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EYÜP GÜNDÜZ

YDS Gramer / Eyüp GÜNDÜZ

YDS’YE NASIL HAZIRLANMALI? § Disiplin, Sorumluluk ve Düzenli Çalışma

YDS, derse düzenli katılımı ve disiplinli çalışmayı gerektiren bir sınavdır. Bu sınava hazırlanan herkes değerli zamanından kesinti yaparak belki de daha önce pek aşina olmadığı bir dilde hem de advanced (ileri) düzeyde bir sınava girmektedirler. Bu nedenle disiplini elden bırakmamak, sorumluluğumuzun ne olduğunu bilmek ve düzenli çalışmaya yeterince vakit ayırmak gereklidir. Ayrıca derslere düzenli katılım olmaksızın kaybedilen konuların ve soru çözümlerinin telafisi neredeyse imkansızdır. Kişinin kaçırdığı bir dersi kendi başına telafi etme olasılığını düşünmekten ziyade dersleri mümkün olduğunca kaçırmamak, bu sınava hazırlanırken uymamız gereken temel kurallardan birisidir.

§ Günlük en az 2 saat çalışma yapmak YDS’ye hazırlanma süreci bir çok insan için bıkkınlık verici bir süreç olsa da gelecekte kazandıracakları bizler için daha çok ön plana çıkmaktadır ve bu sürece uyum sağlamak zorundayız. Belki çalışmanızın ilk başlarında olmasa da birkaç hafta sonrasından itibaren günlük en az 2 saat çalışılmalıdır. Bu süre YDS yaklaşırken ortalama 3-4 saate olmalıdır.

§ Kelime öğrenmek için bol okuma yapmak ve düzenli bir kelime defteri tutmak İngilizce öğreniminde hemen hemen herkesin yakındığı ortak noktadır kelime öğrenimi. Şunu unutmamak gerekir: her bireyin öğrenim yöntemi farklıdır ve kişinin bu farklılığı yakalayıp bunun üzerine yoğunlaşması gerekir. Eş anlamlı kelime öğrenme, okuma yaparak kelime öğrenme, ezberleyerek kelime öğrenme, yazarak veya kelime kartlarıyla kelime öğrenme, vs. Bunlar arasında en kalıcı olarak eş anlamlı kelimelerle ve okuma yaparak kelime öğrenme ön plana çıkmaktadır. Çünkü sürekli görerek ve kullanarak öğrenme diğer yöntemlerden daha kalıcıdır. Bol okuma yapılması, güncel gazete ve dergilerin düzenli olarak takip edilmesi ve çıkmış paragraf sorularının çözülmesi bizlere oldukça faydalı olacaktır. Ayrıca düzenli bir kelime defterinin tutulması (küçük bir not defteri ya da ajanda gibi) da öğrendiğimiz kelimelerin sürekli elimizin altında olmasını sağlayacaktır. Kelime defteri tutarken, kelimenin anlamı, eş anlamlısı ve mümkünse o kelimenin geçtiği cümle (veya sözlükten bulunacak bir cümle) deftere yazılmalıdır.

§ Dilbilgisi konularını düzenli olarak kurs sonuna kadar tekrar etmek Dilbilgisi konuları çoğu kişi tarafından pek önemsenmese de ve sadece okuma ağırlıklı çalışılması gerektiğine inanılsa da, aslında bu doğru değildir. Doğru olan şudur: ÖSYM artık okuma ve anlama sorularına daha çok ağırlık vermektedir. Ancak gramer bilgisi olmadan okuduğumuzu net ve düzgün bir şekilde anlayamayacağımızı unutmayalım. Bu nedenle çalışmanızın çok önemli bir bölümünü kapsamak zorunda olmasa da, çalışma döneminin sonuna kadar dilbilgisi konularını ara ara tekrar etmek ve bu konulardan düzenli soru çözmek gerekir.

§ Her gün en az 1 makale okumak

Belki de en az 2 makale dense yeridir diyebileceğimiz bir konu haline geldi okuma yapmak. Farklı konularla karşılaşmak hem kelime bilgimizi arttıracaktır hem de o tür konulara daha aşina olmamızı sağlayacaktır. Bazen hiç anlamadan sadece okumak da işe yaramaktadır. Bu teknik, kelime türlerini ve gramer yapılarını görmek, edatlı kelime yapılarına aşina olmak, bilinmeyen bir kelimenin anlamını çıkarım yapmak gibi konularda bizlere oldukça yardımcı olacaktır. YDS’ye yeni hazırlanan bir kişi ilk başlarda okuduğunu anlamakta zorlansa da bıkmadan ve sabırla çalışıldığı takdirde kısa zaman içerisinde karşılığını görmeye başlayacaktır. Eğer makale okumanın eğlence veren kısmı keşfedilirse okuma hızımız da artacaktır ve bıkkınlıktan uzaklaşmamızı sağlayacaktır.


§ Çeviri yapmak Çeviri yapmak da ayrı bir zevk işidir ve çeviri yapmanın sonucunda edindiğimiz anlama keyfi bizi YDS’ye çalışırken daha çok motive edecektir. Çeviri yaparken belki de yüzde yüz çeviriye gerek duyulmasa da yine de kendimizi zorlayıp maksimum düzeyde anlamaya gayret göstermeliyiz.

§ Her konuyla ilgili bol bol soru çözmek Dilbilgisi yapıları anlaşıldıktan ve soru türlerine aşina olduktan sonra bol bol soru çözülmesi gerekir. Tek bir konu ya da soru türüyle ilgili soruları tek bir oturuşta çözmek yerine zamana yayarak farklı soru türleri çözmek daha etkilidir. Bu nedenle kitabımızdaki özgün ve çıkmış soruların yanı sıra iyi bir soru bankası kaynağı edinmek gerekir.

§ Çıkmış sorular çözmek YDS için bir deyim vardır: en iyi soru çıkmış sorudur. ÖSYM’nin sorduğu soruların iyi analiz edilmesi, ne tarz soruların geldiğini az çok tahmin etmenizi sağlar. Özellikle 2010 yılı ve sonrası soruları detaylı bir şekilde çözmek ve aklımızda herhangi bir şüphe kalmayacak şekilde anlamak gerekir.

§ Deneme sınavları çözmek YDS’ye girmeden önce mutlaka en az 10 adet deneme sınavı çözülmesi gerekir. Gerekli bilgi birikimi yapıldıktan sonra sınava son bir ay kala artık deneme sınavlarına başlanması gerekir.

§ Aşırı kaynaktan kaçınmak Ve son olarak, çok fazla kaynak kullanmaktansa minimum miktarda kaynaktan maksimum yararlanmamız gerekir. Elimizdeki “YDS Gramer, YDS Soru Tipleri” ve “YDS Kelime Çalışması” kitaplarına ek olarak özgün bir veya iki soru bankası kitabı ve okuma kaynağı bizler için yeterli olacaktır.


YDS SORU DAĞILIMLARI

SORU SIRASI SORU TÜRÜ SORU SAYISI

1 – 16

KELİME 4

PHRASAL VERBS 2

TENSE 3

EDAT 2

BAĞLAÇ 5

17 – 26 CLOZE TEST (2 ADET)

BAĞLAÇ 4

KELİME 2

TENSE 2

EDAT 2

27 – 36 CÜMLE TAMAMLAMA 10

37 – 42 ÇEVİRİ 6

43 – 62 PARAGRAF 20

63 – 67 KARŞILIKLI KONUŞMA 5

68 – 71 YAKIN ANLAMLI CÜMLE 4

72 – 75 PARAGRAF TAMAMLAMA 4

76 – 80 ANLAM BÜTÜNLÜĞÜNÜ BOZAN CÜMLE 5

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BÖLÜM 1

CÜMLE YAPISI

Bölüm 1 – Cümle Yapısı

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İNGİLİZCE CÜMLE YAPISINA GENEL BAKIŞ

CÜMLE (SENTENCE)

TR: Türkiye petrol ihraç eder. Özne Nesne Yüklem İNG: Turkey exports oil. Özne Yüklem Nesne

TR: Küresel ısınma hemen hemen bütün bitki ve hayvan türlerini etkiler. Özne Nesne Yüklem İNG: Global warming affects almost all kinds of plants and animals.

Özne Yüklem Nesne

TR: Bölgedeki çatışma ve savaş olasılığı iki ülke ilişkilerine zarar verdi. Özne Nesne Yüklem

İNG: The possibility of conflict and war in the area damaged the relations of two countries. Özne Yüklem Nesne

v Global temperatures are increasing. (Küresel sıcaklıklar artıyor.)

v The interview will begin at 12:00.

(Görüşme / Mülakat saat 12’de başlayacak.) v The poor boy couldn’t sleep all night long.

(Zavallı çocuk bütün gece uyuyamadı.) v Prices have decreased considerably recently.

(Fiyatlar son zamanlarda önemli ölçüde düştü.)

v The debris from the missing plane was floating in the ocean. (Kayıp uçağın enkazı okyanusta su yüzeyindeydi.)

“Cümle” kavramı Türkçe, İngilizce ya da diğer dillerde kelimeler dizisidir ve bu kelime dizisi içerisinde bir eylem, bir duygu veya düşünce ifade edilir. Türkçede bir cümle yapısı “Özne + Nesne + Yüklem” biçiminde oluşurken İngilizcede “Özne + Yüklem + Nesne” şeklinde oluşmaktadır. Yani genel ve basit anlamda tek fark ‘yüklemin’ cümle içerisindeki yeridir.

Her cümlede nesne olmak zorunda değildir. Nesneye ihtiyaç olmayan durumda ya da fiilin geçişsiz (intransitive) yani nesne almayan bir fiil olduğu durumlarda nesneye gerek yoktur.


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1. to be + noun (isim) 2. to be + adjective (sıfat) 3. to be + preposition / prepositional phrase (edat / edat tamlaması)

1. to be + noun (isim)

v Ankara is the capital city of Turkey. (Ankara Türkiye’nin başkentidir.)

v The main problem of the region was poverty.

(Bölgenin asıl problemi yoksulluktu.)

v The universe has been focus of interest of mankind for thousands of years. (Binlerce yıldır evren insanoğlunun ilgi odağı olmuştur.)

v Once you become accustomed to cold, you will be able to enjoy the life here.

(Soğuğa alıştığında, buradaki yaşamdan keyif alabileceksin.)

v The main goal in the future should be to stop violence because the world is addicted to it. (Gelecekteki asıl hedef şiddeti durdurmak olmalo çünkü dünya buna bağımlı.)

to be Infinitive (mastar hali) be Bare infinitive (yalın / çıplak mastar hali) am / is / are Present have been / has been Present Perfect Tense was / were Past had been Past Perfect will be Future will have been Future Perfect Can be May be Might be Must be Should be Have to be

Modals

May have been Could have been Must have been Should have been

Perfect Modals

Being Continuous passive / Present Participle Been Past Participle

Cümleler fiil (eylem) cümlesi olabileceği gibi herhangi bir eylemin veya hareketin bulunmadığı durum cümlesi şeklinde de olabilir. Bu durumda İngilizcedeki ‘to be’ yapısı kullanılan zamana göre çekimlenir ve cümle içerisinde yüklem görevini görür:

Bu durumda ‘to be’ yapısıyla oluşturulan basit bir durum cümlesi şu şekillerde oluşabilir:


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2. to be + adjective (sıfat)

v They have always been hospitable towards foreigners. (Yabancılara karşı her zaman misafirperver olmuşlardır.)

v The diversity and abundance of the species on this planet is breathtaking.

(Bu gezegendeki türlerin çeşitliliği ve bolluğu nefes kesicidir.)

v You should be ready for all kinds of possibilities in life. (Hayatta her türlü olasılığa karşı hazır olmalısın.)

v Chess is an intellectually challenging game requiring analytical skill in strategic moves.

(Satranç stratejik hareketlerle analitik beceri gerektiren entellektüel açıdan zorlayıcı bir oyundur.)

v The Great Depression of the 1930s was devastating for both rich and poor countries . (1930’lu yılların Büyük Bunalım dönemi hem zengin hem de fakir ülkeler için yıkıcıydı.)

3. to be + preposition / prepositional phrase (edat / edat tamlaması)

v Many animal and plant species all around the world are on the verge of extinction.

(Dünyanın dört bir yanında pek çok hayvan ve bitki türü yok olmanın eşiğinde.)

v The message was from the soldiers in Vietnam War. (Mesaj Vietnam Savaşı’ndaki askerlerdendi.)

v The existence of coral reefs is under threat due to global warming.

(Mercan resiflerinin varlığı küresel ısınmadan dolayı tehlike altında.)

v The president and delegates are at the meeting right now. (Başkan ve delegeler şu anda toplantıda.)

v The decision of the committee was in favour of us.

(Komitenin kararı bizim lehimizeydi.)


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1. ÖZNE (SUBJECT)

Dil yapısında ‘özne’ şu şekilde tanımlanmaktadır; yüklemde bildirilen işi, oluşu, hareketi yerine getiren, hakkında bilgi ve haber verilen öğedir. Kısacası yapanı veya olanı karşılayan unsurdur. Özne bir insan olmak zorunda değil, cins isim dediğimiz hayvan, bitki ve eşya gibi isimlerden de oluşabilir. Özne her zaman tek bir isimden oluşabileceği gibi birden fazla isim de özne olabilir; ayrıca isimleşmiş sıfat, isim tamlamaları, sıfat tamlamaları veya zamirler de özne olabilir. Örneğin;

v You called me yesterday. (Özne: ‘You’)

(Sen dün beni aramışsın.) v The weather is foggy today. (Özne: ‘The weather’)

(Hava bugün sisli.) v The young girl is getting better day by day. (Özne: ‘The young girl’)

(Genç kız günden güne iyileşiyor.) v The murderer who killed the manager was captured. (Özne: ‘The murderer who killed the manager’)

(Müdürü öldüren katil yakalandı.)

v Someone is waiting in front of the door. (Özne: ‘Someone’) (Birisi kapının önünde bekliyor.)

2. YÜKLEM (VERB)

Dilbilgisinde yüklem “iş, oluş hareket, durum bildiren; haber veren; cümleyi yargıya bağlayan öğe” olarak tanımlanır. Daha önce de bahsettiğim gibi, yüklem bir fiilden veya ‘to be’ yapısından oluşabilir. Ayrıca fiil ya da ‘to be’ yapılarından sonra ‘verb complement’ denilen tamamlayıcılar gelebilir. Örneğin;

v Rice reached the Americas in the 1650s. (Yüklem: ‘reached’) (Pirinç Amerika kıtasına 1650li yıllarda ulaştı.)

v Negative effect of financial sanctions is creating danger of devaluation. (Yüklem: ‘is creating’)

(Mali yaptırımların olumsuz etkisi devalüasyon tehlikesi yaratıyor.) v Tax increase decision of government led to an increase in the prices of goods. (Yüklem: ‘led’)

(Hükümetin vergi artışı kararı ürün fiyatlarında artışa neden oldu.)

v Loss of tissue and blood in organ of the patient caused his death. (Yüklem: ‘caused’) (Hastanın organındaki doku ve kan kaybı, hastanın ölümüne yol açtı.)

v Unemployment is the fundamental problem of most of the countries. (Yüklem: ‘is’;

Tamamlayıcı: ‘the fundamental problem of most of the countries’) (İşsizlik bir çok ülkenin temel problemidir.)

Temel anlamda bir cümle içerisinde Özne, Yüklem, Nesne ve Nesne tamamlayıcı bulunur. Bunları şöyle özetleyebiliriz:


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3. NESNE (OBJECT)

Nesne kavramı ‘yüklemde bildirilen ve öznenin yaptığı işten doğrudan etkilenen öğe’ olarak tanımlanır. Yükleme sorulan “ne?, neyi? kimi?” soruları nesneyi belirler. Elbette, bir cümleye nesne gelebilmesi için o fiilin ‘transitive’ yani geçişli / nesne alan fiil olması gerekir. Ayrıca, özne olarak kullanılabilen bütün kelimeler nesne olarak da kullanılabilirler. Örneğin;

v We couldn’t understand the significance of the problem. (Nesne: ‘the significance of the problem’) (Problemin önemini anlayamadık.)

v Earth’s climate change will affect the lives of next generations. (Nesne: ‘the lives of next generations’)

(Dünyadaki iklim değişikliği gelecek nesillerin yaşamlarını etkileyecek.) v I wonder whether they came to a conclusion. (Nesne: ‘whether they came to a conclusion’)

(Onların bir sonuca ulaşıp ulaşmadıklarını merak ediyorum.)

v Studies have shown that changing the way people talk affects the way they think. (Nesne: ‘that changing the way people talk affects the way they think’) (Araştırmalar, insanların konuşma biçimini değiştirmenin, düşünme biçimini etkilediğini göstermiştir.)

v Many people believe that nuclear energy could provide a suitable source of power.

(Nesne: ‘that nuclear energy could provide a suitable source of power’) (Pek çok kişi nükleer enerjinin uygun bir güç kaynağı sağlayabileceğine inanmaktadır.)

§ ‘Nesne’ kavramı kendi içerisinde “direct object (düz nesne / tümleç)” ve “indirect object

(dolaylı nesne / tümleç)” şeklinde ikiye ayrılır. Fiiller yapılarına göre bu iki nesne türünden birini alabilirken, bazı fiiller (get, buy, bring, cook, find, vb.) iki nesne de alabilir. Bu durumda iki nesneden birisi ‘direct object’, diğeri ise ‘indirect object’ olur.

Ø Direct Object: Düz tümleç yükleme “What? (Ne?, Neyi?)” ya da “Whom? (Kimi?) sorusu sorulduğunda alınan cevaptır. David reparied his car. (Neyi tamir etti? – arabayı) He invited Alex to the party. (Kimi davet etti? – Alex’i) Deniz and Melek ate omeletes for breakfast? (Ne yediler? – omlet)

Ø Indirect Object: Dolaylı tümleç ise yükleme sorulan “To whom? (Kime?)”, “Where? (Nereye?, Nerede?, Nereden?)”, “For whom? (Kim için?)”, “For what? (Ne için?)”, “From what? (Neyden?)” gibi soruların cevabıdır. They sent him a postcard. (Kime gönderdi? – Ona (indirect object); Ne gönderdi? – kartpostal (direct object) He bought his son a bike. (Kime aldı? – oğluna (indirect object); Ne gönderdi? – kartpostal (direct object) Jim built his daughter a sandcastle on the beach. (Kime yaptı? – kızına (indirect object); Ne yaptı? – kumdan kale (direct object) She painted the house for her family. (Kim için boyadı? – ailesi için (indirect object); Neyi boyadı? – evi (direct object)


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1. İSİM (NOUN) Bir sözcük türü olarak isim insan, eşya, hayvan, yer, fikir, kısacası canlı cansız bütün varlıkları adlandırmak için kullandığımız kelimelerdir.

Tom Hanks is very talented. (Tom Hanks çok yetenekli.) Dogs can be extremely cute. (Köpekler son derece sevimli olabiliyor.) This is my specialty. (Bu benim uzmanlık alanım.) § İsimler de kendi içerisinde şu tiplere ayrılır: Proper (Özel isim), Common (Cins isim),

Compound (Birleşik isim), Countable (Sayılabilen isim), Uncountable or Mass (Sayılamayan isim), Concrete (Somut isim), Abstract (Soyut isim) ve Pronoun (Zamir). Ø Proper Noun (Özel İsim): Büyük harfle yazılan ve genellikle tek olan ya da belirli bir kişiyi,

yapıtı, ülkeyi, vs. ifade eden isimlerdir. Örnek: Turkey, Atatürk, Miray, English, Europe, Sivas, Mediterranean, Sun, Game of Thrones

Ø Common Noun (Cins İsim): Genel anlamda aynı cinsten bir çok varlığın ortak ismidir. Örnek: girl, boy, mother, blue, radio, fork, brain, eye, teacher, doctor, bread

Ø Compound Noun (Birleşik İsim): İki veya daha fazla kelimenin bir isim oluşturmasıdır. Örnek: toothpaste, highway, post office, software, check-out, full moon, football, sunset

Ø Countable Noun (Sayılabilen İsim): Adından da anlaşılacağı üzere sayabildiğimiz isimlere verilen addır ve tekil ve çoğul biçimleri bulunur. Örnek: ball, book, dolphin, animal, plant, body, eye, planet, apple, tomato

Ø Uncountable Noun (Sayılamayan İsim): Yine adından da anlaşılacağı gibi bir, iki, üç diye sayamadığımız ve genel anlamda sıvı, toz, gaz halindeki isimlere verilen addır ve tekil ve çoğul biçimleri bulunmaz. Sayılamayan isimlerin bazıları Türkçedekilerden farklıdır. Örnek: knowledge, rice, flour, water, sand, freedom, news, advice, music, money, bread, gas

Ø Concrete Noun (Somut İsim): Somut isimler genel anlamda görülebilen, dokunulabilen, duyulabilen, koklanabilen veya tad alınabilen, kısacası duyu organlarımızla hissettiğimiz isimlerdir. Örnek: cat, dog, salt, soil, bottle, chair, baby, child, telephone, spoon, oven, water

Cümlenin kelimelerden oluştuğundan bahsetmiştim. Bunlar sözcük türleri diye adlandırılır ve bu sözcük türlerini şu şekilde sıralayabiliriz: isim, sıfat, zarf, fiil, zamir, edat, bağlaç, ünlem. Bunlardan bazıları şu şekildedir:


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Ø Abstract Noun (Soyut İsim): Soyut isim ise somut isimlerin aksine duyu organlarımızla algılayamadığımız isimlerdir. Örnek: power, love, freedom, happiness, bravery, beauty, curiosity, evil, honesty, humour

Ø Pronoun (Zamir): Zamirler ismin yerine geçen kelimelerdir. En genel kullanımıyla zamirler şunlardır: “I, you, he, she, it, we, they”.

2. SIFAT (ADJECTIVE) Sıfat bir ismi sayı, renk, nitelik, boyut, biçim, miktar vb. yönlerinde niteleyen kelimedir. İngilizce’de sıfatlar bir ismin önüne gelebilir ve o ismi niteler. Örneğin; fatal disease (ölümcül hastalık) young adults (genç yetişkinler) difficult question (zor soru) round table (yuvarlak masa) old man (yaşlı adam) crowded city (kalabalık şehir) many people (pek çok insan) deadly virus (ölümcül virüs) big company (büyük şirket) new report (yeni rapor) Genel olarak bir isim sıfat yapılırken ismin sonuna bazı ekler getirmek gerekir. Bir isme veya fiile eklenip de sıfat yapan ekler arasında en yaygın kullanılanar şu şekildedir:

- ous - ive - ful - y - en -ent -able - (i)al -less danger create care health wood depend value globe fear

dangerous creative careful healthy wooden dependent valuable global fearless § Bazı fiillere “-ing” veya “-ed” ekleri getirilerek de sıfat yapılabilir. Fiilin düzenli ya da

düzensiz fiil olmasına göre “-ed” eki fiilin “V3” hali şeklinde de yapılabilir. Bu durumda genel olarak “-ing” şeklinde oluşan sıfat aktif / etkileyen, V3 şeklinde oluşan sıfat pasif / etkilenen olarak tabir edilir. annoying (sinir bozucu) – annoyed (sinirli / kızgın) boring (sıkıcı) – bored (sıkılmış) confusing (kafa karıştıran) – confused (kafası karışmış) disgusting (iğrenç / tiksindirici) – disgusted (iğrenmiş / bıkmış) exciting (heyecan verici) – excited (heyecanlı) exhausting (yorucu / zahmetli) – exhausted (yorgun / bitkin) frightening (korkutucu) – frightened (korkmuş) fascinating (büyüleyici) – fascinated (büyülenmiş) interesting (ilginç) – interested (ilgili) tiring (yorucu) – tired (yorgun) satisfying (memnun edici) – satisfied (memnun) shocking (şok edici) – shocked (şok olmuş / şaşkın) surprising (şaşırtıcı) – surprised (şaşırmış / şaşkın) worrying (endişe verici) – worried (endişeli)


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§ Sıfatlar bir kelimeden oluşabildiği gibi iki kelimenin bir arada kullanıldığı sıfatlar da mevcuttur. English-speaking country (İngilizce konuşulan ülke) 300-page book (300 sayfalık kitap) well-known writer (iyi tanınan / ünlü yazar) five-hours delay (beş saatlik gecikme) man-eating alligator (insan yiyen timsah) home-made product (ev yapımı ürün) cold-blooded animal (soğuk kanlı hayvan) brightly-lit room (parlak ışıklı oda) open-minded person (açık fikirli kişi) time-consuming project (zaman alıcı proje)

§ Sıfatlar ayrıca “be, look, seem, appear, smell, taste, feel, sound, become, get” gibi bazı

fillerden sonra da gelebilir. They are successful. (Onlar çok başarılı) This animal is very dangerous. (Bu hayvan çok tehlikeli) You look pale. (Solgun görünüyorsun) She seems sad today. (O bugün üzgün görünüyor) The problem appears insoluble. (Problem çözümsüz görünüyor) The flowers smell wonderful. (Çiçekler harika kokuyor) The soup tastes terrible. (Çorbanın tadı berbat) I feel exhausted. (Bitkin hissediyorum) This offer sounds great. (Bu teklif kulağa harika geliyor) They are becoming nervous day by day. (Günden güne tedirgin oluyorlar) He got surprised when he heard the news. (Haberi duyduğunda şaşırdı)

3. ZARF (ADVERB)

Genel anlamda zarf, fiili ya da sıfatı türlü yönlerden (durum, yer-yön, zaman, miktar, soru) niteleyen, derecelendiren kelimeler olarak tanımlanır. İngilizce’de bir çok sıfatın sonuna “-ly” eki getirilerek zarf oluşturulur. Bir sıfata eklenip de zarf yapan ekler arasında en yaygın kullanılanlar şu şekildedir:

- ly - ily - ally - ward dangerous – dangerously easy – easily dramatic – dramatically afterward significant – significantly pretty – prettily tragic – tragically onward attentive – attentively angry – angrily basic – basically upward

considerable – considerably lucky – luckily specific – specifically forward Ancak bazı zarflar düzensizdir:

good – well fast – fast late – late hard – hard early – early


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§ Zarflar genellikle bir fiili niteleyebilir, sıfatı derecelendirebilir, tüm cümleyi niteleyebilir veya başka bir zarfın önüne gelerek o zarfı niteleyebilir. Fiili niteleyebilir v Canada was initially settled by French.

(Kanada’ya ilk olarak Fransızlar yerleşti) v You must read at least 2 pages a day in order to significantly improve your understanding.

(Anlamanızı önemli ölçüde ilerletmek için günde en az iki sayfa okumalısınız.) v The number of children’s museums has increased rapidly.

(Çocuk müzelerinin sayısı hızlı bir şekilde artıyor.) Sıfatı derecelendirebilir v The exam was relatively easy.

(Sınav oldukça kolaydı.) v Lung cancer is the most commonly found cancer in men.

(Akciğer kanseri erkeklerde en yaygın bulunan / görülen kanserdir.) v Despite numerous protests for peace, the 1960s became increasingly violent.

(Sayısız barış protestalarına rağmen, 1960lı yıllar gittikçe daha da şiddetli hale geldi.)

Tüm cümleyi niteleyebilir v Unfortunately, ice hockey figths are a characteristic feature of the sport.

(Ne yazık ki, buz hokeyi kavgaları bu sporun karakteristik bir özelliğidir.)

v Hawaii is probably one of the world’s most famous tourist destinations. (Hawaii muhtemelen dünyanın en ünlü turistik merkezlerinden birisidir.)

v Honestly, your offer is unacceptable. (Dürüst olmak gerekirse, teklifiniz kabul edilemez.)

Zarfı niteleyebilir v He did his work extremely well.

(İşini son derece iyi yaptı.)

v She responded to questions quite satisfactorily. (Sorulara oldukça tatmin edici bir şekilde cevap verdi.)

v He could run very quickly. (Çok hızlı koşabildi.)


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§ Ayrıca “edat + isim” yapısı da cümle içerisinde zarf görevi görebilir ve bu şekilde ‘durum, yer ve zaman’ bildiren zarflar da bulunmaktadır. in turn (sırayla) under the sea (denizin altında) in silence (sessizce) around the sun (güneş etrafında) with ease (kolayca) in short (kısaca) like a bee (arı gibi) by heart (kalpten) like a baby (bebek gibi) at once (hemen, derhal) in a short time (kısa süre içerisinde) in harmony (uyum içerisinde) after the game (oyundan sonra) under control (konrtol altında) near the wall (duvarın yanında) in sum (özetle)

4. EDAT (PREPOSITION)

Edatlar Türkçe’de ilgeç olarak da adlandırılan kelimelerdir. Edatlar İngilizce’de genellikle tek başına değil de başka kelimelerin önüne gelerek o kelimeye anlam kazandırırlar. Ayrıca, ‘prepositional phrases’ yani edat öbeği olarak da kullanılabilenn bu ifadeler cümle içerisinde anlamın akışını tamamlamak için kullanılır. İngilizce’de edatların bir çoğu birden fazla anlama sahiptir. En yaygın kullanılan edatlar yaygın anlamlarıyla şöyle özetlenebilir:

§ Edatlar bir isim, sıfat veya fiille birlikte ‘prepositional phrase’ yani edat öbeği / edat tamlaması şeklinde kullanılabilir. Adapt to (-e uyum sağlamak) Aware of (farkında) Base on (-e dayandırmak) Eager to / for (istekli) Believe in (-e inanmak) Known for (-ile meşhur) Differ from (-den farklılık göstermek) Proud of (gururlu) Laugh at (-e gülmek) Similar to (-e benzer) Object to (-e itiraz etmek) Advance in (-deki ilerleme) Refer to (-e işaret etmek) Desire for (istek, arzu) Addicted to (-e bağımlı olmak) Key to (in kilit noktası)

about hakkında civarında below altta

altında in içinde -de, -da towards -e doğru

above üzerinde beside yanında of -ın, -in under altında

across karşı tarafına between arasında on üzerinde underneath altında

after sonra by yanında aracılığıyla onto üzerine until kadar

against -e karşı during esnasında out dışarı up yukarı along boyunca except hariç over üzerinde with ile

at -de, -da for için süreyle through içinden

aracılığıyla within içinde

behind arkasında from -den, -dan to -e, -a without -sız, -siz


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§ Edatlar ayrıca bazı fiillerle birlikte kullanılarak ‘phrasal verb’ yani deyimsel fiil denen fiil gruplarını oluştururlar. Bu durumda fiilin yanına bir ya da iki edat gelebilir ve bu fiil grubunda fiilin anlamı bazen olduğu gibi kalır, bazen de farklı bir anlama bürünür. Bu fiillerden bazıları ilk anlamlarıyla şu şekildedir:

Bring up (yetiştirmek) Call off (iptal etmek) Keep away (uzak tutmak) Rely on (güvenmek) Carry out (gerçekleştirmek) Die out (soyu tükenmek) Cut down on (kesinti yapmak) Make over (devretmek) Look for (aramak) Come up with (çözüm bulmak)

1. Declarative Sentence: ‘Declarative’ yani bildirim cümleleri bir bilgiyi aktarmak bir açıklamada /

beyanatta bulunmak için kullanılan cümle türleridir ve en yaygın kullanılan cümle türleridir. v You can find he results of the research in this report.

(Araştırma sonuçlarını bu raporda bulabilirsiniz.)

v Not only the eyes and face but also the head, hands and feet provide communication. (Sadece gözler ve yüz değil, aynı zamanda kafa, eller ve ayaklar da iletişimi sağlamaktadır.)

2. Interrogative Sentence: ‘Interrogative’ yani soru cümleleri adından da anlaşılacağı üzere soru

sormak için kurulan cümlelerdir.

v Did you receive my message? (Mesajımı aldın mı?)

v Who won the World Cup in 2014?

(2014’deki Dünya Kupasını kim kazandı?) Ayrıca olumlu bir cümle aynı Türkçe’deki gibi meraklı bir tonlama ile söylendiğinde yine soru cümlesi olabilir.

v You need some help? (Biraz yardıma ihtiyacın var mı?)

v She lost all her money?

(Bütün parasını kayıp mı etti?)

İngilizcede 4 tür cümle vardır: Declarative (Bildirim), Interrogative (Soru), Imperative (Emir) ve Exclamative (Ünlem).


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3. Imperative Sentence: ‘Imperative’ yani emir cümleleri sadece emir vermek için değil, talimatlar, kullanma kılavuzları, yön tarifleri, temenni ve rica gibi durumlarda da kullanılır. Bu durumda cümlede özne kullanılmaz ve cümle olumluysa doğrudan “fiil” ile, olumsuz ise “don’t + fiil” ile başlanır.

v Let me have a look at this book.

(Şu kitaba bir bakayım.)

v Don’t make noise. (Gürültü yapma.)

4. Exclamative Sentence: ‘Exclamative’ yani ünlem cümleleri ise ünlem işareti ile biter ve bir

haykırma, uyarı, kızgınlık veya heyecan belirten durumlarda kullanılır.

v What a beautiful day! (Ne güzel bir gün ama!)

v How wonderful you look!

(Ne kadar harika görünüyorsun!)

1. Simple Sentence (Basit Cümle)

İçerisinde sadece bir tane bağımsız cümle olan basit cümlelerdir.

v He waited for the train. (Özne: He; Yüklem: waited)

v They still haven’t come to an aggrement.

(Özne: They; Yüklem: haven’t come) v The company is looking for well-qualified people.

(Özne: The company; Yüklem: is looking for)

İngilizce’de cümle yapıları ise yine 4’e ayrılır: Simple Sentence, Compound Sentence, Complex Sentence, Compound-Complex Sentence. Bu cümle yapılarına geçmeden önce ‘clause’ dediğimiz cümlecik olayını da iyi anlamamız gerekir. YDS ve diğer İngilizce sınavlarında ve gramerde ‘clause’ bilgisi olmazsa olmazlardandır. ‘Clause’ kavramı en genel tabiriyle, yukarıda da cümle yapısında bahsettiğim gibi, içerisinde en az bir özne ve yüklemin olması gereken cümle ya da cümlecik diye geçen yapıdır. ‘Clause’ yapısı “Dependent Clause (Bağlı ya da Yan Cümle)” ve “Independent Clause (Bağımsız) cümle diye ikiye ayrılır. Bir cümlenin başka bir unsura ya da cümleye bağlı olduğu durum ‘Yan cümle’, kendi başına olan ve diğer bir cümleye bağlı olmayan cümle ise ‘Bağımsız Cümle’ olarak adlandırılabilir.


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2. Compound Sentence (Birleşik Cümle) Birleşik cümle iki bağımsız cümleden oluşan ve birbirlerine ‘coordinating conjuntctions’ denilen bağlaçlarla bağlanan cümle türüdür. Baş harfleriyle FANBOYS şeklinde akılda daha iyi kalan bu bağlaçlar şunlardır: For (çünkü) And (ve) Nor (ne de) But (fakat) Or (ya da, yoksa) Yet (fakat) So (bu nedenle) v We listened to him curiously, for he brought news of our families.

(Onu meraklı bir şekilde dinledik, çünkü ailelerimizden haber getirmişti.) v She fell downstairs and fell down and broke her leg.

(Merdivenden aşağı düştü ve bacağını kırdı.) v I don’t expect children to be rude, nor do I expect to be disobeyed.

(Çocukların kaba olmasını beklemiyorum, itaatsiz olmalarını da beklemiyorum.) v He lost a fortune in the stock market, but he still lives quite comfortably.

(Borsada bir servet kaybetti, fakat yine de oldukça rahat yaşıyor.) v You can join them, or you can stay with us.

(Onlara katılabilirsin, ya da bizimle birlikte kalabilirsin.) v The visitors complained about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.

(Ziyaretçiler sıcaktan şikayet ediyorlardı, fakat her gün golf oynamaya devam ediyorlardı.)

v Nobody heard from him for two days, so we began to worry.

(İki gün boyunca kimse ondan haber alamadı, bu nedenle endişelenmeye başladık.)


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3. Complex Sentence (Karmaşık Cümle) Karmaşık cümleler bir ana cümleye (bağımsız cümle) ve ana cümleye bağlı olan bir ya da daha çok yan cümle (bağımlı cümle) içeren cümlelerdir. Yan cümleler kendi başlarına bir cümle oluşturmadıkları için bir ana cümle ile birlikte kullanılmaları gerekir. Yan cümleleri 3’e ayırabiliriz:

A) Adverbial Clauses (Zarf Cümlecikleri)

Zarf cümlelerinde en yaygın kullanılan ‘subordinating conjunctions’ yani yan cümle bağlaçları şunlardır: after, although, as, because, before, even though, if, since, though, unless, until, when, whenever, whereas, while. (Konu anlatımında detaylı bir şekilde bahsedilecektir.) v I’m happy even though I don’t make much money. ana cümle yan cümle

(Çok kazanamasam da mutluyum.) v If you consume too much junk food, you might put on weight.

yan cümle ana cümle

(Çok fazla abur cubur tüketirsen, kilo alabilirsin.) v Before you start learning grammar rules, you must learn the sentence structures.

yan cümle ana cümle

(Gramer kurallarını öğrenmeye başlamadan önce, cümle yapılarını öğrenmelisin.)

v We were studying for YDS while you were sunbathing on the beach. ana cümle yan cümle

(Sen sahilde güneşlenirken biz YDS’ye çalışıyorduk.)

v Unless we take measures to protect the environment, we cannot leave a future for children. yan cümle ana cümle

(Çevreyi korumak için önlemler almazsak, çocuklara bir gelecek bırakamayız.) B) Noun Clauses (İsim cümlecikleri)

Konu anlatımında detaylı bir şekilde bahsedeceğim isim cümleciği yapısı genel anlamıyla bir isim gibi görev yapan, özne ya da nesne olabilen, tek başına anlamı bulunmayan ve bir yan cümle olarak kullanılan cümleciklerdir. v Nobody knows where they moved. (Hiçkimse onların nereye taşındıklarını bilmiyor.)

yan cümle (ana cümlenin nesnesi)

v You can do whatever you want. (Ne istersen yapabilirsin.) yan cümle (ana cümlenin nesnesi)

v Whether he died is not certain yet. (Onun ölüp ölmediği henüz kesin değil.) yan cümle (ana cümlenin öznesi)


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C) Adjective (Relative) Clauses (Sıfat cümlecikleri)

Yine konu anlatımında detaylı bir şekilde bahsedeceğim sıfat cümleciği yapısı aynı zamanda bir sıfat olduğu için bir isimden sonra gelir ve bir sıfat göevi yaparak o ismi niteler. Yine tek başına anlamı yoktur ve ana cümleye bağlı kalması gerekir. v The song which we heard yesterday belongs to Beatles.

yan cümle (‘song’ kelimesini niteleyen sıfat cümleciği) v Turkey whose population is about 80 million is one of the most beautiful countries in the

world. yan cümle (‘Turkey kelimesini niteleyen sıfat cümleciği) v Robert who is a friend I’ve known since high school is a vegetarian.

yan cümle (‘Robert kelimesini niteleyen sıfat cümleciği)

4. Compound-Complex Sentence (Birleşik-Karmaşık Cümle) Bu cümlelerde iki bağımsız cümle ve en az bir yan cümle (bağımlı cümle) olması gerekir. İşte YDS’ye iyi bir şekilde hazırlanmak ve gramer yapılarını daha iyi bir şekilde anlamak için bu cümle türünü iyi çözümlemek gerekir. Başka bir deyişle YDS tam da burada başlar. v I’m happy even though I don’t make much money, but my kids are always complaining

since we can’t afford to buy the newest toys.

(Çok para kazanmasam da mutluyum, fakat en yeni oyuncakları almaya gücümüz yetmediği için çocuklarım sürekli şikayet ediyor.)

Bağımsız cümleler: “I’m happy” ve “my kids are always complaining” Yan cümleler: “even though I don’t make much money” ve “since we can’t afford to buy the newest toys” İki bağımsız cümleyi bağlayan bağlaç: “but”

v This new laptop computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice; however, I have no idea why.

(Dün aldığım bu yeni diz üstü bilgisayar iki kez çöktü, ama neden olduğuna dair hiç fikrim yok.)

Bağımsız cümleler: “This new laptop computerhas already crashed twice” ve “I have no idea why” Yan cümle: “which I bought yesterday” İki bağımsız cümleyi bağlayan bağlaç: “however”


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v My brother and I went to the mall last night, but my sister stayed home and studied because she was studying for her exams. (Erkek kardeşim ve ben dün akşam alışveriş merkezine gittik, fakat kız kardeşim gelmedi çünkü sınavlarına çalışyordu.)

Bağımsız cümleler: “My brother and I went to the mall last night” ve “my sister stayed home and studied” Yan cümle: “because she has a test coming up” İki bağımsız cümleyi bağlayan bağlaç: “but”

v We decided that the movie was too violent, but our children, who like to watch scary movies, thought that we were wrong.

(Biz filmin çok şiddet içerdiğine karar vermiştik, fakat korku filmi izlemeyi seven çocuklarımız yanıldığımızı düşünüyordu.)

Bağımsız cümleler: “We decided that the movie was too violent” ve “our childrenthought that we were wrong” Yan cümle: “who like to watch scary movies” İki bağımsız cümleyi bağlayan bağlaç: “but”

v I was going to purchase the cheese that you like, but it was too expensive.

(Sevdiğin peyniri alacaktım ama çok pahalıydı.)

Bağımsız cümleler: “I was going to purchase the cheese” ve “it was too expensive” Yan cümle: “that you like” İki bağımsız cümleyi bağlayan bağlaç: “but”

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BÖLÜM 2

TENSES (ZAMANLAR)

Bölüm 2 – Tenses (Zamanlar)

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TENSES (ZAMANLAR) 1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

§ V1 (isim cümlelerinde am / is / are)

+ I, you, we, they like music

he, she, it likes music

– I, you, we, they do not (don’t) like music he, she, it does not (doesn’t) like music

? Do I, you, we, they like music? Does he, she, it like music?

§ Türkçe karşılığı Geniş Zamandır ve Türkçe’deki kullanımı ile hemen hemen aynıdır. § ÖSYM sınavlarında en çok sorulan zamanlardan biridir.

Kullanım § Geçmiş zamanla bağlantısı olmayan, günümüzde kabul edilen bilimsel doğruluk ve gerçeklik

içeren ifadeler geniş zaman yapısıyla kullanılır.

§ Belirli zaman dilimi ile sınırlandırılmayan sürekli geçerli durumlar için kullanılır.

§ Film özetleri, program saatleri gibi durumlarda da kullanılır.

§ Alışkanlıklar ve günlük yapılan işlerden bahsederken kullanılır.

§ Bu zamanın en belirgin zaman zarfları ‘always, sometimes, never’ gibi ifadeler olsa bile bu zaman zarflarının bütün zamanlarla kullanılabileceğini unutmamak gerekir.

§ Soruda geçmiş zamana yönelik herhangi bir ipucu, zaman ifadesi ya da bir kelime olmadığında, ilk seçenek olarak ‘Simple Present’ yapısı içeren bir şıktan başlanmalıdır. Ayrıca yine geçmiş zamana dair bir ipucu olmadığı durumda, ‘çoğul özneler’ veya ‘a / an / any’ ile başlayan özneler de özellikle geniş zaman yapılarıyla kullanılır.

Örnek Cümleler v Global warming doesn't create hurricanes, but it makes them stronger and more

dangerous. (Küresel ısınma kasırga oluşturmaz, fakat onları daha güçlü ve daha tehlikeli hale getirir.)

v According to the survey, two-thirds of young people do not follow politics and pay no attention to election campaigns.

(Araştırmaya göre, gençlerin üçte ikisi siyaseti takip etmiyor ve seçim kampanyalarına ilgi göstermiyor.)

v There are a lot of debate about the use of animals in researches. (Hayvanların araştırmalarda kullanılması hakkında çok fazla tartışma bulunmaktadır.)


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ÖRNEK SORULAR 1. (KPSS 2012) Physical training ---- muscles in several ways and ---- the functioning of the heart and the respiratory system.

A) is altering / has improved B) alters / improves C) had altered / would improve D) altered / must have improved E) has been altering / will improve (Cümlenin akışında herhangi bir zaman ifadesi yoktur. Ayrıca soru incelendiğinde sağlıkla ilgili bir bilgi verilmekte ve ‘fiziksel eğitimin kasları değiştirdiğinden’ bahsedilmektedir. Dolayısıyla burada tam anlamıyla gene bir durumdan bahsedildiği için doğru cevap “B” seçeneğidir.) 2. (KPDS 2012 – İLKBAHAR) Unlike broadcast television, an interactive TV service provider ---- customers to choose which service to use at any given time, whether it ---- shopping, watching a film or playing games.

A) has allowed / might have been B) allows / is C) allowed / would be D) would allow / should have been E) is allowing / was

(Yukarıdaki soruda geçmiş zamana yönelik herhangi bir zaman ifadesi, olay veya karakter bulunmamaktadır. Cümle ‘Unlike broadcast television’ yani ‘televizyon yayınının aksine’ şeklinde başladığı için ve ‘interaktif TV sağlayıcısı’ ile kıyaslama yapıldığı için durum bizi genel bir yargıya götürüyor ve şıklara bakıldığında “B” seçeneğinde her iki tarafın da geniş zaman olduğu görülüyor. Ayrıca, cümlenin devamında ‘at any given time’ ifadesi de ‘herhangi bir zamanda’ anlamı vererek genel yargıyı pekiştiriyor. Dolayısıyla doğru cevap “B” seçeneğidir.)

3. (ÜDS 2012 – İLKBAHAR) In the 2004 movie Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, Clementine ---- a big fight with her boyfriend, Joel, so she ---- him erased from her mind by using a machine.

A) had / is getting B) would have / had got C) has had / would have got D) has / gets E) will have / is to get

(Bu sorunun başlangıcındaki ‘2004’ tarihi ilk bakışta geçmiş zaman gibi görünse de, aslında ‘2004 yapımı bir filmden’ bahsedilmektedir. Cümlenin devamında ise bu filmin ne hakkında olduğundan bahsedilmektedir. Film özetleri, program saatleri ve uçak/tren/otobüs seferlerinden bahsederken Geniş Zaman kullanılacağını unutmamak gerekir. Dolayısıyla doğru cevap “D” seçeneğidir.)

BAĞLAÇ

Because: (sebep) çünkü, için, -den dolayı

v It is a very useful book because it explains everything very clearly. (Bu çok faydalı bir kitap çünkü herşeyi çok açık anlatıyor.)

Although: (zıtlık / karşılaştırma) rağmen, olsa da, -e karşın, -iken

v Although he has got a good job now, he still complains. (İyi bir işi olmasına rağmen, yine de şikayet ediyor.)


22

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

§ am / is / are + Ving

+ I am

sleeping in the bed. he, she, it is you, we, they are

– I am not

sleeping in the bed. he, she, it is not (isn’t) you, we, they are not (aren’t)

? Am I

sleeping in the bed? Is he, she, it Are you, we, they

Kullanım

§ Türkçe’deki karşılığı ‘Şimdiki Zaman’ yapısıdır.

§ Konuşma anında gerçekleşen eylemler için kullanılır. § Gelecek zaman ifadesi ile birlikte önceden planlanmış eylemler için kullanılır. § ÖSYM sınavlarında çok fazla çıkan zamanlardan biri olmasa da soruya dikkat etmek gerekir.

Olayın konuşma anında gerçekleştiği veya bir eylemin şu anda devam ettiği zaman ifadesi verilmese de şıklardaki fiilden ya da cümlenin akışından çıkarılabilir.

§ En çok kullanılan zaman zarfları: ‘now, at the moment, at present, presently, at this time’.

Örnek Cümleler v All European governments are working together to find a solution to the problem of

nuclear waste.

(Bütün Avrupa ülkeleri nükleer atık sorununa bir çözüm bulmak için birlikte çalışıyorlar.) v The government is waiting for the results of clinical trials of the drug before making it

available to the general public.

(Hükümet, ilacı piyasaya sürmeden önce, ilacın klinik deneylerinin sonuçlarını bekliyor.)

v Contrary to expectations, more people are now leaving many of the world’s largest urban areas.

(Beklentilerin aksine, çok fazla insan dünyanın en büyük şehir bölgelerini terk ediyor.) v Although the low number of deaths caused in traffic accidents in the EU is going down,

experts are still trying to find ways of reducing the number.

(AB’deki trafik kazalarında ölenlerin sayısının az olmasına rağmen, uzmanlar hala bu rakamı azaltmanın yollarını bulmaya çalışıyorlar.)


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ÖRNEK SORULAR

1. (YDS 2013 – SONBAHAR) The discovery that the Universe ---- at an accelerating rate ---- two rival teams of scientists a Nobel Prize in Physics.

A) is expanding / has earned B) will be expanding / had earned C) was expanding / must have earned D) could expand / should have earned E) ought to expand / may have earned (Soru kökünde herhangi bir zaman ifadesi olmamasına rağmen, anlamsal açıdan bakıldığında evrenin genişlemesi ile ilgili bir soru sorulduğu görülebilir. Bu durumda ilk taraftaki fiile (expand=genişlemek) bakıldığında evrenin genişleme olayının sürekli bir olay olduğu ve şu anda da gerçekleştiği görüşü doğru bir kavramdır. Şıklarda geçmiş ve gelecek zaman yapılarından uzak durarak, ‘present’ yapısına odaklanmak gerekir. Bu durumda ilk taraftaki ‘is expanding’ ifadesi bize kesinlik durumunu ve istediğimiz cevabı veriyor. Çünkü evrenin genişlemekte olduğunun keşfi kesin bir kavramdır ve bu olayın iki rakip bilim insanı ekibine Nobel Ödülü kazandırdığından bahsedilmektedir. Dolayısıyla doğru cevap “A” seçeneğidir.) 2. (ÖSS 2013) Turkish TV soap operas ---- so popular in the Arabic World that the shows ---- a boom in tourism from the Middle East to Turkey.

A) have become / are driving B) became / will drive C) had become / have driven D) become / had driven E) will become / were driving (Verilen soruda herhangi bir zaman ifadesi yoktur ve Türk TV dizilerinin Arap dünyasındaki popüleritesinden bahsedilmektedir. Cümlenin akışından geçmiş zaman dair bir anlam çıkmadığı için ‘past’ seçenekler elenir ve geriye “A” seçeneği kalır.)

WHICH IS WHICH?

Adapt (to): 1) uyum sağlamak, adapte olmak; 2) uyarlamak

v It takes time to adapt to a new working environment. (Yeni bir çalışma ortamına uyum sağlamak zaman alır.)

Adopt: 1) benimsemek, kabul etmek; 2) evlat edinmek

v He adopted a more radical approach to the problem. (Soruna yönelik daha radikal bir yaklaşım benimsedi.)


24

3. SIMPLE PAST TENSE

§ V2 (isim cümlelerinde was / were)

+ I, you, he, she, it, we, they played in the garden.

ate breakfast.

– I, you, he, she, it, we, they did not (didn’t) play in the garden. did not (didn’t) eat breakfast.

? Did I, you, he, she, it, we, they play in the garden? eat breakfast?

Kullanım § ‘Geçmiş Zaman’ yapısı ÖSYM sınavlarında en çok çıkan zamanlardan birisidir ve kullanımları

Türkçe’deki kullanımlarıyla hemen hemen aynıdır.

§ Geçmişe ait bir zaman ifadesi (last, ago, in 1950, vb.), bir olay (The First World War ) ya da bir karakter (Alexander the Great) verilmişse geçmiş zaman işaretlenmelidir.

§ Herhangi bir zaman ifadesinin olmadığı durumlarda da doğru cevabın geçmiş zaman olduğu sorular sorulmuştur. Bu durumda cümlenin anlamına bakılmalı ve geçmiş zamanla bir bağlantı olup olmadığı kontrol edilmelidir.

§ ‘Always, sometimes, often, never’ gibi sıklık zarfları geçmişe işaret edilerek bu zamanda da kullanılabilir.

Örnek Cümleler v When the Olympic games were first held, they were conceived as a celebration of the

human body and of the human spirit.

(Olimpiyat oyunları ilk kez düzenlendiğinde, insan vücudunun ve insan ruhunun kutsanması olarak algılanıyordu.)

v In March of 1950, the Soviet Union announced that it built an atomic bomb.

(Mart 1950’de, Sovyetler Birliği atom bombası yaptığını duyurdu.)

v The city of London suffered a great deal of damage from bombing in World War Two.

(Londra İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nda bombalanmadan dolayı büyük zarar gördü.) v His team demonstrated in 2001 that placebos can relieve symptoms by raising brain levels

of dopamine, a beneficial neurotransmitter.

(Onun ekibi, 2001 yılında, plaseboların beynin faydalı bir sinir ileticisi olan dopamin seviyelerini arttırarak semptomları hafifletebileceğini gösterdi.)


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ÖRNEK SORULAR 1. (ÖSS 2012) Bessie Smith, who ---- her stage career in the 1910s as a dancer and singer, ---- the most well-known blues singer of the 1920s. A) began / was B) had begun / had been C) has begun / has been D) would begin / would be E) was beginning / could be (Soruda verilen 1910 ve 1920 tarihleri olayların ve durumların bu tarihlerde gerçekleştiğini ifade etmektedir. Yani bu tarihler geçmiş zaman seçeneklerini işaretlememiz için ipucudur. Cevap “A” şıkkıdır.) 2. (ÜDS 2012 – SONBAHAR) In general, the political ideas of classical liberalism ---- rapidly in the nations of Western Europe, whereas Eastern Europe ---- by autocratic monarchies.

A) advanced / was dominated B) had advanced / has been dominated C) advance / must be dominated D) were advancing / is dominated E) have advanced / could be dominated (Soru kökü “In general=genelde” zaman ifadesiyle başlamasına ve geniş zamanı çağrıştırmasına rağmen aslında cümlenin akışına bakıldığında genel bir yargı olmadığı anlaşılabilir. Bunun sebebi hem ‘classic liberalism’, hem de ‘autocratic monarchies’ ifadeleri aslında geçmişe yönelik detaylardan bahsetmedir. Ayrıca şıklara bakıldığında ‘advance’ ve ‘dominate’ fiilleri cümlenin akışına yerleştirildiğinde şöyle bir anlam elde edilir: “Genelde, klasik liberalizmin siyasi fikirleri Batı Avrupa ülkelerinde hızlı bir şekilde ilerlemesine rağmen, Doğu Avrupa’da otokrat monarşiler baskındı”. Her iki tarafında geçmiş zaman olması gerektiği düşünüldüğünde cevap “A” şıkkıdır.) 3. (ÜDS 2008 – İLKBAHAR) The Pyramid of the Sun ---- in stages in the second and third centuries A.D. and ---- about 200 feet high and 700 feet in length.

A) was built / measures B) had been built / may measure C) could have been built / was to measure D) has been built / would measure E) could be built / had measured (İlk tarafta verilen ‘in the second and third centuries A.D.’ bizi doğrudan geçmiş zamana götürür, devamındaki ifadede ise bu piramidin o zamanki ve şu anki ölçüleri verilmektedir. Dolayısıyla ikinci taraf genel bir yargıdır. Doğru cevap “A” şıkkıdır.)

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Approve OF: Onaylamak

Benefit FROM: Faydalanmak

Complain ABOUT: Şikayet etmek

Insist ON: Israr etmek

Suffer FROM: -den zarar görmek


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4. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

§ Was / were + Ving

+ I, he, she, it was

sleeping in the bed. you, we, they were

– I, he, she, it was not (wasn’t)

sleeping in the bed. you, we, they were not (weren’t)

? Was I, he, she, it

sleeping in the bed? Were you, we, they

Kullanım § Türkçe’deki karşılığı ‘Şimdiki Zaman’ın Hikayesi’ olan bu zaman geçmişte belirli bir zaman

diliminde devam etmekte olan eylemler için kullanılır.

§ Şıklarda geçmiş zamanın olmadığı yerlerde geçmiş zamana alternatiftir.

Örnek Cümleler v The company has denied allegations that they were dumping polluted water into the river.

(Şirket, nehire kirli su döktükleri iddialarını inkar etti.)

v Thousands of Americans waited anxiously for news of loved ones who were working in the World Trade Centre at the time of the terrorist attacks.

(Binlerce Amerikalı, terörist saldırıları esnasında Dünya Ticaret Merkezi’nde çalışan sevdiklerinden haber almak için tedirgin bir şekilde beklediler.)

v El Nino was originally accepted by some men who were fishing off the coast of South America as an image of unusual warm water in the Pacific Ocean.

(El Nino ilk olarak Güney Amerika açıklarında balık tutan bir kaç adam tarafından Pasifik Okyanusu’ndaki olağan dışı sıcak su görüntüsü olarak algılandı.)

ÖRNEK SORU

By the 16th century, Austria ---- so large that its emperor ---- all of modern Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Spain as well as parts of İtaly and Yugoslavia.

A) has become/ruled B) was becoming/has ruled C) was going to become/rule D) had become/was ruling E) becomes/has been ruling

(’16. yüzyıla kadar’ zaman ifadesi ve cümlenin devamı geçmiş zamanla ilgili olduğu için bu yapıya uyan tek şık “D” seçeneğidir.)


27

5. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

§ Have / has + V3 (isim cümlelerinde have / has + been)

+ I, you, we, they have

listened to music. he, she, it has

– I, you, we, they have not (haven’t)

listened to music. he, she, it has not (hasn’t)

? Have I, you, we, they

listened to music? Has he, she, it

Kullanım: § Hem geçmiş zamanı hem de şimdiki zamanı içinde barındıran bu zaman ÖSYM’nin sınavlarda en

çok sorduğu zamanlardan biridir.

§ Geçmişte başlamış ve şu anda devam etmekte olan eylemler için kullanılır. Bu kullanımında Türkçe’ye şimdiki zaman gibi çevrilir. Ayrıca bu kullanımda ‘since, for, over the last, over the past, during the last, during the past’ zaman ifadeleri kullanılır.

§ Yapılan iş geçmişte kalmış etkisi devam ediyorsa veya çok kısa süre önce yapıldıysa ya da

zamanı tam olarak belli değilse bu zaman kullanılır. § ÖSYM sınavlarında, en çok zaman ifadesinin verilmediği durumlarda ve buna ilaveten ‘since’

ifadesi ile kullanılır. § En çok sorulan ve en çok karıştırılan yapılardan bir tanesi: Present Perfect, since + Geçmiş

Zaman. Yani ‘since’ kendisinden sonra bir zaman ifadesi de alabilir (since 1923/middle ages/yesterday vb.), cümle de alabilir. Cümle aldığı durumda ‘since’den sonra gelen cümlenin zamanı ‘Simple Past’, ana cümle şimdiki zamana etki ediyorsa ‘Present Perfect’ ya da ‘Present Perfect Continuous’ olmalıdır. (I have lived in this apartment since I came to this city.)

§ En sık kullanılan zaman zarfları ‘for (-dır/-dir), since (-den beri), just (kısa süre önce/demin),

already (çoktan/zaten), yet (henüz/daha), recently (son zamanlarda), lately (son zamanlarda), so far (şimdiye kadar), until now (şimdiye kadar), up to now (şimdiye kadar), till now (şimdiye kadar), over the (last) ...., over the (past) ...., during the (last) ....., during the (past) .... (-dır/-dir).

§ Soruda geçmiş zamana yönelik herhangi bir ipucu, zaman ifadesi ya da bir kelime olmadığında, ilk

seçenek olarak ‘Simple Present’ yapısı ile birlikte bu yapıyı içeren bir şıktan başlanmalıdır.

PHRASAL VERBS

ACCOUNT FOR: 1) -e karşılık gelmek, -den sorumlu olmak; 2) açıklama yapmak

v At one time, Turkey’s export to Iraq accounted for 25% of its all exports. (Eskiden, Türkiye’nin Irak’a yaptığı ihracat, tüm ihracatının %25’ine karşılık geliyordu.)

CALL FOR: 1) gerektirmek, istemek; 2) çağrıda bulunmak

v By 2008, Great Britain suddenly changed its position on nuclear energy, calling for construction of new nuclear reactors. (2008’de İngiltere nükleer enerjiye yönelik tavrını aniden değiştirdi, bu da yeni nükleer reaktörlerin yapılmasını gerektirdi.)


28

Örnek Cümleler

v Scientists still haven’t found the reason why children are much better than adults at mastering a second language.

(Bilim insanları, çocukların ikinci dil öğrenme konusunda neden yetişkinlerden daha iyi olduklarını henüz bulamadılar.)

v The value of heat for the preservation of food has been known for thousands of years.

(Yiyecekleri korumak için ısının değeri binlerce yıldır bilinmektedir.)

v In the US, the percentage of obese people has doubled over the past two decades, and at present, 35% of the population is overweight

(ABD’de, obez insanların yüzdesi son yirmi yılda iki katına çıktı ve şu anda nüfusun %35’i aşırı kiloludur.)

ÖRNEK SORULAR

1. (ÜDS 2011 – İLKBAHAR)

Investigators ---- various methods over the years to search for genes that ---- to intelligence, which is a so-called quantitative trait. A) are using / should contribute B) have used / might contribute C) use / will contribute D) may use / contributed E) would use / are going to contribute

(Soru kökündeki ‘over the years=yıllardır’ zaman ifadesi Perfect Tense zaman zarflarındandır ve bir eylemin yıllar önde başladığını ve hala devam ettiğini belirtir. Dolayısıyla doğru cevap “B” şıkkıdır.)

2. (ÜDS 2010 – SONBAHAR) Psychologists from many different countries ---- their findings in an effort to understand the mystery of how the brain ----. A) combined / had functioned B) have combined / functions C) combine / functioned D) will combine / was functioning E) had combined / has functioned

(Bu soruya öncelikli olarak ikinci boşluktan yaklaşmak daha doğru bir yöntem olacaktır. Çünkü ‘beynin nasıl çalıştığı’ ifadesi genel bir yargıdır ve bizi doğrudan geniş zamana götürür. B şıkkında ilk taraftaki perfect tense yapısı ise eylemin yakın zamanda meydana geldiğini belirtir. Yani hem zaman ifadesi yoktur, hem de anlam bakımından perfect tense işaretlenmelidir. Doğru cevap “B” şıkkıdır.)


29

6. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

§ Have / has been + Ving

+ I, you, we, they have been

listening to music. he, she, it has been

– I, you, we, they have not (haven’t)

listening to music. he, she, it has not (hasn’t)

? Have I, you, we, they been

listening to music? Has he, she, it been

Kullanım: § Present Perfect Tense yapsının birinci kullanımı ile aynı kullanıma sahiptir. Yani, sadece geçmişte

başlayan ve şu anda devam eden durumlar için kullanılır. § Soruda ‘since, for, over the last/past, during the last/past’ zaman ifadeleri varsa, cevap hem

Present Perfect hem de Present Perfect Continuous olabileceği için diğer boşluğa yönelmek gereklidir.

§ ‘For a long time now’ zaman ifadesi kesinlikle Present Perfect ya da Present Perfect Continuous

zamanlarıdır. Ancak soruda sadece ‘for a long time’ varsa cevap Simple Past da olabilir. Çünkü ‘for a long time’ Present Perfect Tense ve Present Perfect Continuous Tense yapılarında ‘uzun süredir’ anlamında, Simple Past Tense yapısında ise ‘uzun süre / uzun süreliğine’ anlamlarına gelir. ‘For a long time’ zaman ifadesinin Simple Past Tense kullanımına örnek olarak ÜDS 2008 İlkbahar döneminde çıkmış şu soruyu gösterebiliriz:

For a long time, scientists believed that functional deficits in certain brain regions ---- autism – the result of complications in brain structure that no change in wiring among neural networks ----. A) might cause / had fixed B) caused / could fix C) have caused / fixes D) cause / could have fixed E) would have caused / fixed

(Cümle başındaki ‘for a long time’ ana cümlenin yüklemini etkileyen zaman ifadesidir. Burada ‘for a long time’ zaman ifadesini gördükten sonra Perfect Tense yapısına hemen gitmemek gerekir. Çünkü ana cümlenin yüklemi zaten Past yapısıyla (believed) verilmiş. Dolayısıyla bilim insanlarının bir duruma uzun süreyle inandığı gerçeği artık geçmişte kalmış ve şu anda devam etmiyordur. Sonuç olarak ilk tarafın kesinlikle geçmiş zaman yapısı olması gerekir. Bu durumu B seçeneği bize sağlıyor. Cümlenin devamında ise ‘autism’ kelimesi açıklanmaktadır ve genel bir yargıdan söz etmektedir. B seçeneğindeki ‘could fix’ yapısı ise burada genel durumu sağlamaktadır. Doğru cevap “B” seçeneğidir.)

BAĞLAÇ

However: (zıtlık / karşılaştırma) fakat, ancak

v Gold mining is a highly profitable industry. However, there are certain risks. (Altın madenciliği son derece karlı bir iştir. Ancak, bazı riskleri vardır.)

Due to: (sebep) -den dolayı, sebebiyle v The negative image of immigrants is largely due to ignorance.

(Göçmenlerin olumsuz imajı genellikle cehaletten dolayıdır.)


30

Örnek Cümleler v Although skin cancer has been developing on people for centuries, it has been in the past

few decades that doctors have truly begun to understand the disease.

(Cilt kanseri yüzyıllardır insanlarda görülmesine rağmen, doktorların bu hastalığı tam olarak anlamaya başlamaları on bir kaç on yıl içerisinde olmuştur.)

v Since the early 1990s, people have been turning to professionals called “life coaches” for help in managing major changes in their lives in the general belief that they provide solutions.

(1990’ların başından itibaren, insanlar yaşamlarındaki önemli değişiklikleri idare etmelerine yardımcı olmaları için çözüm sağladıkları inancıyla “yaşam koçları” diye adlandırılan profesyonellere yöneliyorlar.)

