air lights the fuel spontaneously.

N t 1 147000 BTU/ l f Di l

1

4 Note1: 147000 BTU/gal of Diesel125000 BTU/gal of Gasoline

Note2: Diesel is 30 to 35 % more efficient than gasgpowered vehicles, but strongly dependent onvehicle load.

Obert, Internal Combustion Engines, 1970

Fuel Economy of Gasoline & Diesel

Note:Rudoff Diesel Originallyg yEnvisioned Running HisEngine on Vegetable Oil

Crown’s Diesel Repair ManuelCrown s Diesel Repair Manuel

Source: From the fryer to the fuel tankBy Joshua Tickel,ISBN 0-9707227-0-2 2003

The Volkswagen Jetta with 1.9 liter turbo directinjection Diesel engine gets 50 mpg on the highwayISBN 0-9707227-0-2, 2003 injection Diesel engine gets 50 mpg on the highway.

Alternate Engine ConceptsAlternate Engine Concepts

Turbine Powered Auto’sTurbine Powered Auto s

1963 Chrysler Turbine 1959 Plymouth1963 Chrysler Turbine 1959 PlymouthTurbine

1964 Chrysler Turbine Car Specifications• 130 horsepower at 3,600 rpm; 425 lb-ft of torque at zero rpm!• Weight: 410 lb - 25 inches long, 25.5 inches wide, 27.5 inches

tall.• Fuel requirements: diesel, unleaded gas, kerosene, JP-4, others. No adjustments needed to switch from one to the other.•• Compressor: centrifugal, single-stage compressor with 4:1 pressure ratio, 80% efficiency, 2.2 lb/sec air flow.• First stage turbine: axial, single-stage, 87% efficiency, inlet t t 1 700 d Ftemperature 1,700 degrees F.• Second-stage turbine: axial, single-stage, 84% efficiency, max speed 45,700 rpm.• Exhaust temperature at full power: 500 0FExhaust temperature at full power: 500 0F.

• A 400 0F increase in inlet temperature would mean a 40 per cent increase in specific output improve fuel economy over 20 per cent.

Advantages of Automotive Gas TurbinesM i t i id bl d dMaintenance is considerably reduced Engine life-expectancy is much longer The number of parts is reduced 80% pTuning-up is almost eliminated Low-temperature starting difficulties are eliminated No warm-up period is necessaryNo warm-up period is necessary Antifreeze is not needed Instant heat is available in the winter Th i ill t t ll ith dd l diThe engine will not stall with sudden overloading Engine operation is vibration-free Operates on wide variety of fuels p yOil consumption is negligible Engine weight is reduced Exhaust gases are hot but cleanExhaust gases are hot but cleanCan be used as a gas generator for electric hybrid.

Issues Associated With Gas Turbines

High fuel consumption at idle due to high RPM.High fuel consumption at idle due to high RPM.Throttle lag from idle as engine spools up.High temperature exhaust gasHigh temperature exhaust gas.Very high noise source.Expensive parts to replaceExpensive parts to replace.

Pistonless Rotary Wankel EngineWankel Engine in DeutschesgMuseum in Munich, Germany

The Good News:

•Wankel has higher power output / unit weight.

• Better fuel/air mixing.

• More even combustion.

The Bad News:

Mazada RX-8 Poweredby a Wankel Engine

The Bad News:

• Rotating seals reduces engine compression ratio.

• Larger fraction of unburned fuel lowers efficiency.by a Wankel Engine

• Excess noise due to rotating seals.

Source: Kevin Reed, Why Wankel Engine is not Famous

Di Pietro Rotary Air Engine

Engineair’s Ultra-Efficient Rotary Compressed-Air Motor Applications

EngineAir Motor Prototype Example ProductsMotor Weight: 28.6 Lbs.