ÖRNEK SORULAR

1. (ÜDS 2010 – SONBAHAR) Since the early 1990s, people ---- to professionals called “life coaches” for help in managing major changes in their lives in the general belief that they ---- solutions. A) had turned / might have provided B) turned / are providing C) have turned / could have provided D) are turning / had provided E) have been turning / provide (Cümle başındaki ‘since’ yapısından dolayı ilk boşluğun Present Perfect ya da Present Perfect Continuous yapılarından biri olması gerekir. Bu nedenle A, B ve D seçenekleri elenir. Cümlenin ikinci tarafındaki ‘general belief’ ifadesi bize geniş zamanı, yani ‘provide’ ifadesini sağlamaktadır. Dolayısıyla doğru cevap “E” seçeneğidir.) 2. (ÜDS 2009 – SONBAHAR) Janet Malcolm, who is an admired photographer and ---- pictures since the early 1960s, generally ---- her summers photographing people and places in Africa. A) took / has been spending B) had been taking / will spend C) has been taking / spends D) takes / has spent E) had taken / would spend (İlk boşluğun devamındaki ‘since’ zaman ifadesi şıklar arasında Perfect Continuous Tense’i, ikinci boşluktaki ‘generally’ zaman ifadesi ise genel bir yargıyı içerdiği için doğru cevap “C” seçeneğidir.)


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7. PAST PERFECT TENSE § Had + V3 (isim cümlelerinde had been)

+ I, you, he, she, it, we, they had listened to music.

– I, you, he, she, it, we, they had not (hadn’t) listened to music.

? Had I, you, he, she, it, we, they listened to music?

Kullanım:

§ Past Perfect Tense, daha çok ‘after, before, until, by, vb.’ zaman bağlaçlarıyla Simple Past Tense ile paralel kullanılan bir zamandır. Öncelik sonralık dediğimiz tanımlamada, elimizde iki olayın olduğu bir durum vardır ve bu iki olaydan daha önce meydana gelmiş olan eylem için kullanılır. Ancak bu durumda her zaman Past Perfect Tense kullanılması zorunlu değildir, bunun yerine şıklarda Simple Past Tense varsa o şık da doğru cevap olarak işaretlenebilir.

§ Zaman bağlaçlarının kullanılmadığı durumlarda ise, geçmişte olan bir olayın sebebini açıklarken

de Past Perfect Tense ifadesi kullanılabilir. (I returned to home because I had forgotten (forgot) my keys. – Eve geri döndüm, çünkü anahtarlarımı unutmuştum.)

§ Ayrıca bu zaman yapısında ‘since’ kullanımı da mümkündür. Gramer yapısı olarak Ana Cümle

Past Perfect, yan cümle since yapısıdır: Past Perfect + since + Simple Past: Bu durumda since yapısı ‘-den itibaren, -den beri’ şeklinde Türkçe’ye çevrilir ve bir işin gerçekleşmesinden itibaren geçen zaman vurgulanır. Tabi ki olay geçmişte kalmıştır ve şimdiki zamanla herhangi bir bağlantısı yoktur. Örneğin; Since the party, she had only spoken him once (Partiden beri onunla sadece bir kez konuşmuştu). YDS 2015 İlkbahar döneminde yapılan sınavdan bir zaman sorusunda ise şu cümle karşımıza çıkmıştır: It had been 15 years since his first film, when David Lean returned to film industry again to adapt E.M. Forster’s novel A Passage to India (David Lean’in E.M. Forster’ın A Passage to India isimli romanını uyarlamak için yeniden sinema sektörüne döndüğü ilk filminden itibaren 15 yıl geçmişti).

Örnek Cümleler v The ancient Roman Empire was made up of lots of countries, including Britain, which the

Romans had attacked and invaded.

(Eski Roma İmparatorluğu, Romalıların saldırdığı ve işgal ettiği Britanya’nın da içinde bulunduğu birçok ülkeden oluşuyordu.)

v The nature of viruses made them impossible to detect for many years, even after bacteria had been discovered and studied.

(Bakteriler keşfedilip incelenmesinde sonra bile, virüslerin yapısı yıllarca tespit edilmelerini imkansız kılmıştır.)

v By the 1840s, British North America had developed a vibrant commercial economy based on its abundant natural resources and a growing international trade.

(1840’lara kadar, İngilizlerin oluşturduğu Kuzey Amerika, bol miktardaki doğa kaynaklara ve gittikçe büyüyen uluslararası ticarete dayalı olan canlı bir ticaret ekonomisi geliştirdi.)


32

ÖRNEK SORULAR

1. (ÜDS 2012 – SONBAHAR) By the late 20th century, the patterns of disease in the US ---- so dramatically that the major causes of death ---- from infectious diseases to chronic diseases. A) changed / will have shifted B) change / were shifting C) had changed / shifted D) are changing / had shifted E) have changed / would have shifted (‘By the late 20th century=20. yüzyılın sonlarına kadar’ zaman ifadesi geçmiş zamanı sağlamakta ve devamındaki ‘so ... that’ kalıbı ise sonuç bağlaçlarından olduğu için ilk olayın sonucunu bize vermektedir. Yani burada bir olay sıralaması vardır ve iki cümlenin de yapısının geçmiş zaman yapısı olması gerekir. Dolayısıyla cevap “C” şıkkıdır.)

2. (KPDS 2010 – SONBAHAR) To the astronomers of the Middle Ages, the most important classical authorities on natural philosophy ---- Aristotle and Ptolemy, since both ---- frameworks that explained the whole universe. A) had been / created B) are / have created C) were / had created D) have been / create E) may have been / were creating (Cümle ‘According to astronomers of the Middle Agea=orta çağların gökbilimcilerine göre” diye başladığı için cümlenin devamının past yapısı olması gerekir. Bu nedenle B ve D seçenekleri elenir. E şıkkında verilen ‘may have been’ ifadesi bir olasılık yapısıdır ve sorunun başlangıcı bize kesinliği belirtiyor. Bu sepeble E şıkkı elenir. Bu noktadan sonraki soruya öncelik-sonralık açısından bakılması gerekir. Bahsedilen iki bilim insanı Aristo ve Ptomely önce bir şeyler yapıp kendilerini kanıtlamaları gerektiği için ikinci boşluğun ‘Past Perfect’, bu kişilerin en önemli otoriteler olarak kabul edilmeleri ise ikinci olaydan sonra olduğu için ‘Simple Past’ yapısı olması gerekir. Dolayısıyla doğru cevap “C” seçeneğidir.)

WHICH IS WHICH?

Lie (lie - lied - lied): yalan söylemek

v Trust her because she never lies. (Ona güven çünkü asla yalan söylemez.)

Lie (lie - lay - lain): yatmak, uzanmak

v Go and lie on the bed until you feel better. (Git ve kendini iyi hissedene kadar yatakta uzan. Lay (lay - laid - laid): 1) sermek, koymak, yerleştirmek; 2) yumurtlamak

v We lay flowers on her grave once a week. (Haftada bir kez onun mezarına çiçek koyarız.)


33

8. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

§ Had been + Ving

+ I, you, he, she, it, we, they had been listening to music.

– I, you, he, she, it, we, they have not been (hadn’t been) listening to music.

? Had I, you, he, she, it, we, they

been listening to music?

been

Kullanım:

§ Geçmişte belirli bir olaya kadar ya da belirli bir zamana kadar sürekli devam eden bir olay ya da olaylar için kullanılır. Kullanım olarak Past Continuous yapısına benzese de, cümledeki ‘for’ zaman zarfı cevabın Past Perfect Cont. olması için ipucudur. Aynı Past Perfect Tense yapısı gibi çeşitli zaman bağlaçlarıyla birlikte kullanılır.

Örnek Cümleler v He had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he left for Asia.

(Asya’ya gitmeden önce bir yıldan fazla süredir üniversitede ders veriyordu.)

v The detectives had been searching for the murderer for a long time before they arrested him.

(Dedektifler katili tutuklamadan önce uzun süre aradılar.) v At her last session with her psychiatrist, she admitted that she had been stealing from

stores for a number of years.

(Psikiyatrist ile olan son görüşmesinde, yıllardır mağazalardan bir şeyler çaldığını kabul etti.)


34

ÖRNEK SORULAR

1. (ÜDS 2011 – SONBAHAR) Chile ---- a state-funded national health service for 30 years when it ---- to go for a mixed approach allowing private health services to be also offered. A) will be running / was deciding B) was running / had been decided C) has been running / is deciding D) had been running / decided E) is running / has decided (Soruda öncelik verilmesi gereken ‘when’ yapısıdır. ‘When’ zaman ifadesi kendi içerisinde uyum isteyen bir yapı olduğu için şıklardan giderek bu uyumu yakalamak daha mantıklı olacaktır. “D” şıkkında ikinci tarafta Past yapısı, ilk tarafta ise soru kökünde ‘for 30 years’ yapısının karşılığı olan Past Perfect Continuous yapısı doğru cevabı sağlamaktadır.)

2. (ÜDS 2009 – SONBAHAR) NASA ---- experiments on the surface of the moon for eight years when they ---- them down in 1977 for financial reasons. A) conducted / would have to shut B) has been conducting / have to shut C) had been conducting / had to shut D) was conducting / have had to shut E) would have conducted / would have had to shut

(Yine soru kökündeki ‘when’ zaman bağlacının uyumundan gidecek olursak, ikinci boşluktaki ‘1977’ yılı olayın geçmiş zamanda gerçekleştiği ipucunu vermektedir. Ayrıca ilk boşluktaki ‘for eight years’ uyumdan dolayı Past Perfect yapısını karşılıyor ve dolayısıyla doğru cevap “C” şıkkıdır.


Advance IN: Bir şeydeki artış

Desire FOR: Bir şey isteği

Key TO: Bir şeyin anahtarı, püf noktası

Lack OF: Bir şeyden yoksun olma, eksiklik

Reaction TO: Bir şeye karşılık, tepki


35

9. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

§ ‘Will’ ve ‘Be going to’ şeklinde iki kullanımı vardır. ÖSYM sınavları için bu ikisi arasında anlam ve kullanım açısından fark yoktur.

§ will + V1 ya da am / is / are going to + V1 (isim cümlelerinde will be ve am / is / are going to be)

+ I, you, he, she, it, we, they will listen to music.

– I, you, he, she, it, we, they will not (won’t) listen to music.

? Will I, you, he, she, it, we, they listen to music?

Kullanım:

§ Geleceğe dair planlarda, tahminlerde veya bilimsel öngörülerde kullanılır.

§ En çok kullanılan zaman ifadeleri: ‘next, later, within (ten) years, for many years to come, in the future, at the end of next (month, decade, century)’.

§ Bazı sorularda zaman ifadesi verilmese de cümlenin akışından cevabın gelecek zaman olması gerektiği anlaşılabilir. Bu durumda özellikle cümlenin anlamına gidilmeli ve bahsedilen durumun gelecekle ilgisi olup olmadığına dikkat edilmelidir. Genellikle soru kökünde zaman ifadesinin olmadığı durumlarda ‘hope, believe, predict, expect, foresee, foreceast ve estimate’ gibi fiiller varsa bu fiiller kendilerinden sonra gelen cümlenin gelecek zaman olacağına dair ipucu olabilir.

Örnek Cümleler v Sales at the company have increased a lot over the last year, so they are going to hire at

least 5 new people next month.

(Şirketin satışları geçen yıldan beri oldukça artıyor, bundan dolayı gelecek ay 5 yeni eleman işe alacaklar.)

+ I am going to

listen to music. he, she, it İs going to you, we, they are are going to

– I am not going to

listen to music. he, she, it is not going to you, we, they are not going to

? Am I

going to listen to music? Is he, she, it Are you, we, they


36

v If tuberculosis is treated early and by modern methods, there won't be any problems with the patient in the future.

(Tüberküloz (verem) erken ve modern yöntemlerle teşhis edilirse, gelecekte hastayla ilgili hiçbir problem olmayacaktır.)

v Although China has, in recent years, made notable advances, particularly in manufacturing,

agriculture will long remain fundamental to the economy.

(Son yıllarda Çin, özellikle üretim alanında önemli ilerlemeler kaydetse de, tarım ekonomi için uzun süre önemli ve esas olmaya devam edecektir.)

ÖRNEK SORULAR 1. (ÜDS 2010 – SONBAHAR) Contrary to the prevailing economic view, some experts ---- that more free trade ---- the global crisis. A) have said / would not have eased B) said / is not going to ease C) are saying / had not eased D) say / will not ease E) were saying / has not eased (Soruda zaman ifadesinin olmaması ve ayrıca ‘prevailing economic view=geçerli ekonomik görüş’ ifadesi ilk tarafın present yapı olmasını gerektiriyor. Bu sebeple B ve E şıkları elenir. A ve C şıklarında ikinci taraf geçmiş zaman yapısıdır ancak cümlede geçmiş zamana dair ipucu olmadığı için bu şıklar elenir. Doğru cevap “D” şıkkıdır. = Geçerli ekonomik görüşün aksine, bazı uzmanlar serbest ticaretin daha fazla yapılmasının küresel krizi rahatlatmayacağını söylüyor.)

2. (ÜDS 2009 – SONBAHAR) Scientists ---- that by the year 2050 robot brains based on computers that have the ability to execute 100 trillion instructions per second ---- rivalling human intelligence. A) are predicting / are starting B) have predicted / would start C) predicted / would have started D) predict / will start E) would predict / will have started (Bu soruda, ‘by the year 2050’ zaman ifadesinin ilk boşluğu değil de ‘that’ yapısından sonra geldiği için ikinci boşluğu nitelediğine dikkat edilmesi gerekir. İkinci boşluk gelecek zaman olması gerektiği için B ve C seçenekleri elenir. A şıkkındaki ‘are starting’ yani şimdiki zaman yapısı gelecek zaman için kullanılabilse de bu durum planlanmış ve gerçekleşmesi neredeyse kesin durumlardan bahsederken kullanılır. Ancak ilk boşluktaki ‘predict=tahmin etmek’ fiili bu şıkkı elememizi sağlar. D ve E seçeneklerinde, ikinci taraf gelecek zaman ifadesidir ve bu soru için ikisi arasında herhangi bir ayrım yapılamaz. Ancak E şıkkında birinci taraftaki ‘would predict’ ifadesinde ‘would’ yapısını gerektirecek herhangi bir durum olmadığından ve bilim insanlarının geleceğe dair tahmin olayını şu an yapmaları gerektiğinden dolayı doğru cevap “D” şıkkıdır. Ayrıca şıklardaki ‘predict’ kelimesi that yapısından yani noun clause’dan önce gelen ana cümlenin yüklemidir. Kendi içerisinde uyum aranması gerekir ve bu uyum sadece D şıkkındadır.)


37

10. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

§ Will be + Ving

Kullanım: § Gelecekte belirli bir anda devam etmekte olan eylemler için kullanılır.

§ ÖSYM sınavlarında, Simple Future Tense’in bir alternatifidir. Dolayısıyla cevabın gelecek zaman

olduğundan eminsek ve şıklarda Simple Future yoksa cevap bu zamandır.

§ Zaman zarfları Simple Future Tense zaman zarflarıyla aynıdır. Örnek Cümleler v People will be living more complex lives by 2025.

(2025 yılında, insanlar daha karmaşık hayatlar yaşıyor olacak / yaşayacak.)

v Government officials expect that increased security measures will be forthcoming as a result of the terrorist attacks.

(Hükümet yetkilileri, terörist saldırılarından dolayı yakında güvenlik önlemlerinin artacağını ümit ediyorlar.)

ÖRNEK SORU

1. (ÜDS 2011 – SONBAHAR) Wasted energy from your body movements ---- enough to power your house, but this energy ---- your cell phone in the near future. A) need not be / would have charged B) should not be / will have been charging C) could not have been / would charge D) must not have been / will have charged E) may not be / will be charging (İlk olarak göze çarpan ‘in the near future=yakın gelecekte” zaman ifadesi gelecek zamanı göstermektedir. Bu nedenle A ve C seçenekleri elenir. Soru içeriğinde ‘vücut hareketlerinden ortaya çıkan boşa harcanmış enerji’ ifadesi genel bir yargıdır ve D seçeneğindeki ‘must not have been’ yapısı geçmişi ifade ettiği için elenir. B şıkkındaki ‘will have been charging’ Future Perfect Continuous yapısıdır ve bu zamanın gelebilmesi için ‘for’ zaman ifadesi ile o işin ne kadar süre devam ettiğinin belirtilmesi gerekir. Dolayısıyla cevap “E” seçeneğidir. = Vücut hareketlerinizden boşa harcanan enerji evinizi güçlendirmek için yeterli olmayabilir, ancak bu enerji yakın gelecekte cep telefonunuzu şarj edecek / ediyor olacak.)

+ I, you, he, she, it, we, they will be listening to music.

– I, you, he, she, it, we, they will not be (won’t be) listening to music.

? Will I, you, he, she, it, we, they listening to music?


38

11. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE § Will have + V3 (isim cümlelerinde will have been)

Kullanım:

§ Gelecekteki belli bir olay ya da zamandan önce tamamlanmış olacak eylemler için kullanılır. Olayın tamamlanması için verilen en son zamanı bildiren bir zaman ifadesi ya da cümle olmadan (“by”, “upon” ya da “by the time”) kullanılamaz.

Örnek Cümleler

v By the end of elementary school, the average child will have seen 8,000 murders and

100,000 other violent acts in the media.

(İlkokulun sonunda kadar, ortalama bir çocuk medyada 8.000 cinayet ve 100.000 diğer şiddet olayları görmüş olacak.)

v Unless something is done to protect the wild life, many species will have died out by 2050.

(Vahşi yaşamı korumak için bir şey yapılmazsa, 2050 yılına kadar birçok türün nesli tükenmiş olacak.)

ÖRNEK SORULAR:

1. (ÜDS 2009 – SONBAHAR) Upon the completion next month of its renovation and expansion, the museum ---- its exhibition space and added an auditorium ---- for performances and lectures. A) will have doubled / to be used B) doubled / to have used C) has doubled / to have been used D) doubles / being used E) had doubled / to use (Soru kökündeki ‘upon the completion next month=gelecek ay tamamlanması üzerine / tamamlandıktan sonra’ zaman ifadesi gelecek zamanı belirtir ve geleceğe dair eylemin son tarihini verdiği için doğru cevap “A” seçeneğidir.)

2. (ÜDS 2009 – İLKBAHAR) It is hoped that the construction of the world’s tallest residential building, the Chicago Spire, which ---- at the end of last year, ---- by late 2010. A) was commenced / will have been completed B) commences / will complete C) has been commenced / would be completed D) has commenced / has been completed E) had commenced / is to be completed (İlk boşlukta verilen ‘at the end of last year=geçen yılın sonunda’ Simple Past yapısını, ikinci boşluktaki ‘by late 2010=2010’un sonunda / sonuna kadar’ ifadesi gelecek zamanı vermektedir (tabi sınav 2009 yılında yapıldığı için gelecek zaman alınmıştır). Bu yapıları karşılayan doğru cevap “A” seçeneğidir.)

+ I, you, he, she, it, we, they will have listened to music.

– I, you, he, she, it, we, they will not have (won’t have) listened to music.

? Will I, you, he, she, it, we, they have listened to music?


39

12. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

§ Will have been + Ving

Kullanım:

§ Gelecekte belirli bir döneme kadar belirli bir süreyle yapılan eylemler için kullanılır.

§ Cümlede mutlaka ‘for’ zaman ifadesinin kullanılması gerekir.

v You will have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.

(Onun uçağı geldiğinde, sen iki saatten fazla süredir bekliyor olacaksın.)

v We are going to have been driving for over three days straight when we get to Ankara.

(Ankara’ya ulaştığımızda, üç günden fazla süredir araba kullanıyor olacağız.)

+ I, you, he, she, it, we, they will have been listening to music.

– I, you, he, she, it, we, they will not have been (won’t have been) listening to music.

? Will I, you, he, she, it, we, they have been listening to music?

PHRASAL VERBS

MAKE UP: 1) oluşturmak; 2) uydurmak (bahane, özür, vb.)

v Women make up 40% of the workforce. (Kadınlar iş gücünün %40’ını oluşturmaktadır.)

FIND OUT: 1) ortaya çıkarmak; 2) öğrenmek; 3) anlamak

v As he has taken those antibiotics, it will be very difficult to find out what the problem is. (Bu antibiyotikleri aldığı için, problemin ne olduğunu anlamak çok zor olacak.)

PUT OFF: ertelemek, askıya almak

v I must talk to her about this, I can’t put it off any longer. (Bunun hakkında onunla konuşmalıyım, daha fazla erteleyemem.)


40

13. FUTURE IN THE PAST

Kullanım: § Would + V1 ya da was / were going to + V1 şeklinde genellikle birbirinin yerine kullanılabilen iki

kullanımı vardır.

§ Bu zaman yapısı ‘Geçmişteki Gelecek Zaman’ şeklinde ifade edilir ve bilinen gelecek zamanla herhangi bir ilişkisi yoktur.

§ Türkçe’ye ‘yapacaktı / edecekti’ şeklinde çevrilir.

§ Geçmişte bahsedilen durumdan sonra gerçekleşecek olan ve şimdiki zamana göre geçmişte kalmış bir eylemden bahsedilirken kullanılır.

§ Genellikle past yapıdaki ana cümleden sonra gelen Noun Clause yapılarında kullanılırlar. Örnek Cümleler v I had a feeling that the vacation was going to be a disaster.

(Tatilin bir felaket olacağına dair içimde bir his vardı.)

v I never dreamt the dog was going to bite me.

(Köpeğin beni ısıracağı aklımdan bile geçmemişti.) v Sally was going to buy a new bag, but she didn’t have enough money.

(Sally yeni bir çanta alacaktı ama yeterli parası yoktu.)

BAĞLAÇ

Because of: (sebep) -den dolayı, sebebiyle, yüzünden

v The space shuttle flight had to be aborted at the last minute because of severe weather conditions..

(Uzay mekiğinin fırlatılması kötü hava koşullarından dolayı son dakikada iptal edildi .)

Whereas: (zıtlık / karşılaştırma) buna karşın, -iken, rağmen

v Whereas knowledge can be acquired from books, skills must be learned through practice. (Bilgi kitaplardan elde edilebilirken, beceriler uygulamayla öğrenilmelidir.)

Therefore: (sonuç) bu nedenle, bundan dolayı v We were unable to get funding and therefore had to abandon the project.

(Para bulamadık ve bu nedenle projeden ayrılmak zorunda kaldık.)


41

ZAMANLAR ÖZET TABLO

Zaman Kullanım En Çok Kullanılan Zaman Zarfları Örnek Cümle

Simple Present Bilimsel doğrular Genel yargılar

Today In modern times

Usually Generally

I wash the dishes.

Present Continuous Sürekli durumlar Şu anda gerçekleşen eylemler

Now Today

At the moment At present

I’m washing the dishes.

Simple Past Geçmişte kalmış eylemler

In the past Geçmiş tarih I washed the dishes.

Past Continuous Geçmişte belirli zaman diliminde devam eden eylemler

Geçmiş tarih I was washing the dishes.

Present Perfect

Geçmişte başlamış şu anda devam eden eylemler Yakın zamanda bitmiş eylemler

Since For

Over the last / past Recently

Lately

I have washed the dishes.

Present Perfect Continuous

Geçmişte başlamış şu anda devam eden eylemler

Since For

I have been washing the dishes.

Past Perfect Geçmişte öncelik sonralık durumlarında daha önce gerçekleşmiş eylemler

After Before Until

By the time I had washed the dishes.

Past Perfect Continuous

Geçmişte öncelik sonralık durumlarında daha önce gerçekleşmiş eylemler ve bu eylemin ne kadar süredir devam ettiğinin vurgulandığı durumlar

For I had been washing the dishes.

Simple Future Gelecek zamanda gerçekleşecek eylemler

In the future Next Later

I will wash the dishes. I am going to wash the dishes.

Future Continuous Gelecek zamanda belirli bir dönemde gerçekleşecek eylemler

In the future Next Later

I will be washing the dishes.

Future Perfect Gelecekteki belli bir olay ya da zamandan önce tamamlanmış olacak eylemler

By By the time

Upon I will have washed the dishes.

Future Perfect Continuous

Gelecekte belirli bir döneme kadar belirli bir süreyle yapılan eylemler

For I will have been washing the dishes.

Future in the Past

Geçmişte bahsedilen durumdan sonra gerçekleşecek olan ve şimdiki zamana göre geçmişte kalmış bir eylemden bahsedilirken kullanılır

Geçmiş tarih I would wash the dishes. I was going to wash the dishes.

43

BÖLÜM 3

MODALS (KİPLER)

Bölüm 3 – Modals (Kipler)

44

MODALS Türkçe karşılığı ‘Kipler’ olarak geçen bu yapılar cümle içerisinde bir yardımcı fiil gibi hareket eder. Yani bir fiilin önüne gelerek o fiile anlam katarlar.

1. PRESENT MODALS

“Can + V1” şeklinde kullanılır ve fiile “-ebilmek” anlamı katar. 1. Yetenek ve yapabilirlik durumlarında kullanılır.

v We always think that a native speaker can teach his language well.

(Her zaman bir kişinin kendi ana dilini iyi öğretebileceğini düşünürüz.)

v Please don’t ask me. I never can understand proverbs.

(Lütfen bana sorma. Atasözlerini hiç anlayamıyorum.)

2. Olasılık, ihtimal ya da tahmin belirtir. ÖSYM sınavlarındaki en yaygın kullanımdır.

v Sometimes a snap decision can be more effective than one made deliberately and cautiously.

(Ani karar bazen bilerek ve dikkatlice veilmiş bir karardan daha etkili olabilir.)

v The Asian tsunami of 2005 showed that the United Nations can play an invaluable coordinating role when the international aid is prompt and generous.

(2005 yılında Asya’da meydana gelen tsunami gösterdi ki uluslararası yardım hızlı ve cömert olduğunda Birleşmiş Milletler paha biçilemez bir rol oynayabilir.)

3. İzin isteme ya da ricada bulunmak için kullanılır.

v Can you please let me go out for a few minutes?

(Lütfen birkaç dakikalığına dışarı çıkmama izin verir misin?)

v Can I ask you a few questions?

(Size birkaç soru sorabilir miyim?)

4. Olumsuz biçimi olan “can’t” veya “cannot” bir işi yapamama ya da olumsuz bir çıkarım ifade eder.

v Animals cannot talk to one another like humans do, but this does not mean they cannot

communicate in other ways.

(Hayvanlar, insanların yaptığı gibi birbirleriyle konuşamazlar; ancak bu onların diğer yollarla iletişim kuramadıkları anlamına gelmez.)

v That can’t be Mary because she is in New York now.

(Bu Mary olamaz çünkü o şu an New York’da.)

CAN


45

“Be able to + V1” yapısı bir çok zamanla birlikte kullanılabilir ve fiile “-ebilmek” anlamı katar. Hemen hemen bütün zamanlara göre çekimlenebildiği başka modal yapılarıyla birlikte de kullanılabilir.

1. Yetenek ve yapabilirlik durumlarında “can” ile aynı kullanıma sahiptir.

v He is able to run fast although he is too old.

(Çok yaşlı olmasına rağmen hızlı koşabiliyor.)

v We will be able to learn the football results at the end of the news.

(Maç sonuçlarını haberlerin sonunda öğrenebileceğiz.)

2. Olumsuz biçimi “not be able to” olabileceği gibi “be unable to” şeklinde de yapılabilir.

v Despite all efforts, they will not be able to win the game.

(Tüm çabalara rağmen, maçı kazanamayacaklar.)

v Specialists are unable to reach a consensus on whether the world’s climate will get warmer in the future.

(Uzmanlar dünyanın ikliminin gelecekte ısınıp ısınmayacağı konusunda fikir birliğine varamıyorlar.)

Simple Present am / is / are able to

Simple Past was / were able to

Present Perfect have / has been able to

Past Perfect had been able to

Simple Future will be able to am / is / are going to be able to

Future Perfect will have been able to

Would would be able to would have been able to

Modals must be able to should be able to

WHICH IS WHICH?

Threat: tehdit

v Drugs pose a major threat to our society. (Uyuşturucular toplumumuz için büyük tehdit oluşturmaktadır.)

Trait: özellik, nitelik

v We do not know which behavioral traits are inherited and which acquired.

(Hangi davranış özelliklerinin kalıtsal, hangilerinin sonradan kazanıldığını bilmiyoruz.)

BE ABLE TO


46

“Could + V1” şeklinde past, present ve future anlamlarında kullanılabilir ve fiile “-ebilmek” anlamı katar. 1. ‘Can’ modalının past biçimi olarak geçmişteki yetenek veya yapabilirlik durumlarında

kullanılır.

v He could play the piano well even when he was 4 years old.

(O, 4 yaşındayken piyanoyu iyi çalabiliyordu.)

v I couldn’t hear what they were talking about.

(Ne hakkında konuştuklarını duyamadım.)

2. Present ya da Future anlamında ise aynı ‘can’ modalı gibi olasılık ve ihtimal belirten durumlarda aynı kullanıma sahiptir.

v We could build a bridge over the river here, or we could choose another place.

(Köprüyü nehrin üzerine yapabiliriz, ya da başka bir yer seçebiliriz.)

v Our bodies are often exposed to thousands of bacteria and viruses, which could potentially

cause infection.

(Vücudumuz enfeksiyona sebep olabilen binlerce bakteri ve virüse maruz kalır.)

3. Yine Present anlamında ricada veya öneride bulunmak için kullanılır.

v Could you please tell me where I can find the cinema?

(Sinemayı nerede bulacağımı lütfen süyleyebilir misiniz?)

v You could try painting it a different colour.

(Bunu başka renge boyamayı deneyebilirsin.)

COULD


47

“May + V1” yapısı present ve future anlamlarında kullanılabilir ve fiile “-ebilmek” anlamı katar. 1. ‘Can’ ve ‘Could’ gibi present ya da future anlamında ihtimal / olasılık bildirir.

v We may deplete sources in the near future if we continue to exploit the environment.

(Çevreyi suiistimal etmeye devam edersek, yakın gelecekte kaynakları tüketebiliriz .)

v There may be other problems that we don’t know about.

(Bilmediğimiz başka sorunlar da olabilir.)

2. İzin istemek ya da vermek ve ricada bulunmak için kullanılabilir. Özellikle diyalog sorularında karşımıza çıkabilecek kullanımdır.

v May I have a look at the article?

(Makaleye bi bakabilir miyim?)

v You may come in if you wish. (İstersen içeri girebilirsin.)

“Might + V1” ifadesi de fiile “-ebilmek” anlamı katar ve present ya da future (çoğunlukla future) anlamında olasılık belirtir.

v I can’t say something certain but the patient might completely recover soon.

(Kesin bir şey söyleyemem ama hasta yakında tamamen iyileşebilir.) v I might help him if he wants to get well as soon as possible.

(En kısa zamanda iyileşmek istiyorsa, ona yardım edebilirim.)

MAY

MIGHT


Be associated WITH: birşey ile ilgisi olmak, ilişkili olmak

Be composed OF: -den oluşmak

Be eager TO: istekli olmak

Be involved IN / WITH: -ile uğraşmak, bir işe karışmak

Be suitable FOR: uygun olmak


48

“Must + V1” yapısı present ve future kullanımlarında fiile ‘-meli/-malı’ anlamı katar. 1. Zorunluluk bildirir. (yapmalısın / yapmak zorundasın / yapman gerek)

v You must be more sensitive to the feelings of others.

(Başkalarınn hislerine karşı daha duyarlı olmalısın.) v Young people must be well-educated in order to become good citizens in the future.

(Gençlerin gelecekte iyi vatandaş olmaları için iyi eğitilmeleri gerekir.) 2. Güçlü bir çıkarım ya da olasılığı ifade etmek için kullanılır.

v They must be hungry because they haven’t eaten anything for hours.

(Aç olmalılar çünkü saatlerdir hiçbir şey yemediler.) v Shopping must be very difficult for you. Why don’t you ask someone to help you?

(Alışveriş yapmak senin için çok zor olmalı. Neden birinden yardım istemiyorsun?) 3. Olumsuz kullanımı olan “mustn’t + V1” yapısı ise yasaklamalarda ve güçlü tavsiyelerde

kullanılır.

v You mustn’t address your senior official in such a manner.

(Senden üstlere karşı bu şekilde hitap etmemelisin.)

v You mustn’t show this letter to anyone else. (Bu mektubu kimseye göstermemelisin.)

MUST

PHRASAL VERBS

GIVE UP: bırakmak, vazgeçmek

v Decide what you want and then don’t give up until you have achieved it. (Yapmak istediğim şeye karar ver ve sonra onu başarana kadar asla vazgeçme.)

PUT UP WITH: tahammül etmek, katlanmak, dayanmak

v I wonder how the woman puts up with her husband’s drinking habit. (Kocasının içki alışkanlığına kadının nasıl katlandığını merak ediyorum.)

TAKE OFF: 1) giysi, ayakkabı vs. çıkarmak; 2) (uçak) havalanmak

v The musician had to take off their shoes while dancing. (Müzisyen dans ederken ayakkabılarını çıkarmak zorunda kaldı.)


49

“Have to + V1” yapısı aynı ‘must’ gibi present ve future zamanlarda fiile ‘-meli/-malı’ anlamı katar. Üçüncü tekil şahıslarda “Has to + V1” şeklinde kullanılır. Hemen hemen bütün zamanlarda ve bazı modal yapılarıyla birlikte kullanılabilir. Ayrıca ‘have got to / has got to + V1” kullanımı da vardır ve aynı anlama sahiptir. 1. Zorunluluk bildirir. (yapmalısın / yapmak zorundasın / yapman gerek)

v I have to draw some money from my bank account to pay the bills.

(Faturaları ödemek için banka hesabımdan biraz para çekmem gerek.) v I have to admit that the idea of marriage scares me.

(Kabul etmeliyim ki evlilik fikri beni korkutuyor.) 2. Olumsuz kullanımı olan “don’t have to/doesn’t have to+ V1” yapısı ise zorunluluğun

kalktığını belirtir ve “yapmak zorunda değilsin” anlamı taşır.

v We don’t have to wait him; it’s too late.

(Onu beklemek zorunda değiliz; saat çok geç oldu.)

v You don’t have to live in that hotel room alone.

(Bu otel odasında yalnız başına yaşamak zorunda değilsin.)

3. Geçmiş zaman yapısı “had to + V1” şeklindedir ve “yapmak zorundaydım ve yaptım” anlamı taşır. Olumsuz yapısı ise “didn’t have to” biçiminde kullanılır ve “yapmak zorunda değildim ve yapmadım” anlamına gelir.

v Before printed books came in, books had to be copied by hand; this was obviously a slow process and very expensive.

(Basılmış kitaplar olmadan önce, kitapların elle kopyalanması gerekiyordu; bu da oldukça yavaş bir süreçti ve çok pahalıydı.)

v We didn’t have to come to this hotel for our holiday.

(Tatil için bu otele gelmek zorunda değildik.)

Present have to / has to

Simple Past had to

Present Perfect have had to / has had to

Past Perfect had had to

Simple Future will have to am / is / are going to have to

Future Perfect will have had to

Would would have to would have had to

Modals may have to could have to

HAVE TO


50

“Need to/needs to + V1” yapısı ‘have to’ ve ‘must’ yapılarına benzer, present ve future yapılarında “yapman gerek” anlamında kullanılır. Hemen hemen bütün zamanlarla birlikte kullanılır. 1. Gereklilik bildirir.

v All you need to do is to complete this form.

(Tek yapman gereken bu formu doldurmak.)

v You need to finish your report until tomorrow, or you will be fired.

(Yarına kadar raporunu bitirmen gerek, yoksa kovulacaksın.) 2. Olumsuz kullanımı olan “don’t need to/doesn’t need to+ V1” yapısı ise gerekliliğin

kalktığını belirtir ve “yapmana gerek yok” anlamı taşır (don’t have to ile aynıdır). Geçmişteki kullanımı ‘didn’t need to’ şeklindedir. Anlamı ‘yapmana gerek yoktu ve yapmadın’ biçimindedir.

v You don’t need to wear such warm clothes in this weather.

(Bu havada bu kadar sıcak kıyafetler giymene gerek yok.) v I didn’t need to go to the bank because Mary lent me the money.

(Bankaya gitmek zorunda kalmadım çünkü Mary bana borç para verdi.)

“Needn’t + V1” yapısı ‘don’t have to’ ve ‘don’t need to’ yapıları ile aynıdır, present ve future yapılarında ihtiyaç ya da gerek olmadığını bildirerek “yapmana gerek yok” anlamında kullanılır.

v You needn’t bring any beverages for the party because I have already bought them.

(Partiye içecek getirmene gerek yok çünkü ben zaten aldım.)

v You needn’t know the details of this subject.

(Bu konunun detaylarını bilmene gerek yok.)

NEED TO

NEEDN’T

BAĞLAÇ

Even if: (zıtlık) –se bile

v I would never eat meat even if I was really hungry. (Çok aç olsam bile et yemem.)

Thanks to: (sebep) sayesinde, -den dolayı, -nin yüzünden

v Thanks to your priceless contributions, I could complete my thesis. (Çok kıymetli katkıların sayesinde tezimi bitirebildim.)


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1. “Should / Ought to + V1” yapısı öğüt ya da tavsiye vermek için kullanılır. Fiile “Yapmalısın,

yapsan iyi olur” anlamlarını verir.

v You should / ought to stop worrying about it.

(Bunun hakkında endişelenmeyi bırakmalısın / bıraksan iyi olur.) v You should / ought to learn the new words from the context instead of trying to memorize them.

(Yeni kelimeleri ezberlemeye çalışmak yerine içerikten öğrenmelisin / öğrensen iyi olur.)

2. Olumsuz biçimleri “Shouldn’t + V1 / Ought not to + V1” şeklindedir ve “yapmamalısın / yapmasan iyi olur” anlamı verir. v You shouldn’t waste your time playing game .

(Oyun oynayarak zamanını boşa harcamamalısın.)

v You ought not to annoy people while listening to music.

(Müzik dinlerken insanları rahatsız etmemelisin.)

“Had better + V1” yapısı present ya da future anlamında öğüt ya da tavsiye vermek için kullanılır. ‘Should’ yapısından daha güçlü bir tavsiye içerir.

v He had better stop harassing people, or we wil call the police.

(İnsanları taviz etmeyi bıraksın artık, yoksa polisi arayacağız.) v You had better not joke about this subject.

(Bu konuda şaka yapmamalısın.)

“Be / Feel obliged to + V1” yapısı present ya da future anlamında zorunluluk bildiren durumlarda ‘mecbur kalmak’ anlamında kullanılır ve ‘must’ ve ‘have to’ yaplarına yakın anlamı vardır.

v Police were obliged to use force to stop the man from killing his children.

(Adamın çocuğunu öldürmesini engellemek için polis güç kullanmak zorunda kaldı.)

SHOULD / OUGHT TO

HAD BETTER

BE / FEEL OBLIGED TO


52

“Used to + V1” kullanımı geçmişte sürekli yapılan, alışkanlık haline gelmiş ancak artık yapılmayan durumlar için kullanılır. Türkçe’ye ‘eskiden yapardım’ diye çevrilir.

v I used to smoke but I gave up two years ago.

(Eskiden sigara içerdim fakat iki yıl önce bıraktım.)

v I used to have dust and pollen allergies when I was little.

(Küçükken toza ve polene karşı alerjim vardı.)

“Be used to / Be accustomed to + Ving / isim” kullanımı bir şeye ya da bir duruma alışkın olunduğunu ifade eder. Bütün zamanlarla birlikte kullanılabilir. Türkçe’ye ‘yapmaya alışkınım’ ya da ‘sürekli yaparım’ diye çevrilir.

v He is used to working long hours.

(O, uzun saatler çalışmaya alışkın.)

v I’m not accustomed to eating fast food.

(Fast food yemeye alışkın değilim.)

“Get used to + Get accustomed to + Ving / isim” kullanımı bir şeye alışmak eylemini içerir. Bütün zamanlarla birlikte kullanılabilir. Türkçe’ye ‘yapmaya alıştım / alışıyorum / alışacağım’ diye çevrilir.

v We have been living here for years, and we have got used to the cold. (Yıllardır burada yaşıyoruz ve soğuğa alıştık.)

v I’m getting used to living in this city. (Bu şehirde yaşamaya alışıyorum.)

USED TO

BE USED TO / BE ACCUSTOMED TO

GET USED TO / GET ACCUSTOMED TO

WHICH IS WHICH?

Accept: kabul etmek

v He does not accept advice from anyone. (O, kimsenin tavsiyesini kabul etmez.) Except (for): hariç, -den başka

v Everyone passed the exam except Gary. (Gary hariç herkes sınavı geçti.)


53

“Be supposed to + V1 / Be expected to + V1” yapıları bir işi yapmanın gerekliliğini ya da bizden beklendiğini ifade eder. Bütün zamanlarla kullanılabilir. Türkçe’ye ‘yapman gerek / yapman bekleniyor’ diye çevrilir.

v These drugs are supposed to reduce the pain.

(Bu ilaçların ağrıyı azaltması bekleniyor.)

v You are suppposed to repeat the grammar rules, read the articles, solve a lot of questions and motivate well while studying for YDS.

(YDS’ye çalışırken, sizden gramer kurallarını tekrar etmeniz, makaleler okumanız, çok fazla soru çözmeniz ve iyi motive olmanız beklenir.)

“Would rather + V1” yapısı ‘Present’ yapıdır ve bir şey yapmayı tercih etmek anlamına gelir. Bir işi yapmayı diğerine tercih ediyorsak arada ‘than’ kullanılmalıdır. ‘Would prefer’ bu modal ile aynı anlama gelir.

v I would rather go out for a meal than stay in and watch TV.

(Evde kalıp TV izlemektense, dışarı çıkıp yemek yemeyi tercih ederim..)

v I would prefer to go to skiing this year rather than go on a beach holiday. (Bu yıl plaj tatili yerine kayağa gitmeyi tercih ederim.)

“Would you mind + Ving” veya “Do you mind + Ving” ifadesi kibar bir şekilde birinden bir şey yapmasını istiyorsak kullanılabilir. Türkçe’ye “sakıncası var mı” ya da “mümkünse” diye çevrilir.

v Would you mind / Do you mind picking Kayhan and Selma up from school for me today?

(Bugün benim için mümkünse Kayhan ve Selma’yı okuldan alabilir misin?)

“Would you mind if I + Simple Past Tense” veya “Do you mind if I + Simple Present” ifadesi ise “bizim bir işi yapmamızın sakıncası var m”ı şeklinde kullanılır.

v Would you mind If I left you alone for a few minutes?

Do you mind If I leave you alone for a few minutes?

(Seni birkaç dakika yalnız bırakmamın sakıncası var mı?)

BE SUPPOSED TO / BE EXPECTED TO

WOULD RATHER / WOULD PREFER

WOULD YOU MIND ...? / DO YOU MIND ...?


54

PRESENT MODALS ÖZET TABLO

Yetenek Yapabilirlik

Can Be able to

V1

Olasılık

Can Could May Might

V1

İzin / Rica

Can May Could

V1

Would you mind Do you mind

If I + s. past If I + s. present

Would you mind Do you mind

Ving

Zorunluluk Gereklilik

Must Have to Need to Be / Feel obliged to

V1

Tavsiye Should Ought to Had better

V1

Beklenti Be supposed to Be expected to V1

Alışkanlık Used to V1

Be used to / be accustomed to Get used to / Get accustomed to Ving / noun

Tercih Would rather Would prefer

V1


55

2. PERFECT MODALS

Modal Perfect yapılarını tamamı ‘Modal + Have V3’ şeklinde oluşur ve daha çok geçmişte bitmiş durumlar için bu yapılar kullanılır. Bu yapıların bir kısmının anlamının ‘Present’ kullanımlarından farklıdır.

1. Geçmişe yönelik çıkarımlarda / tahminlerde kullanılır. Güçlü bir çıkarım olduğu için

elimizde bir dayanağın olması gerekir. Türkçe’ye “yapmış olmalı” ya da “büyük ihtimalle yapmıştır” şeklinde çevrilir.

v I’m sorry, she is not here. She must have left already.

(Üzgünüm, o burada yok. Çoktan çıkmış olmalı.)

v I must have written your down your e-mail address wrong. I tried to send you a message, but it bounced.

(E-posta adresini yanlış yazmış olmalıyım. Sana mesaj göndermeye çalıştım fakat mesaj iletilmedi.)

2. “Mustn’t have + V3” kullanımı ise bir şeye ihtimal verememe ya da inanamama durumlarında kullanılır. Türkçe‘ye “yapmış olamaz / yapmamış olmalı” şeklinde çevrilir.

v I sent him an e-mail two days ago, but he didn’t reply. He mustn’t have read his e-mail.

(İki gün önce ona e-posta gönderim fakat cevap vermedi. E-postayı okumamış olmalı.)

v They must not have rehearsed for the concert enough because their performance was terrible.

(Konser için yeterince prova yapmamış olmamlılar çünkü performansları berbattı.)

MUST HAVE + V3


Along WITH: ile birlikte

IN common: ortak

IN favour of: -in lehine, -den yana

ON average: ortalama

Prior TO: -den önce


56

1. Geçmişe yönelik çıkarımlarda / tahminlerde kullanılır. “Must have + V3” yapısına göre

ihtimal oranı daha düşüktür. Türkçe’ye “yapmış olabilir” ya da “belki de yapmıştır” şeklinde çevrilir.

v This novel may have been copied from a story written about five years previous. (Bu roman yakaşık beş yıl önce yazılan bir hikayeden kopyalanmış olabilir.)

v Airline officials doubt that the plane might have crashed due to pilot error. (Havaalanı yetkilileri uçağın pilot hatasından dolayı kaza yapmış olabileceğinden şüpheleniyorlar.)

1. Bir işin ya da bir eylemin yapılma olasılığının olduğu fakat yapılmadığı durumlarda

kullanılabilir. Türkçe’ye “yapabilirdim ama yapmadım” şeklinde çevrilir.

v We need to reassess our emergency procedures. Someone could have died in the accident, and no one knew what to do.

(Acil durum prosedürlerimizi gözden geçirmemiz gerek. Kazada biri ölebilirdi ve kimse ne yapacağını bilmiyordu.)

v Studies show that the majority of the bicycle head injuries could have been prevented if the

riders had worn protective helmets.

(Çalışmalar gösteriyor ki eğer sürücüler kask taksalardı bisiklet kazalarındaki kafa yaralanmalarının çoğu önlenebilirdi.)

2. Geçmişe yönelik çıkarımlarda / tahminlerde kullanılır. Bu kullanımda “May / Might have + V3” yapısı ile aynı anlamı taşır. Türkçe’ye “yapmış olabilir” ya da “belki de yapmıştır” şeklinde çevrilir.

v They could have got lost. Nobody knows where they are.

(Kaybolmuş olabilirler. Kimse nerede olduklarını bilmiyor.)

v Some scholars suggest that Galileo’s book Principia could have contained a general formulation of the concept of gravity.

(Bazı bilim insanları Galileo’nun Principia adlı kitabının yerçekimi kavramının genel bir formulasyonunu içermiş olabilieceğini iddia ediyor.)

MAY HAVE + V3 / MIGHT HAVE + V3

COULD HAVE + V3


57

1. Geçmişe yönelik bir zorunluluğu ifade etmek için kullanılır. Ama bu zorunluluk yapılmamıştır. Bu durum geçmişe yönelik bir nevi eleştiriyi veya tavsiyeyi de içerebilir. Türkçe’ye “yapmalıydın ama yapmadın” şeklinde çevrilir.

v It’s too late. You should have submitted your thesis last month.

(Artık çok geç. Tezini geçen ay teslim etmeliydin (ama etmedin).)

v We should have prepared ourselves for the possible negative comments of the jury.

(Jürinin olası olumsuz yorumlarına karşı kendimizi hazırlamalıydık (ama hazırlamadık).)

2. Olumsuz biçimi olan “shouldn’t have + V3” ya da “ought not to have + V3” yapısı ise

Türkçe’ye yapmamalıydın ama yaptın” şeklinde çevrilir.

v We shouldn’t have watched such kind of rubbish movie.

(Böylesine saçma bir filmi izlememeliydik (ama izledik).)

v I would like to apologise to you for waking up last night. I shouldn’t have phoned so late.

(Dün gece seni uyandırdığım için özür dilerim. O kadar geç saatte aramamalıydım.)

Geçmişte olan bir duruma inanmama ya da ihtimal vermeme anlamını taşır. Anlamsal açıdan “mustn’t have + V3” yapısına benzer. Türkçe’ye “yapmış olamazsın” ya da “yapma ihtimalin yok” şeklinde çevrilir.

v They can’t have gone to bed late. They were very tired.

(Geç yatmış olamazlar. Çok yorgunlardı.)

v I can’t have left the money at home. I remember putting it in my pocket. (Parayı evde bırakmış olamam. Cebime koyduğumu hatırlıyorum.)

SHOULD HAVE + V3 OUGHT TO HAVE + V3

CAN’T HAVE + V3


58

Daha çok “If Clause Tip 3” yapılarında kullanılan bu yapı Türkçeye ‘yapardım, ederdim’ şeklinde çevrilir. Geçmişte bir eylemin yapılmasına istekli olunsa da herhangi bir durumdan dolayı o eylemin yapılmadığını belirtir.

v If there hadn’t been the prompt action of the emergency room staff, the man surely would have died.

(Acil servis personelinin hızlı müdahalesi olmasaydı, adam kesin ölürdü.)

v I would have bought that car but I didn’t have enough money.

(Arabayı alacaktım ama yeterli param yoktu.)

Geçmişte zorunluluk durumunun olmadığını ancak işin yapıldığını ifade eden bu yapı Türkçe’ye “yapmak zorunda değildim ama yaptım” ya da “boşuna yapmışım” şeklinde çevrilir.

v You needn’t have studied so hard for the today’s exam, because it was delayed.

(Bugünkü sınava o kadar çok çalışmana gerek yoktu, çünkü ertelendi.)

v You needn’t have gone to the supermarket. I’ve already done the shopping.

(Süpermarkete boşuna gitmişsin. Ben zaten alışveriş yaptım.)

WOULD HAVE + V3

NEEDN’T HAVE + V3


59

PERFECT MODALS ÖZET TABLO

Çıkarım / Olasılık / Tahmin (Güçlü)

Must have V3

Çıkarım / Olasılık / Tahmin (Zayıf)

May have Might have Could have

V3

Eleştiri / Tavsiye Should have Ought to have

V3

İhtimal verememe Can’t have Mustn’t have V3

İsteğin yerine gelmemesi Would have V3

Gerek Olmama Needn’t have V3

Tercih Would rather have V3

61

BÖLÜM 4

PASSIVE VOICE (EDİLGEN YAPI)

Bölüm 4 – Passive (Edilgen Yapı)

62

PASSIVE VOICE (EDİLGEN YAPI)

Edilgen yapılar aktif bir cümlenin “be + past participle” şeklinde farklı bir söyleniş biçimidir. Bir cümlenin edilgen yapıldığı durumlar:

• işi yapan kişi bilinmiyorsa, • işi yapan kişi önemli değil ise, • yapılan iş önemli ise ya da vurgulanmak isteniyorsa.

Bir cümlenin edilgen yapılabilmesi için, fiilin geçişli olması, yani nesne alan bir fiil olması gerekir. Edilgen yapıda “be” fillinin hangi hallerde kullanıldığı önemlidir. to be Mastar hali

be “to” suz mastar hali

being Continuous hali

am / is / are Present hali

was / were Past hali

been Past participle (perfect hali) * Perfect Grammar’dan (Sedat Bay) alıntıdır. İngilizce’de bir cümle passive (edilgen) yapılırken; 1. cümlenin nesnesi başa alınır, 2. cümlenin zamanı değiştirilmeden “be + past participle” yapısına göre yazılır, 3. cümlenin öznesi verilmek isteniyorsa “by + işi yapan” cümle sonuna alınır. Örnek 1 Scientists use various methods to search for genes.

(Bilim insanları genleri araştırmak için çeşitli yöntemler kullanır.) Various methods are used to search for genes by scientists.

(Bilim insanları tarafından genleri araştırmak için çeşitli yöntemler kullanılır.) Örnek 2 Shakespeare wrote a number of plays.

(Shakespeare bir çok oyun yazdı.) A number of plays were written by Shakespeare.

(Shakespeare tarafından bir çok oyun yazıldı.)


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Simple Present Tense Ø am / is / are + V3 v If the treatment instructions are not followed, it is likely that the drugs will not be absorbed

properly in the body.

(Tedavi talimatları izlenmezse, ilaç vücutta düzgün bir şekilde absorbe edilemez.)

v The amount of household rubbish is expected to rise to more than 40m tonnes a year by the year 2020. (Ev çöplerinin miktarının 2020 yılına kadar 40 milyon tondan daha fazlaya çıkması bekleniyor.)

v Blood flowing into the brain is filtered so that many harmful chemicals cannot enter the brain. (Birçok zararlı kimyasal beyine girmesin diye, beyine giden kan filtrelenir.)

Present Contınuous Tense Ø am / is / are + being + V3 v The reasons of the accident are being investigated nowadays.

(Kazanın nedenleri bugünlerde araştırılıyor.) v Research into age-related pathologies is being given high priority on international level.

(Yaşla ilgili patolojiler üzerine yapılan araştırmalara uluslararası düzeyde yüksek öncelik verilmektedir.)

v Rain forests in the world, particularly those in the Amazon and Congo River basins, are being destroyed and burned at a rate unprecedented in human history. (Başta Amazon ve Kongo Nehri havzasındakiler olmak üzere dünyadaki yağmur ormanları insanlık tarihinde eşi görülmemiş bir oranda tahrip edilmekte ve yakılmaktadır.)

BAĞLAÇ

So: (sonuç) bu nedenle, bu yüzden v He was born in France, so he also has a French passport.

(O Fransa’da doğdu, bu nedenle Fransız pasaportu da var.)

In addition to: (ayın fikri devam ettirme) -e ek olarak, -nin yanı sıra

v Narcotic drugs are known to depress the nervous system activity, in addition to reducing sensitivity to pain, and feelings of anxiety.

(Uyuşturucu maddelerin ağrıya hassasiyeti ve anksiyete hissini azaltmasının yanı sıra sinir sistemi aktivitesini azalttığı biliniyor.)


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Present Perfect Tense Ø have / has been + V3 v The value of heat for preservation of foods has been known for centuries.

(Gıdaların korunmasında ısının değeri yüzyıllardır bilinmektedir.) v The fox has always been regarded as a very clever animal.

(Tilki her zaman çok zeki bir hayvan olarak görülmüştür.) v Natural substances such as animal droppings, ashes from wood fires, and straw have been used

as fertilizers in fields for thousands of years.

(Hayvan dışkısı, orman yangınlarından ortaya çıkan küller ve anız yöntemi binlerce yıldır tarlalarda gübre olarak kullanılmaktadır.)

Simple Past Tense Ø was / were + V3 v The term “emotional intelligence” was probably first used in an unpublished dissertation in 1986.

(‘Duygusal zeka’ terimi ilk olarak muhtemelen 1986 yılında yayımlanmamış bir tezde kullanılmıştır.)

v Hypnosis was first used as a surgical anesthetic in India in 1845.

(Hipnoz ilk olarak 1845 yılında Hindistan’da cerrahi anestetik olarak kullanıldı.)

v Little was known in the past about the economic life of Hittite Anatolia.

(Hitit Anadolusu’nun ekonomik hayatı hakkında geçmişte çok az şey biliniyordu.)

Past Continuous Tense

Ø was were + being + V3

v The bridge was being painted by the workers.

(Köprü işçiler tarafından boyanıyordu.) v The treatment, which was being tried by doctors, has led to an improvement in the condition of

the patients.

(Doktorlar tarafından denenen tedavi hastaların durumunda ilerleme sağladı.)

v Doctors who perform abortions have complained that they were being harassed by pro-life demonstrators .

(Küretaj yapan doktorlar küretaj karşıtları tarafından taciz edildiklerinden yakınmaktadırlar.)


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Past Perfect Tense

Ø had been + V3

v We found a cat that had been abandoned by its owners. (Sahipleri tarafından terk edilmiş bir kedi bulduk.)

v In 1990, Jim Henson, the creator of Muppets, died of pneumonia after being misdiagnosed, but he could have been saved if he had been given antibiotics. (1990 yılında, Muppets’ın (Kuklalar) yaratıcısı Jim Henson yanlış teşhis edilmesinin ardından zatürreden öldü, fakat antibiyotik verilseydi kurtarılabilirdi.)

v If the protective measures had been taken to prevent inflation last year, Argentine wouldn't have

been in a critical situation. (Geçen yıl enflasyonu önlemek için koruyucu önlemler alınsaydı, Arjantin kritik bir durum içerisine girmeyecekti.)

Sımple Future Tense

Ø will be + V3 Ø am / is / are going to be + V3

v The United Nations says at least five-hundred-million new jobs will be needed during the next ten years to help support the world's workforce.

(Birleşmiş Milletler’e göre, dünyadaki işgücünün desteklenmesine yardımcı olması için önümüzdeki on yıl boyunca en az beş yüz milyon yeni işe ihtiyaç duyulacak.)

v If the operation is going to be performed under a local anesthetic, there is usually no need to make special preparations.

(Ameliyat lokal anestezi altında gerçekleştirilecekse, genellikle özel hazırlık yapmaya gerek yoktur.)

v At least 5 people will be employed in the firm in order to meet expectations.

(Beklentileri karşılamak için bu şirkette en az beş kişi işe alınacak.)

WHICH IS WHICH?

Beside: (edat) yanında, kenarında

v This problem seems unimportant beside the benefits of new system. (Yeni sistemin faydalarının yanında bu problem önmesiz görünüyor.)

Besides: (zarf) bunun yanı sıra, -e ek olarak, zaten

v Besides its famous cakes, the bakery also makes delicious bread and cookies. (Meşhur keklerinin yanı sıra, fırın lezzetli ekmek ve kurabiyeler de yapıyor.)


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Future Perfect Tense

Ø will have been + V3

v The project will have been completed before the deadline.

(Son günden önce proje tamamlanmış olacak.)

v The construction of the bridge will have been finished by the end of next month.

(Önümüzdeki ayın sonuna kadar köprü inşaatı tamamlanmış olacak.)

v This medication will have been introduced to the public after the scientists test it again and again.

(Bilim insanları tekrar tekrar test ettikten sonra, bu ilaç piyasaya sunulacak.)

Ø Bütün ‘present modal’ ifadeleri kendilerinden sonra “be + V3” alırlar:

v Canadian scientists have discovered a nanotechnology that could be used to improve the speed of the Internet.

(Kanadalı bilim insanları internet hızını arttırmak için kullanılabilecek bir nanoteknoloji keşfettiler.) v This medicine should be administered only under the supervision of a doctor.

(Bu ilaç sadece doktor gözetiminde uygulanmalı.) v Opponents of the death penalty argue that innocent people might be killed by mistake.

(İdam cezası muhalifleri, masum insanların yanlışlıkla öldürülebileceğini tartışıyorlar.)

v These laws are unfair and must be abolished.

(Bu yasalar adaletsiz ve yürürlükten kaldırılmalı.)

v Mollusks can be found in every habitat on Earth and range in size from microscopic to more than

10 m long.

(Yumuşakçalar yeryüzünde her alanda bulunabilirler ve mikroskobik boyut ile 10 metreden fazla uzunluk arasında değişirler.)


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Ø Bütün ‘perfect modal’ ifadeleri kendilerinden sonra “been + V3” alırlar:

v The doctors are of the opinion that if the disorder had been diagnosed a few months earlier, it could have been treated successfully. (Doktorlara göre, eğer rahatsızlık birkaç ay önce teşhis edilseydi, başarılı bir şekilde tedavi edilebilirdi.)

v Strong evidence shows that Anatolia must have been inhabited by Turks before 1071 Battle of Malazgirt.

(Güçlü kanıtlar gösteriyor ki, Türkler 1071 Malazgirt Savaşı’ndan önce Anadolu’ya gelmiş olmalılar.) (Bu cümleyi Türkçe edilgen yapıyla yazmak yerine bu şekilde aktif yazmak anlamsal açıdan daha doğrudur.)

v The brilliant young students should have been given more importance in this country.

(Bu ülkede zeki genç öğrencilere daha çok önem verilmeliydi.)

v The fire could have been foreseen with all this dry weather we’ve been having.

(Yaşadığımız bu kurak hava koşullarında yangın önceden tahmin edilebilirdi.)

v Farmers fear that this season’s entire crop may have been destroyed in the storm.

(Çiftçiler bu yılki mahsüllerin tamamının fırtınada tahrip olmuş olabileceğinden korkuyorlar.)


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Ø “GET + V3” yapısı ‘be + V3’ yerine bazen edilgen durumlar için kullanılır. Bu durum daha çok beklenmedik bir durumdan veya ani gerçekleşen bir olaydan bahsederken kullanılır. v She got hired by the company in 2010.

(Şirket tarafından 2010 yılında işe alındı.)

v They are going to get married this summer.

(Bu yaz evlenecekler.) v He got injured while playing basketball.

(Basketbol oynarken sakatlandı.) v Employers don’t get paid on Mondays.

(Pazartesi günleri işçilere ödeme yapılmaz.) v The windows of the house got broken.

(Evin pencereleri kırıldı.)

Ø “NEED + Ving” yapısı da edilgen anlam taşır. Bu durum aslında normal aktif bir cümlenin

nesnesinin cümle başına getirilip devamında ‘Need + Ving’ yapısı ile oluşan edilgen bir cümledir. Bir işin yapılması gerekiyor ve kimin yapacağını veya yaptığını ifade etmek zorunda değiliz. v My computer needs formatting.

(Bilgisayarıma format atılması gerek.) v My shirts need washing.

(Gömleklerinin yıkanması gerek.) v The house needs sweeping.

(Evin süpürülmesi gerek.)

v The radio needs repairing.

(Radyonun tamir edilmesi gerek.)

v The letters need posting.

(Mektupların gönderilmesi gerek.)


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PASSIVE VOICE ÖZET TABLO

Zaman ACTIVE PASSIVE

Simple Present Melih teaches the students. The students are taught by Melih.

Present Continuous Melih is teaching the students. The students are being taught by Melih.

Present Perfect Melih has taught the students. The students have been taught by Melih.

Future (will) Melih will teach the students. The students will be taught by Melih.

Future (be going to) Melih is going to teach the students. The students are going to be taught by Melih.

Future Perfect Melih will have taught the students. The students will have been taught by Melih.

Simple Past Melih taught the students. The students were taught by Melih.

Past Continuous Melih was teaching the students. The students were being taught by Melih.

Past Perfect Melih had taught the students. The students had been taught by Melih.

Present Modals Melih should teach the students. Melih can teach the students.

The students should be taught by Melih. The students can be taught by Melih.

Perfect Modals Melih may have taught the students. Melih must have taught the students.

The students may have been taught by Melih. The students must have been taught by Melih.


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IT IS SAID THAT … / HE IS SAID TO … Aktif cümlenin nesnesi Noun Clause (isim cümleciği) olabilir.

People say that women live longer than men.

Yukarıdaki aktif cümle passive yapılırken iki yöntem izlenebilir:

Ø Birinci yöntem:


1. Cümlenin öznesi “it” olarak alınır: It …

2. Ana cümlenin yüklemi alınır ve passive yapılır:

It is said …

3. Aktif cümlenin nesnesi (Noun Clause) olduğu gibi yazılır: It is said that women live longer than men.

Burada unutulmaması gereken şey şudur: Noun Clause yani isim cümleciğine herhangi bir müdahalede bulunmuyoruz. Sadece ana cümlenin yüklemini edilgen yapıyoruz. Eğer işi yapan verilmek isteniyorsa isim cümleciğinden önce de verilebilir.

It is said (by people) that women live longer than men.

ÖRNEK CÜMLELER

Etken: Many people think that YDS is very difficult. (Birçok insan YDS’nin çok zor olduğunu düşünüyor.)

Edilgen: It is thought (by many people) that YDS is very difficult. (YDS’nin çok zor olduğu (birçok insan tarafından) düşünülüyor.)

Etken: Everyone claims that the most difficult thing in learning English is speaking. (Herkes İngilizce öğrenmedeki en zor şeyin konuşma olduğunu iddia ediyor.)

Edilgen: It is claimed that the most difficult thing in learning English is speaking. (İngilizce öğrenmedeki en zor şeyin konuşma olduğu iddia ediliyor.)

Etken: Only 12% of philosophers believe that people’s lives are predestined. (Filozofların sadece %12’si insanların hayatlarının önceden belirlendiğine inanıyor.)

Edilgen: It is believed by only 12% of philosophers that people’s lives are predestined. (İnsanların hayatlarının önceden belirlendiğine filozofların sadece %12’si tarafından inanılıyor.)

Etken: They said that at least twenty people were killed in the explosion. (Onlar patlamada en az yirmi kişinin öldüğünü söylediler.)

Edilgen: It was reported that at least twenty people were killed in the explosion . (Patlamada en az yirmi kişinin öldüğü söylendi.)


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Ø İkinci Yöntem:


1. Noun clouse’un öznesi edilgen cümlenin öznesi olarak alınır: Women …

2. Ana cümlenin yüklemi passive yapılır:

Women are said … 3. Noun clause’un yüklemi alınır ve mastar hali “TO + V1” şeklinde yazılır:

Women are said to live longer than men. Dolayısıyla, aynı anlama gelen iki cümle elde etmiş oluruz.

It is said that women live longer than men. Women are said to live longer than men. (Kadınların erkeklerden daha uzun yaşadığı söylenir.)

§ İsim cümleciğinin yüklemi ‘to be’ yapısından oluşuyorsa (am, is, are, was, were, vb.) bu durumda kısaltma ‘TO BE’ ile yapılır.

Everyone believes she is pregnant.

1. Noun clouse’un öznesi edilgen cümlenin öznesi olarak alınır: She …


She is believed … 3. Noun clause’un yüklemi alınır ve mastar hali “TO + BE” şeklinde yazılır:

She is believed to be pregnant. Dolayısıyla, aynı anlama gelen iki cümle elde etmiş oluruz.

It is believed that she is pregnant. She is believed to be pregnant. (Onun hamile olduğuna inanılıyor.)

§ Eğer isim cümleciğinin yüklemi ‘continuous’ bir yapıda ise “TO BE+ Ving” şeklinde yazılır:

People said that he was working harder than the other employees.

1. Noun clouse’un öznesi edilgen cümlenin öznesi olarak alınır: He …


He was said … 3. Noun clause’un yüklemi alınır ve mastar hali “TO BE + Ving” şeklinde yazılır:

He was said to be working harder than the other employees. Dolayısıyla, yine aynı anlama gelen iki cümle elde etmiş oluruz.

It was said that he was working harder than the other employees. He was said to be working harder than the other employees. (Onun diğer çalışanlardan daha çok çalıştığı söyleniyordu.)


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ÖRNEK CÜMLELER

Etken: Many people claim that she suffers from cancer. (Birçok insan onun kansere yakalandığını iddia ediyor.)

Edilgen: She is claimed to suffer from cancer. (Onun kansere yakalandığı iddia ediliyor.)

Etken: They believe that eating too much fat causes heart problems. (Onlar, çok fazla yağ yemenin kalp sorunlarına neden olacağına inanıyorlar.)

Edilgen: Eating too much fat is believed to cause heart problems. (Çok fazla yağ yemenin kalp sorunlarına neden olacağına inanılıyor.)

Etken: Some people believe that Julie’s parents are escaping from the police. (Bazı insanlar Julie’nin ailesinin polisten kaçtığına inanıyor.)

Edilgen: Julie’s parents are believed to be escaping from the police. (Julie’nin ailesinin polisten kaçtığına inanılıyor.)

Etken: Everyone said they were very rich. (Herkes onların çok zengin olduklarını söyledi.)

Edilgen: They were said to be very rich. (Onların çok zengin oldukları söylendi.)

Etken: We thought that they were waiting for the results of the exam. (Onların sınav sonuçlarını beklediğidini düşünüyorduk.)

Edilgen: They were thought to be waiting for the resuts of the exam. (Onların sınav sonuçlarını beklediği sanılıyordu.)


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Ø Eğer Noun Clause yani isim cümlesinin yüklemi passive yapıda ise, bu durumda ‘TO BE + V3” şeklinde kullanılır.

ÖRNEK CÜMLELER Etken: They believe that the manager is forced to resign. (Onlar müdürün istifaya zorlandığına inanıyor.)

Edilgen: The manager is believed to be forced to resign. (Müdürün istifaya zorlandığına inanılıyor.)

Etken: Some people claim that all her songs are written by another famous singer. (Bazı insanlar onun bütün şarkılarının başka bir şarkıcı tarafından yazıldığını iddia ediyor.)

Edilgen : All her songs are claimed to be written by another famous singer. (Onun bütün şarkılarının başka bir şarkıcı tarafından yazıldığı iddia ediliyor.)

Etken: People think that votes are stolen in every election. (İnsanlar her seçimde oyların çalındığını düşünüyor.)

Edilgen: Votes are thought to be stolen in every election. (Her seçimde oyların çalındığı düşünülüyor.)

Etken: Everyone believes that many plant and animal habitats are destroyed by humans. (Herkes pek çok bitki ve hayvan yaşam alanlarının insanlar tarafından tahrip edildiğine inanıyor.)

Edilgen: Many plant and animal habitats are believed to be destroyed by humans. (Pek çok bitki ve hayvan yaşam alanlarının insanlar tarafından tahrip edildiğine inanılıyor.)

Etken: They assumed that almost everything was stolen from the office. (Ofisten hemen hemen herşeyin çalındığını sandılar.)

Edilgen: Almost everything was assumed to be stolen from the office. (Ofisten hemen hemen herşeyin çalındığı sanıldı.)

Ø Eğer Noun Clause yani isim cümlesinin yüklemi ana cümlenin yükleminden daha önceki bir zamanı gösteriyorsa veya isim cümlesinin yüklemi ‘Perfect’ zamanlardan biri ise “TO HAVE + V3” şeklinde kullanılır.

ÖRNEK CÜMLELER

Etken: People believe that they robbed the bank. (İnsanlar, onların bankayı soyduğuna inanıyor.)

Edilgen: They are believed to have robbed the bank. (Onların bankayı soyduğuna inanılıyor.)

Etken: Everyone said that Mike had killed her wife. (Herkes Mike’ın eşini öldürdüğünü söyledi.)

Edilgen: Mike was said to have killed her wife. (Mike’ın eşini öldürdüğü söylendi.)


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Etken: People think that I have abandoned my family. (İnsanlar ailemi terk ettiğimi düşünüyor.)

Edilgen: I am thought to have abandoned my family. (Ailemi terk ettiğim düşünülüyor.)

§ Bu kullanımda isim cümlesinin zamanı ‘continuous’ bir yapıda ise “TO HAVE BEEN + Ving” şeklinde kullanılır.

ÖRNEK CÜMLELER

Etken: We think that she was hiding from the police. (Onun polisten saklandığını düşünüyoruz.)

Edilgen: She is thought to have been hiding from the police. (Onun polisten saklandığı düşünülüyor.)

Etken: People said that the new manager had been working in a bank just for three years. (İnsanlar yeni müdürün bir bankada sadece üç yıl çalıştığını söyledi.)

Edilgen: The new manager was said to have been working in a bank for three years. (Yeni müdürün bir bankada sadece üç yıl çalıştığı söylendi.)

Ø Eğer Noun Clause yani isim cümlesinin yüklemi ana cümlenin yükleminden daha önceki bir

zamanı gösteriyor veya isim cümlesinin yüklemi ‘Perfect’ zamanlardan biri ise, ayrıca yüklem ‘passive’ yapıda ise bu durumda “TO HAVE BEEN + V3” şeklinde kullanılır

ÖRNEK CÜMLELER Etken: People think that the author was respected worldwide. (İnsanlar yazarın dünya çapında saygı gördüğünü düşünüyor.)

Edilgen: The author is thought to have been respected worldwide. (Bu yazarın dünya çapında saygı gördüğü düşünülüyor.)

Etken: Some people believe that these lands were invaded by Mongols centuries ago. (Bazı insanlar bu toprakların yüzyıllar önce Moğollar tarafından işgal edildiğine inanıyor.)

Edilgen: These lands are believed to have been invaded by Mongols centuries ago. (Bu toprakların yüzyıllar önce Moğollar tarafından işgal edildiğine inanılıyor.)

Etken: They reported that hundreds of people had been injured in the disaster . (Faciada yüzlerce insanın yaralandığını bildirdiler.)

Edilgen: Hundreds of people were reported to have been injured in the disaster. (Faciada yüzlerce insanın yaralandığı bildirildi.)


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Etken: Everyone believes the crime has committed by Sarah. (Herkes suçun Sarah tarafından işlendiğine inanıyor.)

Edilgen: The crime is believed to have been committed by Sarah. (Faciada yüzlerce insanın yaralandığı bildirildi.)

Etken: People think that Cibyra was established in the 3rd century B.C. by Pisidion colonists who may have come from the Milas region.

(İnsanlar Kibyra’nın bir ihtimal Milas bölgesinden gelen Pisidyalı sömürgeciler tarafından M.Ö. 3. yüzyılda kurulduğunu düşünüyor.)

Edilgen: Cibyra is thought to have been established in the 3rd century B.C. by Pisidion colonists who may have come from the Milas region.

(Kibyra’nın bir ihtimal Milas bölgesinden gelen Pisidyalı sömürgeciler tarafından M.Ö. 3. yüzyılda kurulduğu düşünülüyor.)

Son örnekteki cümle ÜDS 2011 Sonbahar döneminde şu şekilde sorulmuştur: Cibyra is thought to ---- in the 3rd century B.C. by Pisidion colonists who ---- from the Milas region. A) have been established / may have come B) have established / should have come C) be established / would have come D) being established / might have come E) establish / could have come

(Bu soruda, cümlenin yüklemi “is thought” yani Simple Present’dır. Boşluktan sonraki ifadede ise “3rd century B.C.” yani “M.Ö. 3. yüzyıl” zaman ifadesi kullanılmıştır. Bu sebeple boşluktan sonraki olayın geçmişte gerçekleştiği anlaşılır. Şıklarda bu yapıyı veren sadece ‘A’ ve ‘B’ şıkları vardır. Zaman ifadesinden sonra “by Pisidion colonists” verildiği için buradan yapının “passive” olması gerekir. ‘B’ şıkkındaki “have established” etken yani aktif bir yapıdır. Dolayısıyla doğru cevap A şıkkıdır.)

ÜDS 2008 İlkbahar döneminde çıkmış bir soruyu inceleyelim: Underwater archaeology is generally considered to ---- its first major encouragement during the winter of 1853-54, when a particularly low water level in a Swiss lake ---- bare enormous quantities of wooden posts, pottery and other artifacts. A) be receiving / has laid B) be received / would lay C) have been received / had laid D) receive / could have laid E) have received / laid (Bu soruda cümlenin yüklemi “is generally considered” yani Geniş Zamandır. Boşluktan sonraki yapıda zaman ifadesi “during the winter of 1853-54” yani Geçmiş Zaman olarak verilmiştir. Yani isim cümlesinin zamanı ana cümleden önceki bir zamanı ifade ediyor. Yukarıda bahsettiğimiz kurala uyan sadece ‘C’ ve ‘E’ şıklarıdır. Burada cümlenin anlamından aktif yani etken olacağı anlaşılır. Ayrıca “1853-54” zaman ifadesi sıfat cümlesiyle yani “when” yapısıyla nitelendirilmiştir. Bu sebeple when cümlesinin Simple Past olması gerekir. Dolayısıyla doğru cevap ‘E’ şıkkıdır.)


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NOUN CLAUSE İNDİRGEME ÖZET

Yan cümlenin zamanı ana cümleden önce değilse

Active to + V1 to be + Ving

Passive to be + V3

Yan cümlenin zamanı ana cümleden önceyse

Active to have + V3 to have been + Ving

Passive to have been + V3


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“IT IS SAID THAT / HE IS SAID TO” EXERCISES Aşağıda verilen cümleleri “It is said that …” ve “He is said to …” yapılarına göre yeniden yazınız.

1. People believe that he is the hero of the town.

a)

b)

2. They say that the man is a thief.

a) b)

3. People know that drug addiction is very dangerous. a) b)

4. People say that he lives abroad now.

a) b)

5. We understand that he dislikes children.

a) b)

6. People say that he is making experiments on human behaviors.

a) b)

7. They report that the Prime Minister is going to Greece.

a) b)

8. People claimed that he left the country.

a) b)

9. People claim that he left the country

a) b)

10. Everyone believed that he stole the money.

a) b)


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11. Everyone believes that he stole the money. a) b)

12. They say that he was very rich in the past.

a) b)

13. People think that he has abandoned his family.

a) b)

14. The detective knows that the robber has left the city.

a) b)

15. People knew that he was struggling for his country.

a) b)

16. People say that he was working very hard.

a) b)

17. People expect that the rate of exchange will go down soon.

a) b)

18. Everyone says that a tornado will hit tomorrow.

a) b)

19. People said that the robbery lasted half an hour.

a) b)

20. Everyone understood that they had divorced.

a) b)


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21. They say that a lot of electrical appliances are stolen every day. a) b)

22. They say that a lot of electrical appliances were stolen. a) b)

23. They say that the issue is misunderstood. a) b)

24. They say that the issue was misunderstood. a) b)

25. They reported that two people were killed in the explosion. a) b)

26. They report that two people were killed in the explosion. a) b)

27. People said that the minister was threatened. a) b)

28. People say that the minister was threatened. a) b)

29. They suspected that the man was murdered. a) b)

30. They suspect that the man was murdered. a) b)


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“IT IS SAID THAT / HE IS SAID TO” EXERCISES – CEVAP ANAHTARI

1. People believe that he is the hero of the town. It is said that he is the hero of the town. He is said to be the hero of the town.

2. They say that the man is a thief. It is said that the man is a thief.

The man is said to be a thief.

3. People know that drug addiction is very dangerous. It is known that drug addiction is very dangerous. The drug addiction is known to be very dangerous.

4. People say that he lives abroad now. It is said that he lives abroad now.

He is said to live abroad now.

5. We understand that he dislikes children. It is understood that he dislikes children.

He is understood to dislike children.

6. People say that he is making experiments on human behaviors. It is said that he is making experiments on human behaviors.

He is said to be making experiments on human behaviors.

7. They report that the Prime Minister is going to Greece. It is reported that the Prime Minister is going to Greece

The Prime Minister is reported to be going to Greece.

8. People claimed that he left the country. It was claimed that he left the country.

He was claimed to leave the country.

9. People claim that he left the country It is claimed that he left the country. He is claimed to have left the country.

10. Everyone believed that he stole the money.

It was believed that he stole the money. He was believed to steal the money.

11. Everyone believes that he stole the money. It is believed that he stole the money. He is believed to have stolen the money.

12. They say that he was very rich in the past. It is said that he was very rich in the past.

He is said to have been very rich in the past.

13. People think that he has abandoned his family. It is thought that he has abandoned his family. He is said to have abandoned his family.

14. The detective knows that the robber has left the city.

It is known that the robber has left the city. The robber is known to have left the city.

15. People knew that he was struggling for his country. It was known that he was struggling for his country. He was known to be struggling for his country.

16. People say that he was working very hard. It is said that he was working very hard. He is said to have been working very hard.


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17. People expect that the rate of exchange will go down soon. It is expected that the rate of exchange will go down soon. The rate of exchange is expected to go down soon.

18. Everyone says that a tornado will hit tomorrow.

It is said that a tornado will hit tomorrow. A tornado is said to hit tomorrow.

19. People said that the robbery lasted half an hour.

It was said that the robbery lasted half an hour. The robbery was said to last half an hour.

20. Everyone understood that they had divorced.

It was understood that they had divorced. They were understood to have divorced.

21. They say that a lot of electrical appliances are stolen every day.

It is said that a lot of electrical appliances are stolen every day. A lot of electrical appliances are said to be stolen every day.

22. They say that a lot of electrical appliances were stolen.

It is said that a lot of electrical appliances were stolen every day. A lot of electrical appliances are said to have been stolen every day.

23. They say that the issue is misunderstood.

It is said that the issue is misunderstood. The issue is said to be misunderstood.

24. They say that the issue was misunderstood.

It is said that the issue was misunderstood. The issue is said to have been misunderstood.

25. They reported that two people were killed in the explosion.

It was reported that two people were killed in the explosion. Two people were reported to be killed in the explosion.

26. They report that two people were killed in the explosion.

It is reported that two people were killed in the explosion. Two people is reported to have been killed in the explosion.

27. People said that the minister was threatened.

It was said that the minister was threatened. The minister was said to be threatened.

28. People say that the minister was threatened.

It is said that the minister was threatened. The minister is said to have been threatened.

29. They suspected that the man was murdered.

It was suspected that the man was murdered. The man was suspected to be murdered.

30. They suspect that the man was murdered.

It is suspected that the man was murdered. The man is suspected to have been murdered.

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BÖLÜM 5

ADVERB CLAUSES OF TIME (ZAMAN BİLDİREN ZARF

CÜMLECİKLERİ)

Bölüm 5 – Zaman Bildiren Zarf Cümlecikleri

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ADVERB CLAUSES OF TIME (ZAMAN BİLDİREN ZARF CÜMLECİKLERİ)

§ Zarf cümleleri cümle içinde zarf yerine kullanılabilen yapılardır.

§ Zaman bildiren zarf cümleleri ise ana cümledeki durum ya da eylemin zamanını bildiren

cümlelerdir.

§ Zarf cümleleri yan cümle olarak kullanıldıkları için, mutlaka ana cümle ile arasında zaman uyumu olmak zorundadır.

§ ÖSYM gramer sorularında, zaman bildiren ifadelerin olduğu cümlede ‘will’ veya ‘would’ kullanılmaz.

Zarf Cümlesi Ana Cümle

AFTER Simple Present Present Modals

Simple Present Present Modals

v About eight seconds after you swallow food, it arrives in the stomach.

(Yiyeceği yuttuktan yaklaşık sekiz saniye sonra mideye ulaşır.)

v You can start eating your dinner after your father comes.

(Babanız geldikten sonra yemeğinizi yemeye başlayabilirsiniz.)

v Latrodectus, commonly known as Black Widow, eats the male after mating.

(Genellikle Karadul olarak bilinen Latrodectus, çiftleştikten sonra erkeğini yer.)


AFTER Simple Present Present Modals Present Perfect

Future Tenses Present Modals

v After I gradute from university, I will move back home and live with my parents.

(Üniversiteden mezun olduktan sonra, eve dönüp ailemle birlikte yaşayacağım.)

v You will see the effects soon after you start a strict diet.

(Sıkı bir diyete başladıktan sonra, kısa sürede etkilini göreceksin.)

v After students have completed their designs, they will create a second concept map.

(Öğrenciler tasarımlarını tamamladıktan sonra, ikinci bir kavram haritası oluşturacaklar.)

AFTER / sonra


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AFTER İsim Gelecek zaman ifadesi

Simple Present Future Tenses Present Modals

v After an earthquake, it's essential to be careful of a natural gas leak, so don't light matches or use a

lighter that could cause gas in the air to explode.

(Depremden sonra, doğalgaz sızıntısına dikkat etmek gerekir, bu nedenle havadaki gazın patlamasına neden olabilecek kibrit yakmayın ya da çakmak kullanmayın.)

v You will feel the positive effects of studying hard after the end of next month.

(Önümüzdeki ayın sonunda çok çalışmanın olumlu etkilerini hissedeceksiniz.) v After the treatment of a disease, it is important to assess the effectiveness of the treatment.

(Bir hastalığın tedavisinden sonra, tedavinin etkinliğini değerlendirmek önemlidir.)


AFTER Simple Past Past Perfect

İsim / Geçmiş zaman ifadesi Simple Past

v Robert Zimmerman changed his name to hide his Jewish identity after he left Germany, and he

adopted the name ‘Bob Dylan’.

(Robert Zimmerman Almanya’dan ayrıldıktan sonra Yahudi kimliğini gizmelek için adını değiştirdi ve Bob Dylan adını aldı.)

v The one-child policy was adopted in 1979 after China’s population had surged.

(Tek çocuk politikası Çin’in nüfusu hızla arttıktan sonra 1979’da kabul edildi.) v After Tsunami had hit Asia in 2004, one million people were displaced in Sri Lanka.

(Tsunami 2004 yılında Asya’yı vurduğunda, Sri Lanka’da bir milyon insan evsiz kaldı.) v After the war, many soldiers stayed in France.

(Savaştan sonra birçok asker Fransa’da kaldı.) v After the 1980 military coup, the issues of democracy and human rights in Turkey became a major

item on Turkey’s economic as well as political relations with European countries.

(1980 askeri darbesinden sonra, Türkiye’deki demokrasi ve insan hakları konuları Türkiye’nin Avrupa ülkeleriyle olan siyasi ilişkilerinin yanı sıra ekonomik ilişkileri için de önemli bir mesele haline geldi.)


86


BEFORE Simple Present Present Modals

Simple Present Present Modals Future Tenses

v The situation may worsen before it improves, and immediate action is necessary.

(Durum iyileşmeden önce kötüleşebilir ve acil bir eylem gerekebilir.) v Even before they begin to walk, Mongolian children learn to balance on the back of a sheep in

preparation for learning to ride a horse.

(Moğollu çocular daha yürümeye başlamadan önce, ata binmeyi öğrenme hazırlığı için koyunun üstünde dengede kalmayı öğrenirler.)

v ‘Digital natives’ who are born in the new millennium learn how to use smartphones and tablets before they can talk.

(Yeni milenyumda doğan ‘dijital yerliler’ konuşmadan önce akıllı telefon ve tablet kullanmayı öğreniyor.)

v Before the new drug is introduced to public, we will test it thoroughly.

(Yeni ilaç piyasaya sürülmeden önce, kapsamlı bir şekilde onu test edeceğiz.)

v You should always check mirrors before you start the engine of your car.

(Arabanın motorunu çalıştırmadan önce her zaman aynaları kontrol etmelisin.)


BEFORE İsim Gelecek zaman ifadesi


v Some researchers believe that learning starts before birth.

(Bazı araştırmacılar öğrenmenin doğumdan önce başladığına inanıyorlar.) v Before 2020, we will have bought a new house.

(2020 yılından önce bir ev almış olacağız.) v The truly great artist must be able to do realistic portraits before moving on to abstracts.

(Gerçekten büyük bir sanatçı soyut kavramlar öncesinde gerçekçi portreler yapabilmelidir.)

BEFORE / önce


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BEFORE Simple Past İsim / Geçmiş zaman ifadesi

Simple Past Past Perfect

v They stayed and rested in Ankara for a while before they set out for İstanbul.

(İstanbul’a gitmeden önce bir sure Ankara kalıp dinlendiler.) v Before he accepted the offer, he had received so many job offers from big corporations.

(Teklifi kabul etmeden önce büyük firmalardan bir çok iş teklifi almıştı.) v It took a few hours before the patient was conscious again after the operation.

(Ameliyat sonrası hastanın bilincinin yerine gelmesi birkaç saat sürdü.) v Before Saturday’s match, groups of demonstrators were dispersed by the police.

(Cumartesi maçtan önce, gösterici grupları polis tarafından dağıtıldı.) v Two weeks before the election the first reports of the scandal began to appear.

(Seçimden iki hafta önce ilk skandal raporları ortaya çıkmaya başladı.)


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v When you create an attractive and uniqe product, people will want to buy it. (İlgi çekici ve eşsiz bir ürün oluşturduğunda, insanlar onu almak isteyecektir.)

v It must be hard to put up with the pain that kidney stones cause when they fall in the urethra.

(Böbrek taşları idrar yolundan düşerken sebep olduğu ağrıya dayanmak zor olmalı.)

v When they die, plants give off gases such as carbon dioxide and methane.

(Bitkiler öldüklerinde karbondioksit ve metan gibi gazlar yayarlar.)

v When you look into the blackness of the night sky, you will get lost in the fathomless depths of the Universe.

(Gece gökyüzünün karanlığına doğru baktığınızda, evrenin ucu bucağı olmayan derinliklerinde kaybolacaksınız.)

v When a baby dies, you should give yourself enough time to grieve and to recover your physical and emotional strength before considering another pregnancy.

(Bir bebeğiniz ölürse, başka bir hamilelik düşünmeden önce yas tutmak ve fiziksel ve duygusal gücünüzü geri kazanmak için kendinize yeterince zaman vermelisiniz.)

v When she suddenly started to scream, we were trying to focus on the exam.

(O, aniden çığlık atmaya başladığında, sınava odaklanmaya çalışıyorduk.)

v When she learned that she was pregnant for her second baby, she feared that she wouldn’t be able

to cope with two children.

(İkinci bebeğine hamile olduğunu öğrendiğinde, iki çocukla başa çıkamayacağından korktu.)

v When I moved to Sivas, I had just graduated from university.

(Sivas’a taşındığımda, üniversiteden yeni mezun olmuştum.)

v In 1971, Scottish sailor Dougal Robertson and his family were sailing to the Galapagos Islands from

Panama when their boat was sunk by killer whales.

(1971 yılında, İskoç denizci Dougal Robertson ve ailesinin teknesi katil balinalar tarafından batırıldığında Panama’dan Galapagos Adaları’na doğru açılıyordu.)


WHEN Simple Present Present Perfect Present Modals

Simple Present Present Continuous

Present Modals Future Tenses


WHEN Simple Past Simple Past

Past Continuous Past Perfect

WHEN / ...dığında, ...dığı zaman


89

v While we are trying to collect information about the murderer, the policemen are inspecting the case

closely with existing evidence.

(Biz katil hakkında bilgi toplamaya çalışırken, polisler de mevcut kanıtlarla olayı yakından inceliyor. v If any of these symptoms occur while you are taking the medicine, consult your doctor immediately!

(İlacı alırken bu semptomlardan biri ortaya çıkarsa, hemen doktorunuza danışın!) v Texting while driving is very dangerous and it causes many accidents and deaths.

(Araba sürerken mesaj yazmak çok tehlikelidir ve birçok kazaya ve ölüme sebep olur.)

v She broke her leg while he was playing tennis.

(Tenis oynarken bacağını kırdı.) v While we were talking on the phone, she was continuously gossiping about her sister-in-law.

(Telefonda konuşurken, sürekli olarak gelini hakkında dedikodu yapıyordu.) v Meteor ‘Tissint’ was one of the meteorites that were actually seen while falling.

(‘Tissint’ meteor düşerken görülen göktaşlarından biriydi.)


WHILE AS

JUST AS Present Continuous

Simple Present Present Continuous

Present Modals


WHILE AS

JUST AS Past Continuous

Simple Past

Past Continuous

WHILE & JUST AS & AS / iken


90

v By the time the students complete the prep classes, they will know how to write essay and speak fluently.

(Öğrenciler hazırlık sınıfını tamamladıklarında / tamamlayana kadar, nasıl makale yazacaklarını ve akıcı bir şekilde konuşacaklarını bilecekler.)

v It may be too late by the time you decide what to do.

(Ne yapacağını karar verene kadar çok geç olabilir / iş işten geçmiş olabilir.) v By the time you have finished writing the reports, I will have left the office.

(Sen raporları yazmayı bitirdiğinde, ben ofisten çıkmış olacağım.)

v The guests had already come for birthday party by the time we arrived at home.

(Biz eve gelene kadar / gelidiğimizde, misafirler çoktan doğum günü partisi için gelmişlerdi.) v Mehmed II (also known as Mehmed the Conquerer) conquered Constantinople and brought an end

to the Eastern Roman Empire by the time he was 21 years old.

(Fatih Sultan Mehmed olarak da bilinen 2. Mehmed 21 yaşında İstanbul’u fethetti ve Doğu Roma İmparatorluğu’nun sonunu getirdi.)

v By the time firefighters with two trucks and an ambulance entered the prison, half of the prison had been engulfed in flames and hundreds of prisoners had already been dead.

(İtfaiyeciler iki kamyon ve bir ambulansla hapishaneye girdiğinde / girene kadar, hapishanenin yarısı alevler içindeydi ve yüzlerce mahkum çoktan ölmüştü.)


BY THE TIME Simple Present Present Perfect



BY THE TIME Simple Past Simple Past Past Perfect

BY THE TIME / ...dığında, -e kadar


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v Until you come here, I will be waiting for you.

(Sen buraya gelene kadar, seni bekliyor olacağım.)

v The bones of an infant’s skull do not fuse until several months after birth.

(Bir infantın kafatası doğumdan birkaç ay sonraya kadar kaynaşmaz.) v Ossification begins in humans when the fetus is still in the womb and is not complete until early

adulthood.

(Osifikasyon (kemikleşme) fetüs henüz rahimdeyken başlar ve erken yetişkinlik dönemine kadar tamamlanmaz.)

v Until the World War II began, the Nazis had gained power and supporter all around Germany.

(İkinci Dünya Savaşı başlayana kadar, Naziler tüm Almanya’da güç ve destekçi kazanmıştı.) v From about 1300 until about the middle of the fifteenth century, disasters struck throughout Western

Europe.

(Yaklaşık 1300 yılından 15.yy’ın ortalarına kadar, felaketler bütün Batı Avrupa’yı sarmıştı.)

v Though humans have always observed how animals behave, animal behavior did not become a field

of study until the 1930s, when it was called ‘ethology’.

(İnsanlar her zaman hayvanların nasıl davrandıklarını gözlemlemiş olmasına rağmen, hayvan davranışı ‘davranış bilimi’ olarak adlandırıldığı yıl olan 1930’lara kadar bir çalışma alanı haline gelmedi.)


UNTIL TILL

Simple Present İsim / Zaman ifadesi



UNTIL TILL

Simple Past İsim / Geçmiş zaman ifadesi

Simple Past Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous

PHRASAL VERBS

COME UP WITH: 1) bulmak (çözüm, vs.), 2) fikir ileri sürmek

v More than 40% of men show signs of baldness between the ages of 20 and 49, but studies on genomes of this group have failed to come up with a potential cure. (Erkeklerin %40ından fazlası 20 ila 49 yaşları arasında kellik belirtileri gösteriyor, fakat bu grubun genomları üzerine yapılan çalışmalar potansiyel bir tedavi bulma konusunda başarısız olmuştur.)

MAKE UP FOR: Telafi etmek, Tazmin etmek

v We will have to work even harder to make up for lost time. (Kaybolan zamanı telafi etmek için daha çok çalışmalıyız.)

UNTIL & TILL / -e kadar


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v As soon as the sun goes down, the temperature drops dramatically.

(Güneş batar batmaz, sıcaklık önemli ölçüde düşer.) v Please call me as sooon as the dinner is ready.

(Yemek hazır olunca / olur olmaz, lütfen beni ara.) v I'm sure you'll be very happy here once you get to know everyone in this place.

(Buradaki herkesi tanıyınca eminim burada çok mutlu olacaksın.)

v As soon as / Once he had won the lottery, he divorced his wife and disappeared.

(Piyangoyu kazanır kazanmaz karısından boşandı ve ortadan kayboldu.) v She called the police as soon as she saw the fight.

(Kavgayı görür görmez polisi aradı.)

v As soon as they won the elections, they made changes in the bureaucratic procedures.

(Seçimi kazanır kazanmaz, bürokratik prosedürlerde değişiklikler yaptılar.)


AS SOON AS ONCE Simple Present Simple Present

Future Tenses


AS SOON AS ONCE

Simple Past Past Perfect Simple Past

AS SOON AS & ONCE / -mez, -maz, olunca


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v They have been staying in a hotel (ever) since they moved to Ankara.

(Ankara’ya taşındıklarında beri otelde kalıyorlar.) ︎ ︎ ︎ ︎ ︎ ︎ ︎ ︎

v Prices for food items such as corn and wheat have increased nearly 50% on international markets since June.

(Mısır ve buğday gibi yiyeceklerin fiyatları Haziran’dan bu yana uluslararası piyasalarda yaklaşık %50 arttı.

v Since World War II, the number of scientific experiments involving animals has increased dramatically.

(İkinci Dünya Savaşı’ndan bu yana, hayvanların kullanıldığı bilimsel deneylerin sayısı önemli ölçüde arttı.)

v I heard five gunshots yesterday; I have been afraid of being shot by accident (ever) since.

(Dün beş el silah sesi duydum; o zamandan beri kazara vurulmaktan korkuyorum.)

v Whenever / Every time she calls me, she talks about her boyfriends.

(Ne zaman beni arasa / Beni her aradığında, erkek arkadaşlarından bahseder.) v If motorcyclists wish to protect themselves against injury and death, they should wear a helmet

whenever they ride.

(Motosiklet kullananlar kendilerini yaralanmadan ve ölümden korumak istiyorlarsa, her sürüşlerinde kask giymeliler.)

v Whenever rivers are at their full capacity of water, heavy rains will result in the rivers overflowing and

flooding the surrounding land.

(Ne zaman nehirler tam kapasite suyla dolsa, şiddetli yağmurlar nehirlerin taşmasına ve etrafındaki alanın su basmasına sebep olacak.)


SINCE EVER SINCE

Simple Past Geçmiş zaman ifadesi

Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous


WHENEVER EVERY TIME Simple Present


SINCE & EVER SINCE / -den beri

WHENEVER & EVERY TIME / ne zaman olursa olsun


94

v Whenever / Every time he saw me, he said me ‘hello’.

(Ne zaman beni görse, ‘merhaba’ derdi.) v Whenever / Every time I asked my father for some money, he would tell me to spend my weekly

allowance more carefully.

(Ne zaman babamdan para istesem, bana haftalık harçlığımı dikkatli harcamamı söylerdi.) v Whenever the students saw the principal, they felt nervous.

(Öğrenciler ne zaman müdürü görse, gergin olurlardı.)

v No sooner had the rescue team begun to evacuate the earthquake victims than another earthquake

occurred.

(Kurtarma ekibi tam da depremzedeleri tahliye etmeye başlamıştı ki başka bir deprem meydana geldi.) v No sooner had she closed her eyes than she fell asleep .

(Gözlerini kapatmasıyla uyuması bir oldu.) v No sooner had I finished the meal than I started feeling hungry again.

(Yemeğimi bitirir bitirmez tekrar acıkmaya başladım.)


WHENEVER EVERY TIME Simple Past Simple Past

Would + V1


NO SOONER HAD Özne V3 THAN Simple Past

NO SOONER ... THAN ... / -mez, -maz, tam olmuştu ki


95

v Hardly / Scarcely had I reached the station when the train arrived.

(Tren garına varır varmaz tren geldi.) v Hardly / Scarcely had I closed my eyes when I fell asleep.

(Gözlerimi kapatır kapatmaz uykuya daldım.) v No sooner had she agreed to marry him than she started to have doubts.

(Onunla evlenmeye karar vermesiyle kuşku duymaya başlaması bir oldu.)


HARDLY SCARCELY HAD Özne V3 WHEN Simple Past

HARDLY & SCARCELY ... WHEN ... / -mez, -maz, tam olmuştu ki

97

BÖLÜM 6

CONDITIONALS (ŞART CÜMLELERİ)

Bölüm 6 – Conditionals (Şart Cümleleri)

98

CONDITIONALS (ŞART CÜMLELERİ)

‘If’ yapısı İngilizce’de şart cümlesidir ve bir işin gerçekleşmesinin başka bir işe bağlı olduğu durumları ifade eder. If Clause yapısının kullanıldığı cümleler yan cümle (if clause) ve ana cümleden oluşur. Türkçe’den farklı olarak gramer yapısında kastedilen durum farklı tiplerde verilmektedir.

TYPE 0 (PRESENT REAL) Her durumda kendiliğinden ortaya çıkacak yani gerçekleşmesi mümkün olan durumlarda ve bilimsel gerçekliklerde kullanılır. İki tarafın da ‘zaman’ kullanıldığı tek tiptir. Bu tipte ‘when’ ve ‘whenever’ da kullanılabilir.

v If (When) you eat too much bread, you put on weight. (Çok fazla ekmek yersen, kilo alırsın.)

v If (When) you heat water enough, it boils. (Suyu yeterince ısıtırsan, kaynar.)

v If (When) babies are hunrgy, they cry. (Bekler acıktığında, ağlar.)

v He celebrates by making a heart shape with his hands if (when) he scores,. (O gol attığında, elleriyle kalp işareti yaparak bunu kutlar.)

v If (When) the tourists do not know which areas of the city to avoid, they get more vulnerable to attack. (Turistler şehrin hangi bölgelerinden kaçınacaklarını bilmezlerse, saldırılara karşı savunmasız kalırlar.)

§ Devrik Kullanım: “Should + Özne + V1”

v If you eat too much bread, you put on weight. Should you eat too much bread, you put on weight.

v If you heat water enough, it boils.

Should you heat water enough, it boils.

If Clause Ana Cümle

If Simple Present Simple Present

IF CLAUSE


99

TYPE 1 (PRESENT REAL) Yine bir olayın gerçekleşmesinin şart cümlesindeki eyleme bağlı olduğu durumlarda kullanılır. Bu tipte, gelecek zamanda meydana gelmesi muhtemelen eylemlerden bahsederiz, ancak unutulmamalıdır ki iki eylem de henüz gerçekleşmemiştir.

v If I have enough money, I will buy a new mobile phone.

(Yeterince param olursa, yeni bir cep telefonu alacağım.)

v I won’t call the police if you put down the gun.

(Silahı yere bırakırsan polisi aramayacağım.)

v If things go according to plan, the book will have been published by this time next year.

(Herşey plana göre giderse, kitap gelecek yıl bu zamanlar yayımlanmış olacak.)

v Millions of children in the third world countries might die if the infectious diseases remain uncontrolled.

(Enfeksiyonlu hastalıklar kontrol altına alınmazsa, üçüncü dünya ülkelerindeki milyonlarca çocuk ölebilir.)

v If you are interested in conducting biomedical research, you must get the proper biomedical training

that you need. (Biomedikal araştırma yapmakla ilgileniyorsan, ihtiyacın olan uygun biomedical eğitimi almalısın.)

§ Devrik Kullanım: “Should + Özne + V1”

v If I have enough money, I will buy a new mobile phone.

Should I have enough money, I will buy a new mobile phone. v I won’t call the police if you put down the gun.

I won’t call the police should you put down the gun.


If

Simple Present Present Continuous Present Perfect Can

Future Tense Modal (can, may, must, should, have to)

Imperative


100

TYPE 2 (PRESENT UNREAL)

Mevcut durumla ya da gelecek zamanla ilgili hayali ya da gerçekleşmesi mümkün olmayan durumlardan bahsederken bu tip kullanılır. Yapı ‘past’ olmasına rağmen, bahsedilen durum şu anda gerçekleşmeyeceği için anlam ‘present’ ya da ‘future’ şeklindedir. İsim cümlesinde bütün öznelerde yaygın olarak ‘was’ yerine ‘were’ kullanılır.

v If they were in Sivas today, we could visit them. (Bugün Sivas’ta olsalar (ama yoklar), onları ziyaret edebiliriz.)

v If you lost your passport, it might take ages to get another one. (Pasaportunu kaybedersen (şu an böyle bir ihtimal yok), başka bir tane almak çok uzun sürebilir.)

v The workers would not go on a strike, if the government accepted to give the rise the workers demand (Eğer hükümet işçilerin talep ettiği zammı kabul ederse (ki etmeyecek), işçiler greve gitmeyecek.)

v If weather forecasters could provide warnings of storm on time, telecommunications companies would be able to take steps to protect their satellites. (Hava tahmincileri fırtına uyarılarını tam zamanında verebilirse (ki veremiyor), telekomünikasyon şirketleri uydularını korumak için adım atabilecekler.)

v If you didn’t marry her, you could not find anyone to marry.

(Eğer onunla evlenmezsen (tek şansı o kişiyle evlenmek), evlenecek başka kimse bulamazsın.)

§ Devrik Kullanım: İsim Cümlesi: “Were + Özne” Fiil Cümlesi: “Were + Özne + to V1”

v If they were in Sivas today, we could visit them. Were they in Sivas today, we could visit them.

v If you lost your passport, it might take ages to get another one. Were you to lose your passport, it might take ages to get another one.

v If you didn’t marry her, you could not find anyone to marry. Were you not to marry her, you could not find anyone to marry.


If Simple Past Past Continuous Could + V1

Would + V1 (would be + Ving) Could + V1 (could be + Ving) Might + V1 (might be + Ving)


101

TYPE 3 (PAST UNREAL) Geçmişte olmuş ve bitmiş bir eylemi ve artık değiştiremeyeciğimiz durumları ifade ederken kullanılır. Olay geçmişte kaldığı için bir nevi eleştiri ve pişmanlık içerir.

v If we had left the house earlier, we would have caught the train.

(Evden erken çıksaydık, trene yetişebilecektik.)

v If hadn’t been so lazy, he wouldn’t have failed his exams.

(Bu kadar tembel olmasaydı, sınavlarından kalmazdı.)

v If I had known, I would have worn something nicer.

(Bilseydim, daha güzel birşeyler giyerdim.)

v If there hadn’t been protectors for our skin, even a brief exposure to radiation could have been very dangerous. (Cilt koruyucularımız olmasaydı, radyasyona kısa süreli maruz kalmak bile oldukça tehlikeli olabilirdi.)

v She could have seen all the wonders of the world if she had accepted the invitation. (Daveti kabul etmiş olsaydı, dünyanın bütün harikalarını görebilirdi.) § Devrik Kullanım: İsim Cümlesi: “Had + Özne + been” Fiil Cümlesi: “Had + Özne + V3”

v If hadn’t been so lazy, he wouldn’t have failed his exams.

Had he not been so lazy, he wouldn’t have failed his exams. v If we had left the house earlier, we would have caught the train.

Had we left the house earlier, we would have caught the train.

v If she had accepted the invitation, she could have seen all the wonders of the world.

Had she accepted the invitation, she could have seen all the wonders of the world.


If Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Could have + V3

Would have + V3 Could have + V3 Might have + V3


102

MIXED TYPE 1 Geçmişteki bir eylem, yapılmış olsun ya da olmasın, şimdiki zamana etkisi varsa bu tip kullanılır. Yani “geçmişte şöyle olsaydı (veya olmasaydı), şimdi şöyle olurdu (veya olmazdı)” şeklinde Türkçe’ye çevrilir. Tip 3’ten ayrıldığı nokta ise, olayın şimdiki zamana etkisidir. Tip 3’de geçmişte olay olmuş bitmiştir. Bu tipte, ana cümlede “now, at the moment, today” gibi şimdiki zaman ifadelerinin kullanılması gerekir.

v If I hadn't gone to university, I couldn’t be a teacher today.

(Üniversiteye gitmeseydim, bugün öğretmen olamazdım.)

v If the interest rates hadn’t increased at the end of last year, prices of houses wouldn’t be so high now.

(Faiz oranları geçen yılın sonunda artmasaydı, ev fiyatları şu an bu kadar yüksek olmazdı.)

v If they had told us their plans at the beginning, these problems wouldn’t be worrying us now.

(Eğer ilk başta planlarını bize söyleselerdi, bu problemler şu anda bizi endişelendiriyor olmazdı.)

MIXED TYPE 2 Mixed Type 1 kullanımının yapı olarak tersi de mümkündür. Yani If Clause’da bahsedilen, mevcut duruma ait hayali bir eylemdir, fakat bu mevcut durum geçmiş zamandaki bir olaya dayandırılmaktadır. Ana cümlede geçmişe ait bir eylem aramak mümkündür.

v If Sivas were not so cold, you would not have bought so much coal last winter. (Eğer Sivas bu kadar soğuk olmasaydı, geçen yıl çok fazla kömür almazdık.)

v If my family weren’t living in a different city, I would not have paid so much money for the telephone

bill last month. (Eğer ailem farklı bir şehirde yaşamasaydı, geçen ay telefon faturasına bu kadar çok para ödemezdim.)

v She could not have had a chance to continue her education if her father didn’t believe that education

is very important for everyone. (Babası, eğitimin herkes için önemli olduğuna inanmasaydı, eğitimine devam etme şansı olmayabilirdi.)


If Past Perfect (Type 3)

Would + V1 (would be + Ving) Could + V1 (could be + Ving) Might + V1 (might be + Ving) (Type 2)


If Simple Past (Type 2)

Would have + V3 Could have + V3 Might have + V3 (Type 3)


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IF CLAUSE ÖZET TABLO

Tip If Clause Ana Cümle

0 Simple Present Simple Present

1 Simple Present Present Continuous Present Perfect Can

Future Modals (can, may, should must, have to) Imperative

1 Devrik Should + Özne + V1

Future Modals (can, may, should must, have to) Imperative

2 Simple Past Past Continuous Could + V1

Would + V1 (Would be + Ving) Could + V1 (Could be + Ving) Might + V1 (Might be + Ving)

2 Devrik

Were + özne (isim cüm.) Were + özne + to V1 (fiil cüm.)

Would + V1 (Would be + Ving) Could + V1 (Could be + Ving) Might + V1 (Might be + Ving)

3 Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Could have + V3


3 Devrik

Had + özne + been (isim cüm.) Had + özne + V3 (fiil cüm.


Mixed 1 Past Perfect (Type 3)

Would + V1 (Would be + Ving) Could + V1 (Could be + Ving) Might + V1 (Might be + Ving) (Type 2) (now, today, at the moment)

Mixed 2 Simple Past (Type 2)

Would have + V3 Could have + V3 Might have + V3 (Type 3)


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‘If’ yapısının olumsuzu şeklindedir. Yani “if not = unless.” Dolayısıyla ‘Unless’ cümlesinin yapı olarak olumlu olması gerekir. If Clause yapısının tipleriyle aynı kullanıma sahiptir, fakat ‘Unless’ yapısı “Type 0” ve “Type 1” durumlarında daha yaygın kullanılmaktadır.

v If you don’t make enough research, you cannot be a successful student. Unless you make enough research, you cannot be a successful student. (Yeterince araştırma yapmazsan, başarılı bir öğrenci olamazsın.)

v If the using of fossil fuels is not radically reduced, they will soon be used up. Unless the using of fossil fuels is radically reduced, they will soon be used up. (Fosil yakıtlarının kullanımı radikal biçimde azaltılmadıkça, yakın zamanda tükenecekler.)

v Anger is a normal human emotion that is usually healthy, but can be destructive if it is not successfully monitored. Anger is a normal human emotion that is usually healthy, but can be destructive unless it is successfully monitored.

(Öfke genellikle sağlıklı olan normal bir insan duygusudur, fakat başarılı bir şekilde kontrol edilmezse, yıkıcı olabilir.)

v Much of the premature death and disability associated with infectious disease couldn’t be avoided if poor people didn’t have access to affordable medicines. The premature death and disability associated with infectious diseases couldn’t be avoided unless poor people had access to affordable medicines.

(Fakir insanlar uygun fiyatlı ilaçları alamadıkları sürece, enfeksiyonlu hastalıklara ilişkin prematüre sakat doğum ve ölümlerden kaçınılamaz.)

v If the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) had not banned all animal and animal product imports from high-risk areas in 2001, the US would have suffered the same consequences of foot-and-mouth disease as the UK did that year. Unless the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) had banned all animal and animal product imports from high-risk areas in 2001, the US would have suffered the same consequences of foot-and-mouth disease as the UK did that year. (ABD Tarım Bakanlığı 2001 yılında yüksek riskli bölgelerden bütün hayvan ve hayvan ürünlerinin ithalatını yasaklamasaydı, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri o yıl İngiltere’nin yaşadığı ayak ve ağız hastalıklarının sonuçlarını yaşayacaktı.)

UNLESS


105

IF CLAUSE SORULARINI ÇÖZERKEN DİKKAT EDİLMESİ GEREKEN NOKTALAR

1. Soru kökünde ipucu yoksa şıklardan tip uyumuna gidilir ve uyumsuz yapılar elenerek doğru cevaba ulaşılabilir.

2. “If” yapısının olduğu kısımda yani yan cümlede “will” ya da “would” ifadelerinin gelmeyeceğine dikkat edilmesi gerekir.

3. “If” cümlesinde modal yapılardan sadece “can” (Tip 1), “could + V1” (Tip2) ve “could have + V3” (Tip 3) kullanılabilir.

4. Soru kökünde herhangi bir tarafta (ana cümle ya da if cümlesi) geçmiş zamana dair bir ifade verilmişse, gerçek zamanlı bir past durum olduğu için o tarafın “Tip 3” olması gerekir. Bu durumda cümlenin gidişatına göre diğer taraf “Tip 2” ya da “Tip 3” olur.

5. Her iki taraf aynı anda (ana cümle ve yan cümle) “Present Perfect”, “Simple Past” ya da “Past Perfect” zamanları olamaz.

6. Verilen soru köküne bakarak zaman uyumu arandığında, her iki tarafın ana yüklemi arasında zaman uyumu olması gerektiği unutulmamalıdır. Çünkü bazen ‘if’ sorularında verilen boşluğun biri ‘isim cümlesi’ ya da ‘sıfat cümlesi’ olabilir. Bu durumda ana cümlelerin yüklemine dikkat edilmelidir.


106

ŞART ANLAMI VEREN DİĞER YAPILAR

§ Kendisinden sonra gelen cümleye “-se bile” anlamı katar. § Şart cümlesindeki eylem gerçekleşse bile, sonucun değişmeyeceği durumunu ifade eder. § Zıtlık anlamı da katabilir. § Bütün ‘if clause’ tiplerinde kullanılabilir. § Ancak Tip 2 kullanımında, ana cümlede de ‘Simple Past’ kullanılırsa eylem geçmişte kalmıştır,

dolayısıyla hayali bir durum yoktur.

v Even if a hybrid car consumes less petroleum than a conventional car, there is still an important issue regarding the environmental damage of its battery.

(Hibrid bir otomobil normal bir otomobilden daha az petrol tüketse bile, yine de bataryasının çevreye verdiği zararla ilgili önemli bir sorun var.)

v Ten percent of business people would still pay late even if they were paid on time.

(İnsanların %10’u kendilerine zamanında ödeme yapılsa bile, ödemeyi geç yapar.)

v More than two-thirds of these workers would have remained poor even if they had worked 40 hours a week for 52 weeks a year.

(Yılda 52 hafta ve haftada 40 saat çalışsalardı bile, bu işçilerin üçte ikisinden fazlası yine fakir kalırdı.)

v Even if ancient Greek people were married, they did not live with their wives and children.

(Eski Yunanlılar evil olsalar bile, eşleri ve çocuklarıyla birlikte yaşamazlardı.)

§ Bu ifadeler kendisinden sonraki cümleye ‘koşuluyla’, ‘-dığı sürece’ ya da ‘-dığı takdirde’ anlamı katar. § If yerine kullanılabilirler. § Genellikle If Clause Tip 0 ve Tip 1 durumlarında kullanılırlar. § ‘So long as’ genellikle olumsuz cümlelerde kullanılır.

v As long as you stay in England, you can improve your English speaking skill.

(İngiltere’de kalırsan / kaldığın sürece, İngilizce konuşma becerini geliştirebilirsin.)

v The U.S. will not trade with Cuba as long as it remains a communist country.

(Küba komünist bir ülke olarak kaldığı sürece ABD onunla ticaret yapmayacak.)

v Stars can exist only as long as energy continues to move from their cores to their surfaces.

(Ancak enerji yıldızların merkezinden yüzeylerine hareket etmeye devam ettiği sürece yıldızlar var olabilirler.)

EVEN IF

AS LONG AS / SO LONG AS


107

§ Yine kendisinden sonraki cümleye ‘koşuluyla’, ‘-dığı sürece’ ya da ‘-dığı takdirde’ anlamı katar. § If yerine kullanılabilirler. § Genellikle If Clause Tip 0 ve Tip 1 durumlarında kullanılırlar.

v Our people will put up with everything provided problems do not concern them.

(Sorunlar kendilerine dokunmadığı sürece insanlarımız herşeye katlanacaktır.)

v Some people take unnecessarily large quantities of vitamins and minerals for years, assuming that provided a little is good for them, a lot must be better.

(Bazı insanlar, az olanın kendileri için iyi olursa çok olanın daha iyi olması gerektiğini varsayarak, yıllar boyu, gereksizce çok miktarda vitamin ve mineral alırlar.)

§ Kendisinden sonraki cümleye ‘koşuluyla’, ‘-şartıyla’ anlamı katar. § Genellikle If Clause Tip 0 ve Tip 1 durumlarında kullanılırlar. § Her iki cümlenin de ‘simple past’ kullanıldığı durumda olay geçmişte kalmış gerçel bir durumdur.

v I can lend you my computer on condition that you return it tomorrow in working order.

(Yarın çalışır vaziyette geri getirmen koşuluyla bilgisayarımı ödünç verebilirim.)

v After escaping and being recaptured three times, he was allowed his freedom on condition that he left Turkey.

(Üç kez kaçıp yeniden yakalandıktan sonra, Türkiye’yi terk etmesi koşuluyla özgür bırakıldı.)

PROVIDED (THAT) / PROVIDING (THAT)

ON CONDITION (THAT)

PHRASAL VERBS

LOOK UP TO: 1) saygı duymak 2) hayranlık duymak

v Old people should be looked up to because they have experiences that we don’t have. (Yaşlılara saygı duyulması gerekir çünkü onlar bizim sahip olmadığımız tecrübelere sahipler.)

GET OVER: Atlatmak, Kurtulmak, Üstesinden gelmek

v I will try to get over my fear of flying. (Uçuş korkumun üstesinden gelmeye çalışacağım.)


108

§ Bu ifadeler ‘Varsayalım ki, Farz edelim ki’ anlamına gelir. § ‘What if’ yapısı ‘ya olursa’ anlamında da kullanılır ve genellikle ana cümleye gerek yoktur. § Şart anlamında tüm tiplerde kullanılabilirler. § Genellikle Present ve Past Unreal durumlar için kullanılırlar. Bahsedilen durum gerçek dışıdır.

v Suppose that you were the winner of this week’s lottery, what would you do? (Varsayalım ki bu haftanın piyango talihlisi sensin, ne yapardın?

v Imagine that you married another person, how would your life be? (Başka biriyle evli olduğunu hayal et, hayatın nasıl olurdu?)

v What if we hadn’t had some money with us? (Ya yanımızda biraz para olmasaydı, ne olurdu?

§ ‘Durumunda, olur diye, olma ihtimaline karşı’ anlamlarına gelir. § ‘Just in case’ şeklinde de kullanılabilir. § Bir işin olma ihtimaline karşı alınacak tedbirden bahsederken kullanılır. § If Clause tiplerinin gramer yapısından farklı kullanılır. § In case of + isim / isim tamlaması & in the event of + isim / isim tamlaması

In case

Ana Cümle

Simple Present / Present Modal Simple Present / Present Modal

Simple Past Simple Past

v You had better eat something in case we cannot find any restaurant on the way. (Yolda restoran bulamama ihtimaline karşılık, bir şeyler yesen iyi edersin.)

v I copied my file on my other memory card just in case it could be harmed in the course of time.

(Zamanla hasar görebilir diye dosyamı diğer hafıza kartıma kaydettim.) v In the event of a crash, these safety features are lifesavers.

(Kaza durumunda, bu güvenlik özellikleri hayat kurtatır.) v In case of emergency, please dial 112 immediately.

(Acil durumda, lütfen hemen 112’yi arayın.)

(LET’S) SUPPOSE (THAT) / SUPPOSING (THAT) IMAGINE (THAT) / IMAGINING (THAT) WHAT IF

IN CASE / IN THE EVENT THAT


109

§ Bu yapılar ‘olmasın diye’ veya ‘korkusuyla’ anlamındadır. § If yapısıyla uyumlu olmak zorunda değildir.

v Some children obey their parents lest they cut down their pocket money.

(Bazı çocuklar cep harçlıklarını kesmesinler diye ebeveynlerine itaat ediyor.)

v Lest anyone should doubt my story, I have brought documents to attest to its truth. (Hikayemden şüphelenmesinler diye, hikayenin doğruluğunu ispatlayacak belgeler getirdim.)

v She left her husband for feat that he would kill her. (Kendisini öldürecek korkusuyla, kocasını terk etti.)

§ ‘Sadece o durumda, sadece böyle olursa’ anlamındadır. § Olayın gerçekleşme ihtimali tek şarta bağlıdır. § ‘Only if’ cümlesi ana cümleden sonra gelirse aynı ‘if’ yapısı gibi kullanılır, ancak ‘only if’ cümlesi ana

cümleden önce geliyorsa, ana cümle devrik yapılır. v You can be successful only if you study hard.

(Ancak çok çalışırsan başarılı olabilirsin.) v Only if they strengthen the country’s international competitive position, will domestic economic

policies succeed. (Sadece ülkenin uluslararası rekabet durumu güçlendirirlerse, yerel ekonomik politikalar başarılı olacaktır.)

v Only if you register, can you attend the courses.

(Ancak kayıt yaptırırsan kursa katılabilirsin.)

ONLY IF

LEST / FOR FEAR THAT

BAĞLAÇ

Thus: (sonuç) bu nedenle, bu yüzden

v The region has suffered severe flooding and thus tourists are advised not to travel there.

(Bölgede şiddetli sel felaketi meydana geldi ve bu nedenle turistlere oraya gitmemeleri önerilir.)

Nevertheless: (zıtlık) yine de

v The old system had its flaws, but nevertheless it was preferable to new one. (Eski sistemin kusurları vardı, fakat yine de yenisine göre daha iyiydi.)


110

§ Bu iki yapı da “-mış gibi” veya “sanki” anlamındadır. § Genellikle “look, seem, appear, feel, behave, treat, sound” gibi fiillerden sonra kullanılır. § “As if / As though” yapısının zamanı ana cümle ile aynı zamanda kullanıldığında olayın gerçek olma

ihtimali vardır. Fakat ana cümlenin zamanından bir derece “past” yapı kullanıldığında olay gerçek dışıdır.

v It looks as if it is going to rain.

(Yağmur yağacak gibi.) (Yağmur yağma ihtimali var.) v She wears as if she is very rich.

(Çok zenginmiş gibi giyiniyor.) (Bilmiyorum, belki de zengindir.) v She wears as if she was very rich.

(Çok zenginmiş gibi giyiniyor.) (Onu tanıyorum, zengin değil.)

v She was welcomed into by the family as though she had been their own child.

(Aileye kendi öz çocuklarıymış gibi kabul edildi.) (Ama öz çocukları değil.)

v They felt as though they had been given the wrong information.

(Kendilerine yanlış bilgi verilmiş gibi hisstettiler.) (Ama yanlış bilgi verilmedi.) v I’ve got so much work that it looks as if I’ll have to stay in the office this evening.

(O kadar çok işim var ki bu akşam ofiste kalacakmışım gibi görünüyor.) (Kalma ihtimali var.) v Jack smiled as though he was enjoying pranks.

(Jack eşek şakalarından hoşlanıyor gibi gülümsedi.) (Belki de hoşlanıyordu.) v The house was in such a mess – it looked as though a bomb had dropped on it.

(Oda darmadağınıktı – sanki odaya bomba düşmüş gibiydi.) (Ama düşmedi, öyle görünüyordu.)

AS IF / AS THOUGH


111

§ “Olmasa” anlamındadır. If Clause Tip 2 yapısıyla aynı kullanıma sahiptir.

v If it weren’t for your great contributions, I would have difficulties in overcoming this problem.

(Senin büyük katkıların olmasa, bu problemin üstesinden gelmekte zorlanırdım.) v If it weren’t for him, I would probably be living on the streets.

(O olmasa, muhtemelen sokaklarda yaşıyor olurdum.)

§ “Olmasaydı” anlamındadır. If Clause Tip 3 yapısıyla aynı kullanıma sahiptir.

v If it hadn’t been for your help, I couldn’t have passed the exam.

(Yardımın olmasaydı, sınavı geçemezdim.) v If it hadn’t been for the rain, we could have had a good time.

(Yağmur olmasaydı, iyi vakit geçirebilirdik.)

§ “Olmasa, olmasaydı” anlamındadır. Bütün ‘if clause’ tiplerinde kullanılır.

v But for / Without her support, James cannot do anything his own. (Type 1)

(Onun desteği olmasa, James kendi başına hiçbir şey yapamaz.)

v But for / Without your love and affection, he would feel like an orphan. (Type 2)

(Senin sevgin ve şefkatin olmasa, o kendini öksüz gibi hissederdi.)

v But for / Without the wind, the fire wouldn’t have spread at such a fast speed. (Type 3)

(Rüzgar olmasaydı, yangın bu kadar hızlı bir şekilde yayılmazdı.)

IF IT WEREN’T FOR

IF IT HADN’T BEEN FOR

BUT FOR / WITHOUT


112

§ ‘Olsa da … olmasa da’ veya ‘ister … ister …’ şeklinde Türkçe’ye çevrilir. § Bu yapı bu kullanımda ana cümlenin bir parçası değil, ayrı bir zarf yapısıdır. Cümle başında

kullanıldığında unutulmaması gereken şey, ‘whether’ yapısı bittikten sonra virgülle ayrılıp ana cümleye geçilir.

§ ‘If Clause’ gramer yapısıyla uyumlu olmak zorunda değildir.

v The journey, whether by road or rail, takes nearly four hours. (Yolculuk, ister arabayla, ister trenle, yaklaşık dört saat sürer.)

v Whether you want it or not, you will have to change your lifestyle. (İstesen de istemesen de, yaşam tarzını değiştirmek zorunda kalacaksın.)

v Whether we win or lose the elections, we should respect democratic process. (Seçimleri kazansak da kaybetsek de, demokratik sürece saygı duymalıyız.)

v Mutual trust is fundamental to a successful partnership, whether in business or in marriage. (İster iş konusunda, isterse evlilikte başarılı bir ortaklık için karşılıklı güven esastır.)

v We can be sure that we did our best, whether we’re successful or not. (Başarılı olsak da olmasak da, elimizden gelenin en iyisini yaptığımızdan eminiz.)

§ Bu yapı ayrıca ‘olup olmadığı’ anlamında noun clause yani isim cümleciği yapısında da kullanılır. Ancak en bariz fark, isim cümleciğinde “whether” cümlede özne ya da nesne konumundadır. Buradaki gibi ana cümleden bağımsız halde değildir. Özellikle, cümle başında geldiği durumda “whether” cümlesi bittikten sonra yukarıda bahsettiğim gibi değil de doğrudan ana cümlenin yüklemi gelmesi gerekir. Ayrıca, bu kullanımda ‘or’ yapısının gelme zorunluluğu yoktur. Örneğin:

v Whether he will come with us is not certain yet.

(Bizimle gelip gelmeyeceği henüz kesin değil.)

v Whether we will set out early tomorrow depends on the weather condition.

(Yarın erkenden yola çıkıp çıkmayacağız havanın durumuna bağlı.)

v She doesn’t even know whether her daughter is dead or alive.

(Kızının ölü ya da diri olup olmadığını bile bilmiyor.)

v I still don’t know whether or not he’s planning to come (Onun gelmeyi planlayıp planlamadığını hala bilmiyorum.)

v There is an ongoing debate over whether or not to send troops to Syria.

(Birlikleri Suriye’ye gönderip göndermeme konusunda süregelen bir tartışma mevcut.)

WHETHER ... OR (NOT)


113

CONDITIONALS ÖZET TABLO

IF

eğer -se, sa -dığı takdirde -dığı sürece şayet

UNLESS olmazsa (if not)

EVEN IF olsa bile

AS LONG AS SO LONG AS

koşuluyla -dığı sürece -dığı takdirde

PROVIDED (THAT) PROVIDING (THAT)

koşuluyla -dığı sürece -dığı takdirde

ON CONDITION (THAT) koşuluyla şartıyla

(LET’S) SUPPOSE (THAT) SUPPOSING (THAT)

varsayalım ki farz edelim ki

IMAGINE (THAT) IMAGINING (THAT)

varsayalım ki düşünsene hayal etsene

WHAT IF ya olursa

IN CASE IN THE EVENT THAT

olması durumunda olur diye olma ihtimaline karşı

LEST FOR FEAR THAT

olmasın diye korkusuyla

ONLY IF sadece o durumda sadece böyle olursa

IF IT WEREN’T FOR IF IT HADN’T BEEN FOR

olmasa olmasaydı

BUT FOR WITHOUT

olmasa olmasaydı

WHETHER ... OR (NOT) ister ... ister olsa da ... olmasa da

115

BÖLÜM 7

NOUN CLAUSES (İSİM CÜMLECİKLERİ)

Bölüm 7 – Noun Clauses (İsim Cümlecikleri)

116

NOUN CLAUSES (İSİM CÜMLECİKLERİ)

‘Noun Clause’ yani isim cümleciği bir ismin yerine kullanılan cümlelerdir. Cümle içinde bir isim gibi işlev görür ve bir isim nasıl kullanılıyorsa ‘Noun Clause’ da o şekilde kullanılır. Bir ismin cümle içinde nasıl kullanıldığına bakalım: Özne durumunda: Julie is a nurse in this hospital. Özne tamamlayıcı olarak: This fire is totally their fault. Nesne durumunda: The students solved so many questions in the course. Bir preposition yapısının nesnesi durumunda: These views depend on an article. Noun Clause yapısı da yukarıda verilen örneklerdeki gibi cümlenin farklı yerlerinde farklı görevlerde kullanılabilir. Bunu sağlamak için ‘Noun Clause Markers’ denilen isim cümleciği belirteçleri kullanılır. Bu ifadeler düz bir cümlenin ya da bir soru cümlesinin isimleştirilmesi için kullanılır. Bunlar:

1. That / The fact that

2. Wh- ile başlayan kelimeler: What, What time, Where, When, Which, Who, Whom, Whose, Why, How, How many, How much

3. ‘Ever’ ile kullanılan ifadeler: Whatever, Wherever, Whenever, Whoever, Whomever, Whichever, However

4. Whether / If

Bir durum, olay ya da yargı ifade eden düz bir cümlenin isimleştirilmesi için kullanılır. ‘That’ ile kurulan isim cümlecikleri kararlı durumlar olarak tabir edilen şüphenin olmadığı, ikilemde kalınmadığı durumlarda kullanılır. Ayrıca ‘that’ yerine ‘the fact that’ kullanılabilir ve aynı anlama sahiptir. Düz bir cümlenin isimleştirilerek elde edilen durumdan bahsetmiştim. Bunu şu şekilde örneklendirebiliriz: She didn’t know. She was wrong. (Amacımız bu iki cümleyi tek bir cümle haline getirmektir.) (O bilmiyordu.) (O hatalıydı.) She didn’t know that she was wrong. (O hatalı olduğunu bilmiyordu.) He worked hard for the whole term. This pleased his parents. (O dönem boyunca çok çalıştı.) (Bu durum ebeveylerini memnun etti.) That he worked hard for the whole term pleased his parents. (Onun dönem boyunca çok çalışması ebeveynlerini memnun etti.) Economic growth rate is lower than the population growth rate. This causes problem. (Ekonomik büyüme oranı nüfus büyüme oranından daha düşük.) (Bu durum probleme neden olur.) The fact that economic growth rate is lower than the population growth rate causes problem. (Ekonomik büyüme oranının nüfus büyüme oranından daha düşük olması probleme neden olur.)

THAT


117

§ Cümlenin öznesi konumunda olabilir. v That they know the truth does not change our idea.

(Gerçeği bilmeleri bizim fikrimizi değiştirmez.) v That eating just before doing sport is not a good idea is a general rule.

(Spor yapmadan hemen önce bir şeyler yemenin iyi bir fikir olmadığı genel bir kuraldır.) v That smoking causes lung cancer is known by almost everyone.

(Sigaranın akciğer kanserine neden olduğu neredeyse herkes tarafından biliniyor.)

§ Cümlenin nesnesi olarak bir fiilden sonra ya da ‘be’ fiilinden sonra gelebilir. v The researchers said that oxytocin might increase the success of behavioural therapies.

(Araştırmacılar oksitoksinin davranış terapilerinin başarısını arttırabileceğini söylediler.) v The problem is that they did not study enough for the exam.

(Problem onların sınava yeterince çalışmadıklarıdır.) v The scientists have reported that our planet will heat up by a minimum of 4C by 2100 unless

emissions of greenhouse gases are reduced.

(Bilimadamları, sera gazı emisyonları azaltılmazsa gezegenimizin 2100 yılına kadar en az 4 derece ısınacağını söylediler.)

§ Bir çok sıfattan sonra sıfatı açıklamak ya da sıfatın anlamını tamamlamak için kullanılabilir. v I’m very happy that I could pass all my exams.

(Bütün sınavlarımı geçtiğim için çok mutluyum.) v They are afraid that his situations may get worse.