Note: Each front wheel driven by separate motors

Compressed Air CarCompressed Air CarDecember 2, 2004 French engineers have designed a lowconsumption and low pollution engine for urban motoringthat runs on compressed air technology. The CATS(C d Ai T h l S t ) " i " f M t(Compressed Air Technology System) "air car" from Motor Development International is a significant step for zero-emission transport, delivering a compressed air-driven vehicle that is safe, quiet, has a top speed of 110 km/h and , q , p pa range of 200 km. Costing next to nothing to run, the Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) range which includes a pick-up truck and van - is set for release in early 2005.

Compressed Air Concept Typical Piston Engine

Alternate Fuels

Potential FuelsPotential Fuels

Energy Density in Watt-Hour/Liter

Estimates of Alternate Fuel Vehicles In Use

HydrogenIssue: Achieve Adequate Stored Energy In An Efficient,

Safe and Cost Effective System

Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory Hydrogen Storage Workshop, May 2003

Compressed Gas

Note: Gasoline 13 MJ/L

Pressures > 700 barStronger, lighter composite tanks (cost)Hydrogen permeationNon-ideal gas behavior

Gaseous Hydrogen StorageWork required to compress a gas from Baldur Eliasson and Ulf Bossel:q p gW = [n/(n -1)] Po Vo [(P1/Po) (n-1)/n - 1]

Compressed Gas Cylinders

Liquid Storage - Requires C i S tCryogenic Systems

High Pressure Cryogenic Tank

Hydrogen Storage - Liquefaction

Hydrogen Delivery Pipelines

Hydrides – Chemically Bond Hydrogen In A Solid MaterialHydrogen In A Solid Material

Alanates

Complex Hydrides

Storage Methods

Improvements

US DOE Targets

Flex FuelsFlexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) are designed to run ongasoline or a blend of up to 85% ethanol (E85). Exceptfor a few engine and fuel system modifications they arefor a few engine and fuel system modifications, they areidentical to gasoline-only models.FFVs have been produced since the 1980s, and dozens ofmodels are currently available. Since FFVs look just likegasoline-only models, you may have an FFV and not evenknow it. To determine if your vehicle is an FFV, check they ,inside of your car's fuel filler door for an identificationsticker or consult your owner's manual.FFVs experience no loss in performance when operatingFFVs experience no loss in performance when operatingon E85. However, since a gallon of ethanol contains lessenergy than a gallon of gasoline, FFVs typically get about20 30% f il ll h f l d ith E8520-30% fewer miles per gallon when fueled with E85.

Ethanol Plant Energy Consumption

Ethanol Plant Water Consumptionp

Water use by Ethanol plants, Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy,Minnesota 2006.

Emission Test Results From Aftermarket Conversions

OEM Dodge RAM B250 Van

Source: NREL

Biofuels In TransportationBiofuels In TransportationBiofuels In TransportationBiofuels In TransportationCombination of biomass gasification (BG) and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis

is a possible ro te to prod ce rene able transportation f els (biof els)is a possible route to produce renewable transportation fuels (biofuels).

Fischer-Tropsch Used to Form AlkenesWith Either Iron or Cobalt as Catalystsy

( ) ( ) OnHHCnCOHn nn 222212 +→++ +

Biofuel ClassificationBiofuel Classification

Source: World Energy Book, 2006, Chapter 10

Oil Crop Production

Source: From the fryer to the fuel tank by Josha Tickel, ISBN 0-9707227-0-2, 2003

Fuel CropsFuel Crops

Biodiesel Vs. Petroleum Based Diesel

Advantages Disadvantages

Domestically produced from non-petroleum renewable resources Use of blends above B5 not yet warrantied by auto makersDomestically produced from non petroleum, renewable resources Use of blends above B5 not yet warrantied by auto makers

Can be used in most diesel engines, especially newer ones Lower fuel economy and power (10% lower for B100, 2% for B20)

Less air pollutants (other than nitrogen oxides) and greenhouse gases Currently more expensive

Biodegradable More nitrogen oxide emissions

Non-toxic B100 generally not suitable for use in low temperatures

Safer to handle Concerns about B100's impact on engine durability

Notes: Diesel Engine is 30-35% More Fuel Efficient ThanSi il Si G li E iSimilar Sizes Gasoline Engine.

Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) lowers particulatesd b t NO i iand combats NOx emissions.

All figures cited were originally gathered and reported by www.fueleconomy.gov

Biodiesel vs Diesel Emissions

PAH P l li A ti H d b

Source: From the fryer to the fuel tank by Josha Tickel, ISBN 0-9707227-0-2, 2003

PAH – Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Outlook for Biofuels

Dr. Roberto Schaeffer, Climate Change in Brazil, UNDESA, Nov. 2007

Biofuels Supply Costs

Significant production cost reductions are expected especially forg p p p y2nd – generation ligno-cellulisic ethanol.

Dr. Roberto Schaeffer, Climate Change in Brazil, UNDESA, Nov. 2007

Production Costs and PricesProduction Costs and Prices

Alternate Power Sources

Fuel CellsFuel Cells

C tCosts:In 2002, typical cells had a catalystcontent of US$1000 per kilowatt ofelectric power output. In 2008 UTCp pPower has 400kw Fuel cells for$1,000,000 per 400kW installed costs.The goal is to reduce the cost in orderto compete with current marketto compete with current markettechnologies including gasolineinternal combustion engines.

Honda FCX ClarityHonda FCX Clarity

H d F l P tHydrogen Fuel Port

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Storage Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Storage SystemSystemSystemSystem

Storage Systems

LH2 Tank Configuration

Hybrids

Hybrid Features:•Regenerative braking•Regenerative braking•Electric motor drive/assist•Automatic start/shutoff•Great gas mileage

Source: Alternate Fuel Vehicle

Available & Planned HybridsManufacturer Model Type Available

Chrysler Aspen HEMI Hybrid SUV 2008

Dodge Durango HEMI Hybrid SUV 2008

Ford Fusion Hybrid Midsize Car 2008

Mercury Milan Hybrid Midsize Car 2008

Ford Edge Hybrid SUV 2008-10

Ford Five Hundred Hybrid Large Car 2008-10

Lincoln MKX Hybrid SUV 2008-10 Lincoln MKX Hybrid SUV 2008-10

Mercury Montego Hybrid Large Car 2008-10

Mercedes-Benz ML450 Hybrid SUV 2009

Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHybrid Large Car 2009-10

BMW X6 SUV 2010

Porsche Cayenne Hybrid SUV 2010

Honda Fit Hybrid Small Station Wagon 2010-15

Three new hybrids for 2009yCadillac Escalade Hybrid Chevrolet Silverado 15 Hybrid GMC Sierra 15 Hybrid

Sources: J.D. Power-LMC; Energy & Environmental Analysis (EEA), Inc.;manufacturer web sites. Updated 9/6/2006.

GMC Sierra 15 Hybrid

All Electric Tesla Car

Well To Wheel Energy Pathwaysgy y

Battery Electric Vehicle

Fuel Cell VehicleFuel Cell Vehicle

Source: Eaves & Eaves, A cost comparison of fuel-cell and battery electric vehicles, J. Pwr Sources, 130 (2004) 208-212

Factors Affecting New Airplane Launch Decisions

Economics - International Market CompetitionEconomics - International Market Competition– Aircraft Cost/Efficiency/Productivity– Airport Gate / Runway ProductivityAirport Gate / Runway Productivity

Additional ConstraintsAdditional Constraints– Energy Efficiency– Emissions– Noise– Safety

Factors Influencing Airplane Ticket Price5500 Nautical Mile Stage Length

Profit

Pass

N.M

.

IOC

Fare

In $

/P

DOC

B747 400B747 400

Aircraft Fuel CostAircraft Fuel Cost

Blended Wing Body ConceptBlended Wing Body ConceptBenefits:Benefits:

20-25 % Less Fuel10-15% Less Weight10-15% Lower DOC

Challenges:Challenges:/ fPropulsion/Airframe

IntegrationAero-Structural IntegrationAero Structural IntegrationAerodynamicsControls

Subsonic Aircraft Comparison5500 Nautical Mile Stage Length

Estimated Fuel EconomyEstimated Fuel Economy