(Hastalığının daha da kötüleşeceğinden korkuyorlar.) v It is very sad that a government has ignored the best advice and chosen an ineffective

approach.

(Bir hükümetin en iyi tavsiyeyi görmezden gelmesi ve etkisiz bir yaklaşımı seçmesi çok üzücü.)

§ Soyut isimlerden sonra gelebilir. (opinion, fact, probability, fact, belief, knowledge, fear, assumption, likelihood, suspicion, chance, rumor, etc.) v There is a general belief that black cats bring bad luck.

(Kara kedilerin kötü şans getirdiğine dair genel bir inanç var.)

v The idea that there should be built a new bridge on the way to university is probably seen

as unnecessary by the municipality.

(Üniversite yoluna yeni bir köprü inşa edilmesi gerektiği fikri, belediye tarafından muhtemelen gereksiz görülüyor.)

v It is a miracle that we were able to get there on time.

(Oraya vaktinde varabilmiş olmamız bir mucize.)


118

§ Bir preposition yani edattan sonra gelebilir. Ancak bu durumda ‘that’ yerine ‘the fact that’ kullanılması gerekir. v The teacher draw attention to the fact that this subject is crucial while studying YDS.

(Öğretmen, sınava çalışırken bu konunun son derece önemli olduğuna dikkat çekti.) v They are not sure about the fact that the elections were fair.

(Seçimlerin adil olduğundan emin değiller.)

§ Nesne durumunda gelen ‘that’ ile oluşturulan isim cümleciği yapısında ‘that’ atılabilir. Ancak özne durumunda ise kesinlikle atılamaz.

She didn’t know that she was wrong. She didn’t know she was wrong.

The researchers said that oxytocin might increase the success of behavioural therapies. The researchers said oxytocin might increase the success of behavioural therapies.

Do you remember that you lied me about your job? Do you remember you lied me about your job?

Fiil that Ö + Y (+ N)

To be that Ö + Y (+ N)

It ... that Ö + Y (+ N)

Sıfat that Ö + Y (+ N)

Soyut isim that Ö + Y (+ N)

Edat the fact that Ö + Y (+ N)


119

(What, Where, When, Who, Whom, Which, Why, What time, How, How many, How much, Whatever, Wherever, Whenever, Whoever, However, Whichever, etc.)

Soru cümleleri düz cümle haline dönüştürülerek isim cümlesi şeklinde kullanılabilir. Bu durum bir kararsızlık durumu ile ifade edilir. Yani bu kelimelerin kullanıldığı bir isim cümleciğinde net bir durum yok tersine kararsızlık durumu söz konusudur. Örneğin;

‘What are they thinking about?’ soru cümlesi düz cümleye dönüştürüldüğünde ‘What they are thinking about halini alır ve ‘Onların ne düşündüğü …’ veya ‘Onların düşündüğü şey ...’ şeklinde Türkçe’ye çevrilir:

It is impossible to say. What are they thinking about? (Söylemek imkansız.) (Onlar ne düşünüyor?)

It is impossible to say what they are thinking about. (Onların ne düşündüğünü söylemek imkansız.)

I wonder. Where did they spend their money? (Merak ediyorum.) (Paralarını nerede harcadılar?)

I wonder where they spent their money. (Paralarını nerede harcadıklarını merak ediyorum.)

What will you say about this matter? It is very important for us. (Bu konuda ne söyleyeceksin?) (Bu bizim için çok önemli.)

What you will say about this matter is very important for us. (Bu konuda söyleyeceklerin bizim için çok önemli.)

§ Cümlenin öznesi konumunda olabilir.

v How the patient will react to the treatment cannot be predicted.

(Hastanın tedaviye nasıl yanıt vereceği öngörülemiyor.) v Why he killed his wife and children is being investigated.

(Eşini ve çoucklarını neden öldürdüğü araştırılıyor.) v When the first man appeared on the earth is still a matter of wonder.

(İlk insanın dünyaya ne zaman geldiği hala merak konusu.)

WH- KELİMELERİ


120

§ Cümlenin nesnesi olarak bir fiilden sonra ya da ‘be’ fiilinden sonra gelebilir. v Nobody knows how many people died during the coup.

(Darbe esnasında kaç insanın öldüğünü hiç kimse bilmiyor.) v What they have found is what we have been looking for years.

(Onların buldukları şey bizim yıllardır aradığımız şeydir.) v Everyone wonders who stole the money.

(Parayı kimin çaldığını herkes merak ediyor.)

§ Bir preposition yani edattan sonra gelebilir.

v I want to know with whom you want to stay.

(Kiminle kalmak istediğini bilmek istiyorum.)

v This research reduces the uncertainty about how much warming is caused by rises in carbon emissions.

(Bu araştırma, karbon emisyonlarındaki artışın ne kadar ısınmaya sebep olduğu hakkındaki belirsizliği azaltmaktadır.)

v You must know to whom you are talking.

(Kiminle konuştuğunu bilmelisin.) § ‘Ever’ ile kullanılan ifadeler: (Whatever, Wherever, Whenever, Whoever, Whomever,

Whichever, However)

Bu ifadeler hem Adverbial Clause’da hem de Noun Clause’da kullanılabilir. Ancak iki kullanım arasında fark vardır. Adverbial Clause’da ‘ever’ ile kullanılan ifadeler yan cümleyi oluştururken başka bir deyişle ana cümlenin parçası değilken, Noun Clause cümlenin öznesini ya da nesnesini oluşturur.

v Whoever you are, you can apply for this job. = Adverbial Clause

Yan Cümle Ana Cümle

(Kim olursan ol, bu işe başvurabilirsin.)

Whoever you are is not important for us. = Noun Clause Özne

(Kim olduğunun bizim için bir önemi yok.)

v Wherever I looked, I couldn’t find my glasses. = Adverbial Clause Yan Cümle Ana Cümle

(Her nereye baktıysam, gözlüklerimi bulamadım.) Wherever I looked is none of your business. = Noun Clause

Özne

(Nereye baktığım seni ilgilendirmez.)


121

v Indeed, the situation is such that chairman has finally promised to implement whatever the committee recommends.

(Aslında, bu öyle bir durum ki başkan sonunda komite her ne önerirse uygulamaya söz verdi.)

v Whoever broke the window will have to pay for a new one.

(Her kim camı kırdıysa yenisinin parasını ödemek zorunda.)

v Whatever you found on this topic is not newsworthy.

(Bu konuda buldukların haber değeri taşımıyor.)

§ ‘Ever’ ile kullanılan ifadelere ‘so’ eklenerek aynı anlam elde edilebilir (whatsoever, whosoever, wheresoever, howsoever, vs.). Fakat bu kullanımlar daha çok olumsuz bir durumu vurgulamak için ve yaygın olarak bilimsel veya günlük durumlar yerine resmi veya dini durumlarda kullanılırlar.

Fiil Wh- words Ö + Y (+ N)

To be Wh- words Ö + Y (+ N)

It ... Wh- words Ö + Y (+ N)

Sıfat Wh- words Ö + Y (+ N)

Edat Wh- words Ö + Y (+ N)


122

Yardımcı fiil ile yapılan soru cümleleri de düz cümleye dönüştürülüp isim cümlesi şeklinde kullanılabilir. Bu durumda, soru yardımcı fiil ile başladığı için, düz cümleye dönüştürüldüğünde bir tereddüt veya şüphe bildirdiği için ‘Whether’ ya da ‘If’ kullanılır ve ‘olup olmadığı’ şeklinde Türkçe’ye çevrilir. Cümle içerisinde ‘or’ yapısı da kullanılabilir ancak zorunlu değildir. Tereddüt veya şüphe bildirdiği için özellikle “doubt, ask, question, debate, controversy, problem, issue, matter’ gibi kelimelerden sonra daha çok kullanılır. Bu anlamda ‘If’ cümle başında kullanılamaz ve edattan sonra gelmez. Örneğin;

‘Have they applied for the job?’ soru cümlesi ‘have’ yardımcı fiili ile başladığı için düz cümleye dönüştürülürken ‘Whether’ ya da ‘if’ kullanılması gerekir. Cümle başında olduğunu düşünürsek ‘Whether they have applied for the job’ şeklinde yapılır ve Türkçe’ye ‘İşe başvurup başvurmadıkları’ şeklinde çevrilir.

I don’t know. Have they applied for the job? (Bilmiyorum) (İşe başvurdular mı?)

I don’t know whether / if they have applied for the job. (İşe başvurup başvurmadıklarını bilmiyorum.)

§ Yukarıdaki cümle şu şekillerde yazılabilir:

a) I don’t know whether they have applied for the job. b) I don’t know whether or not they have applied for the job. c) I don’t know whether they have applied for the job or not. d) I don’t know if they have applied for the job. e) I don’t know if they have applied for the job or not.

I wonder. Does this idea work? (Merak ediyorum.) (Bu fikir işe yarar mı?)

I wonder whether this idea works. (Bu fikrin işe yarayıp yaramayacağını merak ediyorum.)

§ Yukarıdaki cümle şu şekillerde yazılabilir:

a) I wonder whether this idea works. b) I wonder whether or not this idea works. c) I wonder whether this idea works or not. d) I wonder if this idea works. e) I wonder if this idea works or not.

WHETHER / IF


123

Örnek Cümleler

v Before we can discuss the basic problem of the origin of our universe, we must ask ourselves whether such a discussion is necessary.

(Evrenin kökeninin temel problemin tartışmadan önce, böylesine bir tartışmanın gerekli olup olmadığını kendimize sormalıyız.)

v It is not yet clear if oxytocin has benefits for people with autism or has any unwanted side

effects.

(Oksitoksinin otizmli insanlara faydalı olup olmadığı ya da istenmeyen herhangi yan etkilerinin olup olmadığı henüz kesin değil.)

v Whether proteins might be associated with membranes was not clear in the past.

(Proteinlerin membranlarla ilişkili olup olamayacağı geçmişte net kesin değildi.)

v I don’t exactly know whether this information will be useful for you or not.

(Bu bilginin senin için faydalı olup olmayacağını tam olarak bilmiyorum.)

v The board is very concerned about whether they can overcome the financial crisis.

(Yönetim kurulu mali krizi aşıp aşamayacakları konusunda çok endişeli.)

Fiil Whether / If Ö + Y (+ N)

To be Whether / If Ö + Y (+ N)

It ... Whether / If Ö + Y (+ N)

Sıfat Whether / If Ö + Y (+ N)

Edat Whether Ö + Y (+ N)


124

NOUN CLAUSES ÖZET TABLO

1. Bütün isim cümlecikleri (if ile başlayanlar hariç) bir cümlenin öznesi olarak kullanılabilirler.

That they had never been to Sivas made the problem bigger.

Whether you are from Ankara or not isn’t very important for us.

2. Bütün isim cümlecikleri (if ile başlayanlar da dahil) bir cümlede fiilin nesnesi olarak kullanılabilirler.

The government ordered that people decrease their gasoline use.

The people around us can’t understand how we can expect to win this match.

3. (That ve if ile başlayanlar hariç) Noun Clause’lar bir edatın nesnesi olarak kullanılabilirler.

He is writing a book about how some animals disappeared.

As a dentist, I now have a problem of whether I try to save the tooth or extract it out.

4. (If ile başlayanlar hariç) Noun Clause’lar “be + Noun Clause” şeklinde özneyi açıklayıcı ifade olarak kullanılabilirler.

The explanation was that they needed to obtain certain materials for the windmill.

The problem is whether my parents will let me study abroad.

5. İsim cümlecikleri belirli sıfatlardan sonra o sıfatların anlamını tamamlamak ya da açklamak için kullanılabilirler.

The people weren’t sure how the thieves robbed the house.

Every worker was pleased that Hakan was chosen the representative of the union.

6. ‘That’ ile başlayan isim cümlecikleri eğer özne olarak değil de etken bir fiilin nesnesi olarak kullanılıyorsa, isim cümlesinin başındaki ‘that’ yazılmayabilir, ancak diğer bütün Noun Clause yapan ifadeler yazılmalıdır.

Everyone believes (that) we will win the match.

I know (that) there is a problem. That he lives in Monaco is a well-known fact. (That yazılmalıdır.)

Nobody knows what he plans for the future. (What yazılmalıdır.)

7. Özne olarak kullanılan isim cümlecikleri yerine “it” zamiri kullanılıp bu zamir cümle sonunda aynı isim cümlesi tarafından açıklanabilir.

How some people can live much longer than others has been under discussion.

It has been under discussion how some people can live much longer than others.

Whether Lipitor passes into breast milk is not declared.

It is not declared whether Lipitor passes into breast milk

Kaynak: Perfect Grammar, Sedat BAY.


125

NOUN CLAUSE EXTRA § “It” yapısı cümlenin başına ‘boş özne’ konumuna getirilerek özne olarak kullanılan isim

cümleciklerine alternatif oluşturabilir. Bu durumda Noun clause cümlenin nesnesi konumunda kullanılır ve “it” yapısı Noun Clause’u tamamlama ya da açıklama görevi üstlenir.

v That the government tackles obesity is important.

It is important that the government tackles obesity. (Hükümetin obezite ile mücadele etmesi önemlidir.)

v That he committed the crime is obvious. It is obvious that he committed the crime. (Onun suçu işlediği besbelli.)

v That the US attacked Iraq to exploit its petroleum sources did not surprise anyone. It did not surprise anyone that the US attacked Iraq to exploit its petroleum sources. (ABD’nin petrol kaynaklarını sömürmek için Irak’a sadırması hiçkimseyi şaşırtmadı.)

v Why a person needs sleep has not been precisely revelaed.

It has not been precisely revealed why a person needs sleep. (Bir kişinin neden uykuya ihtiyaç duyduğu tam olarak ortaya çıkarılamadı.)

v Precisely when and how the universe occured has been wondered by people over the ages.

It has been wondered by people over the ages precisely when and how the universe began. (Evrenin tam olarak ne zaman ve nasıl oluştuğu insanlar tarafından asırlardır merak ediliyor.)

§ “How + sıfat / zarf + Özne + Yüklem …” How kendisinden sonra sıfat ya da zarf aldığında ‘ne kadar’ anlamı katar.

v We couldn’t predict how important the subject was.

(Konunun ne kadar önemli olduğunu tahmin edemedik.)

v They finally accepted how deadly this virus is. (Bu virüsün ne kadar ölümcül olduğunu sonunda kabl ettiler.)

v Nobody believes how fast he runs. (Hiç kimse onun ne kadar hızlı koştuğuna inanmıyor.)

§ Ana cümlenin öznesi ile Noun Clause yapısının öznesinin aynı olduğu durumlarda Noun

Clause yapsında özne ve yardımcı fiiller de atılarak “what to + V1 / how to + V1 / where to + V1, vs.” şeklinde yazılabilir.

v I don’t know how I can repair my car.

I don’t know how to repair my car. (Arabamı nasıl tamir edebileceğimi bilmiyorum.)

v The students finally realized what they must do to learn new words.

The students finally realized what to do to learn new words. (Öğrenciler yeni kelimeler öğrenmek için ne yapmaları gerektiğini sonunda anladılar.)

v I can’t decide whether I should change my mind.

I can’t decide whether to change my mind. (Fikrimi değiştirip değiştirmeyeceğime karar veremiyorum.)


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SUBJUNCTIVE IN NOUN CLAUSES Özellikle ‘istek, rica, emir, öğüt’ durumlarında, önem veya aciliyet belirten durumlarda kullanılır. Bazı fiil, sıfat veya isimlerden sonra gelen “that” ile başlayan isim cümleciğinin yükleminin ‘bare infinitive’ dediğimiz fiilin yalın hali şeklinde kullanılmasını gerektiren yapılardır. Ayrıca, yaygın olarak “should + V1” yapısı da isim cümleciği içerisinde kullanılır.

v His mother suggested that he (should) see a doctor.

(Annesi onun doktora gitmesini tavsiye etti.) v The leader demands that we (should) treat him like a god.

(Lider ona bir tanrı gibi davranmamızı istiyor.) v It is important that everyone be told the truth.

(Herkese doğru söylenmesi önemlidir.) v Her father recommended that she not go to the cinema alone.

(Babası onun sinemaya yalnız gitmemesini tavsiye etti.)

v It is necessary that you be on time to work.

(İşe zamanında gelmen gerekir.) § Subjunctive modunda yaygın olarak kullanılan yapılar şunlardır:

Fiil Sıfat İsim advise tavsiye etmek advisable tavsiye edilebilir advice tavsiye ask sormak / istemek crucial hayati insistence ısrar command emretmek desirable arzu edilen proposal teklif demand talep etmek essential esas / gerekli suggestion tavsiye desire istemek imperative zorunlu demand talep forbid yasaklamak important önemli order emir insist ısrar etmek mandatory zorunlu recommendation tavsiye order emretmek necessary gerekli prefer tercih etmek obligatory zorunlu propose teklif etmek recommendable tavsiye edilebilir recommend tavsiye etmek significant önemli request rica etmek urgent acil require gerektirmek vital hayati rule emretmek suggest tavsiye etmek urge teşvik etmek


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NOUN CLAUSE ZAMAN UYUMU 1. Ana cümle PRESENT olduğu durumda:

a) İsim cümleciği ana cümleden daha sonraki bi olayı ifade ediyorsa “Future” kullanılır.

v I hope that, by next summer, I will have saved up enough money to go to Italy for a holiday.

(Umarım gelecek yaza kadar İtalya’ya tatile gitmek için yeterince para biriktirmiş olurum.)

v It is absurd to say that tax cuts for the rich will somehow benefit for the poor.

(Zenginlere yapılan vergi kesintilerinin bir şekilde fakirlerin faydasına olacağını söylemek saçma.)

b) İsim cümleciği ana cümle ile aynı anda olan bir durumu ifade ediyorsa ‘Present’ ya da ‘Present Continuous’ kullanılır.

v Current estimates suggest that 10% of acute-care hospital beds are occupied by

inappropriately placed elderly patients.

(Şu anki tahiminlere göre, akut bakım hastane yataklarının %10’u uygun olmayan biçimde yerleştirilmiş yaşlı hastalar tarafından işgal ediliyor.)

v The UN insists that China is under an unconditional obligation to prohibit torture and ill-

treatment.

(BM, Çin’in işkence ve kötü muameleyi yasaklaması için koşulsuz yükümlülük altında olduğu konusunda ısrar ediyor.)

c) İsim cümleciği ana cümleden daha önce olmuş bir olayı ya da durumu ifade ediyorsa ‘Simple

Past’ kullanılır.

v I don’t know when the birds built their nests in the roof.

(Kuşların çatıya yuvalarını ne zaman yaptıklarını bilmiyorum.)

v Archaeological excavations at Alacahöyük show that the people of that part of Cappadocia reached a high level of civilization in the third millennium B.C.

(Alacahöyük’teki arkeolojik kazılar Kapadokya’nın bu bölümündeki halkın M.Ö. üçüncü milenyumda yüksek medeniyet düzeyine ulaştıklarını gösteriyor.)


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2. Ana cümle PAST olduğu durumda:

a) İsim cümleciği ana cümleden daha sonra olacak bir olayı ifade ediyorsa ‘would + V1’ ya da

‘was / were going to + V1’ kullanılır.

v In the 1950s, Austria’s leaders declared that the country would not take sides in any prospective European conflict.

(1950’li yıllarda, Avusturya liderleri Avrupa’da olası herhangi bir anlaşmazlıkta taraf olmayacaklarını bildirdiler.)

v In 1967, a leading American scientist stated that man would never reach the moon despite all future scientific advances.

(1967 yılında, önde gelen Amerikalı bir bilim insanı gelecekteki tüm teknolojik gelişmelere rağmen insanoğlunun asla aya ulaşamayacağını belirtti.)

b) İsim cümleciği ana cümleyle aynı andan olan bir olayı ifade ediyorsa ‘Simple Past’ ya da ‘Past Continuous’ kullanılır.

v He wondered whether there was any conflict about this subject.

(Bu konuda herhangi bir anlaşmazlık olup olmadığını merak etti.)

v In the light of the new evidence, the judge realized that the case was far more complicated than he had originally thought.

(Yeni kanıtlar ışığında, hakim davanın ilk başta düşündüğünden çok daha karmaşık olduğunu fark etti.)

c) İsim cümleciği ana cümleden daha önce olan bir olayı ifade ediyorsa ‘Past Perfect’ ya da ‘Past Perfect Continuous’ kullanılır.

v The child acknowledged that he had lied when the stolen money was found in his room.

(Çalınan para odasında bulunduğunda, çocuk yalan söylediğini kabul etti.)

v In his paper of slavery in America, he demonstrated how profoundly blacks had affected American life throughout history. (Amerika’daki kölelik hakkında yazdığı makalesinde, siyahların tarih boyunca Amerikan yaşamını ne kadar derin etkilediğini gösterdi.)

d) İsim cümleciği genel bir kanı ya da bilimsel bir yargıdan bahsediyorsa ‘Simple Present’ ya da ‘Present Continuous’ kullanılır.

v Einsten suggested that light is composed of tiny particles called ‘photons’, and each photon has

energy.

(Einstein ışığın ‘foton’ denen küçük taneciklerden oluştuğunu ve her fotonun enerjiye sahip olduğunu gösterdi.)

v In 2010, some environmentalists said that the world is warming faster than at any time in the last 10.000 years.

(2010 yılında, bazı çevreciler yeryüzünün son 10.000 yıldaki herhangi bir dönemden daha hızlı ısınmakta olduğunu söylediler.)


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§ Bir fiilden sonra gelen isim cümleciği yapısı içerisinde ‘if clause’ ya da ‘zaman bağlacı’ yapılarından oluşan cümleler varsa, bu durumda noun clause zaman uyumu kuralları değil, ‘if clause’ ya da ‘zaman bağlacı’ kuralları uygulanır. v He says that if he were me, he would read at least two articles a day.

(O diyor ki, benim yerimde olsa, günde en az iki makale okurmuş.) v Tennis star Chris Evert once said that if you can react the same way to winning or losing, that’s a

big accomplishment.

(Tenis yıldızı Chris Evert bir zamanlar demişti ki, eğer kazanmaya ya da kaybetmeye aynı tepkiyi verebiliyorsan, bu büyük bir marifettir.)

v She insists that before she went out, she locked the doors.

(Evden çıkmadan önce kapıları kilitlediği konusunda ısrar ediyor.) v Dalai Lama stated that when we cultivate love and compassion, the primary beneficiary is really

ourselves.

(Dalai Lama sevgi ve şefkat ektiğimizde, bundan ilk faydalanacaklar yine bizleriz.) v Studies show that after death, human bodies do not deteriorate as quickly as they used to,

probably because our modern diet contains so many additives.

(Çalışmalara göre, öldükten sonra insan bedeni eskiden olduğu kadar hızlı bir şekilde bozulmuyor, bunun kısmen sebebi ise modern beslenme biçimimizin çok fazla katkı maddesi içermesidir.)

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BÖLÜM 8

ADJECTIVE / RELATIVE CLAUSES (SIFAT CÜMLECİKLERİ)

Bölüm 8 – Adjective Clauses (Sıfat Cümlecikleri)

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ADJECTIVE / RELATIVE CLAUSES (SIFAT CÜMLECİKLERİ)

Sıfat bir ismi niteleyen kelimedir ve ismin önüne gelerek renk, boyut, özellik gibi belirli bir niteliği ifade eder. Örneğin; ‘expensive car’ ifadesindeki ‘expensive’ kelimesi bir sıfattır ve ismin önüne gelerek ‘nasıl bir araba’ sorusuna karşılık vermiştir. Sıfat cümlecikleri ise isimden sonra gelen bir yan cümleciktir ve yine o ismi niteler. Sıfat cümleciklerinde asıl amaç isim cümleciklerinde olduğu gibi iki cümleyi birleştirmektir. Örneğin; ‘The car which was very expensive’ ifadesi Türkçe’ye çok pahalı olan araba’ şeklinde çevrilir ve yine burada araba nitelenmiştir. Sıfat cümleciklerinde nitelenen isim ‘Relative Prononun’ denilen şu ilgi zamirleriyle bağlanabilir:

Which İnsan dışı tüm varlıklar için

Who İnsanlar için (özne olarak)

Whom İnsanlar için (nesne olarak)

That Who, whom ve which yerine

Whose Her türlü varlık için sahiplik bildirir

Where Yer bildiren isimler için

When Zaman bildiren isimler için

Why Sebep bildiren isimler için

§ Kendisinden önce gelen insan dışı tüm varlıkları nitelerken kullanılır.

§ Öznenin nitelediği durumda yani ikinci cümledeki ortak öğenin özne konumunda olduğu durumda

‘Which + Yüklem (+ Nesne)’ şeklinde kullanılır.

v I love football. It is a very exciting sport. I love football which is a very exciting sport.

(Çok heyecan verici olan futbolu seviyorum.) v The newspaper reported that the tiger has been put down. It killed its keeper.

The newspaper reported that the tiger which killed its keeper has been put down.

(Gazetenin yazdığına göre, bakıcısını öldüren kaplan uyutuldu (öldürüldü).)

v I have just read George Orwell’s book ‘1984’. It is regarded as one of the best boks ever written. I have just read George Orwell’s book ‘1984’ which is regarded as one of the best books ever written.

(Şimdiye kadar yazılan en iyi kitaplardan birisi olarak görülen George Orwell’ın ‘1984’ adlı kitabını okudum.)

WHICH


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§ Nesnenin nitelendiği yani ikinci cümledeki ortak öğe nesne konumunda olduğu durumda ise ‘Which + Özne + Yüklem’ şeklinde kullanılır. Nesne ortak öğe olduğu için ve dolayısıyla nesne nitelendiği için bu durumda cümlenin nesnesi olmaz. Tabi ki ‘passive’ bir yapıda nesne cümlenin başına geleceği için bu durumda which’den sonra ‘passive’ yapı da gelemez.

v The World Cup is very enjoyable. Brazilian people expect to win it. The World Cup which Brazilian people expect to win is very enjoyable.

(Brezilyalıların kazanmayı umduğu Dünya Kupası çok eğlenceli.)

v Fast food is not very healthy at all. Most people love it.

Fast food which most people love is not very healthy at all.

(Pek çok insanın sevdiği fast food (hazır yiyecekler) hiç sağlıklı değil.)

v The presentation wasn’t informative. The instructor rated it as the best one. The presentation which the instructor rated as the best one wasn’t informative.

(Öğretmenin en iyi olarak değerlendirdiği sunum öğretici değildi.)

Örnek Cümleler

v She is the president of a local group which is working to abolish all scientific testing on

animals.

(O, hayvanlar üzerine tüm bilimsel testleri ortadan kaldırmak için çalışan yerel bir grubun başkanıdır.) v Juneau, Alaska is the only American capital city which is not accessible by car.

(Alaska’nın Juneau şehri arabayla ulaşım sağlanamayan tek Amerikan başkentidir.) v There are several physical conditions of discomfort which accompany pregnancy.

(Gebelikle birlikte oluşan pek çok fiziksel rahatsızlık durumu vardır.) v Acne is a common skin disease, and in some cases the chemicals which are used to treat it can

further damage the skin.

(Sivilce yaygın bir cilt hastalığıdır ve bazı durumlarda onu tedavi etmek için kullanılan kimyasallar deriye daha da zarar verebilir.)

v Catalysts are substances which enable a chemical reaction to take place but which do not

themselves play any active part in the reaction.

(Katalistler, bir kimyasal reaksiyonun oluşmasını sağlayan fakat reaksiyonda kendi başlarına aktif rol oynamayan maddelerdir.)

Cins İsim Which Yüklem (+ Nesne)

Cins İsim Which Özne + Yüklem


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§ Kendisinden önce gelen isim bir insanı ifade ediyorsa bu ilgi zamiri kullanılır.

§ Öznenin nitelediği durumda yani ikinci cümledeki ortak öğenin özne konumunda olduğu durumda ‘Who + Yüklem (+ Nesne)’ şeklinde kullanılır.

v The organizers of the congress have arranged accommodation for participants. They are

coming from out of town. The organizers of the congress have arranged accommodation for participants who are coming from out of town.

(Kongre organizatörleri şehir dışından gelen katılımcılar için kalacak yer ayarladılar.) v The Pharaohs of ancient Egypt were absolute rulers. They were considered gods on Earth.

The Pharaohs of ancient Egypt were absolute rulers who were considered gods on Earth.

(Antik Mısır Firavunları yeryüzünün tanrıları olarak görülen mutlak hakimlerdi.) v The passengers said that the bus driver had been driving for a long time without having a

rest. They survived the accident. The passengers who survived the accident said that the bus driver had been driving for a long time without having a rest.

(Kazadan sağ kurtulan yolcular otobüs şoförünün dinlenmeden uzun süre aracı kullandığını söylediler.)

§ Nesnenin nitelendiği yani ikinci cümledeki ortak öğe nesne konumunda olduğu durumda ise ‘Who + Özne + Yüklem’ şeklinde kullanılır. Nesne ortak öğe olduğu için ve dolayısıyla nesne nitelendiği için bu durumda cümlenin nesnesi olmaz. Tabi ki ‘passive’ bir yapıda nesne cümlenin başına geleceği için bu durumda which’den sonra ‘passive’ yapı da gelemez. Bu kullanımda ‘whom’ daha yaygın olarak kullanılsa da ‘who’ ilgi zamiri de ayını anlamı taşıyarak kullanılabilir.

v The writer is very famous. We saw him at the mall yesterday.

The writer who we saw at the mall last week is very famous.

(Dün alışveriş merkezinde görüdüğümüz yazar çok meşhur.)

v The girl got the highest grade in YDS. You told me about her. The girl who you told me about got the highest grade in YDS.

(Bana bahsettiğin kız YDS’de en yüksek notu aldı.) v Have you seen those people? We met them on holiday.

Have you seen those people who we met on holiday.

(Tatilde tanıştığımız şu insanları gördün mü?)

İnsan ismi Who Yüklem (+ Nesne)

İnsan ismi Who Özne + Yüklem

WHO


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Örnek Cümleler

v The parents of the abducted drivers who want help from the authorities wish their sons would be set free.

(Yetkililerden yardım isteyen kaçırılan şoförlerin aileleri oğullarının serbest bırakılmasını istiyor.)

v We are inclined to believe those who we do not know because they have never deceived us.

(Bizi asla aldatmadıkları için tanımadığımız kişilere (daha çok) inanma eğilimindeyiz.)

v The bonds which tie a mother to her newborn may be stronger in women who deliver naturally than in those who deliver by cesarean section.

(Anneyi yeni doğan bebeğine bağlayan bağlar, normal yolla doğum yapan kadınlarda sezeryanla doğum yapan kadınlara göre daha güçlü olabilir.)

v In 1609, Galileo Galilei who was an Italian scientist made history by turning his homemade telescope towards the night sky.

(1609 yılında, İtalyan bilimadamı olan Galileo Galilei ev yapımı teleskopunu gökyüzüne doğru çevirerek tarih yazdı.)

v The woman’s jealousy destroyed her marriage with her husband who got exhausted of her endless questions about where he went, and to whom he spoke.

(Kadının kıskançlığı, nereye gittiği ve kiminle konuştuğu konusunda bitmek bilmeyen sorulardan bıkmış olan kocasıyla olan evliliğini bitirdi.)

§ Nesnenin nitelendiği yani ikinci cümledeki ortak öğe nesne konumunda olduğu durumda

‘Whom + Özne + Yüklem’ şeklinde kullanılır. Nesne ortak öğe olduğu için ve dolayısıyla nesne nitelendiği için bu durumda cümlenin nesnesi olmaz. Tabi ki ‘passive’ bir yapıda nesne cümlenin başına geleceği için bu durumda which’den sonra ‘passive’ yapı da gelemez.

v I don’t know these workers. The company wants to dismiss them. I don’t know these workers whom the company wants to dismiss.

(Şirketin işten çıkarmak istediği bu işçileri tanımıyorum.)

v The writer is very famous. We saw him at the mall yesterday. The writer whom we saw at the mall last week is very famous.

(Dün alışveriş merkezinde görüdüğümüz yazar çok meşhur.)

v Mrs. Taylor is an honest person. I have been working with her for years. Mrs. Taylor whom I have been working with for years is an honest person.

(Birlikte yıllardır çalıştığımız Bayan Taylor dürüst bir insandır.)

İnsan ismi Whom Özne + Yüklem

WHOM


136

Örnek Cümleler

v The lecturer whom the university hired for only a year proved to be a competent teacher in a short time period.

(Üniversitenin sadece bir yıllığına işe aldığı öğretim görevlisi kısa sürede yetenekli bir öğretmen olduğunu gösterdi.)

v He was very contemptuous of ‘popular’ writers whom he described as having no talent.

(Yeteneksiz olarak nitelediği popular yazarları oldukça aşağılıyor.)

v Amnesty International works on behalf of people whom it considers to be political prisoners in jails throughout the world.

(Uluslararası Af Örgütü dünyanın dört bir yanındaki hapishanelerde siyasi mahkum olarak gördüğü kişiler adına çalışmaktadır.)

§ ‘Who, whom ve which’ yerine hem insanlar hem de insan dışı varlıklar için kullanılır. Dolayısıyla ikinci

cümlede nitelenen ismin yerine göre ‘That + Yüklem (+ Nesne)’ veya ‘That + Özne + Yüklem’ şeklinde kullanılabilir.

v The World Cup which / that Brazilian people expect to win is very enjoyable.

v The organizers of the congress have arranged accommodation for participants who / that are coming from out of town.

v The lecturer whom / that the university hired for only a year proved to be a competent

teacher in a short time period. Örnek Cümleler v You shouldn’t believe everything that / which you read in the newspaper.

(Gazetede okuduğun herşeye inanmamalısın.) v Asthma, a condition that / which affects the lungs, is a disease that / which many people suffer

from.

(Akciğerleri etkileyen bir durum olan astım, birçok insanın mustarip olduğu bir hastalıktır.)

İsim That Yüklem (+ Nesne)

İsim That Özne + Yüklem

THAT


137

v As a biological concept, race refers to a large group of people that / who share certain inherited physical characteristics.

(Biyolojik bir kavram olarak ırk, bazı kalıtsal fiziki özellikleri paylaşan büyük insan topluluğuna işaret eder.) v Bangladesh's Government has made an important decision that / which may speed up the trial of

the alleged killers of four politicians in 1975.

(Bangladeş hükümeti, 1975’te öldürülen dört siyasetçinin katilleri olduğu iddia edilen kişilerin yargılanmasını hızlandırabilecek önemli bir karar verdi.)

v He was very contemptuous of ‘popular’ writers that / whom he described as having no talent.

(Yeteneksiz olarak nitelediği popular yazarlara karşı oldukça aşağılayıcıydı.)

§ Canlı ve cansız bütün isimler için sahiplik anlamının ifade edildiği durumlarda kullanılır. Yani

whose’dan önce gelen isim whose’dan sonra gelen isme sahiptir diyebiliriz. Dolayısıyla ‘isim + whose + isim + fiil’ şeklindedir.

§ Whose’dan sonra gelen cümledeki öznenin türü mutlaka bir isim olmalıdır.

§ Ayrıca whose’dan sonra ‘a / an, the, zamir, sahiplik sıfatı, özel isim, şehir ve ülke isimleri’ gelmez.

§ Öznenin nitelediği durumda yani ikinci cümledeki ortak öğenin özne konumunda olduğu durumda ‘Whose + Özne + Yüklem (+ Nesne)’ şeklinde kullanılır.

v I met a man. His brother works for Apple.

I met a man whose brother works for Apple.

(Kardeşi Apple’da çalışan bir adamla tanıştım.)

v The actress is now playing a woman. The woman’s son was killed in the First World War. The actress is now playing a woman whose son was killed in the First World War.

(Aktris şu anda oğlu Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nda öldürülen bir kadını oynuyor.)

§ Nesnenin nitelendiği yani ikinci cümledeki ortak öğe nesne konumunda olduğu durumda ise

‘Whose + İsim + Özne + Yüklem’ şeklinde kullanılır.

v I met a sculptor. Everyone loves her works. I met a sculptor whose works everyone loves.

(Herkesin eserlerini beğendiği bir heykeltıraşla tanıştım.)

v We went to the restaurant. We love its kepabs very much. We went to the restaurant whose kepabs we love very much.

(Kebaplarını çok sevdiğimiz restorana gittik.)

İsim Whose Özne + Yüklem (+ Nesne)

İsim Whose İsim + Özne + Yüklem

WHOSE


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§ Ayrıca cins isimler için ‘whose’ yerine ‘of which’ yapısını kullanmak da mümkündür. Bu durumda whose’dan sonraki isim ‘of which’ yapısının önüne getirilir ve virgülle ayrılır. v This is the machine whose properties I described.

This is the machine, the properties of which I described.

(Bu, özelliklerini anlattığım makinadır.) v This is the program whose price is quite reasonable.

This is the program, the price of which is quite reasonable.

(Bu, fiyatı oldukça makul olan bir program.) v They have an original Dali painting whose value is over three million dollars.

They have an original Dali painting, the value of which is over three million dollars.

(Değeri üç milyon doların üzerinde olan orijinal Dali tablosuna sahipler.)

Örnek Cümleler v The rate of disease is substantially lower for children whose mothers breastfeed them.

(Hastalık oranı annelerinin emzirdiği çocuklarda oldukça düşüktür.)

v Farmers depend on meteorologists whose accurate forecasts assist in successful agricultural planning.

(Çiftçiler, doğru tahminleri başarılı bir tarım planlamasına yardımcı olan meteorologlara bel bağlamaktadırlar.)

v The city whose history was full of invasion and wars is about to face a new invasion.

(Tarihi istilalar ve savaşlarla dolu olan bu şehir yeni bir işgalle karşılaşmak üzere.) v In feudal Japan, the Imperial Army had special soldiers whose only duty was to count the

number of enemy heads that cut off during a battle.

(Feodal Japonya’da, İmparatorluk Ordusu tek görevleri savaş esnasında kesilen düşman kafalarını saymak olan özel askerlere sahipti.)

v Macbeth, King of Scotland, whose life was the basis for the famous play by Shakespaeare died

in the year 1057.

(Hayatı Shakespeare’ın ünlü oyununun temelini oluşturan İskoçya Kralı Macbeth 1057 yılında öldü.)


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§ Yer bildiren bir isimden sonra gelerek o ismi niteler. Bazı durumlarda yer ismi gelmese de bir bulunma

ya da konum belirten cins bir isim (system, end, point, condition, vb.) de gelebilir.

§ Kendisinden sonra tam cümle alır ve o cümle içerisinde yer bildiren ismin eksik olması gerekir.

§ Sıfat cümlesinin yüklemine sorulan ‘nerede’ ya da ‘nereye’ sorularını yanıtlaması gerekir. Yani ‘where’ ile oluşturulan bir sıfat cümlesi yapısı “konum, bulunma ya da yönelme’ bildirir.

v Adobe is inexpensive and can be produced in abundance in regions. There is clay soil there. Adobe is inexpensive and can be produced in abundance in regions where there is clay soil.

(Kerpiç killi toprağın olduğu bölgelerde bol miktarda üretilebilir.)

v We have now reached the point. We can make a decision in this point. We have now reached the point where we can make a decision.

(Artık karar verebileceğimiz noktaya ulaştık.)

v There is no trace of the house. The grandparents lived there for more than 40 years. There is no trace of the house where the grandparents lived for more than 40 years.

(Büyük ebeveynlerinin 40 yıldan uzun süre yaşadığı evden iz yok.)

§ Boşluğun öncesinde bir yer niteleniyorsa her zaman ‘where’ gelmeyebilir. ‘Konum, bulunma ya da yönelme’ durumlarında ‘where’ gelebileceği gibi, nitelenen yer ismi bir nesne olarak alındığında yani yer belirtmediği durumda ‘which’, sahiplik belirten durumda ise ‘whose’ gelir. Bu durumda boşluktan sonraki cümleyi iyi analiz etmek gerekir.

v Turkey where we stayed for two weeks is a nice country. (yer)

v Turkey which has beautiful places is a nice country. (nesne)

v Turkey whose people I know very well is a nice country. (sahiplik) v Sivas where Tamerlane invaded in 1400 A.C. is famous for its Kangal dogs. (yer)

v Sivas which people mostly know with its Kangal dogs has a long history. (nesne)

v Sivas whose history dates back to 8000 B.C. is famous for its Kangal dogs. (sahiplik)

v The house where I was born was sold last week. (yer)

v The house which I want to buy was sold last week. (nesne)

v The house whose price is reasonable was sold last week. (sahiplik)

Yer ismi Where Özne + Yüklem (+ Nesne)

WHERE


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Örnek Cümleler v The cat slowly approached the bush where the mouse was hiding.

(Kedi yavaşça farenin saklandığı çalılığa yaklaştı.) v At the peak of the slave trade, Jamaica served as an auction centre where slaves were bought

and sold. (Köle ticaretinin en yoğun olduğu dönemde, Jamaika kölelerin alınıp satıldığı bir açık arttırma merkezi haline geldi.)

v The police attacked the building where the hostages were being held with tear gas and assault

rifles. (Polis rehinelerin tutulduğu binaya biber gazı ve saldırı tüfeğiyle saldırdı.)

v Greece where the inhabitants are struggling to survive is in an economic recession nowadays.

(Halkın hayatta kalma mücadelesi verdiği Yunanistan bu günlerde ekonomik kriz yaşıyor.) v The entire life of a house fly is spent within a few hundred feet of the area where it was born.

(Ev sineğinin bütün yaşamı doğduğu yerin birkaç yüz metre çevresinde geçer.)

§ Zaman bildiren bir isim nitelendiğinde kullanılır ve ‘When + Özne + Yüklem (+ Nesne)’ şeklinde kullanılır. v We are living in a time. Great struggles are shaping history in this time.

We are living in a time when great struggles are shaping history.

(Büyük mücadelelerin tarihi şekillendirdiği bir zamanda yaşıyoruz.) v I can still remember my excitement. My first daughter was born on that day.

I can still remember my excitement when my first daughter was born.

(Büyük kızımın doğduğu zamanki heyecanımı hala hatırlayabiliyorum.)

v 2015 was the year. Everything went wrong in that year. 2015 was the year when everything went wrong.

(2015 yılı herşeyin ters gittiği bir yıldı.)

Zaman bildiren ismi When Özne + Yüklem (+ Nesne)

WHEN


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Örnek Cümleler v If we wait for the moment when everything is ready, we can never begin.

(Herşeyin hazır olduğu bir zamanı beklersek, asla başlayamayız.)

v Mountaineering as a sport has developed since about 1857 when the Alpine Club was founded in London.

(Bir spor olarak dağcılık, Londra’da Alpin Kulübü’nün kurulduğu 1857’den bu yana gelişmektedir.)

v Imhotep, god of medicine, existed as a mythological figure in the minds of many scholars until the end of the 19th century, when it was established that he was a real historical personage.

(Tıp tanrısı Imhotep, gerçek bir tarihi kişilik olduğunun tespit edildiği 19. yüzyılın sonuna kadar birçok bilim insanının zihninde mitolojik bir figür olarak yer almıştı.)

§ ‘Reason’ ve ‘explanation kelimelerinden sonra sebepi açıklamak için ‘Why + Özne + Yüklem

(+ Nesne)’ şeklinde kullanılır. Ayrıca ‘why’ ilgi zamiri yerine ‘for which’ yapısı da kullanılabilir.

Örnek Cümleler v Research suggests that after being spanked, children are preoccupied with their punishment, and

forget the reason why they were hit.

(Araştırmalara göre, çocuklar dayak yedikten sonra, verilen ceza ile meşgul olur ve dayak yeme sebeplerini unuturlar.)

v The slavery issue was only one reason why the northern and southern states fought against each other during the US Civil War.

(ABD İç Savaşı’nda kuzey ve güney eyaletlerinin birbirlerine karşı savaşmalarının tek sebebi kölelik meselesiydi.)

v One reason why insects are so plentiful is their ability to adapt to different environments.

(Böceklerin bu kadar çok olmalarının sebeplerinden biri farklı ortamlara uyum sağlayabilmeleridir.)

The reason The explanation Why Özne + Yüklem (+ Nesne)

WHY


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EDAT + İLGİ ZAMİRİ Sıfat cümlesi içindeki bir edat ilgi zamirinin önüne gelebilir. Bu edat ya boşluktan önceki kelimenin anlamına göre çıkarılabilecek bir edattır ya da çoğunlukla sıfat cümlesi içerisinde fiilin, ismin ya da sıfatın aldığı edattır. Yani nitelenen kelime sıfat cümleciği içerisinde nesne konumunda olduğu durumda önünde bir edat varsa cümle içinde olduğu gibi bırakılabilir veya yaygın biçimde ilgi zamirinin önüne alınabilir. Bu durumda ‘edat + whom’, ‘edat + which’ ve ‘edat + whose kullanılır.

v That’s the program. We listened to it last night.

That’s the program which we listened to last night.

That’s the program to which we listened last night.

(Bu, dün akşam dinlediğimiz program.)

v He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson. He had read about her in the newspaper.

He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson whom he had read about in the newspaper.

He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson about whom he had read in the newspaper.

(Dün gazetede hakkında haber okuduğu Bayan Jackson’ı aramaya karar verdi.)

v The old man told me his life story. I was travelling with him.

The old man whom I was travelling with told me his life story.

The old man with whom I was travelling told me his life story.

(Birlikte seyahat ettiğim yaşlı adam bana tüm hayat hikayesini anlattı.)

v Kate has gone to work in Australia. I used to share a house with her sister.

Kate whose sister I used to share a house with has gone to work in Australia.

Kate with whose sister I used to share a house has gone to work in Australia.

(Kızkardeşiyle önceden ev arkadaşlığı yaptğım Kate Avustralya’ya çalışmaya gitti.)

v The food industry is vulnerable to the charge that it contributes to mortality by actively seeking to increase consumption of unhealthy foods. Profits depend on them.

The food industry is vulnerable to the charge that it contributes to mortality by actively seeking to increase consumption of unhealthy foods which profits depend on. The food industry is vulnerable to the charge that it contributes to mortality by actively seeking to increase consumption of unhealthy foods on which profits depend. (Yiyecek endüstrisi kazancın bağlı olduğu sağlıksız yiyeceklerin tüketimini etkin bir şekilde arttırmaya çalışarak ölüme sebep olacağı suçlamasına karşı açıktır.)

Edat Whom Özne + Yüklem (+ Nesne)

Edat Which Özne + Yüklem (+ Nesne)

Edat Whose İsim + Özne + Yüklem (+ Nesne)


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Yukarıdaki cümle KPDS 2011 Sonbahar döneminde şu şekilde sorulmuştur. The food industry is vulnerable to the charge that it contributes to mortality ---- actively seeking to increase consumption of unhealthy foods ---- which profits depend.

A) at / for B) by / on C) against / into D) with / from E) in / at Bu soruda adjective clause içerisindeki ‘depend’ fiilinin alması gereken edat ‘on’ olduğu için ‘which’in önüne alınmıştır, dolayısıyla cevap B şıkkıdır. Örnek Cümleler v The child to whom you were talking a few minutes ago was seven at most.

(Birkaç dakika önce konuştuğun çocuk en çok 7 yaşındaydı.) v It is important to have someone in your life with whom you can always share something.

(Hayatınızda her zaman birşeyler paylaşabileceğiniz birisi olması önemlidir.)

v There are disagreements between the EU countries about the speed at which the EU should open its doors to new member states in Central and Eastern Europe.

(AB’nin Orta ve Doğu Avrupa’daki yeni üye devletleri kapılarını açacağı hız konusunda, AB ülkeleri arasında anlaşmazlıklar var.)

v That sign shows the beginning of the mined area beyond which it is inadvisable to go.

(Bu tabela ötesine gidilmesi tavsiye edilmeyen mayınlı bölgenin başladığı yeri göstermektedir.) (Bu tabela mayınlı bölgenin başladığı yeri göstermektedir, ki buranın ötesine gidilmesi tavsiye edilmiyor.)

v It is becoming increasingly evident that the disposition and the behaviour of the individual are

shaped by the cultural groups to which he belongs.

(Bireyin eğilimi ve davranışının ait olduğu kültürel gruplara göre şekillendiği gittikçe daha da açık hale geliyor.) v Thomas Goldney III in whose house and garden several generations of Bristol students have

lived was described in the late 18th century as ‘a very curious gentleman’.

(Evinde ve bahçesinde birkaç nesil Bristol’lu öğrencinin yaşadığı 3. Thomas Goldney 18. yüzyılın sonlarında çok meraklı bir centilmen olarak tanımlanırdı.)

§ Miktar sıfatları (all, some, most, none, vb.) da edatlı yapının önüne gelebilir. Bu durumda

‘Miktar sıfatı + edat + whom / which’ yapısı kendisinden sonra fiil ya da cümle alabilir.

v I bought a lot of sweaters most of which were handmade and very cheap. v I bought a lot of sweaters most of which I decided to donate.

v We employed two secretaries both of whom are quite efficient in this subject. v We employed two secretaries both of whom the administration liked very much.


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Örnek Cümleler

v I read three books last week one of which I really enjoyed.

v California has a lot of visitors most of whom visit Disneyland.

v There are a lot of good writers in this country, some of whom wrote about political corruption. v This year’s marathon had over 10.000 participants many of whom had come from around the world. v There were some good programmes on the radio none of which I listened to. v His cars, half of which are Cadillacs, can be seen in the garage. v He has got a lot of problems, two of which are depression and alcoholism. v The movie was two hours long, only the first thirty minutes of which was worth watching.

§ ‘Where’ yerine nitelenen ismin alacağı edata bağlı olarak ‘in which’ ya da ‘at which’ ifadeleri de kullanılabilir. Ancak burada dikkat edilmesi gereken nokta, her “in which” yapısı “where” demek değildir. Sadece yer belirten ifadelerde birbirinin yerine kullanılabilirler.

v Adobe is inexpensive and can be produced in abundance in regions where there is clay soil. Adobe is inexpensive and can be produced in abundance in regions in which there is clay soil.

v We have now reached the point where we can make a decision. We have now reached the point in which we can make a decision.

v Management must learn to determine market conditions in the countries where it is doing

business. Management must learn to determine market conditions in the countries in which it is doing business.

§ ‘When’ yerine nitelenen ismin alacağı edata bağlı olarak ‘in which’, ‘on which’ ya da ‘at which’

ifadeleri de kullanılabilir.

v Mountaineering as a sport has developed since about 1857, when the Alpine Club was founded in London. Mountaineering as a sport has developed since about 1857, in which the Alpine Club was founded in London.

v I cannot forget the day when my first daughter was born. I cannot forget the day on which my first daughter was born.

v The parcel arrived at 22:00, when I was still at work. The parcel arrived at 22:00, at which I was still at work.


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NON-DEFINING ADJECTIVE CLAUSE (TANIMLAYICI OLMAYAN SIFAT CÜMLECİĞİ)

Türkçe’de ara söz dediğimiz, ek bilgi vermek amacıyla yapılan sıfat cümleleri iki virgül arasında verilerek oluşturulur. Bu durumda anlam açısından ‘Defining Adjective Clause’ yani tanımlayıcı sıfat cümlesi ile bir anlam farklılığı yoktur. Sadece verilen ek bilgi cümlenin tam olarak anlaşılması için olmazsa olmaz değildir. Yani o bilgi verilmese de cümle anlaşılabilir. Bu kullanımda virgülden sonra ‘that’ kullanılmaz. Örnek Cümleler v The first impression, which determines your future position in a company, is always very important.

(Bir şirkette gelecekteki pozisyonunu belirleyecek ilk izlenim her zaman çok önemlidir.) v This scientist, who died of lung cancer, made notable advances in mobile phone technology.

(Akciğer kanserinden ölen bu bilim insanı cep telefonu teknolojisinde önemli ilerlemeler kaydetti.) v The author, whom people respect all over the world, published his tenth book last year. (Tüm dünyada insanların saygı duyduğu yazar onuncu kitabını geçen yıl yayımladı.) v Berlin, where at least 1 million Turks live, looks like as if it were a Turkish province. (En az 1 milyon Türkün yaşadığı Berlin sanki bir Türk şehrine benziyor.) v The plants, most of whose leaves are edible, have been listed below. (Yapraklarının çoğu yenilebilir bitkiler aşağıda listelenmiştir.)

CO-ORDINATING ADJECTIVE CLAUSE (TÜM CÜMLENİN NİTELENMESİ)

§ Adjective Clause yapısı bütün cümleyi de niteleyebilir. § Bu durumda sadece ‘which’ kullanılır. § Cümle sonunda çoğunlukla virgülden sonra kullanılır. § ‘Ki bu’ şeklinde Türkçe’ye çevrilir. § Kendisinden sonra fiil ve cümle gelebilir. Örnek Cümleler v He was usually late for work, which always annoys the boss.

(O genellikle işe geç gelir, ki bu durum her zaman patronu sinirlendirir.)

v We have missed our bus, which means we may be late.

(Otobüsü kaçırdık, ki bu geç kalabileceğimiz anlamına geliyor.)

v Heviz is Europe’s largest warm-water lake and visitors can swim there even in winter, which helps

extend the tourist season.

(Heviz, Avrupa’nın en büyük ılık su gölüdür ve ziyaretçiler kışın bile orada yüzebilirler, ki bu da turist sezonunu uzatmaya katkı sağlar.)

v He blames me for anything, which I think is unfair. (Her şeyden beni suçluyor, ki ben bunun haksızlık olduğunu düşünüyorum.


146

OMITTING RELATIVE PRONOUN (İLGİ ZAMİRİNİN ATILMASI)

‘Whom / Which / That + Özne + Yüklem’ yapısında yani nesnenin nitelendiği durumlarda ‘whom / which / that’ atılabilir ve anlamda hiçbir farklılık olmaz.

v The World Cup that Brazilian people expect to win is very enjoyable. The World Cup Brazilian people expect to win is very enjoyable.

v Fast food which most people love is not very healthy at all.

Fast food most people love is not very healthy at all.

v The writer whom we saw at the mall last week is very famous. The writer we saw at the mall last week is very famous.

§ Sıfat cümlesi içerisinde ‘who / which / that + to be’ yapısı olduğu durumlarda ilgi zamiri atıldığında ‘to

be’ yapısı da atılır. Bu durumda, ilgi zamiri atıldıktan sonra sıfat cümleciği cümlenin en başına getirilebilir. Cümle başına getirildikten sonra virgülle ayrılarak ana cümleye geçilir. Dikkat edilmesi gereken şey ise cümle başına getirilen sıfat cümlesi ile ana cümlenin öznelerinin aynı olduğudur. v The person who is in charge of the abuse of the company sources should be penalized.

The person in charge of the abuse of the company sources, should be penalized.

In charge of the abuse of the company sources, the person should be penalized.

(Şirket kaynaklarını kötüye kullanmakla sorumlu kişi cezalandırılmalıdır.)

v Turkish that is difficult to learn for second language learners has a lot of complex grammatical

rules.

Turkish, difficult to learn for second language learners, has a lot of complex grammatical rules.

Difficult to learn for second language learners, Turkish has a lot of complex grammatical rules.

(İkinci dil öğrenenler için öğrenmesi zor olan Türkçe’nin pek çok karmaşık dilbilgisi kuralı vardır.) v Mediterranean, which is home to so many fascinating life forms, has some of the most

beautiful beaches in the world.

Mediterranean, home to so many fascinating life forms, has some of the most beautiful beaches in the world.

Home to so many fascinating life forms, Mediterranean has some of the most beautiful beaches in the world. (Pek çok büyüleyici yaşam formlarına ev sahipliği yapan Akdeniz dünyanın en güzel plajlarından birkaçına ev sahipliği yapmaktadır.)


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§ Sıfat cümlesi içerisinde ‘who / which / that + yüklem’ yapısında sahip olmak anlamına gelen ‘have’ fiili varsa, ilgi zamiri ile birlikte ‘have’ fiili de atılabilir ve olumlu durumda ‘with’, olumsuz durumda ‘without’ getirilebilir.

v Students who have enough knowledge and skills will be admitted to the program.

Students with enough knowledge and skills will be admitted to the program.

(Yeterli bilgi ve beceriye sahip öğrenciler programa kabul edilecektir.) v People who don’t have their ID cards will not be allowed to get in.

People without their ID cards will not be allowed to get in.

(Kimlikleri olmayanlar içeriye alınmayacak.) v The cuisine of Gaziantep which has several distinct flavour was accepted by UNESCO in

‘Creative Cities Network’ in 2015.

The cuisine of Gaziantep with several distinct flavour was listed by UNESCO in ‘Creative Cities Network’ in 2015.

(Pek çok farklı lezzete sahip Gaziantep mutfağı UNESCO tarafından 2015 yılında ‘Yaratıcı Şehirler Ağına’ alındı.)

REDUCTION IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

(SIFAT CÜMLECİKLERİNDE İNDİRGEME) Sıfat cümlelerinde indirgeme ya da kısaltma işlemi sadece ‘Who / Which / That + yüklem’ yapılarında yapılır. Başka bir deyişle, nitelenen ismin sıfat cümlesinde özne konumunda olması gerekir. İndirgeme / kısaltma işleminin amacı kullanımda tasarrufa gitmenin yanı sıra akademik yazılarda dilin daha güzel kullanılması şeklinde tabir edilebilir. Bu işlemin kuralları daha önce ‘passive’ konusunda bahsedilen kurallarla hemen hemen aynıdır.

v There are several physical conditions of discomfort which accompany pregnancy.

There are several physical conditions of discomfort accompanying pregnancy.

(Gebelikle birlikte oluşan pek çok fiziksel rahatsızlık durumu vardır.)

v She is the president of a local group which is working to abolish all scientific testing on animals.

She is the president of a local group working to abolish all scientific testing on animals.

(O, hayvanlar üzerine tüm bilimsel testleri ortadan kaldırmak için çalışan yerel bir grubun başkanıdır.)

1. Sıfat cümlesinin zamanı ana cümlenin zamanından önce değilse ve sıfat cümlesinin yüklemi “ETKEN” ise, ilgi zamiri (Who / Which / That) atılır ve fiil “Ving” şeklinde yazılır.


148

v The new generations who ignore environmental problems will destroy their own future. The new generations ignoring environmental problems will destroy their own future. (Çevre sorunlarına aldırmayan yeni nesiller kendi geleceklerini yok edecekler.)

v Asthma, a condition that affects the lungs, is a disease that / which many people suffer from.

Asthma, a condition affecting the lungs, is a disease many people suffer from.

(Akciğerleri etkileyen bir durum olan astım, birçok insanın mustarip olduğu bir hastalıktır.)

v This causes a sudden drop in air pressure, which increases wind speeds and creates sudden and severe wind gusts. This causes a sudden drop in air pressure, increasing wind speeds and creating sudden and severe wind gusts. (Bu durum hava basıncında ani düşüşe sebep olur, ki bu da rüzgarın hızını arttırır ve ani ve şiddetli rüzgarlar meydana getirir.)

v The Pharaohs of ancient Egypt were absolute rulers who were considered gods on Earth.

The Pharaohs of ancient Egypt were absolute rulers considered gods on Earth.

(Antik Mısır Firavunları yeryüzünün tanrıları olarak görülen mutlak hakimlerdi.)

v The bridge which was built by a famous architect collapsed two years after it was built.

The bridge built by a famous architect collapsed two years after it was built.

(Ünlü bir mimar tarafından yapılan köprü inşa edildikten iki yıl sonra çöktü.)

v Acne is a common skin disease, and in some cases the chemicals which are used to treat it can further damage the skin.

Acne is a common skin disease, and in some cases the chemicals used to treat it can further damage the skin.

(Sivilce yaygın bir cilt hastalığıdır ve bazı durumlarda onu tedavi etmek için kullanılan kimyasallar deriye daha da zarar verebilir.)

v I have just read George Orwell’s book ‘1984’ which is regarded as one of the best books ever written.

I have just read George Orwell’s book ‘1984’ regarded as one of the best books ever written.

(Şimdiye kadar yazılan en iyi kitaplardan birisi olarak görülen George Orwell’ın ‘1984’ adlı kitabını okudum.)

2. Sıfat cümlesinin zamanı ana cümlenin zamanından önce değilse ve sıfat cümlesinin yüklemi “EDİLGEN” ise, ilgi zamiri (Who / Which / That) atılır ve fiil “V3” şeklinde yazılır. Eğer ‘continuous’ bir yapıdaysa ‘BEING V3’ şeklinde yazılır


149

v The patient who is being examined by the doctor at the moment looks as if she will pass away shortly. The patient being examined by the doctor at the moment looks as if she will pass away shortly. (Doktorun şu anda muayene ettiği hasta sanki yakında ölecek gibi görünüyor.)

v The police were trying to find the thieves who had stolen many cars. The police were trying to find the thieves having stolen many cars. (Polis birçok araba çalan hırsızları bulmaya çalışıyor.)

v We have to remember the people who sacrificed their lives for our sake. We have to remember the people having sacrificed their lives for our sake. (Bizim için hayatalarını feda etmiş olan insanları unutmamalıyız.)

v The girl who has asked a question is very clever student.

The girl having asked a question is very clever student.

(Soru soran kız çok zeki bir öğrencidir.)

v The global warming debate which started in the mid-20th century is still a controversial issue among scholars.

The global warming debate having started in the mid-20th century is still a controversial issue among scholars.

(20. yüzyılın ortalarında başlayan küresel ısınma tartışması bilim insanları arasında hala tartışmalı bir konudur.)

v People still feel the effects of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster that occurred in 1986 in the town of Pripyat, Ukraine.

v People still feel the effects of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster having occurred in 1986 in the town of Pripyat, Ukraine.

(İnsanlar 1986’da Ukrayna’nın Pripyat şehrinde meydana gelen Çernobil nükleer felaketinin etkilerini hala hissediyor.)

3. Sıfat cümlesinin zamanı ana cümlenin zamanından daha önceki bir olay veya durumu ifade ediyorsa veya ‘Perfect Tense’ yapılarından biriyse ve sıfat cümlesinin yüklemi “ETKEN” ise, ilgi zamiri (Who / Which / That) atılır ve fiil “HAVING + V3” şeklinde yazılır.


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v The technological devices which were paid too much money a few years ago are now seen as

obsolete technology.

The technological devices having been paid too much money a few years ago are now seen as obsolete technology.

(Birkaç yıl öncesinde çok paralar ödenen teknolojik cihazlar artık modası geçmiş teknoloji olarak görülmekte.)

v The teacher who had been asked a lot of questions did not leave any questions unanswered.

The teacher having been asked a lot of questions did not leave any questions unanswered.

(Çok fazla soru sorulan öğretmen hiçbir soruyu cevapsız bırakmadı.)

v Some scientists believe that some of the methods which were used in the past can also be useful in the present. Some scientists believe that some of the methods having been used in the past can also be useful in the present. (Bazı bilim insanları, geçmişte kullanılan bazı yöntemlerin günümüzde de faydalı olabileceğine inanıyorlar.)

v There are many differences between the vehicles which are used now and the vehicles that were used by our ancestors. There are many differences between the vehicles used now and the vehicles having been used by our ancestors.

(Günümüzde kullanılan araçlar ile atalarımızın kullandığı araçlar arasında pek çok farklılık vardır.)

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE İNDİRGEME ÖZET

Sıfat cümlenin zamanı ana cümleden önce değilse

Active Ving

Passive V3 Being + V3

Sıfat cümlenin zamanı ana cümleden önceyse

Active Having + V3

Passive Having been + V3

4. Sıfat cümlesinin zamanı ana cümlenin zamanından daha önceki bir olay veya durumu ifade ediyorsa veya ‘Perfect Tense’ yapılarından biriyse ve sıfat cümlesinin yüklemi “EDİLGEN” ise, ilgi zamiri (Who / Which / That) atılır ve fiil “HAVING BEEN + V3” şeklinde yazılır.


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a) Superlative yapısından sonra:

v She was the oldest person who underwent a heart transplant operation.

She was the oldest person to undergo a heart transplant operation. (O, kalp nakli yapılan en yaşlı kişiydi.)

v This car is the cheapest one that can be bought in this city.

This car is the cheapest one to be bought in this city. (Bu araba bu şehirde alınabilecek en ucuz araba.)

v He is the most skillful player who has come to this team.

He is the most skillful player to have come to this team. (O, bu takıma gelen en yetenekli futbolcudur.)

b) Sıra sayıları: the first, the second, the third, the next, the last…..

v I was the last person who left the office. I was the last person to leave the office. (Ofisten çıkan son kişi bendim.)

v Türkan Akyol was the first Turkish woman who became a cabinet minister.

Türkan Akyol was the first Turkish woman to become a cabinet minister. (Türkan Akyol kabine bakanı olan ilk Türk kadınıydı.)

v Selin is the first person who has passed this exam. Selin is the first person to have passed this exam. (Selin bu sınavı geçen ilk kişidir.)

c) The only yapısından sonra:

v Miray is the only person who understands me. Miray is the only person to understand me. (Miray beni anlayan tek kişidir.)

v The only one of the seven dwarfs who does not have a beard is Dopey.

The only one of the seven dwarfs not to have a beard is Dopey. (Yedi cücelerden sakalı olmayan tek kişi Dopey’dir.)

5. Sıfat cümlesinde indirgeme / kısaltma yapıldığında ‘to – infinitive’ yapısı da mümkündür. Yukarıdaki dört kuralın aynı kalması kaydıyla şu üç durumda ‘to – infinitive’ indirgemesi yapılabilir:


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Yukarıda sayılan ilk dört kural esas alındığında, ‘to infinitive’ yapısı şu şekillerde oluşur:

Adjective Clause Sorularını Çözerken Dikkat Edilmesi Gereken Özellikler

1. Boşluktan önceki ismin ne tür bir isim olduğunu, insan mı, insan dışı bir varlık mı, yoksa yer, zaman, ya da sebep bildiren bir isim olduğunu belirleyiniz.

2. Boşluktan sonra cümle mi yoksa fiil mi olduğunu belirleyiniz. Eğer fiil ise WHERE, WHEN, WHY, WHOM ilgi zamirlerinin mutlaka cümle alması gerektiğini unutmayın.

3. Boşluktan sonra fiil geliyorsa EDAT + WHOM, EDAT + WHICH, kısaca EDAT + İLGİ ZAMİRİ’nin mutlaka kendisinden sonra cümle alması gerektiğini, bunun tek istisnasının ONE OF WHOM, ONE OF WHICH gibi sayı ya da miktar bildiren bir ifade olduğunu unutmayalım.

4. Eğer boşluktan sonra cümle var ise THAT, WHO, WHOM ve WHICH ilgi zamirlerinden sonra cümle geldiğinde o cümlede bir nesne eksikliğinin mevcut olması gerektiğini unutmayalım.

5. Eğer boşluktan sonra cümle varsa ve şıklarda EDAT + İLGİ ZAMİRİ varsa bu edatın Sıfat Cümleciği içinde geçen fiilin aldığı edat olabileceği gibi boşluktan önce gelen ismin önüne gelen bir edat olabileceğini unutmayalım.

6. THAT ilgi zamirinin virgülden sonra kullanılmayacağını unutmayalım.

7. Şıklarda WHO ve WHOM aynı anda bulunduğunda WHO’dan sonra fiil WHOM’dan sonra cümle gelmesi gerektiğini ama WHOM’un olmadığı zamanda WHO ilgi zamirinin hem fiil hem de cümleden önce gelebileceğini unutmayalım.

8. WHOSE + İSİM yapısının Sıfat Cümleciği’nde hem özne hem de nesne olarak kullanılabileceğini, yani bu yapıdan sonra hem fiil hem de cümle gelebileceğini unutmayalım.

9. Eğer boşluktan sonra isim geliyorsa WHOSE kullanabilmemiz için bu ismin boşluktan önce gelen isme ait bir şeyi ifade etmesi gerektiğini ve WHOSE ilgi zamirinin her türlü isimden sonra kullanılabileceğini unutmayalım.

10. WHOSE ile kendisinden sonra gelen isim arasına bir iyelik sıfatı (my, her, their, vb.), bir zamir, bir article (a, an, the) ya da özel isim gelemeyeceğini unutmayalım.

Kaynak: Perfect Grammar, Sedat BAY

TO – INFINITIVE İNDİRGEME ÖZET

Yan cümlenin zamanı ana cümleden önce değilse

Active to + V1 to be + Ving

Passive to be + V3

Yan cümlenin zamanı ana cümleden önceyse

Active to have + V3 to have been + Ving

Passive to have been + V3

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BÖLÜM 9

CONJUNCTIONS & ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

(BAĞLAÇLAR & ZARF CÜMLECİKLERİ)

Bölüm 9 – Bağlaçlar & Zarf Cümlecikleri

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CONJUNCTIONS & ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (BAĞLAÇLAR & ZARF CÜMLECİKLERİ)

Paralellik belirten yapılarda birinci taraftan sonra nasıl bir yapı geliyorsa ikinci tarafta da aynı türden yapı gelmek zorundadır. 1. Not only … but also … (Sadece … değil, aynı zamanda …)

§ “Not only … but” ya da ‘not only … but … as well.” şeklinde de kullanılabilir.

§ “Not only” yerine ‘Not just / simply / merely / solely’ türleri de mevcuttur.

§ Cümle başında kullanıldığında “not only” yapısından sonraki cümle devrik yapılır.

Örnek Cümleler

v Palaces in Ottoman Empire was used not only for the home of the Sultans but also for the administrative work.

(Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda saraylar sadece Sultanların evi değil aynı zamanda devletin yönetim işleri için de kullanılırdı.)

v The car not only is economical but also feels good while driving.

(Bu araba sadece ekonomik değil aynı zamanda kullanırken iyi hissettiriyor.) (Bu araba ekonomik olmasının yanı sıra kullanırken de iyi hissettiriyor.)

v The war caused not only destruction and death but also generations of hatred between the two communities.

(Savaş sadece ölüm ve tahribata değil aynı zamanda iki toplum arasında nesiller süren düşmanlığa neden oldu.)

v Not only is it a comfortable and stylish hotel, but it’s also a popular meeting place.

(Bu konforlu ve şık bir otel olmasının yanı sıra popüler bir toplantı yeridir.) v Not only did she forget my birthday, but she also didn’t even apologise for forgetting it.

(Doğum günümü unutmakla kalmadı, aynı zamanda unuttuğu için bir özür bile dilemedi.)

PARALEL YAPILAR


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§ “Not only … but also ...” yapısı “not ... but ...” yapısı ile karıştırılmamalıdır. Bu yapı “... değil de şu ...” anlamındadır. Yani but yapısından öncekine değil sonraki yapıya vurgu yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca ‘not ... but instead’ kullanımı da mevcuttur.

v She went abroad not to have a vacation but to improveher English.

(O, yurtdışına tatil yapmak için değil de İngilizcesini geliştirmek için gitti.) v This story is not about the past, but about the future.

(Bu hikaye geçmiş hakkında değil gelecek hakkındadır.) v He was caught not by the police, but by a man who recognized him.

(O, polis tarafından değil de onu fark eden bir adam tarafından yakalandı.) v Some whales, including the blue whale, don’t have teeth but instead something called baleen.

(Mavi balina gibi bazı balinaların dişleri yoktur, bunun yerine balina kemiği denen birşeye sahiptirler.)

2. Both … and … (hem … hem …)

§ ‘Both’ yapısından sonra ne tür bir yapı geliyorsa ‘and’ yapısından sonra da aynı cins yapı gelir.

§ ‘Not only ... but also ...’ yapısının aksine iki cümleyi birbirine bağlamaz.

§ Olumsuz cümlelerde kullanılmaz.

§ Ayrıca devrik kullanıma sahip değildir.

Örnek Cümleler

v She played both basketball and volleyball when she was a student.

(Öğrenciyken hem basketbol hem de voleybol oynadı.)

v Both England and France agree on the treaty.

(Hem İngiltere hem de Fransa anlaşma üzerinde mutabık kaldı.) v The results of the research are both impressive and alarming.

(Araştırma sonuçları hem etkileyici hem de endişe verici.) v The murderer both killed and buried the poor man in the yard.

(Katil zavallı adamı hem öldürdü hem de bahçeye gömdü.) v The consultative process introduces a problem-solving mindset and presents an effective process

for consulting with both internal and external clients.

(İstişare süreci problem çözücü bir anlayış sunmakta ve hem yerli hem de yabancı müşterilerle istişare yapmak için etkili bir süreç ortaya koymaktadır.)


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3. Either … or … (ya … ya …)

§ ‘Either’ yapısından sonra ne tür bir yapı geliyorsa ‘or’ yapısından sonra da aynı cins yapı gelir.

§ İki seçenek belirtilir.

§ Olumsuz cümlelerde kullanılmaz.

§ Cümleleri birbirine bağlayabilir ancak devrik kullanıma sahip değildir.

Örnek Cümleler

v I’m going to buy either a camera or a DVD player with the money.

(Bu parayla ya kamera ya da DVD oynatıcı alacağım.) v She usually spends her morning commute either reading a book or napping on the bus.

(Sabahları otobüsle işe giderken genellikle ya kitap okuyor ya da şekerleme yapıyor.) v Either you come with us, or you stay at home with your mother.

(Ya bizimle gelirsin, ya da evde annenle kalırsın.) v Either I drive to the airport, or I get a taxi.

(Havaalanına ya arabayla giderim ya da taksi tutarım.)

v Because of the wide variety of ethnicity in the United States, people speak English as either their native or their adopted tongue. (KPDS 2007 Sonbahar)

(ABD’deki etnik çeşitlikten dolayı, insanlar İngilizce’yi ya ana dilleri olarak ya da benimsedikleri dil olarak kullanırlar.)

4. Neither … nor … (ne … ne …)

§ ‘Neither’ yapısından sonra ne tür bir yapı geliyorsa ‘nor’ yapısından sonra da aynı cins yapı gelir.

§ ‘Ne ..., ne ...’ anlamı kattığı için verilen iki seçeneğin de yapılmadığını ya da tercih edilmediğini gösterir.

§ Cümleye olumsuz anlam kattığı için cümlede olumsuz ifade kullanılmaz.

§ İki cümleyi bağladığında ‘nor’dan sonraki cümle devrik yapılır.

Örnek Cümleler

v I’m sorry but I can neither confirm nor deny the allegation.

(Üzgünüm ama bu iddiayı ne onaylayabilirim ne de inkar edebilirim.) v Their performance was neither entertaining nor educational.

(Onların gösterisi ne eğlendirici ne de eğiticiydi.)


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v Neither Brian nor his wife mentioned anything about their divorce.

(Ne Brian ne de karısı boşanmaları hakkında birşeyler söyledi.)

v Neither fish nor insects have eyelids; their eyes are protected by a hardened lens.

(Ne balıkların ne de böceklerin göz kapakları vardır; gözleri sert bir tabaka (lens) ile korunur.)

v They neither have an opportunity to get a rise in their current job, nor can they find a better job.

(Ne mevcut işlerinde zam alma şansları var, ne de daha iyi bir iş bulabilirler.)

§ Olumsuz bir cümle yapısından sonra ‘neither’ veya ‘nor’ yapıları da gelebilir. Yani ‘not ... nor ...’ veya ‘not ... neither’ kullanımı da mevcuttur. Anlamsal açıdan ‘neither ... nor ...’ yapısı ile aynıdır.

v He hadn’t done any homework, neither had he brought any of his books to class.

(Ne ödevini yaptı, ne de kitaplarını derse getirdi.)

v We didn’t get to see the castle, nor did we see the church.

(Ne kaleyi görebildik ne de kiliseyi.)

v Most developing countries do not have China’s bureaucratic depth and tradition, nor do they have the ability to control personnel in the way that China’s party structure allows. (KPSS 2011)

(Gelişmekte olan birçok ülke ne Çin’in bürokratik derinliğine ve geleneğine sahip, ne de Çin parti yapısının olanak sağladığı şekilde personelini kontrol etme yetisine sahiptir.)


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Although Even though Though Much as Despite the fact that In spite of the fact that

rağmen - e karşın - olsa da

Cümle

Örnek Cümleler v Although much of our rubbish contains valuable raw materials, most of it is simply buried or burned.

(Çöplerimizin çoğu değerli hammadde içermesine rağmen, bunların çoğu gömülüyor ya da yakılıyor.) v Unfortunately, even though current productivity growth looks impressive, the rise in profits over the

coming years is likely to prove disappointing. (KPDS 2002 Sonbahar)

(Ne yazık ki, şu anki verimlilik artışı etkileyici görünmesine rağmen, önümüzdeki yıllardaki kar oranlarındaki artışın hayal kırıklığı olması muhtemeldir.)

v When they arrived at Antalya it was hot, in spite of the fact that it was only the end of April.

(Antalya’ya vardıklarında daha Nisan’ın sonu olmasına rağmen hava sıcaktı.)

v Though artificial fertilizers ensure high crop-yields, their environmental consequences are very

disturbing.

(Suni gübreler bol ürün verseler de, bunların çevresel sonuçları oldukça rahatsız edicidir.) § ‘Though’ yukarıdaki kullanım ve anlamına ek olarak ‘however’ ve ‘but’ anlamında (fakat, buna

rağmen) kullanılabilir. Cümlede kullanım yerleri şu şekilde olabilir: v Though we are a small country, we have a long and glorious history.

(Küçük bir ülke olmamıza rağmen, uzun ve şanlı bir tarihimiz var.)

v They're coming next week, though I don't know which day.

(Önümüzdeki hafta geliyorlar, fakat hangi gün olduğunu bilmiyorum.)

v The rooms, though small, were pleasant and airy.

(Odalar, küçük olmasına rağmen, güzel ve ferahtı.)

v Strange though it may seem, I like housework.

(Tuhaf görünse de, ev işini seviyorum.)

v They spent too much money on the conversation of the natural habitats; the panda, though, is in danger of extinction.

(Doğal yaşam alanlarının korunması için çok para harcadılar; fakat (yine de) panda nesli tükenme tehlikesi altında.)

ZITLIK / KARŞILAŞTIRMA BAĞLAÇLARI


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While Whereas

rağmen -iken oysa ki halbuki buna karşın

Cümle

Örnek Cümleler

v While most children learn to read easily, some need extra help. (Birçok çocuk kolayca öğrenmesine karşın, bazıları fazladan yardıma ihtiyaç duyarlar.)

v The south of the country grows richer, while the north grows poorer. (Ülkenin güneyi zenginleşirken, kuzeyi fakirleşiyor.)

v Whereas knowledge can be acquired from books, skills must be learned through practice. (Bilgi kitaplardan edinilmesine karşın, becerilerin uygulama yoluyla öğrenilmesi gerekir.)

v Research evidence suggests that, in their games, girls show preference for home-centered interests whereas boys are drawn to more naughty and dangerous themes and plots. (ÜDS 2007 İlkbahar)

(Araştırma sonuçlarının gösterdiğine göre, oyunlarda, kız çocukları ev merkezli oyunları tercih eder, buna karşın erkek çocukları daha yaramazca ve tehlikeli tema ve içerikli oyun tercih ederler.)

Örnek Cümleler

v Even if you take a taxi, you'll still miss your train.

(Taksiye binsen de trene yetişemeyeceksin.)

v He’s determined to prove his innocence, even if he has to go to the highest court in the country.

(Ülkedeki en yüksek mahkemeye gitmek zorunda kalsa da, masumiyetini kanıtlamaya kararlı.)

v Research shows that cigarette smokers affect the health of those around them even if those people are not smokers themselves.

(Araştırmalar gösteriyor ki, sigara içenler etrafındakiler sigara içen insanlar olmasa bile onların sağlığını etkiliyor.)

Even if - sa bile Cümle


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* Bu bağlaçlar bu anlamda bağımsız bir cümle başında kullanılamazlar.

Örnek Cümleler v We’re making good progress, but we’ve still got a long way to go.

(İyi ilerleme kaydediyoruz, fakat yine de çok uzun yolumuz var.)

v Diamond mining is a highly profitable industry. There are, however, certain risks involved.

(Elmas madenciliği oldukça karlı bir endüstridir. Ancak bazı riskleri de vardır.) v They had plenty of time, yet she felt there was almost none.

(Çok zamanları vardı, fakat (yine de) hiç yokmuş gibi hissediyordu.)

v Several species of birds in Vietnam vanished during the war, but they began to reappear in the 1980s

and their gradual return has been encouraged by Vietnamese villagers. (2007 KPDS Sonbahar)

(Vietnam’daki birkaç kuş türü savaş esnasında yok oldu, fakat 1980’li yıllarda yeniden ortaya çıkmaya başladılar ve onların aşamalı geri dönüşleri Vietnam köylülerince desteklendi.)

§ “But” bağlacının özellikle ‘nothing’, ‘everyone’, ya da ‘anything’ gibi kelimelerden sonra “-den başka,

hariç” anlamı kattığı durumlar da vardır:

v She does nothing but grumble all day long.

(Tüm gün söylenmekten başka birşey yapmıyor.)

v There’s no alternative but to scrap the whole plan and start again.

(Bütün planı bir kenara atıp yeniden başlamaktan başka seçeneğimiz yok.)

v In Danny Boyle’s film, 127 hours, when the leading actor Aron Ralston finds himself trapped alone in a canyon, he has no option but to broke his arm and to perform a surgery to save his life.

(Danny Boyle’ın filmi 127 saat’de, başrol oyuncusu Aron Ralston bir kanyonda yalnız başına sıkışıp kaldığında, kolunu kırıp bir cerrahi operasyon yapmasından başka seçeneği kalmamıştı.)

But However Yet

fakat ancak Cümle


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* Bu bağlaçlar bu anlamda bağımsız bir cümle başında kullanılamazlar.

Örnek Cümleler v Most marriages fail after between five and nine years. Nevertheless, people continue to get married.

(Birçok evlilik 5 ila 9 yıl arasında biter. Yine de, insanlar evlenmeye devam ediyor.) v Today, the paying of a dowry is illegal, but the practice continues nonetheless in some areas.

(Günümüzde başlık parası yasadışıdır, fakat yine de bu uygulama bazı bölgelerde devam ediyor.) v I know you don't like her, but you still don't have to be so rude to her.

(Onu sevmediğini biliyorum, fakat yine de ona karşı bu kadar kaba olmak zorunda değilsin.)

v I didn’t expect to find anything, but I decided to look around all the same.

(Birşeyler bulacağımı ummuyordum, fakat yine de etrafa bakmaya karar verdim.)

Örnek Cümleler v Despite the Civil War, those years turned out to be a golden era for the magazine industry. (KPDS

2002 İlkbahar)

(İç Savaş’a rağmen, o yıllar magazin endüstrisi için altın bir çağ haline geldi.) v Recycling is one of the best ways to manage waste in spite of its cost.

(Geri dönüşüm, maliyetine rağmen, atıkları işlemenin en iyi yöntemlerinden birisidir.) v Three more nuclear power stations were built despite widespread opposition.

(Geniş çaplı muhalefete rağmen, üç adet daha nükleer santral yapıldı.) v The United States finally agreed, albeit unwillingly, to support the UN action plan.

(ABD Birleşmiş Milletler eylem planını gönülsüz olmasına rağmen sonunda kabul etti.) v She left home in the face of strong opposition from her parents.

(Ebeveynlerinin sert bir şekilde karşı çıkmasına rağmen evden ayrıldı.)

Nevertheless Nonetheless Still All the same

yine de buna rağmen Cümle

Despite In spite of Albeit In the face of

- e rağmen - e karşın isim / Ving / tamlama


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Örnek Cümleler

v Unlike most African nations, Ethiopia was never a European colony.

(Pek çok Afirka ulusunun aksine, Etiyopya hiç bir zaman bir Avrupa sömürgesi olmamıştır.) v Contrary to popular belief, women cause fewer road accidents than men.

(Popüler inanışın aksine, kadınlar erkeklerden daha az yol kazalarına sebep olur.) v In contrast to his predecessors, Bush has little appetite for foreign travel.

(Kendisinden önceki başkanların aksine, Bush yurt dışı seyahat konusunda daha az istekliydi.)

* Bu bağlaçlar bağımsız bir cümle başında kullanılamaz. Örnek Cümleler

v The risk of infection hasn’t diminished – on the contrary, it has increased.

(Enfeksiyon riski azalmadı – aksine arttı.) v Some wrong answers were marked right and, conversely, some right answers had been rejected.

(Bazı yanlış cevaplara doğru diye not verilmişti, ve aksine, bazı doğru cevaplar yanlış sayılmıştı.)

v The birth rate in the west has declined, but, in contrast, it has increased in the east.

(Doğum oranları batıda azaldı, fakat aksine, doğuda arttı.)

Örnek Cümleler v I hope the weather improves. Otherwise, we’ll have to cancel the picnic.

(Umarım hava düzelir. Aksi takdirde, pikniği iptal etmek zorunda kalacağız.)

v The programme has saved thousands of children who would otherwise have died.

(Bu program binlerce çocuğun hayatını kurtardı, aksi takdirde bunların hepsi ölürdü.)

Unlike Contrary to In contrast to / with In opposition to

- in aksine isim / Ving / tamlama

On the contrary In contrast By contrast Conversely

aksine Cümle

Otherwise Or (else) aksi takdirde Cümle


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Örnek Cümleler v There must be equality of rights for all citizens, regardless of the social class.

(Sosyal sınıfına bakılmadan tüm vatandaşlar için hak eşitliği olmalı.)

v The legislation must be applied irrespective of someone’s ethnic origins.

(Kişinin etnik kökenine bakılmadan yasalar uygulanmalı.)

* Bu bağlaç bağımsız bir cümle başında kullanılamaz. Örnek Cümleler v I know he's only a child, but, even so, he should have known that what he was doing was wrong.

(Onun daha bir çocuk olduğunu biliyorum, fakat yine de yaptığı şeyin yanlış olduğunu bilmeliydi.)

v An immediate interest cut might give a small boost to the economy. Even so, any recovery is likely to be very slow.

(Acil faiz indirimi eknomiyi az da olsa canlandırabilir. Böyle olsa bile, düzelme çok yavaş olabilir.)

* ‘Instead’ bağlacı bağımsız bir cümle başında kullanılamaz. Örnek Cümleler v The committee has rejected our proposal. Instead, they have brought forward an alternative plan.

(Komite teklifimizi reddetti. Bunun yerine, alternatif bir plan ortaya attı.)

v By the time the first bombs were ready for use, the war with Germany had ended, and the decision

was made to use the weapons against Japan instead.

(İlk bombalar kullanmaya hazır hale geldiğinde, Almanya ile savaş bitmişti ve onun yerine Japonya’ya karşı silahları kullanmaya karar verildi.)

v We can deal with this now instead of waiting until tomorrow.

(Yarına kadar beklemek yerine şimdi anlaşabiliriz.)

Regardless of Irrespective of

- e bakılmaksızın - e aldırmadan isim / Ving / tamlama

Even so böyle olsa bile yine de Cümle

Instead bunun yerine Cümle

Instead of In place of - in yerine isim / Ving / tamlama


164

Örnek Cümleler

v We are determined to solve this problem, however long it takes. (Ne kadar zaman alırsa alsın, bu sorunu çözmeye kararlıyız.)

v If you take money from the fund, however small the amount, you must record it in this book.

(Eğer fondan para alırsa, miktarı ne kadar küçük olursa olsun, bu deftere kaydetmelisin.)

v However willingly he seems to have accepted the new job, I don’t really think he likes the working

conditions.

(O işi kabul etmede ne kadar istekli görünse de, onun iş koşullarından memnun olduğunu düşünmüyorum.)

Örnek Cümleler

v I never seem to lose any weight, no matter how hard I try.

(Ne kadar çok uğraşsam da asla kilo veremiyorum.) v No matter how much you protect your children, they will still make mistakes.

(Çocuklarını ne kadar çok korusan da, yine de hata yapacaklardır.)

v I'm determined to visit Japan no matter what it costs.

(Neye mal olursa olsun, Japonya’ya gitmeye kararlıyım.)

* Bu bağlaç bağımsız bir cümle başında kullanılamaz.

Örnek Cümleler

v My husband likes classical music – I, on the other hand, like rock music.

(Eşim klasik müzik sever – öte yandan ben rock müziği severim.)

v On the one hand I'd like a job which pays more, but on the other hand I enjoy the work I'm doing at the moment.

(Bir yandan daha fazla parası olan bir iş istiyorum, fakat öte yandan şu anda yaptığım işi seviyorum.)

However + sıfat / zarf - e rağmen - dığı halde - sa da

Cümle

No matter + soru kelimesi - e rağmen - dığı halde - sa da

Cümle

On the other hand öte yandan Cümle


165

Örnek Cümleler

v Compared to some of the things she’s said about him, he was very polite.

(Onun hakkında söylediği bazı şeylerin aksine, o oldukça kibardı.) v In comparison with the male, the female is stronger and more energetic.

(Erkeklerle karşılaştırıldığında, kadınlar daha güçlü ve daha enerjiktir.) v By comparison with other European countries, car prices in the UK are too high.

(Diğer Avrupa ülkelerine kıyasla, Türkiye’dek araba fiyatları oldukça yüksek.)

Örnek Cümleler v Notwithstanding differences, there are clear similarities in all of the world's religions.

(Farklılıklara rağmen, dünyadaki bütün dinlerde bariz benzerlikler vardır.) v Fame and fortune notwithstanding, Donna never forgot her hometown.

(Şöhrete ve servete rağmen, Donna asla memleketini unutmadı.)

Örnek Cümleler

v For all its small dimension, it is one of the most outstanding devices in the fair.

(Küçük boyutuna rağmen, bu fuarın en göze çarpan cihazlarından birisidir.)

v For all her good qualifications, she still could not find a well-paid job.

(İyi niteliklerine rağmen, yine de maaşı iyi olan bir iş bulamıyor.)

In / By comparison to / with Compared to / with

- e kıyasla - ile karşılaştırıldığında - e nazaran - in aksine

isim / Ving / tamlama

Notwithstanding rağmen fakat yine de

isim / Ving / tamlama cümle

For all - e rağmen isim / Ving / tamlama


166

Because Since As For Becuase of the fact that Due to the fact that Owing to the fact that

çünkü - den dolayı - dığı için

Cümle

* “For” bağlacı kendisinden sonra cümle aldığında bağımsız bir cümle başında kullanılamaz.

Örnek Cümleler v This is a really useful book because it explains everything very clearly.

(Bu gerçekten faydalı bir kitap çünkü herşeyi çok net bir şekilde açıklıyor.) v As it was getting late, we decided to go home.

(Vakit geç olduğu için eve gitmeye karar verdik.) v Some traditional childhood games are disappearing from school playgrounds because educators say

they're dangerous.

(Bazı geleneksel çocuk oyunları artık okul bahçelerinde oynanmıyor çünkü eğitimciler bunların tehlikeli olduğunu söylüyor.)

v Since nearly all drugs and medications can cause fatal damage, it is necessary for the pregnant to avoid them as much as possible.

(Hemen hemen bütün ilaçlar ve ilaç tedavileri ölümcül hasara sebep olabileceği için, hamilelerin bu ilaçlardan mümkün olduğunca kaçınmaları gerekir.)

v AIDS may cause depression indirectly for it can have an overall negative impact on a person’s life.

(AIDS dolaylı olarak depresyona sebep olabilir çünkü kişinin hayatında tamamen olumsuz etkisi vardır.) v Due to the fact that Asian countries experienced crisis, the company’s profits fell by 15% during

1997.

(Asya ülkeleri kriz yaşadığı için, şirketin karı 1997’de %15 oranında düştü.)

v She stands a good chance, since only two people are contesting the seat and the other candidate is

less qualified.

(Onun şansı iyi çünkü mevki için sadece iki kişi yarışıyor ve diğer aday daha az nitelikli.)

SEBEP BAĞLAÇLARI


167

Because of Due to Owing to Thanks to In view of On account of On the grounds of As a result of As a consequence of

- den dolayı - dığı için - in yüzünden - in sayesinde - in sonucu olarak


Örnek Cümleler v The flight was delayed because of bad weather conditions.

(Kötü hava şartlarından dolayı uçuş ertelendi.)

v The environment in which we live changes continuously due to ‘natural causes’ over which we have

little control. (ÜDS 2002 İlkbahar)

(Yaşadığımız çevre, üzerinde çok az kontrolümüzün olduğu doğal sebeplerden dolayı sürekli değişmektedir.) v The workforce was reduced, partly due to budget pressures.

(Kısmen bütçe baskılarından dolayı işgücü azaldı.) v Ancient Peruvian textiles have survived in an excellent state of preservation owing to the dry

conditions of much of the country. (KPDS 2004 İlkbahar)

(Eski Peru dokumaları, ülkenin kuru hava koşullarından dolayı hala mükemmel bir durumdadır.) v His criticism of the ancient Greeks is largely on account of their reluctance to back up theories with

experiments. (ÜDS 2004 İlkbahar)

(Onun eski Yunanlılarla ilgili eleştirisi, çoğunlukla onların teorileri deneylerle destekleme konusundaki isteksizliğinden dolayıdır.)

v In view of the shortage of time, each person may only speak for five minutes.

(Zaman kısıtlı olduğu için, her konuşmacı sadece beş dakika konuşabilir.) v Thanks to the advances in farming technology, the farmers use effective modern technologies in

farming rather than conventional ones.

(Tarım teknolojisindeki teknolojik gelişmeler sayesinde, çiftçiler tarım uygulamalarında geleneksel teknolojilerden ziyade etkili modern teknolojileri kullanıyorlar.)

v Thanks to the government's incompetence, the railway system is in chaos.

(Hükümetin beceriksizliği yüzünden demiryolu sistemi kaos içerisinde.) v He died as a result of a heart attack.

(O, kalp krizinden dolayı (sonucunda) öldü.)


168

* Bu bağlaç ‘that’ olmadan da kullanılabilir. Örnek Cümleler v The conventional photography industry is facing difficult times now that digital cameras have come to

the fore in all parts of the world.

(Dijital kameralar dünyanın her yerinde önemli hale geldiği için geleneksel fotoğraf endüstrisi zor zamanlar geçiriyor.)

v According to some scientists, now that humans are capable of cloning many species of animals, one

day human cloning will be inevitable.

(Bazı biliminsanlarına göre, insanlar pek çok hayvan türünü kopyalayabildiğine göre, günün birinde insan klonlama da kaçınılmaz olacaktır.)

In that Given (that) Seeing that Seeing as Inasmuch as For the reason that

- den dolayı - dığına göre - in yüzünden - dığı için çünkü

Cümle

* ‘In that’ bağlacı cümle başında kullanılamaz.

Örnek Cümleler v The new system is better in that it provides faster access to the Internet.

(Bu yeni sistem daha iyi çünkü internete daha hızlı erişim sağlıyor.) v Given that drought is inevitable, we need to learn how to manage it.

(Kuraklık kaçınılmaz olduğu için, bunun nasıl üstesinden geleceğimizi öğrenmemiz gerek.) v Seeing as it’s your money, I suppose you can buy whatever you want.

(Bu senin paran olduğuna göre, sanırım istediğini alabilirsin.)

v Inasmuch as you are their commanding officer, you are responsible for the behaviour of these men.

(Sen bu adamların komutanı olduğuna göre, bunların davranışından da sen sorumlusun.) v We can’t take you all, for the reason that there isn’t enough room in the car.

(Arabada yeterince yer olmadığı için hepinizi alamayız, .)

Now that madem ki - dığına göre - dığı için

Cümle


169

Örnek Cümleler

v They oppose the bill on the grounds that it is too restrictive.

(Çok kısıtlı olduğu gerekçesiyle kanun tasarısına karşı çıkıyorlar.) v We didn’t accept the offer on the grounds that it discriminates against women.

(Kadınlara ayrımcılık yaptığı gerekçesiyle teklifi kabul etmedik.)

* Bu bağlaçlar bağımsız bir cümlenin başında kullanılamaz. * “So” bağlacı bu anlamda “so that” şeklinde de kullanılabilir. * “Thereby” bağlacı kendisinden sonra ‘fiil / Ving’ de alabilir. * “And so, and thus, and therefore, vb.” şeklinde de kullanılabilirler.

Örnek Cümleler v A tree had fallen across the road, so they had to turn round and go back.

(Yola bir ağaç düşmüştü, bu nedenle dönüp geri gittiler.)

v Eating habits formed in childhood tend to continue into adult life. So, the best way to prevent heart disease among adults is to encourage healthy eating from an early age.

(Çocuklukta oluşan yeme alışkanlıkları yetişkinlikte de devam etme eğilimindedir. Bu nedenle, yetişkinler arasında kalp hastalığını önlemenin en iyi yolu erken yaştan itibaren sağlıklı beslenmeye teşvik etmektir.)

v Most of the evidence was destroyed in the fire. Therefore, it would be almost impossible to prove him guilty.

(Kanıtların çoğu yangında yok oldu. Bu nedenle onun suçlu olduğunu kanıtlamak neredeyse imkansızlaştı.)

On the grounds that - gerekçesiyle - mesi sebebiyle - e dayanarak

Cümle

So Therefore Thus Hence Consequently As a consequence As a result Accordingly For this reason That is why Thereby

böylece bu nedenle bu yüzden sonuç olarak

Cümle

SONUÇ BAĞLAÇLARI


170

v Since your body has been overoxidizing, antioxidants may help speed recovery, and hence indirectly lower cholesterol.

(Vücudun aşırı oksitlendiği için, antioksidanlar iyileşmeyi hızlandırabilir ve bu nedenle dolaylı olarak kolesterolü düşürür.)

v The British government has released details of the next stage of its genetically modified cropfield trials, thus setting off a now familiar cycle of debate and demonstration. (KPDS 2007 İlkbahar)

(İngiliz hükümeti GDO’lu ekin alanı deneylerinin bir sonraki aşamasının detaylarını açıkladı, bu nedenle de tanıdık bir tartışmayı ve gösteriyi ateşlemiş oldu.)

v With the help of a fifth of the white voters, Mr. Jackson was elected mayor of Atlanta in 1973, and

thus became the first black mayor of a major southern city. (KPDS 2003 Sonbahar)

(Oy veren beyazların beşte birinin yardımıyla Mr. Jackson 1973 yılında Atlanta belediye başkanı seçildi ve büyük bir güney şehrinin ilk siyah belediye başkanı oldu.)

v They have increased the number of staff, and consequently the service has become better.

(Personel sayısını arttırdılar ve sonuç olarak hizmet daha iyi oldu.) v No formal complaint was made; accordingly, the police took no action.

(Hiçbir resmi şikayet yapılmadı, bu nedenle polis harekete geçmedi.) v Everyone in Dublin is so friendly, and that is why I love the city.

(Dublin’deki herkes oldukça canayakın, bu nedenle bu şehri seviyorum.) v The diet makes the blood less sticky, thereby helping to prevent heart disease.

(Diyet, kanı daha az yapışkan yapar, bu nedenle de kalp hastalığını önlemeye yardımcı olur.)

* “That” yapısından önceki cümle sebep, sonraki ise sonuç cümlesidir.

Örnek Cümleler v She drives so carefully that she hasn’t had any accident so far.

(O kadar dikkatli araba kullanıyor ki şimdiye kadar hiç kaza yapmadı.) v The weather became so hot that road surface melted.

(Hava o kadar sıcaktı ki yolun yüzeyi eridi.) v This situation is so interesting that only a very few people have probably ever been confronted.

(Bu durum öylesine ilginç ki, muhtemelen yalnızca çok az insan karşılaşmıştır.)

So + sıfat / zarf + that o kadar ... ki Cümle


171

v Everything’s changed so much that I can scarcely recognize the city.

(Herşey o kadar değişmiş ki şehri neredeyse tanıyamadım.)

v There are many devices, appliances, and simple machines so common in our everyday life that we rarely think of them as having been invented.

(Cihazlar, araç gereçler ve basit makinalar günlük yaşamımızda o kadar yaygın ki onlar icat edilmiş olduğunu neredeyse hiç düşünmeyiz.)

§ Bu yapı ayrıca “so + (zarf +) sıfat + a/an + isim + that” ve “so + many / much / few / little + isim

+ that” kullanımlarına da sahiptir ve aynı anlamı içerir.

v It is so beautiful a day that I think everyone will go on a picnic.

(O kadar güzel bir gün ki sanırım herkes pikniğe gidecek.)

v The movie caused so much controversy that it banned in some countries.

(Film o kadar çok tartışmaya neden oldu ki bazı ülkelerde yasaklandı.)

v He has so few friends that he always feels isolated.

(O kadar az arkadaşı var ki her zaman kendisini dışlanmış hissediyor.)

* “That” yapısından önceki cümle sebep, sonraki ise sonuç cümlesidir. Örnek Cümleler v She is such a careful driver that she hasn’t had any accident so far.

(O kadar dikkatli bir şoför ki şimdiye kadar hiç kaza yapmadı.) v It is such an interesting situation that only a very few people have probably ever been confronted.

(Bu öylesine ilginç bir durum ki, muhtemelen yalnızca çok az insan karşılaşmıştır.) v It was such lovely weather that we decided to spend the day on the beach.

(O kadar güzel bir hava ki günümüzü sahilde geçirmeye karar verdik.) v It was such an extraordinary story that no one believed a word of it.

(Öylesine sıra dışı bir hikayeydi ki kimse tek kelimesine bile inanmadı.) v It was such a small room that the bed only just fit.

(O kadar küçük bir odaydı ki yatak ancak sığdı.)

Such + (a / an) (+ sıfat) + isim + that o kadar ... ki Cümle


172

* Bu bağlaçlar yaygın olarak kendisinden sonra bir modal yapısı alır.

Örnek Cümleler

v I’ll get a map so that we can understand where we’re going.

(Nereye gittiğimizi anlayabilelim diye bir harita alacağım.)

v In order that you can sign the form, please print it out and mail it to this address.

(Formu imzalayabilmeniz için, lütfen çıktısını alın ve bu adrese gönderin.)

v I’ve made some sandwiches so that we have a snack on the way.

(Yolda aperatif bir şeyler yiyelim diye birkaç tane sandviç yaptım.)

v Regular checks are required in order that safety standards can be maintained.

(Güvenlik standartlarının korunabilmesi için düzenli kontroller gereklidir.) v The most rewarding aspect of taking photographs is to be able to immortalize on your film people’s

hearts, smiles and soul so that you can always feel like you are a part of their world. (ÜDS 2009 Sonbahar)

(Fotoğraf çekmenin en güzel yanı, her zaman onların dünyasının bir parçası olduğunu hissedebilmek için insanların kalplerini, gülümsemelerini ve ruhlarını fotoğrafta ölümsüzleştirebilmektir.)

Örnek Cümleler

v All animals have special needs that need to be met so as to live with us.

(Bütün hayvanların, bizimle birlikte yaşayabilmeleri için karşılanması gereken özel ihtiyaçları vardır.)

v The Athletics Federation has introduced stricter regulations in order to prevent doping.

(Atletizm Federasyonu dopingi önlemek için daha sıkı düzenlemeler başlattı.)

So that In order that

amacıyla - mek için - sın diye

Cümle

So as to In order to In an effort to In an attempt to


V1

AMAÇ BİLDİREN BAĞLAÇLAR


173

v In Tehran, the wives of foreign diplomats wore headscarves so as not to offend the Iranians.

(Tahran’da yabancı diplomatların eşleri İranlılara rahatsızlık vermemek için başörtüsü taktı.)

v Industrialized countries have worked to reduce levels of sulfur dioxide, smog, and smoke in order to improve people's health.

(Sanayileşmiş ülkeler insan sağlığını iyileştirmek için sülfür dioksit, kirli hava ve duman seviyelerini azaltmak için çalışmaktadırlar.)

v In an attempt to prevent certain species from becoming extinct, humans have increased wildlife management and habitat protection.

(Bazı türlerin yok olmasını önlemek için, insanlar yaban hayatı yöntemini ve doğal yaşam ortamı korumasını arttırdı.)

v Leaders are prepared to meet the terrorists in an effort to find peace.

(Liderler barış sağlamak için teröristlerle görüşmeye hazırlar.)

Örnek Cümleler

v The leaflet has been produced with the aim of increasing public awareness of the disease.

(Bu broşür halk arasında hastalığın farkındalığını arttırmak amacıyla basıldı.) v He drew his sword with the intention of killing his enemy.

(Düşmanını öldürmek için kılıcını çekti.) v They bought the building with a view to converting it into holiday homes.

(Bu binayı tatil evine dönüştürmek için satın aldılar.)

v I came to Sivas with the purpose of getting master’s degree.

(Sivas’a yüksek lisans eğitimi almak için geldim.)

With the intention of With the aim of With the purpose of With a view to


Ving


174

* Bu bağlaçlar bağımsız bir cümlenin başında kullanılamaz.

Örnek Cümleler

v The company provides cheap Internet access. In addition, it makes shareware freely available.

(Şirket ucuz internet erişimi sağlıyor. Bunun yanı sıra, ücretli yazılımı da ücretsiz sunuyor.) v Mr. Brown has earned the respect of farmers everywhere. Furthermore, they know they can trust

him.

(Mr. Brown her yerde çiftçilerin saygısını kazandı. Üstelik, ona güvenebileceklerini de biliyorlar.)

v More and more people are opposed to the idea of increasing university fees. Moreover, there is now evidence that it discourages many students from coming to the UK.

(Gittikçe daha fazla insan artan üniversite ücretleri fikrine karşı çıkıyor. Ayrıca, bu durumun pek çok öğrencinin İngiltere’ye gelmesini engellediğine dair kanıtlar mevcuttur.)

v Using language is a very complex enterprise. Moreover, there is more to communication than merely

putting sentences together.

(Dili kullanmak oldukça karmaşık bir iştir. Ayrıca, iletişim kurmak için sadece cümleleri bir araya getirmekten fazlası da vardır.)

v Chrysanthemums are such beautiful flowers, and what’s more they are very easy to grow.

(Krizantemler (kasımpatı) çok güzel çiçeklerdir, ve üstelik yetiştirmesi de çok kolaydır.)

In addition Furhermore Moreover Besides Additionally What’s more

bunun yanı sıra ayrıca üstelik ek olarak

Cümle

EKLEME (AYNI FİKRİ DEVAM ETTİRME) BAĞLAÇLARI


175

* Bu bağlaç bağımsız bir cümlenin başında kullanılamaz.

Örnek Cümleler v The electric drill can also be used as a screwdriver.

(Elektrikli matkap aynı zamanda tornavida olarak da kullanılabilir.)

v She works very hard but she also goes to the gym every week.

(Çok çalışıyor fakat her hafta spor salonunda da gidiyor.)

v It’s very humid. Also, you can easily get sunburnt.

(Hava çok nemli. Üstelik, güneşten dolayı kolayca yanabilirsin.) § “Also” bağlacı ile aynı anlama gelen “too” ve “as well” zarfları arasındaki en bariz fark cümledeki

kullanım yeridir. “Too” ve “as well” yapıları bu anlamda cümle sonunda ya da cümle ortasında iki virgülle ayrılarak kullanılırlar. They are having döner, and I will probably eat döner too / as well.

(Onlar döner yiyor, ve muhtemelen ben de döner yiyeceğim.) We, too, have been very happy to receive the prize on her behalf.

(Biz de ödülü aldığı için onun adına çok mutlu olduk.)

§ Ayrıca iki olumsuz cümle bağlanırken bu üç yapı yerine cümle sonunda “either” gelmesi gerekir ve

aynı anlama sahiptir. You didn’t come home yesterday. You didn’t inform us about where you went, either.

(Dün eve gelmedin. Nereye gittiğine dair kimseye haber de vermedin.) We certainly don't lead a life of luxury but we're not poor either.

(Kesinlikle lüks bir yaşam sürmüyoruz fakat fakir de değiliz.)

Also de , da ayrıca üstelik

Cümle Özne ya da to be sonrası


176

* Bu bağlaç bağımsız bir cümlenin başında kullanılamaz. Örnek Cümleler v Snakes and lizards are cold-blooded animals.

(Yılanlar ve kertenkeleler soğuk kanlı hayvanlardır.)

v The government lied to us in the past and now no one will believe them.

(Hükümet geçmişte bize yalan söyledi ve kimse artık onlara inanmayacak.)

v I'm afraid teenage years are gone and they'll never come again.

(Korkarım ki gençlik yılları gitti ve asla geri gelmeyecek.) § Art arda gerçekleşen cümlelerde “yapıp, edip” anlamı veren yapı da İngilizcede “and” bağlacı ile

kullanılmaktadır. v He switched off the television and went to bed.

(Televizyonu kapatıp yattı.)

v I’ll look for and find out where we can buy tickets.

(Biletleri nereden alabileceğimizi arayıp bulacağım.)

v Everyone was singing and dancing.

(Herkes şarkı söyleyip dans ediyordu.)


Örnek Cümleler v Public transportation is virtually inaccessible in some cities. Similarly, their hospitals are also not very

available for every citizen.

(Bazı şehirlerde toplu taşımaya adeta ulaşılamıyor. Aynı şekilde, hastanelerine de her vatandaşın ulaşılabilme imkanı yok.)

v The prices of food and clothing have increased in recent years. Likewise, fuel prices have increased

quite considerably.

(Son yıllarda yiyecek ve giyim fiyatları arttı. Benzer biçimde, yakıt fiyatları da önemli ölçüde arttı.)

And ve ayrıca üstelik

Her türlü kelime ve cümle yapısını birbirine bağlayabilir

Similarly Likewise In the same way

Aynı şekilde Benzer biçimde Cümle


177

Örnek Cümleler v Besides eating an energy-rich diet, birds possess digestive equipment that processes their food

rapidly, efficiently, and in large amounts.

(Kuşlar enerji bakımından zengin yiyecekleri yemelerinin yanı sıra yiyecekleri hızlı, etkin ve büyük miktarlarda işleyen sindirim donanımına sahiptirler.)

v Cultural perspective refers to the way that individuals are shaped by their environments as well as

social and cultural factors.

(Kültürel perspektif sosyal ve kültürel faktörlerinin yanı sıra çevrelerinin de bireyleri şekillendirdiğini göstermektedir.)

v In addition to the theory of relativity, Einstein is also known for his contributions to the development of the quantum theory.

(İzafiyet teorisinin yanı sıra Einstein kuantum teorisine katkılarıyla da ünlüdür.) v Besides making money, the company aims to set high standards of quality and design.

(Para kazanmanın yanı sıra, şirket kalite ve tasarım standartlarında çıtayı yükseltmeyi amaçlamaktadır.) v Apart from providing humanitarian aid, the UN is also supposed to enforce agreements.

(İnsani yardım sağlamasının yanı sıra Birleşmiş Milletlerden anlaşmaları uygulatması da beklenir.) v Many psychologists claim there is not one kind of intelligence, but at least eight different types,

including verbal, spatial and emotional intelligence.

(Pek çok psikolog tek çeşit zeka değil, sözel, uzamsal ve duygusal zeka da dahil en az sekiz farklı zeka türü olduğunu iddia ediyor.)

Besides In addition to As well as Apart from Including Along with

- in yanı sıra - e ek olarak dahil

İsim / Ving / tamlama


178

* “Other than” bağlacı kendisinden sonra “to” yapısı da alabilir.

Örnek Cümleler v Bees, classified into over 10,000 species, are insects found in almost every part of the world except

the northernmost and southernmost regions.

(10.000’den fazla türe sahip olan arılar en kuzey ve en güney bölgeler haricinde dünyanın hemen hemen her yerinde bulanabilen böceklerdir.)

v Contrary to what many students think, staying up all night to study for an exam leads to failure rather

than success.

(Çoğu bilim insanının düşündüğünün aksine, bir sınava çalışmak için tüm gece uyanık kalmak başarıdan ziyade başarısızlığa neden olur.)

v With the exception of its southwest, a large part of Afghanistan is covered by high snow-capped

mountains and divided by deep valleys.

(Afganistan’ın büyük bir bölümü, güneybatısı hariç, yüksek karlı dağlarla kaplıdır ve derin vadilerle bölünmüştür.) v Because some universities rely almost entirely on private rather than on public sources of funds, they

are independent of government control.

(Bazı üniversiteler kamu fonundan ziyade neredeyse tamamen özel fona dayalı olduğu için hükümet kontrolünden bağımsızdırlar.)

v I had no ambitions other than to have a happy life and be free.

(Mutlu bir hayata sahip olmak ve özgür olmaktan başka hiç bir isteğim yok.) v I hardly know anyone in the village apart from William and you.

(Sen ve William’dan başka bu köyde neredeyse hiç kimseyi tanımıyorum.)

Except (for) Rather than Other than Excluding Apart from With the exception of Saving

hariç - den ziyade - den başka - in dışında

İsim / Ving / tamlama

“HARİÇ” ANLAMI KATAN BAĞLAÇLAR


179

Örnek Cümleler v Airline officials had nothing to tell us except that the flight had been delayed.

(Havaalanı yetkililerinin uçuşun ertelenmesinden başka bize söyleyecek hiçbir şeyleri yoktu.) v The exam went pretty well, except that I misread the final question.

(Son soruyu yanlış okumamın dışında sınav oldukça iyi geçti.)


Örnek Cümleler

v He's disorganized, inefficient, never there when you want him – in short, the man's a pain.

(O, dağınık, etkisiz, çağırdığında asla orada olmaz – kısacası adam tam bir karın ağrısı.)

v Inflation is down, spending is up. In short, the economy is in good shape.

(Enflasyon düşüyor, harcamalar artıyor. Kısacası, ekonomi iyi durumda.)

Except that hariç - den başka Cümle

In short In summary In brief In conclusion To sum up All in all

kısacası özetle sonuç olarak

Cümle

“ÖZET” BİLDİREN BAĞLAÇLAR


180


Örnek Cümleler v Offices can easily become more environmentally-friendly by, for example, using recycled paper.

(Ofisler, örneğin geri dönüşüm yapılan kağıtlar kullanılarak kolayca daha çevre dostu haline getirilebilir.) v There are plenty of good deals available – people under 25, for example, can get discounts of up to

50%.

(Mevcut pek çok indirim var – örneğin 25 yaş altındakiler %50’ye varan indirimlere sahip olabilirler.)

* Bu bağlaçlar bağımsız bir cümlenin başında kullanılamaz. Örnek Cümleler v Genetic engineering is primarily considered a field of applied microbiology, that is, the exploitation of

microorganisms for a specific product or use. (ÜDS 2008 Sonbahar)

(Genetik mühendisliği esasen uygulamalı mikrobiyoloji alanı olarak, yani, mikroorganizmalardan spesifik bir ürün ya da kullanım için faydalanma olarak düşünülür.)

v He was economical with the truth - in other words, he was lying.

(Doğruyu söylemiyordu – başka bir deyişle yalan söylüyordu.)

For example For instance To illustrate

kısacası özetle sonuç olarak

Cümle İsim / Ving / tamlama

That is Namely In other words

yani başka bir deyişle

Cümle İsim / Ving / tamlama

ÖRNEKLEME VE AÇIKLAMA BAĞLAÇLARI


181

* Kendisinden önceki kelimeyi kendisinden sonraki bir ya da birden fazla kelime ile örneklendirir. Örnek Cümleler v The money will be used to buy basic foods such as flour, rice, and sugar.

(Bu para un, pirinç ve şeker gibi temel besinleri almak için kullanılacak.) v Only a few countries such as Finland have a well-organized and useful education system in the

world.

(Dünyada Finlandiya gibi çok az ülkenin iyi organize edilmiş ve faydalı eğitim sistemi vardır.) v She has worked in several countries where English is spoken as a first language, such as Australia,

New Zealand, Canada.

(Avusturalya, Yeni Zelanda ve Kanada gibi ana dil olarak İngilizcenin konuşulduğu birçok ülkede çalıştı.) v Young people these days seem to love 1960s rock bands, such as the Beatles, the Kinks or the

Rolling Stones.

(Bugünlerde gençler Beatles, the Kinks ya da Rolling Stones gibi 1960lı yılların rock gruplarını seviyorlar.)

v The museum has paintings by such Impressionist artists as Manet and Degas.

(Müzede Manet ve Degas gibi Empresyonist (İzlenimci) sanatçıların tabloları vardı.)

* Bu bağlaçlar bağımsız bir cümlenin başında kullanılamaz. Örnek Cümleler v Few of us get the calcium we need. Actually, most of us do not obtain the necessary amount to

maintain a healthy life.

(Çok azımız ihtiyacımız olan kalsiyumu alırız. Hatta, çoğumuz sağlıklı bir yaşam sürdürmek için gerekli olan miktarı almayız.)

v The doctors are pleased with the progress he is making; in fact, they expect him to make a full

recovery. (ÜDS 2005 İlkbahar)

(Doktorlar onun göstermiş olduğu ilerlemeden memnunlar; hatta, tamamen iyileşmesini ümit ediyorlar.)

Such as gibi isim / Ving / tamlama

In fact Indeed Actually As a matter of fact

aslında hatta gerçekte doğrusu

Cümle

VURGULAMA YAPAN BAĞLAÇLAR


182

Örnek Cümleler v Psychological research cannot give an answer for every interesting question about the mind and

behavior.

(Psikolojik araştırma zihin ve davranış konusunda her ilginç soruya cevap veremeyebilir.) v There is some doubt as to whether the information is totally accurate.

(Bu bilginin tamamen doğru olup olmadığına dair bazı şüpheler var.) v As regards its textile industry, Turkey has recently come to a remarkable point in the world market.

(Tekstil endüstrisi konusunda, Türkiye son zamanlarda dünya piyasasında önemli bir noktaya geldi.) v The central issue concerning these patients is to identify the etiology of the patients' ulcer.

(Bu hastalarla ilgili asıl mesele hastaların ülser etiyolojilerini belirlemektir.) v He suffers with memory loss related to his disease.

(Hastalığıyla alakalı hafıza kaybı yaşıyor.)

v When it comes to writing article, she's always incompetent.

(İş makale yazmaya geldiğinde, o her zaman yeteneksizdir.) v With regard to the high inflation in the country, no government has yet found an effective solution.

(Ülkedeki yüksek enflasyon konusunda, hiçbir hükümet henüz etkin bir çözüm bulamadı.)

v As for the children, they were happy enough to spend all day on the beach.

(Çocuklara gelince, tüm günlerini plajda geçirecek kadar mutluydular.)

About As to As for Concerning Regarding As regards Related to In relation to With regard to With respect to In / With reference to When it comes to Pertaining to

... ile ilgili hakkında konusunda - e dair - e gelince


HAKKINDA / ... İLE İLGİLİ ANLAMI KATAN BAĞLAÇLAR


183

ZITLIK / KARŞILAŞTIRMA BAĞLAÇLARI

Although Even though

Though Much as

Despite the fact that In spite of the fact that

rağmen

- e karşın - olsa da

While Whereas

rağmen - iken

oysa ki halbuki

buna karşın

But However

Yet

fakat ancak

Even if

- sa bile

Nevertheless Nonetheless

Still All the Same

yine de

buna rağmen

Despite In spite of

Albeit In the face of

- e rağmen - e karşın

Unlike Contrary to

In contrast to / with In opposition to

- in aksine

On the contrary In contrast By contrast Conversely

aksine

Otherwise

aksi takdirde

Regardless of Irrespective of

- e bakılmaksızın

- e aldırmadan

Even so

böyle olsa bile yine de

Instead Instead of In place of

bunun yerine

- in yerine

However + sıfat / zarf

- e rağmen - dığı halde

- sa da

No matter + soru kelimesi

- e rağmen - dığı halde

- sa da

On the other hand

öte yandan

In / By comparison to / with Compared to / with

- e kıyasla

- ile karşılaştırıldışında - e nazaran - in aksine

Nothwithstanding

rağmen fakat

yine de

For all

- e rağmen


184

SEBEP BAĞLAÇLARI

Because Since

As For

Because of the fact that Due to the fact that

Owing to the fact that

çünkü - den dolayı

- dığı için

Because of Due to

Owing to Thanks to In view of

On account of On the grounds of

As a result of As a consequence of

- den dolayı

- dığı için - in yüzünden - in sayesinde

- in sonucu olarak

In that Given (that) Seeing that Seeing as

Inasmuch as For the reason that

- den dolayı - dığına göre - in yüzünden

- dığı için çünkü

Now that

Madem ki - dığına göre

- dığı için

On the grounds that

- gerekçesiyle - mesi sebebiyle

- e dayanarak

SONUÇ BAĞLAÇLARI

So Therefore

Thus Hence

Consequently As a consequence

As a result Accordingly

For this reason That is why

Thereby

böylece bu nedenle bu yüzden

sonuç olarak

So + sıfat / zarf + that

o kadar ... ki

Such + a/an (+ sıfat) + that

o kadar ... ki


185

AMAÇ BİLDİREN BAĞLAÇLARI ÖZET TABLO

So that In order that


So as to In order to

In an effort to In an attempt to


With the intention of With the aim of

With the purpose of With a view to


EKLEME (AYNI FİKRİ DEVAM ETTİREN) BAĞLAÇLAR ÖZET TABLO

In addition Furthermore

Moreover Besides

Additionally What’s more

bunun yanı sıra

ayrıca üstelik

ek olarak

Besides In addition to

As well as Apart from Including

Along with

- in yanı sıra - e ek olarak

dahil

Similarly Likewise

In the same way

aynı şekilde benzer biçimde

Also

de , da ayrıca üstelik

And

ve ayrıca üstelik

“HARİÇ” ANLAMI KATAN BAĞLAÇLAR ÖZET TABLO

Except (for) Rather than Other than Excluding Apart from

With the exception of Saving

hariç

- den ziyade - den başka - in başında

Except that

hariç - den başka


186

“ÖZET” BİLDİREN BAĞLAÇLAR ÖZET TABLO

In short In summary

In brief In conclusion

To sum up All in all

kısacası özetle

sonuç olarak

ÖRNEKLEME VE AÇIKLAMA BAĞLAÇLARI ÖZET TABLO

For example For instance To illustrate

kısacası özetle

sonuç olarak

That is Namely

In other words

yani başka bir deyişle

Such as

gibi

HAKKINDA / ... İLE İLGİLİ ANLAMI KATAN BAĞLAÇLAR ÖZET TABLO

About As to As for

Concerning Regarding As regards Related to

In relation to With regard to With respect to

In / With reference to When it comes to

Pertaining to

...ile ilgili hakkında

konusunda - e dair

- e gelince

VURGULAMA YAPAN BAĞLAÇLAR ÖZET TABLO

In fact Indeed

Actually As a matter of fact

aslında hatta

gerçekte doğrusu


187

REDUCTION IN ADVERB CLAUSES (ZARF CÜMLECİKLERİNDE İNDİRGEME)

Zarf cümlelerinde indirgeme / kısaltma işleminin yapılması demek zarf cümlesindeki öznenin atılması, fiilin kısaltma işlemine maruz bırakılması, hatta bazı zarf cümlelerinde bağlacın da atılması anlamına gelmektedir. Bu indirgeme işleminin yapılabilmesi için zarf cümlesinin ve ana cümlenin öznelerinin aynı olması gerekir. Zarf cümlelerinde indirgeme işlemini yaparken sıfat cümleciklerindeki 4 temel kuralı hatırlamamızda fayda vardır. Genel olarak bir fiilin olduğu cümlede sıfat cümleciklerindeki “to – infinitive” olmayan kuralların aynısı burada da uygulanmaktadır. Dolayısıyla bu kuralları tekrar vermek yerine bağlaç bazında bu indirgeme işlemini incelemekte fayda var. 1. TIME CLAUSES § After / Before / When / While / Once / Until / Since (-den beri) § Zaman bağlaçları atılmaz § Özne atılır § Aktif fiil “Ving” veya “having V3”, pasif fiil ise “V3”, “being V3” ya da “having been V3” yapısına

dönüştürülür § Bazı durumlarda fiil de atılıp sadece isim yazılabilir

v After he took the medicine, he slept for a long time.

After taking the medicine, he slept for a long time. veya

After the medicine, he slept for a long time.

(İlacı aldıktan sonra, uzun bir süre uyudu.) Yukarıdaki cümle şu şekilde de olabilir:

v After he had taken the medicine, he slept for a long time.

After having taken the medicine, he slept for a long time. veya

After the medicine, he slept for a long time.

v After we ate / had eaten dinner, we went for a walk.

After eating / having eaten dinner, we went for a walk. veya

After the dinner, we went for a walk.

(Yemekten sonra yürüyüşe çıktık.)

v After you read the chapter at least twice, you will understand the author’s theory.

After reading / having read the chapter at least twice, you will understand the author’s theory.

(Bu bölümü en az iki kez okuduktan sonra yazarın teorisini anlayacaksın.)

v I lived in Gaziantep before I came to Sivas.

I lived in Gaziantep before coming to Sivas.

I lived in Gaziantep before Sivas.

(Sivasa gelmeden önce Gaziantep’de yaşadım.)


188

v Before I start the engine of the car, I always fasten my seat belt.

Before starting the engine of the car, I always fasten my seat belt.

(Arabayı çalıştırmadan önce her zaman emniyet kemerimi bağlarım.)

v Before she was accepted on her country’s Olympic running team, Maria had spent most of the two previous years in training.

Before accepted on her country’s Olympic running team, Maria had spent most of the two previous years in training.

(Ülkesinin Olimpiyat koşu takımına kabul edilmeden önce, Maria iki yılının çoğunu antrenman yaparak geçirdi.)

v When she goes out on weekdays, she leaves her children to her neighbours.

When going out on weekdays, she leaves her children to her neighbours.

(Hafta içi dışarıya çıktığında, çocuklarını komşularına bırakır.)

v When we were in Prague, we attended two important conferences.

When in Prague, we attended two important conferences.

In Prague, we attended two important conferences.

(Pragdayken iki önemli toplantıya katıldık.)

v When they are asked who they really are, most people will try to describe their behavioural characteristics.

When asked who they really are, most people will try to describe their behavioural characteristics..

(Gerçekten kim oldukları sorulduğunda pek çok insan davranış özelliklerini anlatmaya çalışacaktır.)

v While I was away from my hometown, I missed everyone very much .

While away from my hometown, I missed everyone very much.

(Memlekttimden uzaktayken herkesi çok özledim.)

v While I was walking to class, I ran into an old friend.

While walking to class, I ran into an old friend.

Walking to class, I ran into an old friend.

(Derse giderken eski bir arkadaşımla karşılaştım.) (NOT: Aynı anda gerçekleşen iki olay varsa bu durumda ‘while’ atılabilir.)

v While we were hiking through the woods, we saw a bear.

While hiking through the woods, we saw a bear.

Hiking through the woods, we saw a bear.

(Ormanda yürürken bir ayı gördük.)

v Since he started his new job, has worked 16 hours a day.

Since starting his new job, has worked 16 hours a day.

(Yeni işine başladığından beri günde 16 saat çalışıyor.)


189

v Since I came to this university, I have met a lot of interesting people.

Since coming to this university, I have met a lot of interesting people.

(Bu üniversiteye geldiğimden beri pek çok ilginç insanla tanıştım.)

v All the old museums must be renovated until they are opened for public again.

All the old museums must be renovated until opened for public again.

(Halka tekrar açılana kadar bütün eski müzeler restore edilmeli.)

2. ZITLIK BAĞLAÇLARI § Although / Though / While § Zıtlık bağlaçları atılmaz § Özne atılır § Durum cümlesinde “to be” yapısı da atılır § Aktif fiil “Ving” veya “having V3”, pasif fiil ise “V3”, “being V3” ya da “having been V3” yapısına

dönüştürülür

v Although he knew the answer, he didn’t answer the question.

Although knowing the answer, he didn’t answer the question.

(Cevabı bilmesine rağmen, soruyu cevaplamadı.)

v Though she works long hours, she spends a lot of time with ther family.

Though working long hours, she spends a lot of time with ther family.

(Uzun saatler çalışmasına rağmen ailesine çok vakit ayırıyor.)

v Though it is designed for children, this program can also be suitable for young adults.

Though designed for children, this program can also be suitable for young adults.

(Çocuklar için tasarlanmış olsa da bu program genç yetişkinler için de uygun olabilir.)

v Although he was dismissed from his work, he managed to smile.

Although dismissed from his work, he managed to smile.

(İşten kovulmasına rağmen gülümseyebildi.)

v Although it was written about 70 years ago, the novel 1984 by George Orwell is still an effective dystopian politic novel.

v Although having been written about 70 years ago, the novel 1984 by George Orwell is still an effective dystopian politic novel.

(Yaklaşık 70 yıl önce yazılmasına rağmen, George Orwell’ın 1984 romanı hala etkili bir distopik politik romandır.)

v Although Head of Department, he relies on the Departmental Secretary. (noun phrase) v Although seriously ill, he came to the meeting. (adjective phrase) v Although on holiday, Susan responded to the request for help. (prepositional phrase) v Although waiting in a long queue, Catriona stayed calm. (participial phrase)


190

3. SEBEP BAĞLAÇLARI § Because / Since / As § Sebep bağlaçları atılır § Özne atılır § Durum cümlesinde “to be” yerine “being” yazılır § Aktif fiil “Ving” veya “having V3”, pasif fiil ise “being V3” ya da “having been V3” yapısına dönüştürülür

v Because she was tired, she slept early.

Being tired, she slept early.

(Yorgun olduğu için erkenden yattı.)

v Because I was good at speking English, I understood what the native speaker talked about.

Being good at speking English, I understood what the tourist talked about.

(İngilizce konuşmada iyi olduğum için turistin ne hakkında konuştuğunu anladım.)

v Since he believed that no one loved him, the little boy wan away from the home.

Believing that no one loved him, the little boy wan away from the home.

(Küçük çocuk kimsenin kendisini sevmediğine inandığı için evden kaçtı.)

v As she didn't understand the question, she asked the teacher for some help.

Not understanding the question, she asked the teacher for some help.

(Soruyu anlamadığı için öğretmenden yardım istedi.)

v Because I don’t know her phone number, I can’t call her.

Not knowing her phone number, I can’t call her.

(Telefon numarasını bilmediğim için onu arayamam.)

v Since she studied hard, she passed the test.

Having studied / Studying hard, she passed the test.

(Çok çalıştığı için sınavı geçti.)

v Because I injured my back yesterday, I now have difficulty in walking.

Having injured my back yesterday, I now have difficulty in walking.

(Dün belimi incittiğim için şu anda yürümekte zorlanıyorum.)

Because he did not want to spend any money this month, Larry decided to make himself a sandwich instead of going to a restaurant for dinner.

Not wanting to spend any more money this month, Larry decided to make himself a sandwich instead of going to a restaurant for dinner.

(Bu ay daha fazla para harcamak istemediği için, Larry restorana gitmek yerine kendisine bir sandviç yapmaya karar verdi.)

v As it was founded on 19 April 1879, FC St. Gallen is the oldest existing association football club in mainland Europe.

Having been founded on 19 April 1879, FC St. Gallen is the oldest existing association football club in mainland Europe.

(19 Nisan 1879’da kurulduğu için FC St. Gallen Avrupa kıtasında varlığını sürdüren en eski futbol kulübüdür.)


191

4. ŞART BİLDİREN YAPILAR

§ If / Unless § If ve Unless atılamaz § Özne atılır § Durum cümlesinde “to be” yerine “being” yazılır § Aktif fiil “Ving”, pasif fiil ise “V3” ya da “being V3” yapısına dönüştürülür

v If I don't get enough sleep, I get a headache.

If not getting enough sleep, I get a headache.

(Yeterince uyumazsam, başım ağrır.)

v If they were treated fairly, they wouldn't lose the game.

If treated fairly, they wouldn't lose the game.

(Adil davranılırsa, maçı kaybetmezler.) v Unless we are paid properly, we will go on a strike.

Unless paid properly, we will go on a strike.

(Düzenle ödeme yapılmazsa, grev yapacağız.)

5. ON / UPON + Ving

“When” ile yapılan indirgeme işleminde “on” ya da “upon” anlam bakımından herhangi bir değişiklik olmadan cümle başında kullanılabilir:

v When she graduated from the university, she applied for a job.

On / Upon graduating from the university, she applied for a job.

(Üniversiteden mezun olduğunda işe başvurdu.)

v When he finished the report, he gave it to the boss.

On / Upon finishing the report, he gave it to the boss.

(Raporu bitirdiğinde patrona verdi.)

v When they heard the news, they burst into tears.

On / Upon hearing the news, they burst into tears.

(Haberi duyduklarında gözyaşlarına boğuldular.)

v When she reached the age of 18, she received the inheritance.

On / Upon reaching the age of 18, she received the inheritance.

(18 yaşına geldiğinde mirası aldı.)

v She nearly fainted when she learned that she had won the lottery.

She nearly fainted on / upon learning that she had won the lottery.

(18 yaşına geldiğinde mirası aldı.)


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ADVERBIAL CLAUSE İNDİRGEME ÖRNEK CÜMLELER

v While travelling across the United States, I could not help being impressed by the great differences

in terrain.

(ABD’de gezerken, bölgedeki büyük farklılıklardan etkilenmekten kendimi alamadım.)

v Before gaining national fame, the union leader had been an electrician in a small town.

(Ulusal çapta ün kazanmadan önce, dernek başkanı küçük bir şehirde bir elektrikçiydi.)

v Having never flown in an airplane before, the little girl was surprised and a little frightened when

the plane departed.

(Daha önce uçakta seyahat etmediği için, uçak havalandığında küçük kız şaşırdı ve biraz da korktu.) v After finishing / having finished breakfast, Ömer left the house and went to his office.

(Ömer kahvaltısını bitirdikten sonra evden çıktı ve ofisine gitti.)

v He hurt his back while chopping wood.

(Odun keserken belini incitti.)

v Though an excellent student, she failed to pass the test.

(Mükemmel bir öğrenci olmasına rağmen sınavdan geçemedi.)

v Having nothing to do, the children were bored.

(Yapacak bir şey olmadığı için çocuklar sıkıldı.)

v Watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.

(TV izlerken birinin kapıyı çalışını duydum.)

v Since coming to the U.S.A., I have been studying English.

(ABD’ye geldiğimden beri İngilizce çalışıyorum.)

v Being anxious to see them, she couldn’t sleep that night.

(Onları görme endişesi olduğu için o gece uyuyamadı.)

v While happy, he had many serious problems.

(Mutlu olmasına rağmen pek çok ciddi sorunu vardı.)

v Although having a car, he decided to walk.

(Arabası olmasına rağmen yürümeye karar verdi.) v Although impressed by the bravery of his fellow soldiers, Samet had harsh words for them.

(Samet silah arkadaşlarının cesaretinden etkilenmesine rağmen onlar hakkında ağır sözler sarfetti.)


193

v When working at home, Carla takes her youngest child to school in the morning.

(Carla evde çalıştığında sabahları en küçük çocuğunu okula bırakır.) v If not taken properly, antibitotics will have no effect.

(Düzenli alınmazsa antibiyotiklerin etkisi olmayacaktır.) v Upon fired from his job, he immediately started to search for a new job.

(İşten atıldığında hemen yeni bir iş aramaya başladı.)

* Betty Azar “Understanding and Using English Grammar” adlı kitaptan alıntıdır.

* Betty Azar “Understanding and Using English Grammar” adlı kitaptan alıntıdır.

Wolves are much misunderstood animals. Believing that wolves eagerly kill human beings, many people fear them. However, the truth is that wolves avoid any contact with human beings. Wildlife biologists in the United States say there is no documented case of wolves attacking humans in the lower 48 states. More people are hurt and killed bu buffaloes in Yellowstone Park than have ever been hurt by wolves in North America.

Being strictly carnivorous, wolves hunt large animals such as elk and deer, as well as their mainstay, small animals such as mice and rabbits. And they are particularly fond of sheep. Killing ranchers’ livestocks has helped lead to wolves’ bad reputation among people.

Having been / Being relentlessly poisoned, trapped, and shot by ranchers and hunters, the timber wolf, a subspecies of the gray wolf, was eradicated in the lower 48 states by the 1940s. Not one wolf remained. In the late 1970s, after they realized a mistake had been made, U.S. lawmakers passed laws to protect wolves.

Long ago, wolves could be found in almost all areas of the Northern Hemisphere throughout Asia, Europe, and North America. Today, after having been / being unremittingly destroyed for centuries, they are found in few places, principally in sparsely populated areas of Alaska, Minnesota, Canada, and the northernmost regions of Russia and China.

Alexander Graham Bell, a teacher of the deaf in Boston, invented the first telephone. One day in 1875, while running a test on his latest attempt to create a machine that could carry voices, he accidentally spilled acid on his coat. Naturally, he called for his assistant, Thomas A. Watson, who was in another room. Bell said, “Mr. Watson, come here. I want you.” Hearing words coming from the machine, Watson immediately realized that their experiments had at last been successful. He rushed excitedly into the other room to tell Bell that he had heard his words over the machine. After having successfully tested the new apparatus again and again, Bell confidently announced his invention to the world. For the most part, scientists appreciated his accomplishment, but the general public did not understand the revolutionary nature of Bell’s invention. Believing the telephone was a toy with little practical application, most people paid little attention to Bell’s announcement.


194

İNDİRGEME SORULARINI ÇÖZERKEN DİKKAT EDİLMESİ GEREKENLER

1. Boşluktan önce “pasif” bir fiil verilmişse a) şıklarda kesinlike “to” ile başlayan bir yapı aranmalıdır b) cümlenin nesne alıp almadığına bakarak aktif ya da pasif olduğuna karar verilmelidir c) ana cümle ile yan cümle arasında zaman farkı olup olmadığına bakılmalıdır

The first member of the genus Homo, H. Habilis, is predicted ---- between 2.5 million and 1.8 million years ago.

A) having been lived B) to live C) to have lived D) be living E) to be living

(Soru kökünde boşluktan önce “is predicted” yani pasif bir fiil verildiği için devamı mutlaka “to” ile olması lazım. A ve D şıkları elenir. Ana fiil “is predicted” present bir yargıdır fakat boşluktan sonraki yapı geçmiş zamanlı bir yapı olduğu için daha önceki bir zamanı ifade etmektedir. Bu nedenle “to have lived” yapısı yani C şıkkı doğru cevaptır.)

The universe was believed ---- by numerous spiritual entities and divinities called ‘neteru’ by Egyptians and Nubians. A) populating B) to be populated C) to populate D) to have been populated E) being populated

(Soru kökünde boşluktan önce “was believed” yani pasif bir fiil verildiği için devamı mutlaka “to” ile olması lazım. A ve E şıkları elenir. Boşluktan sonraki “by” ifadesi boşluğun pasif olduğuna dair ipucu vermektedir. Bu nedenle C şıkkı da elenir. Ana fiil “was believed” geçmiş zamanlı bir yargıdır ve boşluktan sonra herhangi bir zaman değişimi verilmemiştir. Dolayısıyla “to be populated” yapısı yani B şıkkı doğru cevaptır.)

2. Boşluktan önce bir isim varsa

a) bu bir sıfat cümlesi indirgemesidir b) cümlenin nesne alıp almadığına bakarak aktif ya da pasif olduğuna karar verilmelidir c) ana cümle ile yan cümle arasında zaman farkı olup olmadığına bakılmalıdır

The rules ---- public access to mountainous areas need to be reconsidered.

A) to allow B) being allowed C) to have allowed D) allowed E) allowing

(Soru kökünde boşluktan önce gelen “the rules” bir isimdir dolayısıyla bu bir adjective clause indirgeme sorusudur. “To” gerektiren bir durum olmadığı için A ve C şıkları elenir. Boşluk sonrasında “halkın dağlık bölgelere erişimi” dendiği için yani nesne olduğu için mutlaka aktif bir yapı gelmelidir. Dolayısıyla cevap E şıkkıdır.)


195

Cancers ---- to have a hereditary link are breast cancer, colon cancer, ovarian cancer, and uterine cancer. A) known B) to know C) having known D) knowing E) to be known

(Soru kökünde boşluktan önce gelen “Cancers” bir isimdir dolayısıyla bu bir adjective clause indirgeme sorusudur. “To” gerektiren bir durum olmadığı için B ve E şıkları elenir. Şıklarda verilen “know” fiili kanserin kendisinin bildiği birşeyi değil “bir şeyle bilindiğini” anlattığı için mutlaka pasif bir yapı olmalıdır. Dolayısıyla cevap A şıkkıdır.)

3. Boşluktan önce “superlative”, “the first / the second, vb.” veya “the only” varsa

a) bu bir sıfat cümlesi indirgemesidir ve mutlaka şıklarda “to” ile başlayan bir yapı aranmalıdır b) cümlenin nesne alıp almadığına bakarak aktif ya da pasif olduğuna karar verilmelidir c) ana cümle ile yan cümle arasında zaman farkı olup olmadığına bakılmalıdır

English scientist Isaac Newton was the first person ---- why moons and planets travel in orbits.

A) realizing B) to be realized C) to realize D) having realized E) to have been realized

(Soru kökünde boşluktan önce gelen “the first person” yapısından dolayı bu sorunun adjective clause indirgemesi olduğu ve mutlaka bir “to infinitive” yapısı alması gerektiği anlaşılır. Bu nedenle A ve D şıkları elenir. Boşluktan sonra gelen yapı ise “noun clause” yani realize fiilinin nesnesi olduğu için aktif bir yapıda olmalıdır. Dolayısıyla cevap C şıkkıdır.)

Some “pro-life” advocates have asserted that the best way ---- the debate about abortion is to frequently use the words kill and baby in the same sentence.

A) to be won B) being won C) having won D) winning E) to win

(Soru kökünde boşluktan önce gelen “the best way” yapısından dolayı bu sorunun adjective clause indirgemesi olduğu ve mutlaka bir “to infinitive” yapısı alması gerektiği anlaşılır. Bu nedenle B, C ve D şıkları elenir. Şıklardaki kazanmak eylemi ve boşluktan sonra gelen “debate” yani kazanmak fiilinin nesnesine bakıldığında bunun aktif bir yapı olması gerektiği anlaşılır. Dolayısıyla cevap E şıkkıdır.)


196

4. Boşluk cümle başında verilmişse

a) bu bir zarf cümlesi indirgeme sorusudur ve “to infinitive” ile başlayan bir yapı gelemez b) ilk cümlenin öznesi ile ikinci cümlenin öznesi aynıdır c) cümlenin nesne alıp almadığına bakarak aktif ya da pasif olduğuna karar verilmelidir d) ana cümle ile yan cümle arasında zaman farkı olup olmadığına bakılmalıdır

(Cümle başında “to infinitive” genellikle amaç bildiren durumlarda “in order to / so as to” anlamında kullanılır.)

---- from the space shuttle in 1990, the space probe Ulysses completed its first orbit around the Sun in 1997. A) Launching B) Having launched C) To launch D) Launched E) To be launched

(Soru kökünde ilk cümle boşlukla başladığı için ve ilk cümleden sonra virgülle ayrılıp ana cümleye geçildiği için “to” alan C ve E şıkları elenir. Özneler aynı olmak zorunda olduğu için cümlemizin öznesi “uzay mekiği Ulysses” olması sebebiyle fırlatma eyleminin mutlaka pasif olması gerekir. Yani “fırlatılan uzay mekiği”. Dolayısıyla cevap D şıkkıdır.)

---- the types of individuals it seeks to attract, an organization ---- to consider what methods to use to reach them. (YDS 2013 İLKBAHAR) A) To have established / could need B) Having established / needs C) Establishing / had needed D) Established / needed E) Being established / will need

(Bu soruda her iki cümlenin de öznesinin aynı olduğu unutulmamalıdır. Soru kökünde ilk cümle boşlukla başladığı için ve ilk cümleden sonra virgülle ayrılıp ana cümleye geçildiği için “to” alan A şıkkdı elenir. Boşluktan sonra “the types of individuals” yani birey çeşitleri” şıklardaki establish fiilinin nesnesi olduğu için cevabın aktif olması gerekir. Bu nedenle D ve E şıkları da elenir. Cümlenin öznesi olan “an organization” kelimesi genel bir ifade bildirir, ayrıca C şıkkı olması durumunda ilk boşluktaki “establishing” ve devamındaki “had needed” aynı zamanı belirtmektedir. Fakat her iki cümlenin de past perfect olması mümkün değildir. Bu nedenle cevap B şıkkıdır.)

5. Boşluktan önce bir edat varsa

a) bu durumda şıklarda mutlaka “Ving” yapısı aranmalıdır b) cümlenin nesne alıp almadığına bakarak aktif ya da pasif olduğuna karar verilmelidir c) ana cümle ile yan cümle arasında zaman farkı olup olmadığına bakılmalıdır

In mammals, if the body becomes too warm, the hypothalamus in the brain signals the sweat glands ---- it by ---- sweat. (E-YDS 2015 EKİM)

A) cooling / to release B) to cool / releasing C) to be cooled / being released D) having cooled / to be releasing E) being cooled / to be released

(Her iki boşluğun da indirgeme olduğu sorularda en kolay olan tarafa yönelmek işimizi kolaylaştırır. İkinci boşlukta “by” edatından dolayı mutlaka “Ving” ile devam edilmesi gerekir. Dolayısıyla A, D ve E şıkları elenir. Boşluktan sonraki “sweat” yani “ter” kelimesi nesne olduğu için cevabın aktif bir yapıda olması gerekir. Dolayısıyla cevap B şıkkıdır.)

197

BÖLÜM 10

ÖNEMLİ NOTLAR

Bölüm 10 – Önemli Notlar

198

ÖNEMLİ NOTLAR

§ Genel anlamda sahiplik belirten bir ifadedir. Yani “have” ya da “possess” anlamları taşır ve daha çok vurgu yapmak için kullanılır. Örneğin: This subject is of great importance to understand a sentence. = This subject has great importance to understand a sentence.

(Bu konu bir cümleyi anlamak için büyük öneme sahiptir.) Yani aynı cümle aynı anlama gelecek şekilde sadece söyleniş farkıyla şu şekilde de yazılabilir: This subject is very important to understand a sentence.

§ Her sahiplik durumunda kullanılamayacağı gibi bazı isimlerle birlikte kalıpsal ifadelerde kullanılabilir: Be of use: işe yaramak This information may be of use to him.

(Bu bilgi onun işine yarayabilir.) Be of interest: ilgilenmek / ilgisini çekmek The story was of particular interest to me as a New Zealander living in Australia

(Bu hikaye Avustralya’da yaşan bir Yeni Zelandalı olarak benim ilgimi çekti.)

Be of help / assistance / aid / service: yardımcı olmak / faydası dokunmak Please let me know whether I can be of help.

(Lütfen yardımcı olup olamayacağımı bana bildirin.)

Be of value: değerli / kıymetli olmak This old manuscript is of great value for antiquarians.

(Bu eski el yazısı antika meraklıları için büyük değere sahiptir.)

Be of concern: mevzu bahis olmak / önemli olmak (=be of importance) The results of the election are of concern to us all.

(Seçim sonuçları hepimiz için önemli.)

Be of the opinion: ...fikrinde / düşüncesinde olmak (be of the same opinion = be of the same mind) The doctors were of the opinion that surgery was unnecessary.

(Doktorlar cerrahi işlemin gereksiz olduğu düşüncesindeydi.)

BE OF


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Cümlenin öznesine göre “am / is / are to” ya da geçmiş zamanlı “was / were” to şeklinde şu durumlarda kullanılır: 1. Zorunluluk / Emir / Talimat veya Duyuru (have to / be expected to / be supposed to)

v Passengers are to arrive the airport one hour before departure so as to catch the plane. (Uçağa yetişmek için yolcuların kalkıştan bir saat önce havalanında olması gerekiyor.)

v You are not to leave this house without my permission. Is that clear? (Benim iznim olmadan bu evden dışarı çıkamazsın. Anlaşıldı mı?)

v I don't mind her going to Ruth's party but she is not to be back late.

(Onun Ruth’un partisne gitmesinde sakınca yok fakat geç kalmasın.)

2. Gelecek zaman anlamında planlanmış durumlarda (be going to) v The Prime Minister is to make a further visit to Germany next week.

(Başbakan önümüzdeki hafta Almanya’ya bir ziyaret daha yapacak.)

v We are to receive a pay rise in line with inflation in September.

(Eylül ayında enflasyonla aynı doğrultuda bir zam alacağız.)

v A man charged with the murder of the footballer Darren Gough is to appear in court later this

morning

(Futbolcu Darren Gough cinayetiyle suçlanan bir adan bu sabah mahkemeye çıkacak.) 3. Gazete başlıklarında yine gelecek zamana dair karar verilen durumlarda (genellikle sadece “to”

ile) v Prime Minister to announce emergency plan on climate change.

(Başbakan iklim değişikliği üzerine acil planı açıklayacak.)

v The president to visit India next month.

(Başkan önümüzdeki ay Hindistan’ı ziyaret edecek.)

BE TO


200

Bu yapı da “am / is / are about to + V”” şeklinde kullanıldığında bir olayın gerçekleşmesi yakın olan durumları belirtmek için kullanılır. Türkçeye “olmak üzere, olmasına az kaldı, eli kulağında” şeklinde çevrilir. Geçmiş zamanda “was / were about to + V1” şeklinde kullanıldığında geçmişte bir olayın gerçekleşmesine çok az zaman kaldığını belirtmek için kullanılır. Türkçeye “az kalsın oluyordu, olmasına çok az kalmıştı, ramak kaldı” şeklinde çevrilir. v She is about to be a mother.

(Anne olmak üzere.) v They are about to leave the house. Shall I call and stop them?

(Evden çıkmak üzereler. Arayıp onları durdurayım mı?) v We are just about to set off for a walk. Do you want to come?

(Tam da yürüyüşe çıkmak üzereyiz. Gelmek ister misin?) v Hurry up, please! The coach is about to leave.

(Acele et lütfen. Otobüz kalkmak üzere.) v I was about to sleep when there was a knock on the door.

(Birisi kapıyı çaldığında tam da uyumak üzereydim.) v She was about to cause an accident.

(Az kalsın kazaya sebep oluyordu.) v They were about to die.

(Az kalsın ölüyorlardı.) v We arrived there just as the ceremony was about to begin.

(Tam tören başlamak üzereydi ki oraya ulaştık.)

BE ABOUT TO


201

1. If Clause Tip 2 ve Tip 3’te kullanılır:

v If you lost your passport, it would take ages to get another one. (Tip 2)

(Pasaportunu kaybedersen (şu an böyle bir ihtimal yok), başka bir tane almak çok uzun sürecektir.)

v If we had left the house earlier, we would have caught the train. (Tip 3)

(Evden erken çıksaydık, trene yetişebilecektik.)

2. “Will” yapısının geçmiş zamanı olarak “yapacaktı / edecekti” anlamında “Noun Clause”

yapısında ana cümle past, isim cümleciği “would” olacak biçimde kullanılabilir:

v In the 1950s, Austria’s leaders declared that the country would not take sides in any prospective European conflict.

(1950’li yıllarda, Avusturya liderleri Avrupa’da olası herhangi bir anlaşmazlıkta taraf olmayacaklarını bildirdiler.)

v In 1967, a leading American scientist stated that man would never reach the moon despite all

future scientific advances.

(1967 yılında, önde gelen Amerikalı bir bilim insanı gelecekteki tüm teknolojik gelişmelere rağmen insanoğlunun asla aya ulaşamayacağını belirtti.)

3. Yine “Will” yapısının geçmiş zaman hali olarak geçmişte alışkanlık durumlarından

bahsederken kullanılabilir. Bu durumda “used to” yapısı ile aynı anlamdadır fakat “durum” belirten fiillerde daha çok “used to” kullanılır:

v On winter evenings, we would all sit around the stove and fry chestnut on the stove.

(Kış akşamlarında sobanın etrafında oturur ve sobanın üzerinde kestane kızartırdık.)

v When they were children, they used to spend their holidays at their grandmother’s at the seaside. They would get up early every morning and they’d have a quick breakfast then they would run across the road to the beach.

(Çocukken tatillerini büyükannelerinin yanında deniz kenarında geçirirlerdi. Her sabah erkenden kalkar ve hızlıca kahvaltılarını yapar, daha sonra ad yol boyunca koşarak sahile giderlerdi.)

4. Geçmişte “willingness” yani istek belirten durumlarda genellikle olumsuz biçimde kullanılır:

v The CD wasn’t working so I brought it back to the shop but they wouldn’t give me my money back

because they said the box had already been opened.

(CD çalışmıyordu bu yüzden mağazaya geri götürdüm fakat paramı geri vermediler (geri vermeye niyetleri yoktu) çünkü kutunun açılmış olduğunu söylediler.)

v I aske her to help me, but she wouldn’t.

(Bana yardım etmesini istedim ama o etmedi (gönlü yoktu).)

“WOULD” KULLANIMLARI


202

5. “Reported Speech” yani dolaylı anlatım durumlarında “will” yerine kullanılır: v “I will pay for the food,” said Tom

Tom said that he would pay for the food.

(Tom yiyeceklerin parasını ödeyeceğini söyledi.) v “I will be in Sivas on Monday,” she said.

She said that she would be in Sivas on Monday.

(Pazartesi Sivas’ta olacağını söyledi.)

6. Ricada ve teklifte bulunmak için “will” yapısı ile aynı anlamda ancak daha kibar durumlarda kullanılır: v Would you please help me?

(Lütfen yardımcı olabilir misiniz?)

v I would be glad to answer any questions.

(Sorularınızı cevaplamaktan memnun olurum.)

7. Bazı kalıplaşmış ifadelerde kullanılır: Would like / would love: istemek

Would rather / would prefer: tercih etmek

Would you mind ...?: Sakıncası var mı?

I would say / I would think / I would imagine / I would advise v I would like to thank everyone for your contributions.

(Katkılarınızdan dolayı herkese teşekkür etmek istiyorum.)

v I would rather go home now.

(Şu anda eve gitmeyi tercih ederim.)

v Would you mind talking a bit more quietly?

(Sakıncası yoksa biraz daha sessiz konuşabilir misiniz?)

v I would think that’s not the right answer.

(Ben bunun doğru cevap olmadığını düşünürdüm.)

v I’d say you are about 40.

(40 yaşlarında olduğunu söylerdim.)

v I would advise you to keep working on your grammar.

(Dilbilgisine çalışmaya devam etmenizi tavsiye ederdim.)


203

BAĞLAÇ 1. Because (Çünkü) anlamında sebep bildirmek için, “as + cümle” şeklinde kullanılır.

As nearly all drugs and medications can cause fatal damage, it is necessary for the pregnant to avoid them as much as possible.

(Hemen hemen bütün ilaçlar ve ilaç tedavileri ölümcül hasara sebep olabileceği için, hamilelerin bu ilaçlardan mümkün olduğunca kaçınmaları gerekir.)

2. Zaman belirtmek için, “as + cümle” şeklinde kullanılır. v As / just as = while / when / once (-iken, -dığında)

She broke her leg as he was playing tennis.

(Tenis oynarken bacağını kırdı.) Ayrıca:

v As soon as = once / after (-mez, -maz, sonra) As soon as the sun goes down, the temperature drops dramatically.

(Güneş batar batmaz, sıcaklık önemli ölçüde düşer.)

v As long as / so long as (-dığı sürece) As long as you stay in the US, you can improve your English speaking skill.

(ABD’de kaldığın sürece, İngilizce konuşma becerini geliştirebilirsin.)

3. “Gibi” anlamında “as + cümle” şeklinde kullanılır.

I’m used to all kinds of hard work, as you know, and I’m not afraid.

(Bildiğin gibi her türlü zor işe alışkınım ve korkmuyorum.)

4. Yine zaman belirtmek için “-dıkça” anlamında kullanılır. He started to understand the truths as he grew older.

(Büyüdükçe gerçekleri anlamaya başladı.)

5. “Sıfat / Zarf + as + cümle” = olsa da, rağmen

Strange as it may seem, there are more women drivers in Kuwait than there are in Turkey.

(Tuhaf görünse de, Kuveyt’de Türkiye’den daha fazla kadın sürücü vardır.) ZARF

6. “As + sıfat / zarf + as” yapısıyla “kadar” anlamında karşılaştırma amacıyla kullanılır.

I don’t play football as much as I used to.

(Eskiden oynadığım kadar futbol oynamıyorum.)

“AS” KULLANIMLARI


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PREPOSITION

7. “Olarak” anlamında = “As + isim” He has been working as an English teacher for 10 years in a high school.

(Bir lisede 10 yıldır İngilizce öğretmeni olarak çalışıyor.)

8. “-iken” anlamında = “As + isim” Born in Ukraine, he was brought to England as a baby, and spent his childhood in Liverpool.

(Ukrayna’da doğduktan sonra bebekken İngiltere’ye getirildi ve çocukluğunu Liverpool’da geçirdi.)

PHRASE

9. “As if / As though + cümle” = mış gibi She behaved as if her father wasn’t there.

(Babası orada yokmuş gibi davrandı.)

10. “As against + isim” = kıyasla Castro said globalization benefits only 20 per cent of the world’s people as against 80 per cent of others.

(Castro, küreselleşmenin dünyada yaşayan insanların %80’ine kıyasla sadece %20’sine fayda sağladığını söyledi.)

11. “As far as + cümle” = kadarı ile (As far as I know / remember / see / tell / understand / am concerned) As far as I understand, no one has complained about the financial crisis.

(Bildiğim kadarıyla hiç kimse ekonomik krizden şikayet etmiyor.)

12. “As for + isim” = ise, sorarsanız, -e gelince A theory is not a proven idea. As for a hypothesis, fact should be proved and stated clearly.

(Teori kanıtlanmamış bir fikirdir. Hipotezde ise, gerçek kanıtlanmalı ve açıkça belirtilmelidir.)

13. “As of / As from + isim” = -den itibaren As of today, the bank will be open for business from 9:30.

(Bugünden itibaren, banka sabah 9:30’dan sonra açık olacak.)

14. As is = olduğu gibi We’ve agreed to buy the house as is.

(Evi olduğu gibi satın almayı kabul ettik.)

15. As it is = zaten, hali hazırda I don’t want to hear any more complaints. I’ve got enough problems as it is.

(Daha fazla şikayet duymak istemiyorum. Zaten yeterince sorunumuz var.)


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16. “As regards + isim” = konusunda, bakımından, ile ilgili olarak, -e dair As regards the content, the program will cover important current issues.

(İçerik bakımından, bu program önemli güncel konuları kapsayacaktır.)

17. “As to + isim” = konusunda, bakımından, ile ilgili olarak, -e dair There is some doubt as to whether the information is totally accurate.

(Bilginin tamamen doğru olup olmadığına dair bazı şüpheler var.)

18. “As such” = aslında (genellikle olumsuz durumlarda) She is not really a maid as such; she just helps out in the house sometimes.

(Aslında o bir hizmetçi değil; sadece bazen ev işlerinde yardımcı oluyor.)

19. “As usual” = her zamanki gibi She was late for the meeting, as usual.

(Her zamanki gibi toplantıya geç kaldı.)

20. “As yet” = şimdiye kadar (olumsuz durumlarda) Police stated that there have been no arrests as yet.

(Polis şimdiye kadar hiçbir tutuklamanın yapılmadığını söyledi.)

21. “As well” cümle sonunda “-de, -da (also, too)” anlamında I’d like a cup of coffee, and a glass of water as well.

(Bir fincan kahve, bir bardak da su istiyorum.)

22. “As well as + isim” = -in yanı sıra, -e ek olarak As well as social problems, Nigeria has encountered financial problems lately.

(Nijerya sosyal problemlerin yanı sıra son zamanlarda ekonomik sorunlarla karşı karşıyadır.)

23. “Such as (veya such ... as) + isim” = gibi (örnekleme anlamında) The museum has paintings by impressionist artists such as Manet and Degas. The museum has paintings by such impressionist artists as Manet and Degas.

(Müzede Manet ve Degas gibi empresyonist (izlenimci) sanatçıların tabloları var.)

24. “So as to + V1” = amacıyla, için (in order to) All animals have special needs that need to be met so as to live with us.

(Bütün hayvanların bizimle birlikte yaşayabilmeleri için karşılanması gereken özel ihtiyaçları vardır.)

25. “Inasmuch as + cümle” = çünkü, -dığına göre Ann is guilty, inasmuch as she knew what the others were planning.

(Ann suçludur, çünkü diğerlerinin neler planladığını biliyordu.)


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26. “Much as + cümle” = rağmen, ise de Much as she needed the job, she had to refuse.

(İşe ihtiyacı olmasına rağmen, reddetmek zorunda kaldı.)

27. “The same as” = ile aynı Barbara’s suggestion was almost exactly the same as mine.

(Barbara’nın tavsiyesi benimkiyle tamamen aynıydı.)

28. “As and when + cümle” = -dığında, ne zaman olursa We don’t own a car, but we just rent one as and when we need it.

(Arabamız yok fakat ne zaman ihtiyacımız olsa bir tane kiralarız.)

1. Soru kelimesi olarak “Ne zaman” anlamında cümle başında:

v When did you leave the house?

(Evden ne zaman çıktın?) v When are you going on holiday?

(Ne zaman tatile gidiyorsun?) v When will we learn the results of the exam?

(Sınav sonuçlarını ne zaman öğreneceğiz?)

2. Zaman bağlacı olarak “-dığında” anlamında. Bu kullanımda zaman uyumu olmak zorundadır.

v When they die, plants give off gases such as carbon dioxide and methane.

(Bitkiler öldüklerinde karbondioksit ve metan gibi gazlar yayarlar.)

v She claims she was at a friend’s house when the murder took place.

(Cinayet olduğunda arkadaşının evinde olduğunu iddia ediyor.)

v When she learned that she was pregnant for her second baby, she feared that she wouldn’t be

able to cope with two children.

(İkinci bebeğine hamile olduğunu öğrendiğinde, iki çocukla başa çıkamayacağından korktu.)

v When lead is added to petrol, it improves the car’s performance.

(Benzine kurşun eklendiğinde arabanın performansını arttırır.)

“WHEN” KULLANIMLARI


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3. “Noun Clause” yani isim cümleciğinde “ne zaman” anlamında özne ya da nesne durumunda:

v I wonder when the new computers will arrive.

(Yeni bilgisayarların ne zaman geleceğini merak ediyorum.)

v I asked him when he was going to start work.

(Ona işe ne zaman başlayacağını sordum.)

v When the first man appeared on the earth is still a matter of wonder.

(İlk insanın dünyaya ne zaman geldiği hala merak konusu.)

4. “Adjective Clause” yani sıfat cümleciğinde zaman belirten bir ismi nitelemek için kullanılır:

v If we wait for the moment when everything is ready, we can never begin.

(Herşeyin hazır olduğu bir zamanı beklersek, asla başlayamayız.) v Mountaineering as a sport has developed since about 1857 when the Alpine Club was founded

in London.

(Bir spor olarak dağcılık, Londra’da Alpin Kulübü’nün kurulduğu 1857’den bu yana gelişmektedir.) v Imhotep, god of medicine, existed as a mythological figure in the minds of many scholars until the

end of the 19th century, when it was established that he was a real historical personage.

(Tıp tanrısı Imhotep, gerçek bir tarihi kişilik olduğunun tespit edildiği 19. yüzyılın sonuna kadar birçok bilim insanının zihninde mitolojik bir figür olarak yer almıştı.)

1. Cümlenin öznesi olarak kullanılabilir. Ayrıca bu kullanımda “It” yapısı cümle başına gelebilir ve

“to – infinitive” ‘it’ yapısının açıklayıcısı olabilir:

v To learn a second language is difficult.

It is difficult to learn a second language.

(İkinci dil öğrenmek zordur.)

v To be on time is not always possible.

It is not always possible to be on time.

(Bir yere zamanında gelmek her zaman mümkün değildir.)

v To ride a motorcycle without a helmet is difficult.

It is difficult to ride a motorcycle without a helmet.

(Kask takmadan motorsiklet kullanmak tehlikelidir.)

“TO – INFINITIVE” KULLANIMLARI


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2. Aşağıdaki fiillerden sonra gelebilir ve ‘to infinitive” önüne geldiği fiili isimleştirir:

Fiil Anlamı Örnek Cümle Afford Gücü yetmek I can’t afford to buy it. Agree Kabul etmek They agreed to help us. Appear Görünmek She appears to be tired. Arrange Düzenlemek I’ll arrange to meet you at the airport. Ask İstemek He asked to come with us. Can’t bear* Tahammül edememek I can’t bear to wait in long lines. Beg Yalvarmak He begged to come with us. Begin* Başlamak It began to rain Care Umrunda olmak I don’t care to see that show. Claim İddia etmek She claims to know a famous movie star. Consent Razı olmak She finally consented to marry him. Continue* Devam etmek She continued to speak. Decide Karar vermek I have decided to leave on Monday. Demand İstemek I demanded to know who is responsible. Deserve Hak etmek She deserves to win the prize. Expect Ümit etmek I expect to enter graduate school in the fall. Fail Başarısız olmak She failed to return the book to the library on time. Forget* Unutmak I forgot to mail the letter. Hate* Nefret etmek I hate to make silly mistakes. Hesitate Tereddüt etmek Don’t hesitate to ask for my help. Hope Ummak Jack hopes to arrive next week. Learn Öğrenmek He learned to play the piano. Like* Sevmek I like to go to the movies. Love* Sevmek I love to go to operas. Manage Başarmak She managed to finish her work early. Mean Kast etmek / istemek I didn’t mean to hurt your feelings. Need Gerekmek (modal) I need to have your opinion. Offer Teklif etmek They offered to help us. Plan Planlamak I’m planning to have a party. Prefer* Tercih etmek Ann prefers to walk to work. Prepare Hazırlanmak We prepared to welcome them. Pretend -mış gibi yapmak He pretends not to understand. Promise Söz vermek I promise not to be late. Refuse Reddetmek I refuse to believe his story. Regret* Pişman olmak I regret to tell you that you failed. Remember* Hatırlamak I remembered to lock the door. Seem Görünmek That cat seems to be friendly Can’t stand* Tahammül edememek I can’t bear to wait in long lines. Start* Başlamak It started to rain. Struggle Çabalamak I struggled to stay awake. Swear Yemin etmek She swore to tell the truth. Threaten Tehdit etmek She threatened to tell my parents. Try* Uğraşmak / Çalışmak I’m trying to learn English. Volunteer Gönüllü olmak He volunteered to help us. Wait Beklemek I will wait to hear from you. Want İstemek I want to tell you something. Wish Dilemek / İstemek She wishes to come with us.

* İşaretli fiiller Gerund (Ving) de alabilirler. * Kaynak: Betty Azar “Understanding and Using English Grammar”


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§ Kendisinden sonra “Zamir + to infinitive” alan fiiller:

Fiil Anlamı Örnek Cümle Advise* sb to do sth Tavsiye etmek She advised me to wait until tomorrow. Allow sb to do sth İzin vermek She allowed me to use her car. Ask sb to do sth İstemek I asked John to help us. Beg sb to do sth Yalvarmak They begged us to come. Cause sb to do sth Neden olmak Her laziness caused her to fail. Challenge sb to do sth Meydan okumak She challenged me to race her to the corner. Convince sb to do sth İkna etmek I couldn’t convince him to accept our help. Dare sb to do sth Cesaretlendirmek He dared me to do better than he had done. Encourage sb to do sth Cesaretlendirmek He encouraged me to try again. Expect sb to do sth Ümit etmek I expect you to be on time. Forbid sb to do sth Yasaklamak I forbid you to tell him. Force sb to do sth Zorlamak They forced him to tell the truth. Hire sb to do sth Kiralamak / İşe almak She hired a boy to mow the lawn. Instruct sb to do sth Talimat vermek He instructed them to be careful. Invite sb to do sth Davet etmek Harry invited the Johnsons to come to his party. Need sb to do sth İhtiyaç duymak We needed Chris to help us figure out the solution. Order sb to do sth Emretmek The judge ordered me to pay a fine. Permit sb to do sth İzin vermek He permitted the children to stay up late. Persuade sb to do sth İkna etmek I persuaded him to come for a visit. Remind sb to do sth Hatırlatmak She reminded me to lock the door. Require sb to do sth Gerektirmek/Şart koşmak Our teacher requires us to be on time Teach sb to do sth Öğretmek My borther taught me to swim. Tell sb to do sth Söylemek / Anlatmak The teacher told me to take these pills. Urge sb to do sth Teşvik etmek I urged him to apply for the job. Want sb to do sth İstemek I want you to be happy. Warn sb to do sth Uyarmak I warned you not to drive too fast.

* İşaretli fiil Gerund (Ving) de alabilirler. * Kaynak: Betty Azar “Understanding and Using English Grammar” 3. “Too” ve “Enough” yapılarıyla birlikte kullanılır:

a) Too + sıfat / zarf + (for sb) + to infinitive

v My little daughter is too young to swim.

(Küçük kızım yüzemeyecek kadar küçük.)

v Quantum physics is too difficult for me to understand.

(Kuantum fiziği benim anlayamayacağım kadar zor.)

v Two hours is too long to wait.

(İki saat beklemek için çok uzun.) (Bekleyemeyeceğim kadar uzun.) v The table was too heavy for someone to carry.

(Bu masa birisinin taşıyamayacağı kadar ağır.) v He runs too fast for me to catch.

(Yetişemeyeceğim kadar hızlı koşuyor.)


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b) Sıfat / Zarf + Enough + to infinitive Enough (+ İsim) + to infinitive v I am strong enough to lift that box.

(I have enough strength to lift that box.)

(Bu kutuyu kaldıracak kadar güçlüyüm.) v I’m not free enough to answer all the telephone calls.

(Tüm aramalara cevap verecek kadar müsait değilim.)

v She has enough money to pay for train fare and taxis.

(Tren bileti ve taksi ücretini ödeyecek kadar parası var.)

v Everyone is willing enough to vote for him.

(Herkes ona oy verecek kadar istekli.)

v They have enough uranium to build more than 30,000 bombs.

(30,000’den fazla bomba yapacak kadar uranyuma sahipler.) 4. Amaç belirten “in order to” anlamında sadece “to + V1” veya pasif yapıda “to be + V3” şeklinde de kullanılır: v They came here (in order) to study for YDS.

(YDS’ye çalışmak için buraya geldiler.) v I went to Gaziantep to eat some baklava.

(Baklava yemek için Gaziantep’e gittim.)

v We all need stress to achieve and do our best work.

(Başarılı olmak ve işimizi en iyi şekilde yapmak için hepimizin strese ihtiyacı var.) v You should be sincere to convince them.

(Onları ikna etmek için samimi olmalısın.)

v She is training every day to improve her performance.

(Performansı arttırmak için her gün çalışıyor.)


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5. Pek çok sıfattan sonra sıfatın anlamını tamamlamak için kullanılır: v We were sorry to hear the bad news.

(Kötü haberi duyduğumuz için üzgünüz.)

v I was surprised to see him at the meeting.

(Onu toplantıda gördüğüme şaşırdım.)

v He is reluctant to join us.

(Bize katılma konusunda isteksiz.)

v She is unfortunate to break her arm.

(Kolunu kırdığı için şanssız.)

v He is determined to pass the exam.

(Sınavı geçmeye kararlı.) 6. Bazı fiillerden sonra isim cümleciği şeklinde “WH- kelimeleri + To V1” şeklinde kullanılır:

v I don’t know how to repair my car.

(Arabamı nasıl tamir edebileceğimi bilmiyorum.)

v The students finally realized what to do to learn new words.

(Öğrenciler yeni kelimeler öğrenmek için ne yapmaları gerektiğini sonunda anladılar.)

v I can’t decide whether to change my mind.

(Fikrimi değiştirip değiştirmeyeceğime karar veremiyorum.)

7. Passive konusunda bahsedilen, cümlenin nesnesi isim cümlesi olduğu durumda “passive + to infinitive” şeklinde kullanılır: v She is claimed to suffer from cancer.

(Onun kansere yakalandığı iddia ediliyor.) v They were thought to be waiting for the resuts of the exam.

(Onların sınav sonuçlarını beklediği sanılıyordu.) v Many plant and animal habitats are believed to be destroyed by humans.

(Pek çok bitki ve hayvan yaşam alanlarının insanlar tarafından tahrip edildiğine inanılıyor.)


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v They are believed to have robbed the bank.

(Onların bankayı soyduğuna inanılıyor.) v They reported that hundreds of people had been injured in the disaster .

(Faciada yüzlerce insanın yaralandığını bildirdiler.)

8. Adjective clause indirgeme işlemi yapılırken “superlative, the first / the second / the last, the

only” yapılarından sonra “to infinitive” kullanılır:

v She was the oldest person to undergo a heart transplant operation. (O, kalp nakli yapılan en yaşlı kişiydi.)

v Miray is the only person to understand me. (Miray beni anlayan tek kişidir.)

v Selin is the first person to have passed this exam.

(Selin bu sınavı geçen ilk kişidir.)

v This car is the cheapest one to be bought in this city. (Bu araba bu şehirde alınabilecek en ucuz araba.)

1. SO DO I

Genellikle konuşma kalıpları içerisinde karşımıza çıkacak olan bu yapı ilk konuşmacının söylemiş olduğu olumlu bir cümleye cevaben ikinci konuşmacının da aynı eylemi yaptığını söylemek için kullanılan bir ifadedir. “Ben de, o da, biz de, vs.” şeklinde Türkçeye çevrilir. Dikkat edilmesi gereken nokta ise şudur: ikinci konuşmacının cümlesinde ifade edilen zamanın yardımcı fiili birinci konuşmacının cümlesindeki zamanla aynı olmalıdır.

v A: I am very thirsty. B: So am I.

(A: Çok susadım. B: Ben de.)

v A: I feel very tired. B: So do I.

(A: Çok yorgun hissediyorum. B: Ben de.)

SO DO I / NEITHER DO I


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v A: What are you doing tonight? B: I have got loads of exams this week and I will study. A: So will I.

(A: Bu akşam ne yapıyorsun? B: Bu hafta bir sürü sınavım var ve çalışacağım. A: Ben de.)

v They all joined the new gym and after three weeks so did he.

(Onların hepsi yeni spor salonuna kaydoldu ve üç hafta sonra o da (kaydoldu).)

v My father has come to Sivas, and so has my sister.

(Babam Sivas’a geldi, ve kız kardeşim de (geldi).)

§ Aynı anlamı “too” yapısı ile de vermek mümkündür: v They all joined the new gym and after three weeks he did too.

(Onların hepsi yeni spor salonuna kaydoldu ve üç hafta sonra o da (kaydoldu).)

v A: I’m starting to feel hungry.

B: Me too. (So am I.)

(A: Acıkmaya başlıyorum? B: Ben de.)

v A: Have you decided? B: I think I’ll have the soup. A: I will too.

(A: Karar verdin mi? B: Sanırım çorba alacağım. A: Ben de.)

2. NEITHER DO I

Bu yapı ise ilk konuşmacının söylemiş olduğu olumsuz bir cümleye cevaben ikinci konuşmacının da aynı eylemi yaptığını söylemek için kullanılan bir ifadedir. “Ben de, o da, biz de, vs.” şeklinde Türkçeye çevrilir. Aynı şekilde ikinci konuşmacının cümlesinde ifade edilen zamanın yardımcı fiili birinci konuşmacının cümlesindeki zamanla aynı olmalıdır. Bu yapıda “Nor do I” kullanımı da aynı anlama gelecek şekilde kullanılabilir.

v A: I hate mice. I can’t even look at a picture of a mouse. B: Neither can I. (Nor can I.)

(A: Farelerden nefret ediyorum. Fare resmine bile bakamıyorum B: ben de (sevmiyorum).)

v A: I don’t like political parties. B: Neither do I. (Nor do I.)

(A: Siyasi partileri sevmem. B: Ben de (sevmem).)


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v A: I don’t like pop music. B: Me neither. (= Neither do I. / Nor do I.)

(A: Pop müzik sevmem. B: Ben de (sevmem).)

v I didn’t believe a word she said, and neither did the police.

(Onun söylediklerinin tek bir kelimesine inanmadım, ve polis de (inanmadı).)

v We won’t stay at a hotel, and neither will they.

(Otelde kalmayacağız, ve onlar da (kalmayacak).)

§ Aynı anlamı “either” yapısı ile de vermek mümkündür fakat bu durumda ‘either’ yapısının olduğu cümle de olumsuz olması gerekir:

v A: I haven’t ever tasted caviar. B: I haven’t either.

(A: Hiç havyar yemedim. B: Ben de (yemedim).)

v A: I didn’t see her at the concert. B: I didn’t either.

(A: Onu konserde görmedim. B: Ben de (görmedim).)

v I don’t believe everything I heard, and most of my friends don’t either.

(Duyduğum herşeye inanmam, ve pek çok arkadaşım da (inanmaz).)

Cümle sonunda kullanılan ve konuşmacının bahsettiği bilginin doğru olduğundan emin olmak için veya onay almak için sorduğu “değil mi?” anlamında gelen soru yapılarıdır. Bu soruda yardımcı fiil kullanılması gerekir ve bu yardımcı fiil ana cümlenin zamanı ile aynı olması gerekir. Genellikle ana cümle olumlu ise “değil mi?” sorusu olumsuz, ana cümle olumsuz ise “değil mi? sorusu olumlu olur. Dikkat edilmesi gereken nokta ise şudur: “değil mi?” sorusunun öznesi her zaman bir zamir olmalıdır.

v Sivas is a nice city, isn’t it? v Your mother wasn’t Turkish, was she? v Your parents moved to Ankara, didn’t they? v The shops don’t open till 9:30, do they? v You could sell it on the Interner, couldn’t you? v Metin will go to army this year, won’t he? v Your sister is working as a tourist guide, isn’t she? v They haven’t arrive, have they? v This man can’t speak English, can he? v Derya used to smoke, didn’t she?

TAG QUESTIONS


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§ Imperative (emir cümlesi) yapılarda “will” ya da “would” şeklinde yapılır ve “tamam mı?” anlamı katar:

v Phone me this evening, will you? v Turn the TV down, will you? v Don’t shout, will you? v Come home early, will you? v Don’t forget to pay the bills, will you?

§ “I am” ile oluşturulan bir cümlenin “değil mi?” soruları “Aren’t I?” veya “Am I not?” şeklinde

yapılır: v I am handsome, aren’t I / am I not? v I am supposed to here on time, aren’t I? v I am invited to the party, aren’t I?

§ “Let’s” ile oluşturulan bir cümlenin “değil mi?” soruları “Shall we?” şeklinde yapılır:

v Let’s play backgammon, shall we? v Let’s listen some relaxing music, shall we? v Let’s study, shall we?

§ “Never, Scarcely, Hardly, Nothing, Nobodoy, Nothing” gibi olumsuzluk belirten ifadelerin

“değil mi?” soruları olumlu şekilde oluşturulur:

v You have never been there, have you? v They hardly see each other, do they? v Nothing is more important than money for him, is it?

§ Özne konumunda belirsiz kişi zamirlerinin (everybody, somebody, nobody, anybody, vs.) “değil mi? soruları “they” ile, belirsiz nesne zamirlerinin (everything, something, nothing, anything) ise “it” ile yapılır:

v Nobody called on the phone, did they? v Everyone can learn how to swim, can’t they? v Nothing was wrong, was it?

§ İsim cümleciği (Noun clause) ile oluşturulmuş bir cümlede “değil mi?” sorusu ana cümlenin öznesine göre değil isim cümlesinin öznesine göre yapılır.

v I think they are studying hard, aren’t they? v She said that global warming is getting worse, isn’t it? v He claims that animals don’t have vocal tract, do they?


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Bu yapı “ile ilgili” anlamındadır ve “be” veya “have” ile birlikte kullanılır: Be / have to do with something Be / have nothing to do with somebody / something Be / have something to do with something Be / have anything to do with somebody / something v My question has to do with last week’s assignment.

(Benim sorum geçen haftaki ödevle ilgili.)

v I can’t always open my e-mails – it has something to do with the type of attachment they come with.

(E-postalarımı her zaman açamıyorum – bu durum e-postalarla birlikte gelen ilişik türleriyle iligili.)

v I’m not sure what he does exactly – I think it’s something to do with finance.

(Onun tam olarak ne yaptığından emin değilim – finansla ilgili birşey sanırım.)

v We are nothing to do with the firm that has the offices next door.

(Yan dairede ofisleri olan firmayla hiç ilgimiz yok.)

v In the evening, he likes to read books and articles that have nothing to do with his work.

(Akşamları, işiyle ilgisi olmayan kitap ve makaleler okumayı sever.)

v This argument has nothing to do with me.

(Bu tartışmanın benimle ilgisi yok.)

v Much of the bill has nothing to do with civil rights.

(Kanun tasarısının çoğunun vatandaşlık haklarıyla ilgisi yoktur.)

v She refused to have anything (more) to do with him after he was arrested for drinking and driving.

(Alkollü araç kullanmaktan tutuklandıktan sonra onunla ilgili herhangi birşey yapmayı reddetti.)

BE / HAVE TO DO WITH


217

Bu kullanım sıralama yapılırken “ikinci sırada” şeklinde Türkçeye çevrilir. Kendisinden önce bahsedilen kelime ikinci sırada, sonraki yapı ise birinci sıradadır: v The activity of coffee trading on the international market is second only to petroleum. (YDS 2013

Sonbahar)

(Uluslararası piyasada kahve ticareti petrolden sonra ikinci sıradadır.)

v Rice is second only to corn as the state’s major crop.

(Ülkenin temel mahsülleri olarak ilk sırada mısır, ikinci sırada pirinç bulunmaktadır.)

v In terms of scoring goals, Ronaldo is second only to Messi.

(En çok golü Messi, hemen ardından Ronaldo atmaktadır.)

v The Euro will have a circulation second only to that of the dollar.

(Euro, dolardan sonra sirkülasyon bakımından ikinci sırada yer alır.)

v Colorectal cancer ranks second only to lung cancer as a cause of cancer mortality in the USA and other Western countries.

(ABD ve diğer batı ülkelerinde kanser ölümlerinin sebebi olarak ilk sırada akciğer kanseri, ikinci sırada ise kalın bağırsak kanseri bulunmaktadır.)

v In terms of career, Kobe Bryant is second only to Michael Jordan in past few decades.

(Kariyer bakımından, son birkaç on yılda ilk sırada Michael Jordan ardından Kobe Bryant gelir.)

SECOND ONLY TO

219

KONU TESTLERİ

VE ÇIKMIŞ SORULAR

Tense / Passive / Modals Tests

220

TENSE / PASSIVE / MODALS ÖZGÜN SORULAR

1. In the last few decades of the twentieth

century, scientists ---- observing a rapid and alarming global decline in numerous species of amphibians.

A) began B) have begun C) would have begun D) had begun E) will begin

2. For hundreds of thousands of years,

people ---- for food and clothing.

A) hunts B) are hunting C) have hunted D) had hunted E) had been hunting

3. In the second century B.C., the Greek

scientist Galen ---- some of the first medical experiments on living animals.

A) has been conducting B) had conducted C) would conduct D) conducted E) will have been conducted

4. Between 10,000 and 18,000 years ago,

humans ---- to domesticate animals such as dogs, goats, sheep, and chickens as beasts of burden and as food.

A) have begun B) began C) was beginning D) will begin E) had begun

5. For at least 2,500 years, animals ---- in circuses and other forms of entertainment. A) is used B) was used C) used D) have used E) have been used

6. Birds ---- thirty times the amount of energy as reptiles of similar size.

A) consumed B) is consumed C) may consume D) will consume E) should have consumed

7. Since World War II, the number of

scientific experiments involving animals ---- dramatically.

A) increases B) increased C) has increased D) will be increasing E) is increasing

8. An underground mystery unique to

Philadelhia ---- in 2005 by using GPR.

A) was finally revelaed B) has been finally revealed C) finally revealed D) had been finally revealed E) had finally revealed

TEST 1


221

9. Big efforts ---- in recent years to increase the number of those ︎ ︎ ︎ ︎ ︎ ︎ who carry an organ donation card, with a good deal of success.

A) will be made B) have been made C) would be made D) are made E) can be made

10. In the second/ninth century, when the

Islamic Empire ---- large numbers of Hellenized peoples, Muslim clerics and theologians ---- the role of Greek science in a religious society.

A) had embraced / was debating B) would embrace / had debated C) was embracing / could have debated D) embraced / debated E) has embraced / have debated

11. It ---- that birds descended from two-footed, lizard-like reptiles that ---- in the Jurassic period some 208 million years ago.

A) has believed / had lived B) is believed / lived C) was believed / was living D) is to believe / would live E) had been believed / had lived

12. It ---- that a flying pigeon ---- one-fourth

of its air intake for breathing and three-fourths for cooling.

A) has been estimated / uses B) is estimated / would use C) was estimated / used D) is being estimated / had used E) would be estimated / will have used

13. Until recently, scientists ---- that Venus ---- a very stable climate.

A) have believed / has B) believes / has had C) had believed / is to have D) believed / had E) will believe / must have

14. When he ---- the one and only ruler of

the Frankish lands in AD 771, Charlemagne ---- to make his kingdom bigger and stronger.

A) has become / would want B) becomes / will want C) was becoming / had wanted D) had become / had wanted E) became / wanted

15. Some deserts ---- large amounts of rain

in the form of heavy thunderstorms, but these ---- for a short time and run off rapidly.

A) receive / occur B) received / has occurred C) had received / occurred D) will receive / must occur E) has received / will have occurred

16. In 1687, the British physicist Sir Isaac

Newton ---- a startling announcement—the force that makes an apple fall to the ground is the same force that ---- planets in their orbits.

A) has made / is keeping B) made / keeps C) had made / has kept D) was making / had kept E) was to make / will keep


222

17. Some of the most impressive advances in science ---- when a theory or equation ---- a wide range of phenomena in one elegant statement or formula.

A) has occurred / will explain B) occurred / was explaining C) occurs / explains D) had been occurring / explained E) would have occurred / had explained

18. The importance of biodiversity ---- by people of many cultures and backgrounds who understand the multitude of functions that it ---- for humans, from providing food to filtering waste.

A) is recognized / will serve B) was recognized / would serve C) had been recognized / served D) will be recognized / has been serving E) has been recognized / serves

19. Historians ---- that the very first wheels ---- 8,000 years ago by potters to make pots.

A) believe / were used B) believed / had been used C) have believed / have been used D) were believing / would be used E) could believe / might be used

20. All of the world’s nuclear power stations ---- by fission, but scientists hope to build fusion stations because they ---- much cleaner.

A) worked / are B) have worked / were C) work / will be D) are to work / should be E) are working / used to be

1. Indiscriminate hunting, overfishing, and

pollution of the oceans ---- many species to the brink of extinction.

A) pushed B) had pushed C) must push D) used to push E) have pushed

2. Venus ---- undeniably different from our

planet on the outside; however, scientists believe that the interiors of the two worlds ---- similar.

A) has been / will be B) is / may be C) can be / must be D) was / are E) should be / have been

3. One of the earliest maps of the Americas following their discovery by Christopher Columbus ---- by a Turkish naval captain, Piri Re’is, and it ---- generations of historians, for a variety of reasons.

A) has been made / fascinated B) could be made / used to fascinate C) was to made / is fascinating D) was made / has fascinated E) had been made / fascinates

4. The history of cats ---- 12 million years to the time when felines, belonging to the cat family, ---- to populate the Earth.

A) has gone back / begin B) can go back / are to begin C) goes back / began D) went back / had begun E) will go back / have begun

TEST 2


223

5. The colonization of America ---- about the discovery of an extraordinary variety of plants that ---- as food for a long time.

A) brought / have been used B) has brought / are used C) bring / were used D) had brought / could be used E) would bring / should be used

6. Oxen ---- dangerous and powerful animals but ---- fundamental to the agricultural lifestyles of the Mesopotamians and the people of the Bible.

A) were / had been B) have been / can be C) are / were D) can be / would be E) had been / are

7. The sun, together with the planets and other bodies that spin in orbits around it, ---- the solar system, which ---- about 4.6 million years ago.

A) made up / has formed B) make up / formed C) have made up / could form D) had made up / had formed E) can make up / would form

8. The first permanent artificial heart implant operation ---- in 1982, and the artificial heart ---- a notable development since then.

A) was being performed / had experienced B) had been performed / has been

experiencing C) was performed / has experienced D) would be performed / is experiencing E) has been perform / experienced

9. In recent years, planets ---- around hundreds of other stars, showing that our Solar System ---- one of billions in our galaxy.

A) were seen / should be B) are seen / used to be C) would be seen / must be D) have been seen / may be E) had been seen / could be

10. Islam, like Judaism and Christianity, ----

in the Middle East, and today it ---- behind only Buddhism and Christianity as the most populous religion in the world.

A) began / ranks B) has begun / must rank C) begins / ranked D) had begun / should rank E) was beginning / has ranked

11. Humans ---- in sub-Saharan Africa, and

since that time, there ---- humans living in the region.

A) originates / were B) originated / have been C) had originated / should be D) was originating / are E) could have originated / will be

12. When Abraham Lincoln ---- president, 11

Southern states feared he ---- slavery and left the Union.

A) had become / should abolish B) becomes / will abolish C) have become / would be abolishing D) could become / would have abolished E) became / would abolish


224

13. Experts ---- that more than 1,000 endangered mammals ---- extinction in the near future.

A) will estimate / might face B) estimated / faced C) had estimated / will face D) estimate / may face E) have estimated / have faced

14. Some Ancient Greek philosophers

thought atoms ---- the smallest possible bits of matter and ---- down further.

A) are / cannot be broken B) were / couldn’t be broken C) had been / shouldn’t be broken D) may be / mustn’t be broken E) would be / may not have been broken

15. The brain ---- the images that each eye generates separately as if they ---- a single image.

A) will proceed / have been B) proceeded / are C) has proceeded / can be D) can process / would be E) processes / were

16. In his supremely important Principia,

English scientist Isaac Newton, the pioneer of the modern physics, ---- how gravity ---- planets in elliptical orbits around the Sun.

A) had shown / kept B) would show / had kept C) showed / keeps D) has shown / may keep E) show / must keep

17. Scientists ---- the body in greater detail than any object in history, yet many mysteries ----.

A) are studying / remained B) have studied / remain C) studied / had remained D) study / used to remain E) were studying / will remain

18. Renaissance painters ---- to show their subjects as realistically as possible and ---- their paintings to look like a window onto another scene, rather than a flat plane filled with characters.

A) would try / had wanted B) have tried / want C) tried / wanted D) will try / have wanted E) had tried / used to want

19. The Industrial Revolution ---- new machines that ---- the work of dozens of workers.

A) had brought / did B) brought / could do C) have brought / can do D) were to bring / have done E) brings / will do

20. Archaeologists ---- that a large volcanic

eruption on the Aegean island of Thera ---- many Cretan cities, causing the civilization's decline.

A) have believed / used to destroy B) believed / destroys C) could believe / has destroyed D) had believed / would destroy E) believe / destroyed


225

1. Since humans ---- to record the events of

the past, their understanding of those events ---- widely depending on when they wrote, who they were, and where they were from.

A) has begun / varied B) had begun / would varies C) was beginning / had varied D) began / has varied E) begins / varies

2. In early colonial America, realizing that

two or three of their children ---- until age ten, Puritan parents ---- their offspring to family and friends.

A) will not survive / are sending B) would not survive / sent C) did not survive / had sent D) could not survive / have sent E) may not survive / will send

3. Linguistic evidence ---- that the Malagasy ---- in Madagascar as far back as 2,000 years ago.

A) had suggested / were arriving B) suggests / arrived C) suggested / should arrive D) has suggested / arrive E) could suggest / would arrive

4. The first recorded use of an automobile ---- to 1769, when Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot ---- a steam-propelled car.

A) dated back / had created B) have dated back / was creating C) could date back / had to create D) dates back / created E) will date back / creates

5. Archaeological evidence ---- that sweet potatoes ---- in Peru for as long as 5,000 years.

A) suggested / should have been grown B) has suggested / had to be grown C) is to suggest / would have been grown D) had suggested / were grown E) suggests / may have been grown

6. The pleasures of coffee, tea, and chocolate drinking ---- to humans for centuries, but the isolation of caffeine from these beverages ---- only in the early 1800s.

A) had been known / could be accomplished B) were known / had been accomplished C) are known / would be accomplished D) may be known / might be accomplished E) have been known / was accomplished

7. One of the first Muslim alchemists ---- to be Prince Khalid Ibn Yazid, who ---- in the late seventh and early eighth centuries.

A) was thought / was working B) has been thought / has worked C) can be thought / had worked D) is thought / worked E) had been thought / would work

8. People in ancient Maya civilization ---- people to the water god, Chaak, over limestone sinkholes, which ---- to be doors to the underworld.

A) had sacrificed / are believed B) sacrifice / can be believed C) sacrificed / were believed D) would sacrifice / may be believed E) have sacrificed / were to be believed

TEST 3


226

9. The thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment ---- to replace the teachings of Church with individual observation, experiment, and logic, so their radical ideas ---- wars, revolutions, and the beginnings of modern science.

A) wanted / brought B) want / have brought C) were to want / had brought D) have wanted / used to bring E) had wanted / could have brought

10. Whether prehistoric Europeans possibly ---- to the Americas prior to Columbus’s discovery ---- a question of interest for more than 200 years.

A) migrated / has been B) migrate / was C) was migrating / is D) have migrated / had been E) had migrated / can be

11. Hitler’s own medical records ---- that he ---- eight injections a day of methamphetamine, a drug known to create paranoia and unpredictable behavior when administered in large dosages.

A) have shown / should receive B) showed / has received C) show / received D) may show / had received E) are showing / would receive

12. Decades of research by organizational scientists, psychologists, economists and demographers ---- that socially diverse groups ---- more innovative than homogeneous groups.

A) have shown / are B) showed / will be C) show / must be D) is showing / were E) had shown / can be

13. The researchers ---- evidence that cognitive style ---- political beliefs.

A) find / influence B) have found / influenced C) found / might influence D) are to find / can influence E) will find / must influence

14. Experts ---- that ethnic minorities ---- over one-third of the U.S. population within the next few decades.

A) predict / will account for B) are predicted / account for C) predicted / accounted for D) were predicted / may account for E) are predicting / have accounted for

15. New evidence ---- the solar system's early eras ---- by wandering worlds and staggering displays of interplanetary destruction.

A) has suggested / are defined B) suggests / were defined C) are suggesting / could define D) suggested / have defined E) would suggest / can be defined

16. Recent research ---- that many unseen factors ---- our political beliefs, from our cultural cognitive style to the genes that code for neurotransmitter receptors.

A) revealed / should affect B) has revealed / affected C) can reveal / are affecting D) had revealed / will affect E) reveals / affect


227

17. Overall tobacco use among U.S. middle and high school students ---- since 2011, a period in which use of electronic cigarettes ---- dramatically.

A) did not change / has increased B) do not change / increases C) has not changed / increased D) are not changing / would increase E) had not changed / had increased

18. By the 1950s, behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory ---- the most influential schools of thought in psychology, but many psychologists ---- these theoretical orientations unappealing.

A) have become / find B) become / can find C) became / should find D) had become / found E) are becoming / were to find

19. As a result of the growth of the tumors, mutations ---- and populations of genetically distinct cells ----.

A) have arisen / emerged B) arose / could emerge C) can arise / should emerge D) arise / emerge E) had arisen / have emerged

20. The immune system ---- threats, in part, by surveying the surfaces of cells, looking for molecules called antigens that ---- trouble within.

A) identified / signalled B) may identify / would signal C) has identified / must signal D) will identify / have to signal E) identifies / can signal


228

TENSE / MODAL / PASSIVE ÇIKMIŞ SORULAR

1. In general, the body ---- nutrients best

from foods in which the nutrients are diluted and dispersed among other ingredients that ---- their absorption.

A) can absorb / would have facilitated B) absorbs / may facilitate C) were to absorb / used to facilitate D) has absorbed / used to facilitate E) might absorb / must have facilitated

2. Although their responses ---- as obvious

as those of animals, plants ---- the capacity to respond to light, gravity, water, touch, and other stimuli.

A) may not be / have B) have not been / had C) were not / have had D) had not been / are having E) would not be / would have had

3. More than 50 years ago, six European

nations ---- to submit their coal and steel industries to common management, so that no single country ---- the weapons of war to be used against another.

A) have agreed / had fabricated B) agreed / could fabricate C) had agreed / have fabricated D) agree / will fabricate E) may have agreed / had been fabricating

4. Most anthropologists think man ---- South America around 12,000 years ago, although some ---- it much earlier.

A) has settled / may have put B) settles / are putting C) had settled / were putting D) was settling / had put E) settled / have put

5. At the end of the First World War, the leaders of victorious countries gathered at Versailles, and there, they ---- to decide what penalties Germany, Austria and other allies ----.

A) tried / would have to pay B) had tried / must have paid C) were trying / were paying D) used to try / might have paid E) could try / should have paid

6. In some cases, we ---- sufficient data on

old events, not because of a lack of imagination but because the appropriate technology ---- available at the time.

A) would not have / is not B) should not have / had not been C) did not have / has not been D) do not have / was not E) could not have / will not be

7. The tradition of sculpting in clay ---- as

early as AD 800, and ultimately it ---- as the point of departure for related works that were cast in metal.

A) should have developed / has served B) has developed / had served C) may have developed / served D) would have developed / will serve E) could have developed / will have served

8. Tablet computers ---- some advantages

for form-filling or updating your status on a social network, but you ---- it hard to get any real work done.

A) are offering / must find B) have been offering / should find C) can offer / will have to find D) had offered / would have found E) might offer / could find

TEST 4


229

9. Conger eels, which ---- any large marine eels of the family Congridae, ---- in shallow water, hiding in crevices during the day and are active by night, feeding on fish and crabs.

A) were to be / used to live B) used to be / will live C) are to be / might have lived D) are / live E) could be / have lived

10. Although she ---- properly yet, the

recipient of the world’s first face transplant ---- well, according to the first scientific report of the operation.

A) hadn’t smiled / would have done B) didn’t smile / will do C) doesn’t smile / may have done D) couldn’t have smiled / does E) can’t smile / is doing

11. With its superior firepower, NATO ----

any battle, but it ---- the war in Afghanistan.

A) had won / loses B) can win / is losing C) has won / lost D) would have won / had lost E) is winning / was losing

12. The price of crude oil ---- by 40% this

year due to the continuing risk of disruption in the Middle East, which ---- for one-third of global production.

A) surges / accounted B) had surged / has accounted C) has surged / accounts D) surged / had accounted E) will surge / could have accounted

13. With the spread of scholastic thought in the Middle Age Europe, there ---- some illogical approaches, which still ---- the minds of writers and scientists.

A) have occurred / shaped B) occurred / shape C) have occurred / have shaped D) was occurring / had shaped E) is occurring / were shaping

14. Nineteenth-century military helmets ----

than they now appear, but even at their best they ---- the way to the future of head protection.

A) have been better designed / do not point B) could be better designed / would not point C) are better designed / will not point D) may have been better designed / did not

point E) can be better designed / had not pointed

15. Cabbage ---- as early as 2000 B.C., and

the commercial varieties now ---- Brussels sprouts, common cabbage, sprouting broccoli, and kohlrabi.

A) might have been cultivated / have included B) had been cultivated / included C) would be cultivated / used to include D) would have been cultivated / can include E) was cultivated / include

16. Investigations by modern doctors ----

that Catherine the Great of Russia ---- from syphilis.

A) have suggested / has suffered B) suggest / suffered C) had suggested / was suffering D) may have suggested / would have suffered E) suggested / suffers


230

17. This morning it ---- in the news that the great Italian tenor Pavarotti ---- of pancreatic cancer soon after midnight.

A) had been reported / died B) is reported / would die C) is being reported / dies D) was reported / had died E) has been reported / could have died

18. The United States ---- expensive high-

tech solutions to the problem of land-mine clearance, but simpler methods ---- more preferable.

A) should pursue / were B) pursues / had been C) pursued / will have been D) would pursue / would have been E) has pursued / may be

19. Training schemes in the United

Kingdom ---- by the government as unemployment ----.

A) were encouraged / will have worsened B) would be encouraged / had been worsened C) have been encouraged / has worsened D) had been encouraged / may worsen E) are encouraged / would have worsened

20. After the Germanic invasions, Celtic

cultures, which in pre-Roman times ---- most of Western Europe, ---- almost entirely to the British Isles. A) had covered / were confined B) have been covering / have been confined C) had been covering / would be confined D) have covered / could have been confined E) were covering / had been confined

1. Of all the arts, it ---- to classical music

that Germany ---- the greatest contribution.

A) had been / made B) is / has made C) has been / had made D) was / will have made E) might be / would have made

2. Cross-border shopping is a fundamental

right under EU law and ---- as a form of tax evasion.

A) must not have been regarded B) had not been regarded C) should not be regarded D) would not have been regarded E) was not being regarded

3. The word ‘acupuncture’ ---- from a Dutch

physician, William Ten Rhyne, who ---- in Japan during the latter part of the 17th century.

A) was originating / lived B) originates / has been living C) originated / had been living D) had originated / could have lived E) is originating / was living

4. In the 2004 movie Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, Clementine ---- a big fight with her boyfriend, Joel, so she ---- him erased from her mind by using a machine.

A) had / is getting B) would have / had got C) has had / would have got D) has / gets E) will have / is to get

TEST 5


231

5. By the late 20th century, the patterns of disease in the US ---- so dramatically that the major causes of death ---- from infectious diseases to chronic diseases.

A) changed / will have shifted B) change / were shifting C) had changed / shifted D) are changing / had shifted E) have changed / would have shifted

6. Chile ---- a state-funded national health

service for 30 years when it ---- to go for a mixed approach allowing private health services to be also offered.

A) will be running / was deciding B) was running / had been decided C) has been running / is deciding D) had been running / decided E) is running / has decided

7. Wasted energy from your body movements ---- enough to power your house, but this energy ---- your cell phone in the near future.

A) need not be / would have charged B) should not be / will have been charging C) could not have been / would charge D) must not have been / will have charged E) may not be / will be charging

8. Investigators ---- various methods over

the years to search for genes that ---- to intelligence, which is a so-called quantitative trait.

A) are using / should contribute B) have used / might contribute C) use / will contribute D) may use / contributed E) would use / are going to contribute

9. New animal trials ---- hope that a cure based on transplanting stem cells ---- a reality for patients with Parkinson’s in the future.

A) gave / becomes B) will give / have become C) could have given / will become D) have given / became E) give / could become

10. Researchers in the 1890s ---- the atom

as a homogenous sphere of positive charge inside of which there ---- tiny negatively charged electrons.

A) visualized / were B) have visualized / had been C) had visualized / have been D) will visualize / are E) were visualizing / would have been

11. Since the early 1990s, people ---- to

professionals called “life coaches” for help in managing major changes in their lives in the general belief that they ---- solutions.

A) had turned / might have provided B) turned / are providing C) have turned / could have provided D) are turning / had provided E) have been turning / provide

12. Contrary to the prevailing economic

view, some experts ---- that more free trade ---- the global crisis.

A) have said / would not have eased B) said / is not going to ease C) are saying / had not eased D) say / will not ease E) were saying / has not eased


232

13. To help secure the Union’s frontiers against illegal immigrants, the European Union ---- ideas for a 21st century integrated border management system that ---- heavily on advanced technology.

A) considered / has been relying B) is considering / will rely C) had considered / relies D) would consider / had relied E) will be considering / relied

14. Psychologists from many different

countries ---- their findings in an effort to understand the mystery of how the brain ----.

A) combined / had functioned B) have combined / functions C) combine / functioned D) will combine / was functioning E) had combined / has functioned

15. Some new research findings ---- that

growing old ---- from stress and oxidative damage to cells and DNA.

A) suggest / may not result B) suggested / has not resulted C) will suggest / did not result D) had suggested / would not result E) have suggested / had not resulted

16. According to a study led by a group of researchers in Britain, breast screening ---- the number of breast cancer deaths by 30 per cent since the national campaign ---- in 1989.

A) reduced / has been introduced B) has reduced / was introduced C) reduces / is introduced D) may reduce / should be introduced E) was reducing / had been introduced

17. Scientists ---- various methods over the years to search for genes that ---- to the development of human intelligence.

A) have used / may have contributed B) use / will contribute C) used / have contributed D) had used / contribute E) are using / should contribute

18. New experiments on animals ---- hope

that a cure based on transplanting stem cells ---- a reality in the future for patients with Parkinson’s disease.

A) could have given / had become B) gave / becomes C) will give / has become D) give / could become E) had given / became

19. Over the last few years, physicians ----

pharmacogenetic testing to identify thousands of childhood leukaemia sufferers whose genes ---- them to a severe reaction to certain drugs.

A) have used / predispose B) used / would have predisposed C) had used / will predispose D) were using / must predispose E) use / had predisposed

20. We ---- chemistry as the science of the

composition and structure of materials and of the changes that materials ----.

A) had defined / underwent B) can define / undergo C) have defined / had undergone D) defined / will have undergone E) define / would have undergone


233

1. For more than three thousand years, from

the age of the pharaohs until the 1500s, people ---- that the sun, the stars, and the planets ---- around the earth.

A) have believed / had moved B) believe / have moved C) had believed / move D) were believing / could have moved E) believed / moved

2. A battery cell that ---- popular during the

nineteenth century ---- in 1836 by the English chemist John Frederick Daniell.

A) had become / had been constructed B) would have become / has been constructed C) is to become / is constructed D) became / was constructed E) will become / may have been constructed

3. Cells that ---- the fastest, such as those in

the blood-forming tissues in bone marrow, ---- most seriously by nuclear radiations.

A) will divide / must have been affected B) have divided / had been affected C) divided / will be affected D) had divided / have been affected E) divide / are affected

4. Janet Malcolm, who is an admired

photographer and ---- pictures since the early 1960s, generally ---- her summers photographing people and places in Africa.

A) took / has been spending B) had been taking / will spend C) has been taking / spends D) takes / has spent E) had taken / would spend

5. Upon the completion next month of its renovation and expansion, the museum ---- its exhibition space and added an auditorium ---- for performances and lectures.

A) will have doubled / to be used B) doubled / to have used C) has doubled / to have been used D) doubles / being used E) had doubled / to use

6. Our sense of self ---- by the roles and

qualities that our peers and teachers ---- to us.

A) was formed / have assigned B) is formed / assign C) is being formed / will be assigning D) had been formed / assigned E) will have been formed / would assign

7. For a long time, scientists ---- by the fact

that the French ---- to eat fatty diets rich in red meat but to live as long as those on lean and vegetarian diets.

A) had been intrigued / are tending B) were intrigued / would have tended C) would be intrigued / have been tending D) will have been intrigued / would tend E) have been intrigued / tend

8. Although people ---- with both “good”

brown fat cells and normal white fat cells, usually the former ---- after infancy.

A) have been born / lose B) were born / will lose C) are born / are lost D) had been born / had lost E) are to be born / had been lost

TEST 6


234

9. As part of an effort by the UK government to track down people at risk of a heart attack, British doctors ---- to investigate the family history of those of their patients who ---- high cholesterol.

A) had been told / are having B) are telling / have had C) would be told / will have D) have been told / have E) had told / had had

10. The latest research finding that older

adults are generally happier than younger ones ---- superficially at odds with many studies that ---- older people are at higher risk for depression and other mental health problems.

A) seems / have found B) seemed / will find C) has seemed / would find D) had seemed / have been finding E) could have seemed / would have found

11. In Britain, the highest-level medical jobs

continue to be dominated by men of 55 or more, but these distinguished consultants and professors ---- within the next ten years, and this ---- more women to reach the top tier.

A) will have been retiring / is allowing B) have retired / allowed C) would have retired / will be allowing D) had been retiring / has allowed E) will be retiring / will allow

12. Scientists ---- that by the year 2050,

robot brains based on computers that have the ability to execute 100 trillion instructions per second ---- rivalling human intelligence.

A) are predicting / are starting B) have predicted / would start C) predicted / would have started D) predict / will start E) would predict / will have started

13. NASA ---- experiments on the surface of the moon for eight years when they ---- them down in 1977 for financial reasons.

A) conducted / would have to shut B) has been conducting / have to shut C) had been conducting / had to shut D) was conducting / have had to shut E) would have conducted / would have had

to shut

14. It is hoped that alternative forms of

energy, such as wind energy and geothermal energy, ---- more widely used in the near future, once technical problems ---- completely resolved.

A) become / had been B) are becoming / will be C) will become / are D) have become / were E) would have become / have been

15. Although alcohol consumption per

capita ---- a peak in the United States during the first three decades of the 19th century, now it ---- down in all age groups.

A) reached / is going B) has reached / goes C) will reach / will go D) was reaching / went E) would reach / has göne

16. For a long time now, Asia’s emerging

economies ---- the world’s most dynamic, with GDP ---- at an annual rate of 7.5%.

A) were / to have grown B) would have been / having grown C) have been / growing D) would be / to be growing E) are / to grow


235

17. Imhotep, god of medicine, ---- as a mythological figure in the minds of many scholars until the end of the 19th century, when it ---- that he was a real historical personage.

A) existed / was established B) has existed / has been established C) had existed / was being established D) will exist / will have been established E) exists / had been established

18. People who ---- it hard to give up

smoking often ---- outside assistance.

A) are finding / are sought B) had found / are seeking C) could have found / will seek D) find / seek E) would have found / had been sought

19. During the past 40 years, research ---- to

support the hypothesis that physical activity ---- with both cardiovascular health and improved psychological functioning.

A) is accumulating / has been associated B) accumulates / will be associated C) accumulated / had been associated D) has been accumulating / would be associated E) has accumulated / is associated

20. On long space flights, astronauts’

bones ----, much as if they ---- from osteoporosis, at a rate of 1-2% per month.

A) thin / were suffering B) will thin / suffer C) are thinning / have suffered D) will have thinned / would have suffered E) have thinned / will suffer

1. When governments finally ---- measures

to control the spread of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in March 2003, the infection ---- more than 580 lives in 29 countries.

A) had taken / has already cost B) had taken / were already costing C) were taking / are already costing D) took / had already cost E) were taken / already cost

2. Free radicals ---- the by-products of

certain metabolic functions like eating and breathing, and they ---- to accelerate the aging process.

A) are / are known B) are being / know C) were / knew D) have been / are knowing E) would be / had known

3. It is hoped that the construction of the

world’s tallest residential building, the Chicago Spire, which ---- at the end of last year, ---- by late 2010. (ÜDS 2009)

A) was commenced / will have been completed B) commences / will complete C) has been commenced / would be completed D) has commenced / has been completed E) had commenced / is to be completed

4. Humanity ---- an unusual period of food

surplus since the Green Revolution ---- in the mid-1960s.

A) enjoyed / was beginning B) was enjoying / had begun C) has enjoyed / began D) has been enjoying / has begun E) is enjoying / would begin

TEST 7


236

5. Scientists are worried that the use of biofuels instead of fossil fuels ---- little to reduce carbon emissions, although this ---- a widespread assumption until quite recently.

A) does / will be B) will do / was C) had done / has been D) will have done / had been E) would have done / would be

6. Since 1985, Bolivia ---- economic changes

that ---- phenomenally successful.

A) implemented / had been B) has implemented / have been C) was implementing / were D) implements / are E) had implemented / will be

7. For a long time, psychologists ---- that

major personality makeovers ---- impossible.

A) have believed / are B) believe / are going to be C) believed / will be D) would have believed / have been E) had believed / had been

8. When Germany ---- Yugoslavia 1941,

Bosnia and Herzegovina ----- part of the Nazi-controlled Croatia.

A) has invaded / had been made B) had invaded / would have been made C) invaded / were made D) invades / have been made E) was to invade / could have been made

9. There ---- no doubt that the oil sector ---- the basis of the Iraqi economy for many years to come.

A) has been / may have formed B) is / will form C) was / has formed D) had been / formed E) will be / would form

10. French authorities ---- trials of gene

therapy after a boy ---- a disease similar to leukaemia.

A) had suspended / has contracted B) suspend / may have contracted C) suspended / contracts D) will have suspended / had contracted E) have suspended / contracted

11. Heatstroke is a life-threatening

condition which ---- from extreme exposure to heat, in which a person ---- enough to lower body temperature.

A) had resulted / does not sweat B) resulted / won’t sweat C) has resulted / would not sweat D) results / cannot sweat E) will result / did not sweat

12. I can still remember my excitement

when I ---- for the first time how one’s understanding of the concepts of probability and risk ---- to and enhance diagnostic and therapeutic problems in clinical care.

A) saw / could be applied B) had seen / could have been applied C) could see / will be applied D) have seen / was applied E) see / had been applied


237

13. Cosmologists believe that equal amounts of matter and antimatter ---- in the early universe, but since matter and antimatter annihilate each other, something ---- to create an excess of matter, leading to the universe we see today.

A) are created / happened B) have been created / had happened C) had been created / has happened D) may have been created / must have happened E) would be created / has been happening

14. Since 1997, when the spacecraft ‘‘The

Mars Global Surveyor’’ ---- over the surface of Mars for the first time, scientists ---- by the considerable magnetic anomalies identified on the planet.

A) has flown / are intrigued B) flies / were intrigued C) had flown / had been intrigued D) was flying / may have been intrigued E) flew / have been intrigued

15. In 1998, 16 per cent of the world’s coral

reefs ---- by bleaching caused by El Nino, but half of those reefs ---- signs of recovery, especially in protected areas where it is illegal to harvest coral.

A) have been killed / showed B) were killed / are showing C) had been killed / would have shown D) have been killed / show E) could be killed / had shown

16. In the US, the percentage of obese

people ---- over the past two decades, and at present, 35% of the population ---- overweight.

A) could have doubled / would be B) had doubled / was C) has doubled / is D) would double / will be E) doubled / has been

17. The Pyramid of the Sun ---- in stages in the second and third centuries A.D. and ---- about 200 feet high and 700 feet in length.

A) was built / measures B) had been built / may measure C) could have been built / was to measure D) has been built / would measure E) could be built / had measured

18. Underwater archaeology is generally

considered to ---- its first major encouragement during the winter of 1853-54, when a particularly low water level in a Swiss lake ---- bare enormous quantities of wooden posts, pottery and other artifacts.

A) be receiving / has laid B) be received / would lay C) have been received / had laid D) receive / could have laid E) have received / laid

19. Sub-Saharan Africa ---- at a relatively

stable rate since the mid-1990s, and its growth ---- in the following years.

A) was growing / continues B) has been growing / should continue C) has grown / should have continued D) grew / has continued E) is growing / will have continued

20. In a clever experiment carried out

during the 1980s, a team of psychologists at Cornell University ---- that being in a happy mood ---- people generate more creative solutions to problems.

A) have found / will help B) had found / helped C) are to find / would help D) found / helps E) would find / has helped


238

1. Prevention is the ideal way to approach

pain, and several educational programmes that ---- workers to avoid lower back injuries ---- some effectiveness.

A) are training / would show B) would train / had shown C) have trained / showed D) train / have shown E) trained / will show

2. Psychologists, psychiatrists and neuroscientists ---- for years over how much of our behaviour ---- driven by our genes versus the environment in which we grow up and live.

A) had argued / had been B) used to argue / would be C) have argued / is D) argue / would have been E) argued / will be

3. For a long time, scientists believed that

functional deficits in certain brain regions ---- autism – the result of complications in brain structure that no change in wiring among neural networks ----.

A) might cause / had fixed B) caused / could fix C) have caused / fixes D) cause / could have fixed E) would have caused / fixed

4. Although 25 to 30 per cent of all people

---- some form of excessive mood disturbance during their lifetime, only about 10 per cent ---- a disorder severe enough to require medical attention.

A) would experience / have had B) experienced / will have had C) had experienced / had had D) will have experienced / would have E) experience / have

5. Geology and biology ---- since life ----.

A) are intertwined / has begun B) were intertwined / had begun C) have been intertwined / began D) would be intertwined / begins E) could be intertwined / will begin

6. Common fungicides ---- for the puzzlingly

high levels of DDT still found in some soils, even in regions where this potent insecticide ---- decades ago.

A) are blamed / would have been banned B) could be to blame / was banned C) were blamed / must be banned D) might be blamed / would be banned E) are to blame / has been banned

7. Rockets ---- to have originated with the

Chinese before the thirteenth century, which is when they ---- to appear in Europe.

A) may be believed / were beginning B) could be believed / have begun C) were believed / had begun D) have been believed / could begin E) are believed / began

8. Although there ---- some growth in the

non-oil sector, Nigeria ---- dangerously reliant on hydrocarbon revenues.

A) has been / remains B) had been / would remain C) was / would have remained D) must be / has remained E) is / had remained

TEST 8


239

9. Smoking ---- in almost all segments of the American population, so that, in various polls, 60 to 65% of Americans ---- non-smokers today.

A) declines / may have been B) has declined / are C) had declined / would be D) could have declined / will be E) declined / were

10. Insomnia is a difficulty in falling or

staying asleep or a disturbance in sleep that ---- people feel as if they ---- insufficient sleep when they awaken.

A) makes / have had B) made / have C) has made / should have D) had made / had had E) would make / had

11. The first evidence that there are genetic

factors in smoking ---- in the 1950s from studies which ---- that identical twins tended to be more similar in their choice to smoke or not than did fraternal twins.

A) could appear / would indicate B) has appeared / had indicated C) had appeared / have indicated D) would appear / were indicating E) appeared / indicated

12. In an article published in 1990,

scientists of the National Institute of Medical Research ---- more than 300 biological theories that ---- to account for senescence – the progressive and general deterioration that accompanies aging in humans.

A) were reviewing / attempted B) have reviewed / should attempt C) reviewed / had attempted D) would review / have attempted E) may have reviewed / attempt

13. Earthquake rupture ---- to occur by enlargement of a crack, but more recent observations ---- a “pulse-like” mode of rupture enlargement.

A) had been thought / would be indicated B) can be thought / had indicated C) was thought / will have indicated D) has been thought / indicate E) must be thought / may have indicated

14. Cosmologists are addressing some of

the fundamental questions that people ---- to resolve over the centuries through philosophical thinking, but they ---- this based on systematic observation and quantitative methodology.

A) would attempt / have done B) attempt / will do C) may attempt / did D) attempted / should do E) have attempted / are doing

15. The shuttle ---- the atmosphere at

precisely 38° for heat shields below the fuselage and the wings ---- the craft from heat damage.

A) must re-enter / to protect B) has re-entered / having protected C) re-entered / to have protected D) re-enters / to be protecting E) should re-enter / to have been protecting

16. From the year 1665, when Robert Hooke

---- cells, until the middle of the twentieth century, biologists ---- only light microscopes for viewing cells.

A) used to discover / could have had B) had discovered / would have C) discovered / had D) has discovered / have had E) could discover / have


240

17. Sea bindweed Calystegia soldanella ---- a fleshyleaved cousin of the more widespread, whiteflowered hedge bindweed (C. sepium) that ---- fences and hedges everywhere in the summer.

A) might be / had clothed B) is / clothes C) should be / has clothed D) could be / would have clothed E) was / can clothe

18. Most physical anthropologists ---- that

modern human abilities ---- present since the emergence of Homo sapiens some 40,000-100,000 years ago.

A) will agree / would be B) could agree / are C) have agreed / were D) agree / have been E) had agreed / must be

19. It ---- until the 17th century that military

leaders began to realize that stress on soldiers ---- a profound influence on the success of military operations.

A) had not been / is having B) is not / has C) was not / could have D) has not been / had E) may not be / must have

20. Ever since James R. Flynn ---- his

startling results, psychologists and educators ---- to figure out whether people really are getting smarter.

A) has published / had struggled B) published / have struggled C) had published / will struggle D) was publishing / had been struggling E) publishes / are struggling

1. In a study carried out over a period of six

months, researchers ---- that smoking ---- far more heart attacks than haemochromatosis.

A) have found / had caused B) had found / has caused C) found / caused D) find / could have caused E) would have found / causes

2. Alcohol ---- every organ of the body, but the most dramatic evidence of its disruptive behaviour ---- in the liver.

A) affected / has appeared B) affects / appears C) is affecting / appeared D) had affected / would appear E) has affected / had appeared

3. Although constipation usually ---- lifestyle

habits, in some cases it may be a side effect of medication or may reflect a medical problem such as tumours that ---- the passage of waste.

A) had reflected / obstruct B) has reflected / obstructed C) reflected / had obstructed D) will reflect / have obstructed E) reflects / are obstructing

4. Indeed, some studies ---- that taking the

glycemic effect into account in meal planning ---- a practical way to improve glucose control.

A) have shown / is B) show / was C) had shown / had been D) showed / will be E) could show / has been

TEST 9


241

5. Of every 10,000 children born in the US, almost 7 ---- from health problems because their mothers ---- alcohol during pregnancy.

A) suffered / have consumed B) were suffering / consume C) had suffered / were consuming D) will have suffered / will consume E) suffer / consumed

6. Scientists who ---- alert the world to the

existence of a hole in the stratospheric ozone layer recently reported that this feature of the atmosphere ---- widening soon.

A) help / would stop B) have helped / might have stopped C) helped / may stop D) will help / might stop E) had helped / has stopped

7. Meteorites ---- the best available record of

the chemical and physical processes that ---- during the first million years of our solar system’s history.

A) provide / occurred B) are providing / have occurred C) had provided / occurred D) could provide / would occur E) provided / might occur

8. Today one third of the carbon dioxide

(CO2) given off by burning fossil fuels ---- the oceans, thus ---- their naturally alkaline pH.

A) is entering / reduces B) enters / reducing C) had entered / will reduce D) will enter / reduced E) would enter / having reduced

9. Until recently, some scientists ---- that many individuals of the same species ---- specific tasks better than the same number of individuals from different species.

A) will think / are performing B) were thinking / will perform C) think / ought to perform D) had thought / would be performing E) thought / could perform

10. The EU ---- that the establishment of the

International Criminal Court ---- a milestone achievement in global human rights protection.

A) believed / may have represented B) had believed / has represented C) has believed / represented D) believes / represents E) would have believed / had represented

11. It ---- true that property prices in Ireland

and Spain ---- by 208 and 150 per cent, respectively, since 1997.

A) may be / would increase B) has been / had increased C) was / increased D) could be / would have increased E) is / have increased

12. In Mozambique, the 1992 peace accord

that ---- 15 years of civil war ---- a blanket amnesty for all those who had committed war crimes.

A) has ended / had mandated B) had ended / would have mandated C) ended / mandated D) ends / will mandate E) could have ended / has mandated


242

13. Many observers predict that as China ---- to open itself, state control ----.

A) has continued / had eased B) continues / will ease C) continued / could have eased D) will continue / has eased E) had continued / may have eased

14. Although archaeological exploration of

Tibet ----, evidence of civilization in the region ---- back to at least 4000 B.C.

A) was limited / will have to date B) is limited / had dated C) had been limited / has dated D) has been limited / dates E) will be limited / must have dated

15. Migraine-patients who go untreated for

too long ---- structural changes in their brains, so they ---- proper therapy.

A) are incurring / insisted on B) incurred / would insist on C) incur / used to insist on D) must incur / would have insisted on E) may incur / should insist on

16. Japanese researchers ---- that tomato

juice ---- prevent emphysema, a smoking-related lung disease.

A) will say / may have helped B) said / will have helped C) say / had helped D) have said / could help E) had said / will help

17. Rising health insurance costs and harsh social stigmas ---- many employers to overlook workers’ mental health needs, but ignoring the problem ---- more than addressing it.

A) will cause / had cost B) cause / will have cost C) are causing / may have cost D) caused / has cost E) have caused / should have cost

18. Various agencies ---- to keep pesticide

use within safe limits, and most consumers feel they ---- on them.

A) were set up / have depended B) have been set up / can depend C) would be set up / were depending D) are being set up / must have depended E) would have been set up / must depend

19. Doctors who had been studying

longevity ---- an assortment of genes that ---- life span in different organisms.

A) will identify / had influenced B) have identified / will be influencing C) identified / will have influenced D) had identified / could influence E) identify / could have influenced

20. The Proctor Prize ---- annually since

1950 to an outstanding scientist who ---- known for effective communication of complex ideas.

A) was being presented / is being B) was presented / had been C) would be presented / will be D) had been presented / has been E) has been presented / is


243

1. In their quest to build a computer that ----

advantage of the weirdness of quantum mechanics, physicists ---- a number of disparate technologies.

A) is taking / will be testing B) will take / are testing C) must take / had tested D) took / have had to test E) had taken / have tested

2. Individuals who ---- that animals ----

feelings are usually accused of anthropomorphism, or ascribing human traits to nonhuman beings.

A) had claimed / had B) claimed / will have C) are claiming / would have D) claim / have E) would claim / must have had

3. The reason why the moon doesn’t orbit

the Sun is because the Earth is also ---- towards the Sun, and so the two ---- through space together.

A) going to pull / will have been moving B) having been pulled / moved C) pulling / were moving D) to pull / move E) being pulled / are moving

4. Some Italian film-makers believe that

once Americans ---- making films in Rome again, local films ---- as well.

A) would start / had flourished B) have started / will have flourished C) will start / are flourishing D) start / will flourish E) started / would flourish

5. The US presidential election of 1800 ---- notorious on account of the unforeseen constitutional problems it ----.

A) is / has presented B) has been / presented C) would be / presents D) had been / would present E) was / presented

6. Shanghai ---- curb pollution or its citizens

---- rapidly increasing ill health.

A) needs to / have faced B) had to / had faced C) has to / will have faced D) will have to / would face E) must / will face

7. Foot massages ---- those who ---- balance

problems.

A) may have helped / are having B) will help / had C) could help / have D) have helped / would have E) would have helped / may have

8. Until quite recently, no one ---- the deadly

germ that causes anthrax ---- outside a living host.

A) had thought / would have thrived B) thinks / is thriving C) has thought / will thrive D) would think / had thrived E) thought / could thrive

TEST 10


244

9. For a long time now, biologists ---- that bits of tissue placed next to each other ----.

A) had known / may fuse B) have known / can fuse C) knew / had fused D) would have known / have fused E) know / would have fused

10. It ---- that Brazil’s new surveillance

system ---- a useful tool in the protection of the rain forests.

A) may be hoped / would have proved B) was hoped / had proved C) has been hoped / would prove D) could be hoped / might have proved E) is hoped / will prove

11. Many engineers ---- the thrill of

designing a novel product that then ---- mass production.

A) are having / is entering B) had had / had entered C) would have / has entered D) have had / enters E) were having / have entered

12. Over the past eight years, the TES

instrument ---- that Martian rocks and sands ---- almost entirely of volcanic minerals.

A) would discover / had been composed B) has discovered / are composed C) would discover / were composed D) had discovered / had been composed E) was discovering / would be composed

13. Although human contamination of the Earth’s atmosphere ---- long before the Industrial Revolution, air pollution ---- a major problem until the 18th and 19th centuries.

A) has existed / would not be B) would exist / had not been C) exists / has not been D) would have existed / would not have been E) existed / was not

14. The average surface temperature of

Earth ---- roughly 15 centigrade, but over the last century, this average ---- by about 0.6 centigrade.

A) has been / was rising B) would be / rises C) used to be / would have risen D) had been / had risen E) is / has risen

15. Astronomy ---- as the oldest science,

going back thousands of years, and seems to have begun when primitive people ---- objects and their movements in the sky.

A) is to be regarded / notice B) was regarded / have noticed C) is regarded / noticed D) would be regarded / were noticing E) had been regarded / had noticed

16. According to some scientists, the global

population, which currently ---- at about 6 billion, ---- 13 billion by the year 2050.

A) stands / will have surpassed B) will stand / will surpass C) stood / would surpass D) has stood / surpassed E) is standing / has surpassed


245

17. Even with the newly-announced policy, US scientists who ---- to study human embroyes to learn more about infertility and genetic anormalies ---- government funding to do so.

A) want / cannot use B) would have wanted / had not used C) will want / did not use D) had wanted / should not have used E) wanted / must not have used

18. A British scientific agency ---- that all

red blood cells given as transfusions to children under the age of 13 ---- to remove any microbes that cause serious diseases.

A) used to state / would be filtered B) has stated / should be filtered C) stated / will have been filtered D) will state / were filtered E) would state / have been filtered

19. Researchers realized that the Cuban experience with dengue fever through two separate outbreaks of the disease ---- that immune enhancement ---- even 20 years after the primary dengue virus infection.

A) had indicated / must have been seen B) indicates / had been seen C) was indicating / would be seen D) would have indicated / is seen E) indicated / could be seen

20. A modest amount of champagne every

day ---- to have a beneficial effect on the walls of blood vessels, which ---- that champagne has the potential to reduce the incidence of strokes and heart attacks.

A) is being found / has suggested B) has been found / suggests C) had been found / would have suggested D) was found / had suggested E) will be found / suggested

If Clauses Tests

246

IF CLAUSES ÖZGÜN SORULAR

1. You ---- health and weight problem if you

---- eating well before they happen. A) would prevent / have started B) prevented / have started C) will prevent / started D) can prevent / start E) would have prevented / would start

2. If I ---- how far away the concert hall was, I ---- there by bus.

A) realize / have gone B) have realized / went C) had realized / would have gone D) realized / will go E) will realize / go

3. I ---- really grateful if you ---- a little bit

more additional information on this subject matter. A) would be / give B) had been / gave C) was / would give D) will be / had given E) would be / gave

4. He ---- alive now if he ---- to go back into the burning house for something.

A) will be / wouldn’t have decided B) is / hasn’t decided C) could be / wouldn’t decide D) would be / hadn’t decided E) should be / hasn’t decided

5. If a woman ---- pregnant, a lot of hormonal changes ---- inside her body, which could lead to severe headaches. A) is / take place B) will be / had taken place C) had been / would have taken D) has been / have taken plave E) were / took place

6. If anyone ---- my doorbell at around 3 in the morning, most probably I ---- quite reluctant to open the door. A) rang / would be B) rings / would have been C) rang / will be D) had rung / will be E) would have rung / had been

7. If someone suddenly ---- consuming caffeine, he ---- flu-like symptoms, fatigue, headache and difficulty in concentrating. A) had stopped / could experience B) has stopped / have been experienced C) stopped / will experience D) stops / may experience E) will stop / experienced

8. If you ---- me know what bus you were

taking, I ---- there to meet you.

A) had let / would have been B) would let / will have been C) let / have been D) will let / would be E) would have let / had been

TEST 1


247

9. If I ---- you were on your own, I ---- you to come round here for the day.

A) knew / have asked B) have known / will have asked C) had known / would have asked D) would know / had asked E) know / will ask

10. I’m sure he ---- to let us know where he

was if he ---- able to do so.

A) telephoned / would be B) will have telephoned / was C) would telephone / has been D) has telephoned / is E) would have telephoned / had been

11. If you ---- me about your financial

problems earlier, you ---- deal with them by yourself today.

A) had told / wouldn’t have to B) tell / won’t have had to C) have told / might have to D) told / didn’t have to E) had told / would’t have had to

12. Parents ---- their child’s paediatrician or physician if they ---- unsure about whether the child’s diet is nutritionally adequate. A) had to consult / were B) must consult / had been C) should consult / are D) used to consult / were E) might consult / will be

13. If your brother ---- a thoughtful person, he ---- Samantha’s heart by saying that she is overweight.

A) were / wouldn’t have broken B) will be / won’t have broken C) had been / wouldn’t break D) were / won’t break E) is / may not have broken

14. If I ---- that job at the export company in the USA, I ---- in New York now, not Beijing. A) have taken / am living B) wouldn’t take / live C) am taken / will be living D) didn’t take / would have lived E) had taken / might be living

15. We ---- still living in this house if we ---- someone to buy it last year. A) won’t be / find B) hadn’t been / found C) won’t have been / have found D) wouldn’t be / had found E) couldn’t be / would find

16. ---- demand occur, we ---- extra food supplies for the earthquake area immediately. A) Had / would have provided B) Should / will provide C) If / can provide D) Did / might provide E) Were / could provide

If Clauses Tests

248

17. If you ---- to the director carefully during the meeting, you ---- everyone with your questions now. A) listened / can not bother B) had listened / would not be bothering C) should listen / would not bother D) can listen / would not have bothered E) listen / do not bother

18. If public transportation ---- more widely, there ---- such a severe traffic problem in this city. A) is used / would not have been B) will be used / could not be C) were used / would not be D) can be used / had not been E) would be used / may not ne

19. If the ocean waters ---- evenly over earth’s surface, they ---- the entire surface to a depth of 2,800 m.

A) has been spread out / have covered B) had been spread out / could cover C) are spread out / would have covered D) were spread out / would cover E) will be spread out / cover

20. According to Newton, a body in motion ---- to continue in its motion unless it ---- upon by an outside force.

A) would tend / had been acted B) may tend / was acted C) will tend / is acted D) might tend / has been acted E) will have tended / will be tended

1. Our everyday lives ---- very different if

most of the inventions ----.

A) have to be / never happen B) will be / never happened C) have been / have never happened D) would be / had never happened E) were / were never to happen

2. If you ---- a nuclear power station up to an

electric kettle, you ---- the water for a cup of tea in 50-millionths of a second.

A) could have wired / may boil B) could be wiring / had boiled C) could wire / could boil D) can wire / would boil E) could have wired / could boil

3. The Ancient Egyptians ---- that if your

dead body rotted or was damaged in this world, your spirit ---- in the afterlife.

A) believed / would suffer B) believes / will suffer C) had believed / would have suffered D) have believed / will have suffered E) were believing / were suffering

4. If man ---- his destruction of the natural environment, many of the habitats of threatened species ----.

A) limited / will be preserved B) had limited / would be preserved C) limits / can be preserved D) has limited / have been preserved E) are limiting / are being preserved

TEST 2


249

5. Without oxygen, the cells in your body ---- release the hidden energy trapped in food molecules.

A) would not be able to B) were not able to C) are not able to D) had not been able to E) would not have been able to

6. If the Earth’s history ---- into a normal day, Homo sapiens ---- at just one minute to midnight.

A) could be compressed / appeared B) is compressed / will appear C) were compressed / would appear D) had been compressed / could appear E) has been compressed / have appeared

7. There is no cure for asthma, but attacks ---- to a large extent should a particular allergen ---- and consequently avoided. A) might be prevented / had been identified B) may be prevented / were to be identified C) could be prevented / were identified D) can be prevented / can be identified E) would be prevented / are identified

8. If the fungus ---- the banana crops of a

country like Ecuador exporting one third of all bananas worldwide, the economic toll alone ---- devastating today.

A) infected / could be B) infect / will be C) were infecting / would have been D) have infected / might beE) had infected / would be

9. If all the nerve cells in your body ---- end to end, they ---- around Earth two and a half times.

A) are laid / can wrap B) were laid / could wrap C) had been laid / could have wrapped D) have been laid / will wrap E) can be laid / may wrap

10. If he ---- after the car thief and suffered a

heart attack, ---- alive today.

A) did not run / could have been B) was not running / might be C) do not run / are D) has not run / will be E) had not run / would be

11. Saturn is the least dense planet, and if

an ocean ---- large enough to hold it, Saturn ----.

A) are found / will float B) would be found / floated C) could be found / would float D) have been found / is to float E) had been found / were floating

12. If the optimal conditions ---- in vitro, it

---- possible to form in a laboratory all the cells of the body using the genetic program of the cells.

A) should be created / was B) are created / has been C) can be created / had been D) could be created / would be E) will be created / is

If Clauses Tests

250

13. Some common poisonous plants, such as oleanders, ---- diarrhea, nausea, and other symptoms should their flowers or fruits ----.

A) would provoked / were eaten B) will provoke / would be eaten C) could have provoked / had been eaten D) provoke / are eaten E) have provoked / are to be eaten

14. If we ---- she was planning to commit

suicide, we ---- her.

A) knew / can prevent B) have known / will prevent C) had known / would have prevented D) know / could prevent E) were to know / would prevent

15. If you ---- a scale model of the Milky Way with a grain of sand for each star, the nearest star to the Sun ---- 6 km away.

A) made / would be B) had made / might have been C) make / can be D) have made / will be E) are making / could be

16. Considered boundless if nurtured, creativity ---- unless one ---- time to cultivating the imagination.

A) were not occurring / can devote B) does not occur / devotes C) did not occurred / devoted D) has devoted / will occur E) could not occur / would devote

17. We ---- these technologies today if scientists ---- to do their best.

A) cannot use / are not trying B) could not be using / had not tried C) would not use / did not try D) must not use / have not tried E) will not use / do not try

18. Undoubtedly, human views about time

---- over the coming centuries if our species ----.

A) would change / had survived B) could have changed / survived C) may change / will survive D) will change / survives E) will be changing / could survive

19. Scientists ---- that life could exist on

other worlds if they ---- liquid water and the right temperature.

A) would think / had possessed B) thought / could possess C) think / possessed D) have to think / possess E) may think / will possess

20. We make use of all of the Earth’s

resources, but there is a limit to how long these ---- if we ---- using them up at our current rate.

A) will last / continue B) had lasted / continued C) could last / may continue D) lasted / have continued E) would last / were continuing


251

IF CLAUSES ÇIKMIŞ SORULAR

1. If you ---- long hours on the job, most

probably your stress level ----, leaving you more vulnerable to cravings for unhealthy food.

A) have worked / had risen B) are working / will rise C) worked / is rising D) had worked / will have risen E) work / rose

2. If we ---- the materials of technology,

silicon ---- the first on that list.

A) are listing / was B) listed / had been C) were to list / would be D) had listed / is E) are to list / has been

3. Without television cameras, the famine now ravaging Ethiopia ---- the attention of the well-fed world that ---- with offers of money and other forms of aid.

A) won’t have caught / will respond B) did not catch / responded C) will not catch / had responded D) would not have caught / has responded E) is not catching / is responding

4. It is predicted that the world’s fossil fuel

sources ---- completely by the turn of the century unless strict policies to use them wisely ---- at present, before it is too late.

A) will have been exhausted / are implemented B) will be exhausted / would be implemented C) would be exhausted / would have been implemented D) would have been exhausted / were implemented E) were exhausted / were to be implemented

5. If microchips ---- back in the late 1950s, computer technology ---- as advanced as it is today.

A) weren’t developed / isn’t B) hadn’t been developed / wouldn’t be C) wouldn’t have been developed / weren’t D) wouldn’t be developed / wouldn’t be E) weren’t being developed / won’t be

6. The finest achievement of Europe’s post-

1945 leaders was their recognition that, unless Germany ---- into the evolving Western system, insecurity ---- across the continent.

A) has been integrated / had reigned B) had been integrated / has reigned C) is integrated / reigned D) integrates / will reign E) was integrated / would reign

7. Imagine what your life would be like if

you ---- one morning and everything you ---- had been forgotten!

A) wake up / have ever learned B) woke up / had ever learned C) had woken up / ever learned D) will wake up / ever learn E) have woken up / will ever learn

8. If the United States Department of

Agriculture (USDA) ---- all animal and animal product imports from high-risk areas in 2001, the US ---- the same consequences of foot-and-mouth disease as the UK did that year.

A) didn’t ban / would suffer B) had not banned / would have suffered C) weren’t banned / would have been suffered D) hadn’t been banned / suffered E) shouldn’t have banned / hadn’t suffered

TEST 3

If Clauses Tests

252

9. If Australian conservationists ---- an extensive preservation campaign back in the 1960s, the population of saltwater crocodiles of the north ---- even less than the present number of 100.

A) have not implemented / is B) would not implement / would have been C) weren’t implementing / will have been D) weren’t implemented / will be E) had not implemented / would be

10. If she ---- more pessimistic, most

probably she ---- up, but instead, she went on trying.

A) were / had given B) has been / has given C) had been / may have given D) is / will give E) were / would have given

11. If the doctor ---- for additional tests to be

performed, then this illustrates that he ---- other problems.

A) had asked / suspects B) would ask / may suspect C) asks / suspects D) has asked / had suspected E) asked / will suspect

12. Scientists predict that should the

current rate of deforestation in the rainforests ----, a great many of the species they support ---- completely by the turn of the 22nd century.

A) continue / will have disappeared B) is continued / will disappear C) was continued / would disappear D) had continued / would have disappeared E) will continue / would have disappeared

13. If all of the Arctic ice ----, global sea levels ---- by 23 feet, submerging most coastal areas.

A) melted / will rise B) is to melt / are rising C) were to melt / could rise D) will melt / rise E) had melted / rose

14. If a new environmental or safety rule ----

in the auto industry, executives warn that the company ---- money.

A) were to be proposed / had lost B) had been proposed / would have lost C) will be proposed / is going to lose D) were proposed / should lose E) is proposed / will lose

15. If she ---- energy-spending activities into

her daily routine when she was younger, she ---- a weightcontrol programme today.

A) could incorporate / doesn’t have to attend B) incorporated / didn’t have to attend C) would incorporate / wouldn’t have had to attend D) had incorporated / wouldn’t have to attend E) was able to incorporate / hadn’t had to attend

16. If they ---- us their plans at the

beginning, these problems ---- us now.

A) showed / would not have been worrying B) had shown / would not be worrying C) show / will not be worrying D) have shown / could not be worrying E) will show / may not be worrying


253

17. Some evolutionary biologists argue that if the clock of evolution ---- to the beginning and allowed to run again to the present day, the resulting animals on Earth ---- very different from the ones we know now.

A) has been rewound / would have been B) is rewound / will be C) might be rewound / will have been D) had been rewound / had been E) could be rewound / might be

18. If things ---- according to plan, the book

---- by this time next year.

A) go / will have been published B) have gone / would have been published C) went / was to be published D) were going / has been published E) will go / will be published

19. If humans ---- at the speed of light, it ----

them about eight minutes to reach the Sun.

A) have travelled / took B) could travel / would take C) travel / would have taken D) will travel / takes E) would travel / has taken

20. If they ---- what sort of a person he was, they ---- him their support.

A) would know/ didn’t give B) knew/ won’t give C) had known/ wouldn’t have given D) would have known/ hadn’t given E) have known/ haven’t given

1. Most newspapers are of the opinion that

if a majority of Scots really ---- independence, the British Parliament has no option but ---- to their wishes. A) did want / had acceded B) wanted / have acceded C) had wanted / would have acceded D) do want / to accede E) would have wanted / acceded

2. If we ---- the terms of the contract, all the

paint-work in the building ---- finished by the 5th of next month.

A) are to meet / will have to be B) were meeting / will be C) met / would have had to be D) had met / is being E) will meet / was being

3. If he ---- the conditions of the insurance

policy carefully, he ----- that it did not cover such eventualities.

A) has read / realised B) reads/ has realised C) is reading / realises D) were reading / had realised E) had read / would have realised

4. Julius Caesar ---- a great historian if the

making of history ---- him the time and the inclination to write it.

A) could be / could have allowed B) would be / allowed C) had been / would have allowed D) would have been / could allow E) could have been / had allowed

TEST 4

If Clauses Tests

254

5. If weather forecasters ---- warnings of storms on time, telecommunication companies ---- to take steps to protect their satellites.

A) could have provided / had been able B) could provide / would be able C) could be providing / will be able D) can provide / would have been able E) could have provided / should be able

6. If there ---- delay in getting her to

hospital, the consequence of the event ---- fatal.

A) is / would have been B) were / will have been C) has been / is D) will be / would be E) had been / could have been

7. The doctors are of the opinion that if the

disorder ---- a few months earlier, it ---- treated successfully.

A) had been diagnosed / could have been B) were diagnosed / would be C) has been diagnosed / will be D) is being diagnosed / is being E) were to be diagnosed / has been

8. If Julie ---- herself like that while we

were away, she ---- from anorexia nervosa today.

A) hasn’t starved / wouldn’t suffer B) didn’t starve / isn’t suffering C) hadn’t starved / wouldn’t be suffering D) wouldn’t starve / won’t be suffering E) wasn’t starving / isn’t suffering

9. If the equipment ---- us on time, we ---- the bridge by now.

A) would have reached / could complete B) reached / had completed C) reaches / will have completed D) will reach / can complete E) had reached / could have completed

10. If you had followed the doctor's advice,

you ---- a complete recovery by this time.

A) would make B) would have made C) had made D) will make E) were making

11. If I ---- a vegetarian who refuses to eat

meat and meat products as they claim, I ---- that meal you prepared last night.

A) am not / would eat B) had not been / ate C) were not / would have eaten D) would not be / had eaten E) would not have been / had eaten

12. If scientists and engineers ---- how to

control fusion in a reliable and safe manner, it ---- the world’s energy problems.

A) learned / have solved B) learn / would have solved C) will learn / solve D) have learned / could have solved E) could learn / would solve


255

13. Scientists fear that if we ---- to use our natural resources so unwisely, we ---- them up completely by the end of this century.

A) have continued / have used B) are continuing / are using C) continued / had used D) had continued / would have used E) continue / will have used

14. If I ---- just how cold it was going to be, I

---- some warmer clothes with me.

A) realized / took B) had realized / would have taken C) would realize / will take D) have realized / had taken E) used to realize / would take

15. If Atatürk ---- his country to victory in

the War of Independence (1919-1923), Turkey ---- only as an inland state in central Anatolia.

A) would not have led / had survived B) did not lead / survived C) had not led / would have survived D) has not led / would survive E) would not lead / will have survived

Noun Clauses Tests

256

NOUN CLAUSES ÖZGÜN SORULAR

1. Most animal parents defend their young

and either feed them or show them ---- to find food.

A) how B) why C) that D) which E) what

2. Female elephants and their young live

in family groups led by the oldest, wisest female, who knows ---- to find food and water.

A) that B) where C) what D) who E) why

3. Albert Einstein discovered ---- tiny

amounts of matter can be turned into vast quantities of energy.

A) whether B) whoever C) when D) whom E) that

4. The modern debate over ---- wine is a

healthy dietary supplement or a substance that destroys both body and mind has roots far back in antiquity.

A) how B) whatever C) whether D) that E) when

5. Computers are electronic machines that take in information, record it, work on it in various ways, and then show the results of ---- they’ve done.

A) why B) whether C) however D) what E) whoever

6. Fearful of a future in which the elderly outnumber the young, many governments are doing ---- they can to encourage people to have children.

A) that B) whatever C) why D) how E) whoever

7. An elephant’s brain is specially

designed for storing information, which is ---- it has an incredible memory.

A) when B) how C) where D) why E) whom

8. Nobody knows for sure ---- The Hanging

Gardens of Babylon stood, but the foundations of terraced gardens were found in Babylon in the early 20th century.

A) that B) when C) where D) how E) how much

TEST 1


257

9. Astronomers figured out ---- the expansion of the universe began 13.8 billion years ago at a single point: the Big Bang.

A) that B) when C) if D) where E) what

10. Through studies of fossil populations, it

is possible to learn about the structure of old communities and ---- animals and plants evolved over time.

A) when B) however C) whose D) wherever E) how

11. ---- you can expect to live depends

largely on where you are in the world.

A) Whether B) How often C) What D) How long E) Whoever

12. While diagnosing skin allergy, small

amounts of various substances are applied to the skin to see ---- a reaction occurs.

A) that B) whether C) which D) what E) however

13. By observing sedimentary rocks of different ages, scientists can estimate ---- the climate and the environment have changed.

A) how B) where C) what D) which E) whom

14. Scientists still do not know ---- really

killed off the big dinosaurs, or ---- birds, crocodiles, and other animals managed to survive.

A) that / when B) who / where C) why / that D) where / what E) what / how

15. No one knows exactly ---- tectonic

plates move, but scientists think it is likely ---- they shift around on top of currents in the mantle layer underneath.

A) that / where B) whose / how C) why / that D) where / when E) what / why

16. People have always been interested in ---- a child comes to look like other members of its family.

A) what B) that C) which D) how E) where

Noun Clauses Tests

258

17. After a number of panic attacks, victims often become apprehensive, wondering ---- their next panic will occur.

A) what B) that C) when D) who E) whose

18. Whether water falls from a cloud as rain or snow depends on ---- cold the air temperature is.

A) how B) what C) whether D) that E) whom

19. Freud theorized ---- many males who ridicule homosexuals are defending against their own latent homosexual impulses.

A) that B) where C) whether D) what E) whenever

20. Rocks are grouped into three main types—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—depending on ---- they were formed.

A) why B) that C) which D) how E) who

1. The critical difference between our

general beliefs and scientific psychology is ---- psychology is empirical.

A) that B) why C) which D) where E) what

2. Great thinkers across the world such as Plato, Aristotle and Socrates began to ask questions about ---- we are and ---- we should live.

A) that / when B) whom / why C) what / that D) which / who E) who / how

3. By the third month of pregnancy, the mother may be anxious to find out ---- the unborn baby will be a boy or a girl.

A) that B) if C) where D) why E) whose

4. A volcano develops ---- molten rock called magma erupts from an opening on Earth’s surface.

A) whether B) which C) what D) where E) that

TEST 2


259

5. The amount of sunshine we get and ---- strong it is determines the temperature and pressure in the atmosphere.

A) that B) what C) how D) why E) if

6. In the past, doctors had no way of looking inside a living person’s body to see ---- was causing their illness.

A) whether B) what C) how D) who E) that

7. In the mid-20th century, scientists learned ---- to release energy by splitting atoms.

A) what B) that C) which D) who E) how

8. Turtles draw their heads inside their shells in different ways depending on ---- their necks are straight or side-bending.

A) whether B) why C) that D) whom E) wherever

9. During the Mesozoic Era, the first reptiles appeared and evolved, which is ---- this period is also known as the age of reptiles.

A) that B) why C) when D) where E) how

10. In addition to letters, writers use punctuation marks such as a period to show ---- a sentence ends.

A) which B) who C) whose D) where E) what

11. One of the biggest questions in science is ---- life is unique to Earth or has arisen on other worlds.

A) when B) whether C) how D) that E) wherever

12. Until the 6th century, the Chinese were the only people who knew ---- to manufacture silk.

A) what B) whom C) that D) where E) how

Noun Clauses Tests

260

13. Rocks, like airplane flight recorders, store in their interior very useful information about ---- happened in the past.

A) which B) whose C) whether D) where E) what

14. The GPS system has a network of at least 24 separate spacecrafts; no matter ---- you are, at least four of them are sending signals to your phone.

A) which B) what C) how D) where E) that

15. It is well known to us all that ---- food babies consume essentially affects their growth and development.

A) how B) why C) whatever D) which E) however

16. One of the big differences between animals and other life forms is ---- animals have evolved networks of nerve cells.

A) which B) that C) whether D) whenever E) whose

17. An anthropological controversy surrounds the issue of ---- Neanderthals practiced cannibalism.

A) whether B) what C) however D) which E) whose

18. The amount of energy you need depends on ---- active and ---- old you are.

A) when / how much B) what / how long C) where / how many D) how / how old E) which / how often

19. ---- we humans call “play” appears to be limited only to mammals, because they have well-developed senses, intelligence, and the ability to learn.

A) That B) What C) Whom D) How E) Where

20. Radionuclide scanning is used mainly to determine ---- cancer has spread to the bones.

A) whether B) that C) whenever D) whose E) how long


261

NOUN CLAUSES ÇIKMIŞ SORULAR

1. Transparent plastics keep food and other

products fresh and clean allow customers to see ---- they buy. A) whom B) that C) who D) how E) what

2. An interesting fact about snakes is ---- they need to shed their skin regularly while they grow. A) whatever B) what C) that D) however E) whether

3. Nobody knew ---- proposal will be pushed through by the board members during the meeting.

A) who B) whom C) how D) whose E) where

4. No matter ---- hard his family had tried to

dissuade him from buying a new sports car, Robert did ---- he wanted to do.

A) how / what B) why / that C) that / how D) which / what E) what / whose

5. Everybody should learn ---- to prevent air pollution and contribute their bit to make the earth a healthier and cleaner place to live in.

A) which B) how C) whose D) that E) what

6. I wonder ---- anybody spends as much

money on the clothes and shoes as I do.

A) what B) that C) if D) where E) which

7. The biggest threat caused by genetically modified food is ---- they can have harmful effects on the human body.

A) why B) where C) that D) whose E) when

8. The teacher has wanted the students to make a model comet while they explore ---- they are made of and ---- they come from.

A) where / that B) what / where C) which / that D) if / whoever E) whether / that

TEST 3

Noun Clauses Tests

262

9. ---- migratory birds disappeared from the countryside all at once cannot be explained by the local scientists.

A) Why B) Whose C) Who D) What E) Whom

10. It is very important that a person knows exactly ---- calories he should consume within a day to gain weight healthily.

A) how much B) that C) how many D) how long E) where

11. We don’t know ---- the first amphitheatres were built in Rome, but Caesar is said to have erected a wooden amphitheatre in 46 B.C.

A) who B) whom C) why D) which E) when

12. Africans believe ---- elephants are the connection between the earth and heaven, thus giving them considerable significance. A) that B) which C) what D) whose E) wherever

13. There is a lot of confusion about ---- the symptoms for heart attack differ according to gender.

A) whenever B) that C) who D) whether E) wherever

14. The Worldwatch Institute reported last year ---- approximately four of the five McDonald’s restaurants that opened every day in 2005 were outside the United States.

A) if B) as C) while D) when E) that

15. ---- decision he makes, we’ll have to accept it.

A) Whenever B) Whatever C) Whatsoever D) Wherever E) Whoever

16. ---- wins will be expected to take the rest

of us for a meal.

A) Whoever B) Who C) Whomever D) Whomsoever E) Whatever


263

17. Considering there are millions of hungry people in the world, it shouldn’t be difficult to appreciate ---- important it is for us to find new sources of food.

A) just B) why C) what D) that E) how

18. ---- takes on the task of investigating

these particular allegations is going to run into a lot of difficulties.

A) Someone B) Anyone C) Whoever D) Whatsoever E) Whichever

19. Indeed, the situation is such that the chairman has finally promised to implement ----- the committee recommends. A) whoever B) however C) if ever D) as ever E) whatever

20. When interpreting the meaning of a

legal rule, the judge must first discover the true facts of the case before him, and secondly, he must find out ---- the legislator intended him to do under the existing circumstances.

A) that B) which C) why D) what E) whoever

Adjective Clauses Tests

264

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES ÖZGÜN SORULAR

1. Asthma can be triggered by a wide

variety of stimuli, including exercise, infection, pollen, and dust, ---- have no effect on non-asthmatic people.

A) which B) where C) what D) who E) whose

2. Vegans, ---- eat no animal products, are at risk of vitamin B12 deficiency and should also ensure that they get enough calcium in their diet.

A) who B) which C) whose D) whom E) when

3. Human body tissues are groups of cells whose size and shape depend on the specific tissue ---- they belong.

A) in which B) to which C) through which D) by which E) of which

4. The practice of surgery advanced greatly with the teaching of Albucasis (936-1013), a surgeon ---- extensive writing about surgery in the Al-Tasrif influenced Islamic and medieval European medical practitioners.

A) who B) of whom C) whose D) where E) which

5. Capitalism is generally used to describe an economic system ---- the capital used to generate profits is controlled by private or non-government entities.

A) that B) how C) where D) which E) what

6. Dreaming is an episodic activity of the sleeping mind ---- spontaneous sensory experiences occur.

A) on which B) for which C) with which D) about which E) during which

7. In 1402–1403, Timur conducted diplomatic exchanges with a number of European Christian rulers who sought an alliance with him against the Ottoman Turks, ---- Timur had defeated in 1402.

A) whether B) whose C) how D) whom E) which

8. Video games like Civilization offer a rich multimedia experience of the past ---- many young people find very attractive.

A) who B) that C) from which D) whose E) when

TEST 1


265

9. The invention of the printing press made possible the establishment of a scientific community, ---- knowledge can be communicated with ease.

A) whom B) which C) in which D) why E) who

10. Global warming, unsustainable growth, and the depletion of resources created hostility from environmentalists, ---- were further outraged over the perceived threat to environmental legislation from trade rules.

A) what B) which C) whom D) for whom E) who

11. Typically, modern dictatorships have caused physical and psychological damage to the populations ---- they have held control.

A) to which B) which C) whom D) over which E) where

12. The peoples of Anatolia, many ---- were part of the Transcaucasian culture, were practicing intensive farming and animal husbandry as well as exploiting their natural resources in 4000 BC.

A) of whom B) which C) how D) whom E) whether

13. In early spring, common frogs emerge from their winter sleep and return to the shallow pools ---- they began their own lives.

A) which B) where C) whose D) what E) whether

14. Greek power reached its peak with

Alexander the Great, a military genius ---- empire stretched all the way to India.

A) in which B) whose C) which D) whom E) when

15. Based on the optical phenomenon of interference, holography is a photographic technique ---- allows an image to be recorded in three dimensions on a flat surface.

A) who B) what C) by which D) that E) for whom

16. Infrared telescopes, some of ---- are sent into space, detect the heat from objects such as clouds of gas and dust.

A) that B) whom C) which D) whose E) where


266

17. Adaptation is the process ---- a species creates a stable lifeway within a specific environmental context.

A) which B) where C) from which D) by which E) what

18. Many successful inventions came from engineers ---- used their knowledge of materials to try new things.

A) who B) which C) for whom D) what E) whom

19. The Earth, the third planet from the Sun, is the only one ---- the right conditions exist to sustain life, something that makes the Earth special.

A) how B) whose C) whom D) from which E) where

20. There are muscles in the eye ---- help the lens change shape so you can change focus quickly to look at things ---- are near or far away.

A) which / who B) why / in which C) that / which D) whom / where E) that / by which

1. Nightmares are anxiety-arousing dreams

---- lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep.

A) that B) who C) where D) why E) when

2. The division between white and black union movements became wider in 1922, ---- several white unions violently forced the government to agree to protect their members from black competition.

A) where B) when C) which D) how E) from which

3. Some people are able to donate one of their kidneys to someone ---- own kidneys have been damaged by disease.

A) which B) whom C) whose D) that E) who

4. The realization that we are interlinked with other countries economically, politically, and culturally has inspired us to search for greater understanding of societies ---- we share this globe.

A) which B) with which C) through which D) from which E) about which

TEST 2


267

5. Smoking may have adverse effects on the health of people, particularly children, ---- live around a smoker.

A) which B) whom C) where D) by whom E) who

6. In animal world, it requires great effort for

males to find a female ---- they will mate, a competition with other males of his own species.

A) for whom B) by whom C) in whom D) with whom E) about whom

7. Sharks have a highly developed sense of hearing, ---- allows them to detect very low-frequency sounds.

A) in which B) where C) who D) which E) what

8. Some doctors classify a person as obese ---- weight is 20% or more over the recommended weight for his or her height.

A) whose B) which C) whom D) who E) where

9. Travellers to areas ---- hygiene standards are poor and prevalence of the virus is high are most at risk of viral hepatitis type A.

A) which B) when C) whether D) how E) where

10. To defend themselves against the predators, birds use various strategies, the most common ---- is camouflage.

A) of which B) that C) which D) whom E) whose

11. Each individual inherits a combination of genes via the sperm and egg cells ---- he or she is derived.

A) on which B) to which C) from which D) of which E) in which

12. The evidence indicates that people ---- have children are neither more nor less happy than people without children.

A) whom B) whatever C) that D) which E) when


268

13. Cubism was begun in 1909 by Pablo Picasso, a Spanish artist ---- went on to experiment with other styles in his prolific career.

A) for whom B) in which C) which D) who E) where

14. Reproduction by amphibians is usually carried out in the water, ---- the female deposits the egg, despite the fact that some species are able to deposit eggs on land.

A) where B) how C) which D) what E) whose

15. One of the most popular video games is Civilization, ---- a player develops a civilization from humble beginnings as a village into a mighty military, technological, and cultural power.

A) that B) whose C) which D) whom E) in which

16. Mammary glands secrete the milk ---- the females feed their young during their first months of life.

A) for which B) at which C) with which D) from which E) on which

17. Children of addicts have a greater probability of becoming addicts themselves than do children ---- parents are not.

A) whom B) whose C) who D) that E) which

18. Birds have numerous characteristics ---- make them distinct from all other classes of organisms.

A) in which B) who C) what D) how E) that

19. The 1999 movie Analyze This is a comedy ---- stars Billy Crystal as psychiatrist Ben Sobol and Robert De Niro as Paul Vitti, a mob boss ---- is suffering from “panic attacks.”

A) that / who B) where / that C) whose / which D) when / where E) which / whom

20. In the process of persuasion, the source is the person ---- sends a communication, and the receiver is the person ---- the message is sent.

A) that / who B) whose / by whom C) when / where D) who / to whom E) which / that


269

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES ÇIKMIŞ SORULAR

1. His mother, ---- was a devoutly religious

woman, gave Browning a tenderness and optimism he would need frequently in life.

A) which B) who C) whose D) that E) whom

2. By the year 2050 there will be 9 billion

mouths to feed, ---- is 3 billion more than today.

A) which B) what C) there D) whom E) whose

3. It is almost impossible to find two people

---- opinions on this matter are the same.

A) which B) who C) that D) whose E) what

4. Given the uncertainty of market

economics, most governments have a “social safety net” ---- provides for citizens who do not succeed in the market economy.

A) what B) of which C) when D) that E) wherever

5. The process ---- substances are taken into the tissues of organisms is called absorption. A) which B) where C) by which D) from which E) what

6. The last company chairman, ---- killers were never positively identified, was shot and subsequently died in New York three years ago.

A) whose B) who C) that D) which E) whom

7. AIDS is a disease ---- has given rise to much speculation.

A) whom B) whose C) what D) which E) who

8. In Africa, the irresponsible sewage

discharge of an exclusive hotel gradually put an end to the seafood harvest on ---- a local village depended for its livelihood.

A) that B) which C) what D) where E) whom

TEST 3


270

9. A narrative essay is a non-fiction composition ---- the writer explores the subject by telling a story.

A) in which B) which C) that D) whose E) when

10. Today virtually all country and suburban

weeklies and small dailies are produced by offset lithography, a procedure ---- photographs can be reproduced inexpensively.

A) why B) that C) which D) whether E) by which

11. The number of frauds in the US ---- the

criminal uses someone else’s credit card number doubled to 162,000 cases in 2002.

A) in which B) by whom C) of which D) which E) with whom

12. In developing countries, ---- nutritional

concerns override the risk of HIV transmission, breastfeeding may still be desirable.

A) where B) what C) that D) which E) whether

13. The brain is a part of the body ---- very little is known and even less is understood.

A) which B) from what C) where D) of whose E) about which

14. Anemia is a condition ---- there is a

deficiency in the quality of the blood. A) as if B) that C) which D) in which E) so that

15. An annual scientific meeting will be

held so as to facilitate communication among surgeons ---- primary interest lies in the field of oncology.

A) where B) of whom C) when D) in which E) whose

16. Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs

---- the lungs fill with fluid, leading to difficult in breathing.

A) which B) in which C) why D) whereas E) whether


271

17. The development of each organ of the body is regulated by a large number of genes ---- interact in complex ways.

A) as B) when C) that D) so that E) even though

18. PTSD sufferers may experience

flashbacks ---- they feel they are going through the ordeal.

A) in which B) whose C) where D) how E) what

19. Elastin and collagen are proteins ----

form the spongy material that lies under our skin and gives it bounce and flexibility.

A) in which B) which C) whose D) whichever E) whatever

20. Water, indispensable and abundant,

provides the environment ---- nearly all the body’s internal activities are conducted.

A) in which B) whose C) by what D) wherever E) however

1. The anemia of folate deficiency, ---- DNA

synthesis slows and the body’s cells lose their ability to divide, is characterized by large, immature blood cells.

A) in which B) for whom C) how D) in that E) why

2. The South African government has

committed a further sum of money to the Southern African Large Telescope (SLT), ---- enables the construction of this giant telescope to commence next year.

A) by which B) thus C) whose D) which E) for whom

3. Communication is perhaps the most

important of the numerous tasks ---- engineers are responsible in time of war.

A) that B) by which C) what D) for which E) for whom

4. Any magnet, whether it is in the shape of

a bar or horseshoe, has two ends, called poles, ---- the magnetic effect is strongest.

A) which B) what C) where D) how E) that

TEST 4


272

5. Farmers depend on meteorologists ---- accurate forecasts assist in successful agricultural planning.

A) who B) in which C) that D) what E) whose

6. Laser beams, ---- are useful in both

medicine and industry, were first predicted in science fiction some fifty years ago.

A) which B) what C) where D) whatever E) whose

7. Scientists at the US Geological Survey

Center found that the Canadian quake, ---- measured 7.9 on the Richter scale, triggered off several smaller ones as far as Nevada and Utah.

A) in which B) which C) where D) what E) who

8. Sounds occurring near a sleeper ---- is

already dreaming can be incorporated into the dream; however, the sounds themselves will not cause the sleeper to dream.

A) who B) what C) where D) when E) how

9. mRNA marks the end of the egg ---- the fly’s head will develop, and thus defines the fly’s head-to-tail axis.

A) who B) what C) whom D) where E) how

10. The part of an animal ---- gases are

exchanged with the environment is called the respiratory surface.

A) how B) whatever C) which D) what E) where

11. In 2002, ---- Australia’s Great Barrier

Reef was hit hard by unseasonable warming, 95 per cent of its coral was adversely affected.

A) so that B) if C) when D) so long as E) in case

12. The social sciences are a range of

disciplines within the arts and humanities ---- principal concerns are the study of various aspects of society.

A) what B) whose C) that D) how E) when


273

13. During the wars ---- followed the French Revolution, Belgium was occupied by France and later annexed.

A) whether B) who C) when D) that E) as

14. One type of family is the single-parent family, in ---- children liver with an unmarried, divorced or widowed mother or father. A) which B) that C) them D) where E) whom

15. Lead was used for centuries to make the pipes ---- water flowed from reservoirs to houses and public buildings such as baths.

A) through which B) with which C) on which D) at which E) of which

16. Highlights of the Great Wisconsin Cheese Festival include cheesecake contests and cheese-carving, ---- sculptors transform 18 kg blocks of cheddar cheese into objects of beauty. A) from that B) how C) what D) in which E) whatever

17. Soil pollution is caused by the presence of toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease-causing agents ---- enter the soil through industrial waste and pesticides.

A) when B) while C) just as D) whereby E) that

18. Saturn’s main aim in its planned 74

orbits is to gather detailed images of the second largest planet in our solar system, its icy moons and spectacular rings, ---- span almost 272,000 kilometres.

A) whatever B) where C) who D) which E) whereas

19. The Caucasus is a strategically vital

region ---- could play a critical role in the European Union’s future energy security.

A) whereas B) who C) as D) whereby E) that

20. Geometry is usually divided into pure

geometry, which roughly embraces the plane and solid geometry dealt with by Euclid, and analytical or coordinate geometry, ---- problems are solved using algebraic methods.

A) in that B) in which C) which D) by whom E) whichever

Reduction & Participles Tests

274

REDUCTION & PARTICIPLES ÖZGÜN SORULAR

1. The Roman amphitheater was a roofless,

oval-shaped arena ---- for spectator sports.

A) having been used B) using C) to use D) to be using E) used

2. The term ‘demography’ is estimated ---- in

print in 1855 in the book Elements of Human Statistics or Comparative Demography by the Belgian statistician Achille Guillard.

A) to appear B) appearing C) to have appeared D) to be appearing E) having appeared

3. The United States, Russia, North Korea,

and Syria are estimated to ---- biological weapons.

A) have possessed B) possessing C) be possessed D) possess E) being possessed

4. The Lunar Module was the only part of

the Apollo craft ---- the Moon’s surface.

A) reached B) reaching C) being reached D) to reach E) to be reached

5. 3-D ultrasound can be used ---- structural malformations and even facial features.

A) to identify B) identifying C) being identified D) to be identified E) to have identified

6. Unlike humans, none of the animals is

considered ---- a system of communication complex enough to be considered language.

A) to have B) having C) having had D) to have had E) to have been had

7. Biodiversity is the term ---- to the variety

of organisms that occupy a given region.

A) applying B) having applied C) to apply D) applied E) having been applied

8. The roots of science fiction are

commonly thought ---- with the publication of Mary Shelley’s 1818 novel Frankenstein.

A) originating B) to be originating C) having originated D) having been originated E) to have originated

TEST 1


275

9. ----- very young, the child does not remember his biological parents.

A) Having adopted B) Adopted C) To have adopted D) Adopting E) Having been adopted

10. Copper was used long before the Roman Empire and is one of the earliest metals ---- to humans.

A) known B) to know C) knowing D) having known E) to have known

11. The tobacco plant has been known ---- livestock that eat it.

A) to be killed B) to have killed C) killing D) having killed E) to kill

12. The only element ---- in space before it was found on Earth was helium.

A) to be discovered B) to discover C) discovering D) being discovered E) to have discovered

13. Most of the chemicals ---- are known to be toxic to humans or plant life.

A) to use B) having used C) used D) using E) to be used

14. By the end of the eighteenth century, comets were believed to be permanent celestial bodies ---- of solid material.

A) to compose B) composing C) composed D) to be composed E) having composed

15. The first member of the genus Homo, H. Habilis, is predicted ---- between 2.5 million and 1.8 million years ago.

A) having been lived B) to live C) to have lived D) be living E) to be living

16. The Earth is believed to be about 4.5 billion years old, ---- it very young compared to other celestial bodies.

A) made B) being made C) to make D) making E) having made


276

17. Painting and sculpture were not the only arts ---- by the Renaissance.

A) to be revolutionized B) being revolutionized C) revolutionizing D) to have revolutionized E) to revolutionize

18. In the early 1900s, white children were regarded as ---- innately higher in their capacity for academic achievement and educational attainment.

A) to have been B) being C) to be D) having been E) be

19. The natural rate of unemployment is widely believed to ---- since the 1970s.

A) be falling B) fall C) falling D) be fallen E) have fallen

20. The ancient Greeks believed that the gods created nonhuman creatures ---- by people.

A) to be used B) to use C) using D) having used E) to have been used

1. Hepatitis C virus is a virus primarily ----

the liver and is believed to ---- a role in causing liver cancer.

A) to be infecting / be played B) infecting / play C) infected / have played D) to infect / playing E) having infected / be playing

2. In Africa, Ghana was the first colony ---- independence in 1957, and many others soon ----.

A) to have won / had followed B) winning / will follow C) to be won / have followed D) to win / followed E) being won / follow

3. ---- as the Red Planet because of the reddish iron oxide that covers its surface, Mars has a thin atmosphere ---- essentially of carbon dioxide.

A) Being known / having composed B) Having been known / to compose C) Known / composed D) Knowing / being composed E) To know / composing

4. The earliest and most influential eyewitness account of the First Crusade ---- the Gesta Francorum, which is believed to ---- around 1100 and was a major source for the construction of later histories.

A) was / have been written B) is / be written C) had been / write D) has been / be writing E) can be / have written

TEST 2


277

5. ---- by a small creek near the Pacific Ocean, Monte Verde is believed to ---- about 12,500 years before the present.

A) Having located / occupy B) Locating / be occupied C) Being located / have occupied D) To have located / be occupying E) Located / have been occupied

6. Al-Qaeda is thought ---- responsible for most of the spectacular suicide bombings in Iraq, ---- large numbers of people.

A) being / to kill B) to have been / killing C) to be / being killed D) having been / killed E) to being / to have killed

7. One of the latest breakthroughs in medicine, gene therapy ---- to introduce genetic material ---- deficiencies of one or more defective genes.

A) can be used / being corrected B) will be used / to be corrected C) is used / to correct D) has been used / corrected E) was used / correcting

8. Officially ---- as the League of Arab States and ---- in 2006 of twenty-two countries, the Arab League was formed in 1945 by the governments of the then-independent or semi-independent Arab counties.

A) being known / to be consisted B) to know / to consist C) knowing / consisted D) known / consisting E) to be known / being consisted

9. English scientist Isaac Newton was the first person ---- why moons and planets ---- in orbits.

A) to realize / travel B) to have realized / are travelling C) realizing / travelled D) realized / were travelling E) to be realized / have travelled

10. After independence in the early

nineteenth century, most Latin American states experienced repeated coups ---- by innumerable dictators, a phenomenon ---- until the 1980s.

A) to lead / lasted B) being led / having lasted C) leading / to be lasted D) to be leading / to last E) led / lasting

11. Certain changes in the genetic makeup of plants enabled them ---- the new and extreme conditions ---- on the Earth's surface.

A) facing / finding B) to have faced / to find C) being faced / to be found D) to face / found E) having faced / having found

12. ---- a vast array of life-forms, the plant kingdom ---- approximately 300,000 species.

A) Represented / included B) To represent / has included C) Having represented / must include D) Being represented / will include E) Representing / includes


278

13. Researchers ---- the use of various drugs ---- to affect chemical activity in the brain.

A) explored / knowing B) are exploring / known C) had explored / being known D) have explored / to know E) explore / to be known

14. Obesity costs in the US are estimated to ---- $100 billion annually and ---- to grow with the rate of increase in obese individuals.

A) exceeding / be continued B) exceed / continue C) have exceeded / continued D) be exceeded / continuing E) being exceeded / being continued

15. Thiamine, ---- in wholemeal cereals, meat, green vegetables, potatoes, and nuts, ---- essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates.

A) finding / was B) to find / has been C) being found / had been D) to be found / is to be E) found / is

16. In his 1758 book, Systema Naturae, Linnaeus ---- all organisms into seven hierarchical groupings ---- from most inclusive to least inclusive.

A) categorized / arranged B) has categorized / to arrange C) had categorized / to have been arranged D) was categorizing / arranging E) would categorize / having arranged

17. The fourteenth century ---- an age of healthy literary productivity ---- by four major poets—Chaucer, Langland, Gower and the anonymous ‘Gawayne-poet’. A) has been / having been dominated B) had been / to have dominated C) was / dominated D) is / to dominate E) would be / dominating

18. Turkey's Prime Minister ---- social media for fueling anti-government rhetoric ---- to eradicate Twitter at a campaign rally in the city of Bursa in 2014.

A) blamed / will threaten B) blaming / threatened C) to blame / has threatened D) having blamed / had threatened E) having been blamed / threatens

19. The majority of the energy ---- by the brain ---- the rapid firing of millions of neurons communicating with each other.

A) consumed / powers B) to consume / is powering C) being consumed / powered D) consuming / has powered E) having consumed / will power

20. Without sound, we ---- to listen to birds ---- in the trees or the latest hit songs on the radio.

A) won’t be able to / to sing B) were not be able to / having sung C) are not able to / being sung D) wouldn’t be able to / singing E) may not be able to / to be singing


279

REDUCTION & PARTICIPLES ÇIKMIŞ SORULAR

1. For many consumers from all over the

world, the Internet is the first place ---- for useful information that ---- them about what they buy. A) to look / will inform B) looking / has informed C) to have looked / informs D) to be looking / is informing E) having looked / wil have informed

2. ---- in the 19th century, scientists have invented chemical pesticides and used newly discovered genetic principles to select for more productive plants. A) Being started B) To start C) Having been started D) Starting E) To have started

3. Many advanced nations ---- space explorations, and plans are underway ---- a human presence on Mars. A) begin / seeing B) have begun / to see C) are beginning / to have seen D) began / being seen E) had begun / having seen

4. Researchers ---- to understand complex adult behaviours often find it useful to examine those behaviours during periods when they are not so complex. A) attempting B) to have attempted C) to attempt D) attempted E) being attempted

5. A new type of airport X-ray scanner ---- lately by an innovative company ---- the contents of bottles. A) has been built / to detect B) was built / to have detected C) will be built / being detected D) had been built / having detected E) is built / to be detected

6. ---- by the Romans first and then by Arabs, Crete ---- by the Ottomans n the 17th century. A) Taking over / had been conquered B) Having been taken over / had conquered C) Having taken over / conquered D) Taken over / was conquered E) To be taken over / was being conquered

7. By constructing a railroad down the easter cost of Florida, Henry Flagler provided thousands with easy access to areas where many people had previously struggled ---- in isolated community. A) to have lived B) to live C) living D) having lived E) lived

8. Scientists in the US ---- the rivers, streams and floods of ice at the Antarctic, ---- a fascinating picture of a constantly shifting continent. A) mapped / having been painted B) are mapping painted C) have mapped / painting D) will be mapping / having painted E) had mapped / being painted

TEST 3


280

9. ---- the types of individuals it seeks to attract, an organization ---- to consider what methods to use to reach them.

A) To have established / could need B) Having established / needs C) Establishing / had needed D) Established / needed E) Being established / will need

10. New York city ---- the first US ban on large-size sodas and other sugary drinks ---- sold in restaurants.

A) is approving / having been sold B) approving / to be sold C) was approving / having sold D) approves / to have been sold E) has approved / being sold

11. The first known idea of the stars ---- to a sphere, or hemisphere, rotating around us ---- to Anaximenes of Miletus in the 6th century BC.

A) to fix / had been attributed B) being fixed / is attributed C) fixing / has been attributed D) to be fixed / will be attributed E) having fixed / was attributed

12. ---- a new 3.6 metre telescope, astronomers ---- more than 50 new exoplanets, which are defined as planets that orbit other stars.

A) Being used / discovered B) To be used / would discover C) Having used / discover D) To use / had discovered E) Using / have discovered

13. Cibyra is thought to ---- in the 3rd century B.C. by Pisidion colonists who ---- from the Milas region.

A) have been established / may have come B) have established / should have come C) be established / would have come D) being established / might have come E) establish / could have come

14. Disease or injury ---- nerves from sending appropriate signals or force them ---- inappropriate ones. A) should prevent / being sent B) might prevent / to have sent C) could prevent / sending D) must prevent / having sent E) may prevent / to sent

15. Scientists ---- at Stanford University School of Medicine in the US have invented an implant that could help the blind ----.

A) worked / having seen B) having worked / to have seen C) to work / seeing D) to have worked / see E) working / to see

16. A huge fossil turtle is the latest species ---- the ranks of super-reptiles that are known ---- in ancient Colombia.

A) to have joined / living B) joining / having lived C) to join / to have lived D) being joined / to live E) having joined / lived


281

17. Scientists ---- the common cold as ---- by a family of over 200 viruses.

A) were regarded / having been caused B) are regarded / having caused C) regard / being caused D) have regarded / to have caused E) regarded / to have been caused

18. Long ---- as a rat poison, arsenic ---- to halt a deadly blood cancer called acute promyelocytic leukaemia.

A) being used / can be shown B) using / was shown C) used / has been shown D) to be used / is shown E) having used / had been shown

19. Epidemiology, which ---- as a science until the 19th century, is a branch of medicine that investigates factors ---- to improved health, or the occurrence of a disease in a particular population.

A) could not have evolved / having

contributed B) had not evolved / to contribute C) has not evolved / to have contributed D) did not evolve / contributing E) could not evolve / to be contributing

20. ---- missing heat-shield tiles or a failed undercarriage door have allowed the airframe ----?

A) Could / to melt B) Would / melt C) Might / to be melting D) Can / melting E) Will / be melting

1. In April 1953, Watson and Crick ---- the

scientific world with a succinct paper ---- their model for DNA.

A) were shaking / to explain B) had been shaking / to have explained C) have shaken / to be explaining D) shook / explaining E) had shaken / having explained

2. In 1972, two collective burials ---- under an overhanging rock at Qilakitsoq, a small Inuit settlement on the west coast of Greenland, ---- to about A.D. 1475.

A) are discovered / dated B) were discovered / dating C) have been discovered / having dated D) had been discovered / having been dated E) were being discovered / having to be dated

3. In 1989, Jennifer Johnson of Sanford, Florida, ---- the first woman ---- of transferring cocaine to her unborn baby through the umbilical cord.

A) was becoming / having been convicted B) has become / to convict C) would become / to be convicting D) became / to be convicted E) had become / convicting

4. During pregnancy, lead ingested by the mother ---- across the placenta, ---- severe damage on the developing foetal nervous system.

A) has moved / to have inflicted B) moves / inflicting C) had moved / having inflicted D) would move / to be inflicted E) moved / having been inflicted

TEST 4


282

5. A deeply hypnotized subject ---- to initiate activity and would rather wait for the hypnotist ---- something to do.

A) does not like / to suggest B) had not liked / suggesting C) did not like / should suggest D) may not like / has suggested E) will not like / to be suggesting

6. The recovery and identification of plant remains from archaeological contexts are merely the first steps in a wide-ranging series of research issues that ---- up paleoethnobotany, also ---- as archaeobotany.

A) made / knowing B) will make / is known C) make / known D) has made / having known E) had made / is to be known

7. Included with the account of his journey down the Amazon there ---- engaging stories ---- by the unusual people he meets.

A) have been / recounting B) were / being recounted C) are / recounted D) will be / to have been recounted E) would be / to be recounted

8. Most of the world’s population ---- on natural exposure to sunlight ---- adequate vitamin D nutrition.

A) relies / to maintain B) has relied / to have maintained C) used to rely / would have maintained D) will rely / having maintained E) is relying / to be maintaining

9. Having found the appropriate archives, it is now possible ---- with some degree of certainty what really ----.

A) reconstructing / happens B) to reconstruct / happened C) to have reconstructed / has happened D) having reconstructed / had happened E) to be reconstructed / was happening

10. Any drug development effort ----

neurodegenerative disorders ---- carefully any possible side effects.

A) combating / would have examined B) to combat / will have to examine C) to have combated / will examine D) having combated / had examined E) to be combated / would have to examine

11. In order ---- a good sheep-shearing robot, I had to understand sheep shearers and the skill of shearing, as well as the technology ---- in building a robot.

A) having built / to have been involved B) building / to be involved C) to build / involved D) to be building / involving E) to have built / having been involved

12. Underwater archaeology is generally considered to ---- its first major encouragement during the winter of 1853-54, when a particularly low water level in a Swiss lake ---- bare enormous quantities of wooden posts, pottery and other artifacts.

A) be receiving / has laid B) be received / would lay C) have been received / had laid D) receive / could have laid E) have received / laid


283

13. The shuttle ---- the atmosphere at precisely 38° for heat shields below the fuselage and the wings ---- the craft from heat damage.

A) must re-enter / to protect B) has re-entered / having protected C) re-entered / to have protected D) re-enters / to be protecting E) should re-enter / to have been protecting

14. For a long time now, Asia’s emerging

economies ---- the world’s most dynamic, with GDP ---- at an annual rate of 7.5%.

A) were / to have grown B) would have been / having grown C) have been / growing D) would be / to be growing E) are / to grow

Bağlaçlar Tests

284

BAĞLAÇLAR ÖZGÜN SORULAR

1. ---- new technological advances, today it

is possible to visualize and re-create images of what happens inside a human’s body.

A) in spite of B) due to C) in addition to D) rather than E) in case of

2. ---- some parents teach their children to hide or control their emotions, others emphasize techniques such as seeking social support or dealing instrumentally with problems and stressors.

A) While B) Since C) Once D) Besides E) Before

3. Molecules that are made of even tinier particles called atoms are ---- tiny ---- you can’t see them with the naked eye.

A) both / and B) such / that C) whether / or D) the more / the more E) so / that

4. The Cold War was especially dangerous ---- both the US and USSR had nuclear weapons that could have killed many millions of people.

A) though B) hence C) whether D) since E) after

5. The desert expands and contracts with long-term climatic changes ---- seasonal and cyclical fluctuations in precipitation.

A) both B) either C) as well as D) at least E) also

6. Excessive use of alcohol can ---- have psychological effects harmful to family and social functioning ---- injure the stomach, liver, kidneys, heart, and brain.

A) both / as well B) such / as C) not only / but also D) the more / the more E) so / that

7. ---- the concept of artificial intelligence had long been present in science fiction, its theoretical basis was not established until the early 1950s. A) As B) Although C) If D) Once E) In case

8. ---- being a potent intoxicant (substance causing drunkenness), alcohol is one of the most addictive substances.

A) In addition to B) Owing to C) Rather than D) Despite E) Except for

TEST 1


285

9. ---- you make a call from your cell phone, the call travels to the nearest base station, which sends it on an incredibly fast journey to the phone of your friend.

A) Though B) Unless C) As though D) Whether E) When

10. Anxious people often feel ---- something bad were about to happen to them, although they might be unable to identify an immediate threat.

A) after B) but C) since D) as if E) hence

11. People are beginning to recognize that depression and schizophrenia are brain disorders related to physiological changes ---- simply behavioral ones.

A) as for B) because of C) in charge of D) rather than E) in accordance with

12. ---- a sophisticated technology that combines magnetic fields and radio waves, it is possible to give high-quality images of soft tissue in the human body without inconvenience to the patient.

A) In spite of B) Thanks to C) As well as D) Before E) Unlike

13. ---- most organisms such as squid sponges, jellyfish, and sea anemones look like vegetables, they belong to the animal kingdom.

A) When B) Because C) Unless D) Therefore E) Even though

14. Academics in early childhood education generally refer to the specific focus on academic content areas ---- mathematics, reading, writing, and other curriculum domains.

A) with regard to B) at least C) more than D) such as E) on behalf of

15. ---- the big bang theory, everything exploded from nothing about 13.8 billion years ago.

A) According to B) Regardless of C) Owing to D) In case of E) By means of

16. ---- you look at an object, the light from it travels in straight lines to the lens of your eye.

A) Whereas B) If C) Since D) Whether E) Besides

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17. ---- its small population, the South Pacific region accounts for 19 percent of all of the languages in the world.

A) Because of B) With the help of C) Despite D) Instead of E) Rather than

18. Like all other animal species, mammals do not make up a food chain in themselves, ---- depending at all times on the participation of plants and other animals.

A) instead B) compared to C) owing to D) in terms of E) despite

19. ---- early towns grew, they had to develop new systems of government, new means to store and distribute food, and new ways to protect themselves.

A) Whereas B) Only if C) As D) However E) Whether

20. Most cars are powered by gasoline engines, ---- there are many other ways to power a vehicle.

A) after B) accordingly C) since D) but E) unless

1. The Sun—even during an eclipse—is

not safe to look at directly, ---- it can cause irreparable damage to the eyes, such as burns on the retina.

A) unless B) because C) only if D) whereas E) instead

2. ---- you have enough energy, you can use it to create forces that will help you move.

A) As long as B) Though C) Now that D) Until E) Even if

3. Today, the phrase “modern technology” is usually used to mean computers, ---- a few hundred years ago, steam power and mechanical presses were new and exciting technology.

A) but B) otherwise C) furthermore D) as a result E) because

4. Over the final two decades of the twentieth century, ---- international migration ---- trade expanded to new and unprecedented heights.

A) such / that B) not only / as well C) whether / or D) more / than E) both / and

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5. When we see death, destruction, or decay, we feel uncomfortable; ---- we feel pleasant and assured when we see life, color, and growth.

A) because B) so C) otherwise D) whereas E) as though

6. Patents are official documents that describe the idea and show who came up with it, ---- no one else can steal it and say it’s theirs.

A) but B) so C) if D) until E) whether

7. ---- land habitats offered plants direct exposure to sunlight, they also presented the problem of transpiration and the loss of water that it produces.

A) Although B) If C) Since D) Until E) Only when

8. ---- the emergence of scientific theories, most people in the world had their own versions of the origin of the world and of humankind expressed primarily in the form of myths.

A) Except for B) As a result of C) Before D) According to E) In addition to

9. Just like birds’ eggs, reptile eggs must be kept warm; ----, they will not hatch.

A) hence B) however C) instead D) in fact E) otherwise

10. Most laboratory tests give no indication that alcohol has a potential for causing cancer; ----, mice experimentation indicates that long-term use of alcohol can cause liver cancer.

A) nevertheless B) consequently C) furthermore D) for example E) otherwise

11. Behavior is determined by ---- genetics ---- environmental factors, and is controlled by neural mechanisms. A) not only / as well B) other / than C) such / that D) as much / also E) both / and

12. ---- radioactive atoms are dangerous enough to kill people, they can help to save lives as well.

A) Once B) Since C) Provided D) Although E) Until

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13. The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is gradually increasing ---- large-scale deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels, which may lead to significant global warming.

A) as a result of B) instead of C) in addition to D) prior to E) in contrast with

14. When sound waves reach your ears,

they’re carried to your brain, which tells you what sound you’re hearing, ---- your mom’s voice, music ---- the pop of a bursting balloon.

A) both / as well B) such / that C) as / as D) neither / nor E) whether / or

15. Common sense suggests that people

feel good when they experience positive outcomes, ---- they are disappointed when they experience setbacks.

A) whereas B) therefore C) moreover D) provided E) now that

16. Scientific progress can be achieved ----

researchers share their findings with one another and with the general public.

A) until B) only if C) while D) so that E) though

17. ---- the many signs of global warming and changes to the climate, there are still many people who do not accept that something very worrying is taking place.

A) Because of B) Despite C) So as to D) Besides E) In case of

18. Some bird couples stay together forever, whereas other birds change partners every year. ---- caring for chicks and building nests, in most species both parents participate. A) In spite of B) By means of C) As for D) On behalf of E) As in

19. ---- you may be strongly opposed to marijuana use, you may not say anything when friends start passing a joint around at a party because you don’t want to turn the party into an argument.

A) Since B) After C) Just as D) Although E) Once

20. Today, it is possible to buy or hire a video and watch a film at home, ---- millions of people all over the world still prefer to go their town or city cinema for a ‘night out’.

A) because B) moreover C) provided D) when E) but


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1. The activity of the human brain is ----

complex ---- no computer has ever come close to duplicating it.

A) so / that B) either / or C) such / that D) whether / or E) rather / than

2. Most people attribute Michael Jordan’s success in basketball to his remarkable ability, which was undeniably important, ---- the contribution of his extremely high need for achievement should not be underestimated.

A) thus B) as C) but D) otherwise E) if

3. Minerals are classified according to their composition and internal structure, ---- by the properties of hardness, weight, color, luster, and transparency.

A) regardless of B) with respect to C) because of D) in spite of E) as well as

4. ---- independence was achieved, people in the new nationstates felt a strong need to produce histories that would explore the past from their own point of view.

A) Once B) Even though C) If D) Unless E) As though

5. The gravitational pull of the Sun upon the planets ---- keeps them inside the solar system ---- influences the speed with which they revolve in their orbits around the Sun.

A) so / that B) the more / the more C) such / that D) not only / but also E) whether / or

6. Over 1 million people are believed to develop disorders such as lower back pain and repetitive strain injury ---- their work.

A) in spite of B) because of C) in addition to D) in search of E) in contrast with

7. With continued use, sedatives gradually become less effective, ---- some people increase their dose to higher levels, creating a vicious circle of escalating dependency.

A) however B) just as C) whether D) furthermore E) therefore

8. ---- the place of plants in the human diet is nothing new, the search for other beneficial uses of plants is a more modern development.

A) Because B) Even though C) Whenever D) Unless E) In case

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9. The ideas in Renaissance gave rise to a school of thought called humanism, which prized experiment and experience as the sources of knowledge ---- the tradition and superstition of the medieval era.

A) due to B) by means of C) in contrast to D) despite E) in order for

10. Interest and activity in the field of early

childhood education has reached an unprecedented level ---- within the United States ---- worldwide during the past twenty-five years.

A) other / than B) not only / as well C) both / and D) such / that E) as / as

11. The loss of biodiversity through extinction must ultimately be overcome by drastic changes of human behavior, ----, humans will destroy the environment that supports them.

A) since B) even so C) otherwise D) moreover E) thus

12. ---- more completely understand biology, researchers sometimes conduct experiments on animals.

A) In order to B) In addition to C) In spite of D) Instead of E) Because of

13. ---- animal research is enormously important to the advancement of biomedical science, some activists feel that animals should not be used as experimental subjects.

A) As B) However C) When D) Whereas E) Provided

14. Before automobiles came along, most smog came from burning coal and was ---- severe in 19th-century London ---- streetlights were turned on because smog darkened the midday sky.

A) such / that B) neither / nor C) either / or D) as / as E) so / that

15. Birds have many resemblances to reptiles, ---- their habit of laying eggs, the possession of scales on their beaks and legs.

A) the most B) enough C) such as D) rather than E) quite

16. Mirrors reflect up to 95 percent of the light that hits them, ---- ordinary glass reflects only eight percent.

A) while B) in addition C) if D) hence E) because


291

17. ---- most of the energy we use won’t last forever, we need to start thinking about how we can use less energy.

A) Since B) Although C) Whether D) After E) No matter

18. Although grains were important in both Greece and Rome, the Romans grew and ate more wheat, ---- the Greeks preferred barley.

A) as long as B) so that C) whereas D) because E) otherwise

19. ---- does sleep occur in a context of daily rhythms, ---- subtler rhythms are evident within the experience of sleep itself.

A) Either / or B) So / that C) Both / and D) Not only / but E) Whether / or

20. The thick winter coat of the arctic fox keeps it so amazingly warm that the fox only starts shivering ---- the temperature falls below – 50°C.

A) unless B) once C) whether D) so E) what

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BAĞLAÇLAR ÇIKMIŞ SORULAR

1. ---- appearing every four to seven years

as it is used to, “El Nino” has now been appearing consecutively for a number of years. A) On account of B) In view of C) Because of D) In case of E) Instead of

2. The Great Pyramid of Khufu, ---- is near Cairo, is one of the most famous monuments in the world. A) who B) where C) which D) whom E) what

3. When the class laughed, the poor boy felt ---- uncomfortable ---- he didn’t know whether to keep his cap in his hand or not. A) such / that B) that / as C) as / as D) more / than E) so / that

4. An earthquake is a movement of the earth’s surface ---- follows a setting free of energy at the surface of the earth. A) where B) when C) whose D) whom E) which

5. ---- so many of the team members were ill, it’s not surprising that we lost the match. A) In contrast B) Due to C) Since D) Likewise E) Nonetheless

6. Many ordinary people don’t realize that fat is not digested in the stomach, ---- in the small intestine. A) although B) but C) because D) unless E) while

7. The name “Kızılırmak” emphasizes the

colour of this river, ---- the earlier name “Halys” stresses its saltiness. A) whereas B) therefore C) whereby D) moreover E) indeed

8. The film Casablanca, the story ---- is set in Morocco during World War II, stars Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman. A) whose B) of which C) by whom D) whichever E) what

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9. Temperature is difficult to define precisely, ---- we all have an idea of what we mean by it. A) whether B) in case C) just D) but E) so far as

10. They are worried that if the decline in the number of the Siberian tigers continues at this high rate, ---- of the species will be left in a few years. A) many B) none C) most D) any E) least

11. Julius Caesar expected to rule for life, ---- he was assassinated by conspirators on 15 March in the year 44 BC. A) although B) because C) as D) if E) but

12. “Hacking” is unauthorized access to a computer, ---- for fun or for harmful or fraudulent purposes. A) since B) both C) more D) whether E) such

13. Archaeological excavations indicate ---- Central Turkey has been continuously settled since the earliest times. A) in case B) if C) even though D) so that E) that

14. ---- Charles Dickens himself had a very

hard childhood, he found it possible to write novels which contain humour and have happy endings. A) If B) Before C) When D) Although E) Unless

15. Thanks to the popularity of nature

documentaries on television, most people know that many animals migrate from one place to another ---- the seasons change. A) so that B) even though C) in case D) whether E) as

16. Life originated in the sea and evolved

there for almost 3 billion years ---- plants and animals began moving onto the land. A) because B) even if C) before D) but E) as if

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17. Roughly 100,000 years ago, during the last ice age, wolves migrated from Eurasia to the highlands of ---- is now Ethiopia. A) that B) where C) what D) which E) who

18. Writing a political essay is not merely about writing one’s own opinion; ----, it requires a talent for analytical thinking and an ability to simplify complex concepts. A) finally B) however C) consequently D) nevertheless E) in fact

19. Aristotle studied many subjects, ---- he was mostly interested in science, especially biology, zoology and astronomy. A) as if B) since C) but D) if E) unless

20. Aromatherapy is the use, for health purposes, of oils and essences from certain flowers and herbs which are chosen ---- their various beneficial effects.

A) contrary to B) as well as C) mostly from D) except for E) rather than

1. ---- folktales were preserved in written

form, they were simply stories retold whenever a group of people with the same interests gathered. A) Whether B) Before C) If D) Unless E) Whereas

2. Most wild animals are ---- shy that they run away as soon as they are disturbed. A) much B) too C) as D) such E) so

3. The cause of Beethoven’s death remained a great mystery ---- the year 2000, when a sample of his hair was analyzed using sophisticated technology. A) since B) until C) because D) while E) after

4. In Scandinavia, wildlife in many rivers has been destroyed ---- the devastating power of acid rain. A) in spite of B) because of C) as opposed to D) in terms of E) as regards

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5. Musical performers can be classified into many different categories ---- vocalists and instrumentalists. A) as well as B) both C) such as D) either E) more than

6. A running tap wastes up to nine litres of water per minute, ---- turning it off while brushing your teeth helps save plenty of water.

A) when B) since C) so D) instead E) otherwise

7. It is impossible to make appropriate decisions about how to solve a problem ---- you define it and identify its root causes first. A) in case B) unless C) though D) because E) whether

8. Global demand for coal will continue to expand over the next five years ---- governments’ attempts to reduce reliance on this fuel.

A) in spite of B) as a result of C) as well as D) due to E) in case of

9. ---- children see us read, ---- inclined they are to want to read.

A) Neither / nor B) Both / and C) Either / or D) The more / the more E) Other / than

10. When walking in a group, the walking pace should be that of the slowest member ---- he or she does not feel left behind. A) in case B) so that C) when D) even if E) provided that

11. ---- the annual influx of tourists exceeds Corsica’s population six times, tourism has not destroyed the place. A) As long as B) Unless C) Now that D) Because E) Even though

12. ---- the world may still rely overwhelmingly on fossil fuels for transport and power, their cost has begun to outweigh their advantages. A) After B) Just as C) Once D) While E) If

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13. All cargo passing through the European Union is subject to one security control, ---- at the origin of the shipment ---- at the destination of cargo. A) as/as B) such/as C) neither / nor D) the more / the more E) either / or

14. ---- composing countless large-scale stage works, Carl Orff’s fame rests almost entirely on just one, the hugely successful Carmina Burana. A) In spite of B) Owing to C) In case of D) As well as E) Instead of

15. ---- African nations got their

independence, the first thing they did was to change place names in their countries. A) Just as B) If C) Although D) Until E) When

16. ---- the death of the dictator General Franco in 1975, Spain became a constitutional monarchy under King Juan Carlos I. A) In spite of B) Since C) After D) As well as E) Instead of

17. The production of a single calorie of meat, depending on ---- it is beef or chicken, requires four to ten calories in animal feed. A) which B) if C) whatever D) how E) whether

18. The tsunami that hit Japan was ----

destructive ---- not much was left when search-and-rescue teams finally reached there. A) as / as B) rather / than C) too / enough D) so / that E) such / as well

19. Most developing countries do not have China’s bureaucratic depth and tradition, ---- do they have the ability to control personnel in the way that China’s party structure allows.

A) nor B) so C) much as D) the more E) not only

20. Buying books would be a good thing ---- one could also buy the time to read them in. A) so B) since C) if D) as E) but


297

1. Astronomers discover thousands of new

members of the solar system every month, most of which, ----, are insignificant bodies like small asteroids or comets. A) however B) therefore C) otherwise D) accordingly E) in other words

2. ---- sustainable technologies usually cost a lot of money to set up, they save money in the long run. A) Even if B) After C) Just as D) Unless E) Once

3. With normal ocean waves, only the surface of the water body is in motion; a tsunami, ----, brings not only the surface into motion but lifts and then drops an entire water column in the ocean. A) namely B) though C) for example D) similarly E) hence

4. The basic principles of good diets are ---- simple ---- one can summarize them in just ten words; eat less, move more, eat lots of fruits and vegetables. A) neither / nor B) the more / the more C) whether / or D) such / as E) so / that

5. The henna, which may have spiritual significance in various cultures, is applied ---- different graphic rules, with different symbolic relations. A) due to B) except for C) unlike D) according to E) prior to

6. Telecommunication companies install cell towers in places where the network will get sufficient use ---- sparsely populated areas do not qualify, which means people there lack acess to reliable phone service. A) in case B) even if C) so D) although E) just as

7. ---- the 50-second silent film Train Pulling Into A Station was first shown in 1895, people were so terrified by the locomotive racing towards them that they hurried to the back of the theatre. A) Before B) Although C) Since D) When E) As if

8. Much evidence points to a relationship between stress and disease ---- claims that stressful lifeevents and daily routines cause various diseases are still premature. A) since B) if C) once D) only when E) but

TEST 6

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9. Scientists do research in natural forces ---- for the sake of new discoveries ---- to use the findings for the advantage of mankind. A) not only / but also B) so / that C) the more / the more D) such / that E) whether / or

10. One way to reduce the negative impact people have on the environment is to make sure that as much garbage as possible is recycled ---- being put in a landfill. A) because of B) in terms of C) for the sake of D) instead of E) in case of

11. The world is changing ---- rapidly now ---- there is no guarantee you will have a job for life, nor that the company you join will continue to exist.

A) so / that B) as / as C) such / as D) more / like E) much / than

12. ---- little respect the British people may feel for the monarchy, they are still not likely to change to a republic.

A) As far as B) Whatever C) Such a D) However E) Just as

13. All of the world’s major national parks are included on the map, ---- are most of the important reserves of lesser status.

A) as B) as well C) such D) which E) that

14. His latest novel is about people who take their work seriously, ---- that’s being a mother, a nurse or a soldier.

A) even so B) as if C) unless D) besides E) whether

15. Heviz is Europe’s largest warm-water lake and visitors can swim there even in winter, ---- helps extend the tourist season.

A) thus B) which C) nor D) too E) so

16. Management must learn to determine market conditions in the countries ---- it is doing business. A) where B) what C) as for D) of which E) so that


299

17. ---- the growth in e-mail and fax transmissions, many communications are still best handled by face-to-face or voice-to-voice contact. A) Contrary to B) In spite of C) By means of D) Since E) As regards

18. ---- an organization depends on collaborative arrangements, ---- likely it is to lose control over decisions. A) Not only / but also B) Neither / nor C) Either / or D) When / then E) The more / the more

19. A corporation’s formulation of its international strategy will greatly determine ---- it will benefit more from protectionism or from some other means for countering international competition. A) so B) as C) unless D) whether E) whereby

20. You can look at this plan for the new sports centre ---- closely ---- you like but I don’t think you will be able to understand it.

A) as / as B) so / that C) such / that D) more / than E) just as

1. In the early 19th century, one could grasp

a field with a little reading, ---- in these days, breaking new ground in science and literature is much harder and more demanding.

A) but B) so C) as D) when E) once

2. Different tools are used to measure

different things; ----, balances measure weight, stop watches measure time, and thermometers measure temperature.

A) for example B) instead C) otherwise D) on the contrary E) however

3. ---- lead was widely known to be

dangerous, by the early years of the 20th century, it could be found in all manners of consumer products.

A) Since B) Once C) Only when D) Even though E) Given that

4. Animals trapped in a stone called ‘amber’

are sometimes so well preserved that they look ---- they have just died.

A) so that B) in case C) as though D) even if E) now that

TEST 7

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5. The European Commission has put forward that policies to cut greenhouse gases will not work ---- individuals share the vision of a low-carbon society.

A) provided that B) after C) but D) while E) unless

6. ---- the number of people affected, floods undoubtedly constitute the greatest of all natural hazards. A) In spite of B) In terms of C) As opposed to D) By means of E) Instead of

7. ---- deriving the two-thirds of its power supply from the fossil fuels, power producers in India cannot get enough pipeline space to distribute natural gas.

A) Despite B) Besides C) As a result of D) By means of E) Rather than

8. Many urban areas are growing ---- their hinterlands are depressed, which forces poor rural people to move to the cities in search of work.

A) unless B) in case C) so that D) whenever E) because

9. ---- dealing with poor sanitation and pollution from dirty cooking fuels and primitive stoves, the newcomers to a city are exposed to modern environmental hazards, such as urban air pollution, exhaust fumes and industrial pollution.

A) Despite B) Owing to C) For the sake of D) In addition to E) Unlike

10. ---- the political upheavals in the Arab world, the Middle East is gaining ground to become one of the world’s popular tourists destinations. A) Since B) Despite C) Before D) If E) In case

11. ---- philosophers had started to put received wisdom to the test of rational examination, another fundamental question rapidly became obvious: “How can we know?” A) Once B) Only if C) Unless D) In case E) While

12. A symphony is like a castle with its own

grand structure, ---- a short song will have a different and less complex form more like a cottage. A) before B) if C) although D) whether E) whereas


301

13. ---- the news is out about tomatoes being found for their cancer-fighting properties, the question is how to get sufficient amounts every day.

A) Much as B) While C) Now that D) Just as E) Even if

14. On a sunny day, some patches of

ground warm up more quickly than others ---- the differences in topography.

A) similar to B) on behalf of C) as well as D) because of E) apart from

15. One of the challenging decisions that

hospitals are to make when purchasing a technology-based system is ---- they want to focus more on the doctor ---- the patient.

A) neither / nor B) whether / or C) rather / than D) as well / as E) both / and

16. Dogs’ memory requires constant reinforcement, ---- they quickly forget. A) so B) but C) instead D) otherwise E) hence

17. There is some evidence that cats remember specific events longer than dogs, but ---- their excellent memory for people and spaces, both species are able to build complex mental maps of their surroundings and find way their home.

A) in comparison with B) instead of C) despite D) rather than E) thanks to

18. Across Africa, experts estimate that more than 30% of malaria and tuberculosis medicines are fake, ---- over 700.000 people die every year as a result of taking those counterfeit drugs.

A) because B) so C) and D) while E) unless

19. Crystals are created ---- cooling and crystallization take place at an appropriate depth and with sufficient time. A) until B) though C) so D) before E) when

20. ---- schools encourage children to read printed books more often, the library, in its traditional form, will eventually disappear.

A) whenever B) whereas C) since D) however E) unless

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1. Relaxing with friends and enjoying

people’s company can help us unwind, which decreases our stress levels ---- we feel revived and revitalized. A) after B) even if C) although D) unless E) so that

2. All over the world, many plant and animal species are now at risk of extinction ---- humans are destroying the environment. A) before B) only if C) even though D) because E) but

3. A sneeze is more favourable than a cough because it nearly always cures the tickle that triggered it, ---- coughing can worsen things. A) once B) if C) whereas D) otherwise E) just as

4. Animal species that may become extinct over the coming years include ---- large animals ---- smaller creatures like insects. A) the more / the more B) both / and C) as / as D) neither / nor E) whether / or

5. It is assumed ---- an educational programme should emphasize the valid aspects of the cultural and historical past. A) whereby B) since C) as D) that E) in case

6. The existence of galaxies was not recognized until the early 20th century, ---- since then galaxies have become one of the focal points of astronomical investigation. A) even B) because C) but D) if E) whether

7. In the developing world, the public-sector health care infrastructure is typically overwhelmed, which is not surprising considering ---- national governments spend on health as a share of national income. A) how little B) few C) so much D) just as much E) how many

8. According to a country-wide survey, people living in the North East of England are ---- likely to claim physical powers ---- those living in elsewhere in the country. A) most / as B) more / than C) not only / but also D) so / that E) less / but

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9. No pharaoh is more famous than Tutankhamun but, ---- his fame, ver little is actually known about him. A) even if B) in case of C) in excess of D) in order to E) despite

10. Some popular diet books have misled consumers with deceptive claims; ----, they fail to provide an assessment of the results of their treatment plans for obesity.

A) furthermore B) nevertheless C) even so D) otherwise E) on the contrary

11. Generally, social media platforms can

be thought of as virtual meeting places which function to encourage the exchange of media content among users who are ---- producers ---- consumers.

A) both / and B) more / than C) just / like D) so / that E) such / as

12. Little Caesar, often called the

grandfather of the gangster movie, was produced at the beginning of the sound era, and ---- it shows its age in some areas, it is still an effective thriller.

A) even B) because C) while D) so E) besides

13. ---- the role of the school in developing students’ civic values, most proponents of citizenship education agree that it should involve a range of democratic values such as the sense of public responsibility.

A) At least B) In spite of C) In comparison to D) With regard to E) Rather than

14. Presumably they will find the terms acceptable, but ---- they raise any objections, we need to listen to them.

A) in case B) as is C) until D) while E) since

15. ---- other areas of policy analysis, foreign policy analysis also starts with a number of central questions about the nature of what is to be studied. A) In place of B) By means of C) As opposed to D) Instead of E) As in

16. Atatürk Dam, which is ---- the largest

dams in the world, is capable of generating 8.9 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity annually from the run-off the vast lake ---- its construction created. A) such / as B) one of / that C) more than / which D) other than / some of E) between / where

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17. Much of the immune system’s machinery is geared towards killing or eliminating invading microbes ---- they have been recognized.

A) once B) although C) even if D) in case E) whereby

18. The structures around the eye protect it

---- allowing it to move freely in all directions. A) since B) while C) even though D) because E) whereas

19. The age at which puberty begins seems to be influenced by a child’s general health and nutrition ---- by socioeconomic and hereditary factors.

A) also B) so long as C) as well as D) both E) either

20. The solar calendar the Egyptians

developed was ---- accurate and sophisticated than the Mesopotamian lunar calendar.

A) the most B) most C) the more D) more E) as

1. ---- the substance causing the allergy

has been identified, avoiding it and applying some simple treatments will be enough to overcome skin reactions such as itching and scaling.

A) As if B) While C) Even though D) Whether E) Once

2. Memory often works best when we have a visual representation of past events, ---- this mental picture will help us bring out many details.

A) as B) although C) whereas D) otherwise E) but

3. ---- compared to their butter-loving American counterparts, Italians consume 24 times the amount of olive oil per person.

A) As though B) Until C) When D) Unless E) Just as

4. In social terms, ---- membership in a particular society ---- behaviour such as crime is sufficient to define a subculture.

A) both / also B) neither / nor C) so / that D) less / than E) even / more

TEST 9


305

5. According to new research by US biologists, the fearsome roars of lions and tigers are ---- the unusual shape of their vocal chords.

A) in terms of B) rather than C) on behalf of D) due to E) as well as

6. ----- electric cars are welcome development, they are neither as useful nor as green as their supporters claim.

A) Before B) Just as C) Although D) Since E) Because

7. Our memory for emotions is highly selective, and we tend to remember how good the good times were, ------ the memories of the bad times fade more quickly.

A) even B) as if C) whenever D) whereas E) likewise

8. The assumption that mental functions are at their sharpest ------- our brains mature in our early 20s has been questioned by a new research study.

A) unless B) until C) as if D) although E) when

9. Ankara University was established in 1925, and many faculties, institutes and schools have since been set up within it, the first of ----- was the Faculty of Law.

A) which B) those C) that D) some E) it

10. Having the support of a friend can change our perception of ----- difficult an obstacle is to overcome.

A) whichever B) how C) what D) whatever E) when

11. Of the four cavities in the brain, two are found inside each hemisphere, ---- the third and fourth are found between them.

A) even B) since C) if D) so that E) while

12. Inhabitants of a nation generally possess a common history, geographical place and language; ----, a nation-state may be thought of as a place in which people follow the same cultural and social patterns.

A) though B) otherwise C) besides D) therefore E) still

Bağlaçlar Tests

306

13. Ear disorders prevent you from detecting certain sounds from your environment ---- affecting your sense of balance. A) as well as B) as if C) much as D) with regard to E) due to

14. The French sociologist Emile Durkheim argued that human beings are ---- individuals ---- social beings that exist in society.

A) not only / as well B) other / than C) such / that D) as much / also E) both / and

15. Animals such as raccoons and foxes eat almost anything edible that they come across ---- specializing in one type of food.

A) just as B) as regards C) rather than D) owing to E) in terms of

16. The Alps have been an area of transit trade since ancient times ----- they offer important pathways between central and southern Europe.

A) so that B) because C) as if D) whereas E) whether

17. ----- ancient peoples in several parts of the world built pyramids, it was the Egyptians who constructed the tallest and most famous of them.

A) Unless B) Now that C) Although D) Once E) As if

18. Aridisols are dry, desert-like soils that have low organic content ----- are sparsely vegetated by drought- or salt-tolerant plants.

A) so far as B) so that C) as D) so E) and

19. The remarkable feature of gases is ----- they appear to have no structure at all.

A) if B) that C) when D) why E) whether

20. ----- populating both the inner and the outer surfaces of the human body, microbes abound in the soil, the seas, and the air.

A) According to B) As to C) In contrast to D) In addition to E) In order to


307

1. ---- survivors of childhood cancer do

seem to have a higher risk of heart problems, the individual likelihood of this happening is still fairly small.

A) Whether B) If C) Whenever D) Unless E) While

2. The vast sums of money spent to fight diseases such as AIDS and malaria in the past ten years have saved many lives ----- have also sometimes undermined health systems in poor countries.

A) whereas B) since C) unless D) but E) so

3. ----- climate change seems likely to threaten the entire world’s health, an ever greater number of political leaders are insisting that something must be done to stop it.

A) Even though B) Now that C) Provided that D) As if E) Even if

4. ---- many people these days regularly use and rely on computers, many others do not even understand how the computer works.

A) Though B) When C) Because D) In case E) If

5. A mixture is a material ---- can be separated by physical means into two or more substances.

A) whereas B) whereby C) whether D) that E) as

6. A study by the US Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration found that, among those ----- were seeking treatment for drug and alcohol addiction, the number of cannabis addicts rose form 12% in 1997 to 16% in 2007.

A) whose B) whom C) who D) which E) what

7. The term “health illiteracy” refers to the condition where a person knows ----- about medical information and how to use it that negatively affects his or her access to the health-care system.

A) few B) as such C) many D) so little E) a few

8. The world faces a future of “water wars” ---- action is taken to prevent international water shortages and sanitation issues escalating into conflicts.

A) as long as B) whether C) since D) unless E) If

TEST 10

Bağlaçlar Tests

308

9. Parents normally do not have the fear that, in marrying their daughter or son, they are losing their child to someone else ----- a son-in-law or daughter-in-law arrives.

A) in case B) until C) as if D) so that E) whether

10. ---- popular belief, laboratory experiments show that men have a higher pain tolerance than women.

A) Compared to B) Contrary to C) As regards D) Rather than E) In case of

11. ----- numerous reformist policies that have helped to improve the economic conditions in the country, the standard of living for the poor has improved very little.

A) Despite B) Instead of C) In connection with D) According to E) As regards

12. A caricature is often a drawing or painting ----- a person is ridiculed by the exaggeration or distortion of his most obvious characteristics.

A) more than B) in place of C) by no means D) in which E) as much as

13. ---- the source of energy for nuclear power plants and weapons can be the same, a typical nuclear power plant does not contain enough fissionable material in high enough concentration to produce a nuclear explosion.

A) Although B) When C) If D) Just as E) In case

14. Enormous underground beds of sodium and potassium compounds formed ---- lakes and seas became isolated by geological events.

A) as long as B) so that C) even if D) unless E) when

15. With a nuclear weapon, the objective is

to release the energy ---- rapidly ---- possible and produce a nuclear explosion.

A) as / as B) both / and C) either / or D) so / that E) not only / but also

16. Temperate rain forest, ---- occurs on the

northwest coast of North America, receives high precipitation and is dominated by large conifers.

A) as well as B) more than C) such as D) same as E) then


309

17. In immunodeficiency disorders, the immune system doesn’t function adequately, ---- infections are more common, recur more frequently and last longer than usual.

A) so B) but C) even if D) although E) as if

18. People cannot minimize the consequences of heart failure, ---- they introduce changes in their lives and strictly obey the instructions given by the doctor.

A) but B) if C) whereas D) unless E) whether

19. ---- sterilization creates a pathogen-free environment, 5 to 10 per cent of patients still contract an infection during their stay at hospital.

A) Once B) Since C) As long as D) When E) Although

20. The heart is a hollow organ ---- interior contains two muscular and membranous tissue walls, one vertical and one horizontal.

A) whenever B) which C) where D) whose E) that

1. In less-developed parts of the world,

there are few modern urban water networks, ---- the people living in these areas do not have access to safe drinking water.

A) so B) even if C) because D) while E) though

2. Every year, more than 15,000 scuba dives are performed off the coral reefs of Cayman Islands, ---- these sites can actually support only 5,000 dives per year without any damage to the reefs.

A) since B) but C) if D) just as E) in case

3. What you say about the problem may be true in theory, ---- in practice it does not contribute to the solution of the problem.

A) when B) so that C) although D) for E) because

4. Thanks to a newly developed battery-charging device called “the Chargepod,” we will no longer have to use different chargers ---- recharge different mobile gadgets, like cell phones and iPods.

A) with reference to B) due to C) in order to D) with regard to E) according to

TEST 11

Bağlaçlar Tests

310

5. ---- are moods more under the spotlight than in our most intimate relationships.

A) No sooner B) Neither C) Not only D) Not once E) Nowhere

6. Scientists recently completed the largest-ever astronomical survey of the sky, during ---- they retained images that are expected to help them understand the origins of galaxies.

A) whose B) that C) when D) which E) whom

7. A survey of 1,449 Finns found that married people and people living with a partner were 50% less likely to develop dementia in later life, ---- single or divorced people had three times the risk.

A) instead B) otherwise C) even if D) since E) whereas

8. ---- certain lifestyle changes can result in weight loss for some, many obese patients need more efficacious interventions for weight reduction.

A) Because B) Although C) When D) If E) As long as

9. ---- doctors advise their patients to eat well and exercise for their health, they should be telling them to sleep well.

A) Even B) Because C) Just as D) Although E) As if

10. Chloroform is no longer used as an anaesthetic for several reasons, the most important of ---- is the relatively high risk of complications, including possible heart failure.

A) that B) whose C) what D) which E) it

11. ---- everyone appears to dislike a person who is known as a “gossip,” it is an exceedingly unusual individual who doesn’t enjoy a bit of gossip.

A) If B) Unless C) Although D) Whenever E) Once

12. ---- influencing how we think, digital technology is altering how we feel and how we behave. A) Despite B) Besides C) Whereas D) As if E) Owing to


311

13. ---- scientists can tell, our prehistoric ancestors lived in relatively small groups where they knew everyone else in the group.

A) Despite the fact that B) Apart from C) As far as D) As much as E) Unlike

14. One type of family is the single-parent family, in ---- children live with an unmarried, divorced or widowed mother or father.

A) which B) that C) them D) where E) whom

15. ---- being a personal relationship between two people, marriage is one of society’s most important and basic institutions.

A) Instead of B) In addition to C) Because of D) In opposition to E) In case of

16. The existence of galaxies was not recognized until the early 20th century, ---- since then galaxies have become one of the focal points of astronomical investigation.

A) even B) because C) but D) if E) whether

17. A gemstone used in the making of jewellery must be durable, ---- it cannot withstand the process of being handled or shaped.

A) thus B) even if C) although D) or else E) while

18. ---- does geology provide a better understanding of the Earth’s evolution and its present features, but it also serves society in a variety of practical ways.

A) Either B) So C) Not only D) So long as E) Not once

19. Geometry, ---- name is derived from Greek words meaning “earth measurement,” is one of the oldest branches of mathematics.

A) as B) which C) that D) whose E) its

20. ---- the so-called swine flu turns out to be less frightening than first feared, it is only a matter of time before a deadlier one comes along.

A) Unless B) Even if C) Whether D) While E) When

Bağlaçlar Tests

312

1. All efforts by the Chinese government

to eliminate the most widespread parasitic infection in the country failed, ---- a new drug arrived in the 1980s that was said to be highly effective in controlling the disease.

A) just as B) so that C) in case D) even after E) whereby

2. After Hurricane Katrina hit the US city of New Orleans in 2005 and left it without electricity for many weeks, mold and spores easily grew in the still-habitable houses, ---- respiratory and skin problems are still widespread. A) because B) so C) although D) yet E) whenever

3. Many surgeons believe that a patient ----

face bears a calm expression immediately before an operation is likely to require less anaesthesia during the procedure.

A) what B) which C) whatever D) that E) whose

4. It is assumed ---- an educational programme should emphasize the valid aspects of the cultural and historical past.

A) whereby B) since C) as D) that E) in case

5. It is generally thought that animals love us ---- who or what we are.

A) so long as B) no matter C) provided that D) because of E) for the sake of

6. In the developing world, the public-sector health care infrastructure is typically overwhelmed, which is not surprising considering ---- national governments spend on health as a share of national income.

A) how little B) few C) so much D) just as much E) how many

7. The most rewarding aspect of taking

photographs is to be able to immortalize on your film people’s hearts, smiles, and soul ---- you can always feel like you are a part of their world.

A) while B) as though C) so that D) whereas E) whenever

8. Painters ---- diverse ---- Goya, Manet, and Picasso were inspired by Titian and other Renaissance painters.

A) as / as B) both / and C) not only / but also D) so / that E) such / as

TEST 12


313

9. If there is one thing that is more astonishing than the ability of the adult human to talk, it is the process ---- he learns to do it.

A) whichever B) where C) that D) however E) by which

10. The number of frauds in the US ---- the criminal uses someone else’s credit card number doubled to 162,000 cases in 2002.

A) in which B) by whom C) of which D) which E) with whom

11. During the second half of the 20th century, the fracture rates among high-risk European populations grew higher, ---- this increase was modest compared with that of the urbanized populations in Southern Asia. A) in case B) because C) unless D) but E) now that

12. Citizens of countries that are members of the EU, as well as citizens from the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, do not need a visa to visit Germany ---- their stay does not exceed three months.

A) whereas B) as if C) so long as D) whether E) so that

13. Every Turkish citizen over the age of 25 is eligible to be a deputy in Parliament ---- he or she has completed primary education and has not been convicted of a serious crime.

A) with the idea that B) from the point of view that C) despite the fact that D) by the fact that E) on condition that

14. Unlike many other European nations, Finland has not been the destination of large groups of foreign workers, ---- has it ever been a colonial power.

A) and B) nor C) or D) also E) not

15. Fish often spend much of their time in the deep, cool waters of a lake ---- oxygen levels there become depleted by decomposers.

A) as if B) just as C) now that D) unless E) so as

16. ---- physical activity can enhance physical functioning, reduce anxiety, stress, and depression, it also poses some hazards to one’s physical and psychological health.

A) Although B) Since C) Whether D) In case E) Unless

Bağlaçlar Tests

314

17. ---- surgeons in France had performed the first partial face transplant late in November, psychologists began to question whether the patient was mentally stable enough to handle the stressful, high-risk procedure.

A) Suppose that B) So long as C) As soon as D) Because E) If

18. ---- people have been diagnosed with cardiovascular disease (CVD), they typically enter a cardiac rehabilitation programme to change their lifestyle and thereby avoid subsequent CVD.

A) Whereas B) After C) While D) Even though E) As if

19. In veterinary medicine, federal governments and professional associations keep data on animal euthanasia and, ---- the research results obtained so far, have developed guidelines and procedures.

A) in the hope of B) as of C) in case of D) in accordance with E) on behalf of

20. The anaemia of folate deficiency, ----

DNA synthesis slows and the body’s cells lose their ability to divide, is characterized by large, immature blood cells.

A) in which B) for whom C) how D) in that E) why

1. In 2002, ---- Australia’s Great Barrier

Reef was hit hard by unseasonable warming, 95 per cent of its coral was adversely affected. A) so that B) if C) when D) so long as E) in case

2. ---- a violent storm is over, it leaves a

cooler ocean behind, lowering the likelihood that more storms will flare up, at least not immediately. A) Once B) Even so C) Even if D) Since E) While

3. Humans, like all warm-blooded animals,

can keep their core body temperatures pretty much constant ---- differences in the temperature in the world around them. A) as of B) regardless of C) instead of D) in terms of E) because of

4. The part of an animal ---- gases are

exchanged with the environment is called the respiratory surface. A) how B) which C) whatever D) what E) where

TEST 13


315

5. Perfectionism constricts people just when the fast-moving world requires more flexibility, and ----, it turns them into success slaves. A) consequently B) nevertheless C) still D) however E) contrarily

6. ---- Americans are generally marrying less, they still marry, divorce and especially remarry at rates higher than in most other countries. A) As B) When C) Since D) Just as E) Even though

7. ---- English contains a vast lexical

inheritance from Latin, Persian has absorbed a great number of Arabic loanwords. A) As long as B) Because C) Even if D) Just as E) Whether

8. Some 30 women are running in the

Kuwaiti general election, ---- few, if any, are expected to win.

A) so that B) in that C) whether D) because E) although

9. Studying the origin of language was once thought to be ---- an endeavour ---- scientific societies actually forbade it.

A) rather / than B) such / that C) not / but D) either / or E) both / and

10. ---- oral decongestants reduce cold

symptoms by20%, nasal sprays can reduce symptoms by as much as 70%.

A) While B) Because C) Unless D) As long as E) Supposing

11. ---- a new anti-viral drug is developed,

scientists first test it on the hepatitis C virus.

A) Even if B) Before C) Since D) Because E) Whenever

12. A brain abscess may be fatal ---- it is

treated with antibiotics. A) but B) whereas C) just as D) unless E) in case

Bağlaçlar Tests

316

13. Lycopene is an important part of the body’s cell protection system which neutralizes free radicals and ---- decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease. A) on the contrary B) on the way C) as well D) yet E) in this way

14. Toxic amblyopic, usually involving only

one eye, is a condition ---- retrobulbar neuritis, which usually affects both eyes. A) the same as B) similar to C) as regards D) according to E) as well as

15. In the current financial crisis, Italy is

alone among the big European countries in having ---- a bank rescue fund ---- a stated figure for the sum it is ready to make available. A) more / than B) neither / nor C) such / as D) so / that E) just / as

16. Recently, researchers have found that

---- certain genes remain activated long enough, they can dramatically enhance an organism’s health and extend its life span.

A) even if B) while C) in case D) if E) although

17. Tourists gathered to admire the mushroom clouds during nuclear tests in Nevada between 1951 and 1963 ---- at the time there was complete ignorance of the dangers of radioactive fallout.

A) since B) so as to C) when D) so that E) unless

18. Genetic engineering is primarily

considered a field of applied microbiology, ----, the exploitation of microorganisms for a specific product or use. A) but rather B) as such C) and then D) for example E) that is

19. A laptop maker recently released a

model that lets users change the processor, graphics card and other parts by just removing one panel, ---- spending hours disassembling the computer.

A) due to B) on behalf of C) instead of D) with regard to E) in order to

20. Wetlands filter out excess nutrients and

pollutants by trapping them in roots and soil, ---- plants and bacteria break them down into less harmful substances.

A) where B) which C) wherever D) how E) whether


317

CEVAP ANAHTARI

TENSE/PASSIVE/MODALSTEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 TEST 4 TEST 5 TEST 6 TEST 7 TEST 8 TEST 9 TEST 10

1 A 1 E 1 D 1 B 1 B 1 E 1 D 1 D 1 C 1 B 2 C 2 B 2 B 2 A 2 C 2 D 2 A 2 C 2 B 2 D 3 D 3 D 3 B 3 B 3 C 3 E 3 A 3 B 3 E 3 E 4 B 4 C 4 D 4 E 4 D 4 C 4 C 4 E 4 A 4 D 5 E 5 A 5 E 5 A 5 C 5 A 5 B 5 C 5 E 5 E 6 C 6 C 6 E 6 D 6 D 6 B 6 B 6 B 6 C 6 E 7 C 7 B 7 D 7 C 7 E 7 E 7 A 7 E 7 A 7 C 8 A 8 C 8 C 8 E 8 B 8 C 8 C 8 A 8 B 8 E 9 B 9 D 9 A 9 D 9 E 9 D 9 B 9 B 9 E 9 B

10 D 10 A 10 A 10 E 10 A 10 A 10 E 10 A 10 D 10 E 11 B 11 B 11 C 11 B 11 E 11 E 11 D 11 E 11 E 11 D 12 A 12 E 12 A 12 C 12 D 12 D 12 A 12 C 12 C 12 B 13 D 13 D 13 C 13 B 13 B 13 C 13 D 13 D 13 B 13 E 14 E 14 B 14 A 14 D 14 B 14 C 14 E 14 E 14 D 14 E 15 A 15 E 15 B 15 E 15 A 15 A 15 B 15 A 15 E 15 C 16 B 16 C 16 E 16 B 16 B 16 C 16 C 16 C 16 D 16 A 17 C 17 B 17 C 17 D 17 A 17 A 17 A 17 B 17 C 17 A 18 E 18 C 18 D 18 E 18 D 18 D 18 E 18 D 18 B 18 B 19 A 19 B 19 D 19 C 19 A 19 E 19 B 19 C 19 D 19 E 20 C 20 E 20 E 20 A 20 B 20 A 20 D 20 B 20 E 20 B

IF CLAUSES NOUN CLAUSES ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 TEST 4 TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 1 D 1 D 1 B 1 D 1 A 1 A 1 E 1 A 1 A 1 B 2 C 2 C 2 C 2 A 2 B 2 E 2 B 2 A 2 B 2 A 3 E 3 A 3 D 3 E 3 E 3 B 3 D 3 B 3 C 3 D 4 D 4 C 4 A 4 E 4 C 4 D 4 A 4 C 4 B 4 D 5 A 5 A 5 B 5 B 5 D 5 C 5 B 5 C 5 E 5 C 6 A 6 C 6 E 6 E 6 B 6 B 6 C 6 E 6 D 6 A 7 D 7 D 7 B 7 A 7 D 7 E 7 C 7 D 7 D 7 D 8 A 8 E 8 B 8 C 8 C 8 A 8 B 8 B 8 A 8 B 9 C 9 B 9 E 9 E 9 A 9 B 9 A 9 C 9 E 9 A

10 E 10 E 10 A 10 B 10 E 10 D 10 C 10 E 10 A 10 E 11 A 11 C 11 C 11 C 11 D 11 D 11 E 11 D 11 C 11 A 12 C 12 D 12 A 12 E 12 B 12 E 12 A 12 A 12 C 12 A 13 A 13 D 13 C 13 E 13 A 13 E 13 D 13 B 13 D 13 E 14 E 14 C 14 E 14 B 14 E 14 D 14 E 14 B 14 A 14 D 15 D 15 A 15 D 15 C 15 C 15 C 15 B 15 D 15 E 15 E 16 B 16 B 16 B

16 D 16 B 16 A 16 C 16 C 16 B 17 B 17 B 17 E 17 C 17 A 17 E 17 D 17 B 17 C 18 C 18 D 18 A 18 A 18 D 18 C 18 A 18 E 18 A 19 D 19 C 19 B 19 A 19 B 19 E 19 E 19 A 19 B 20 C 20 A 20 C 20 D 20 A 20 D 20 C 20 D 20 A

Cevap Anahtarı

318

ADJ. CL. REDUCTION & PARTICIPLES BAĞLAÇLAR

TEST 4 TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 TEST 4 TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3 TEST 4 TEST 5

1 A 1 E 1 B 1 A 1 D 1 B 1 B 1 A 1 E 1 B 2 D 2 C 2 D 2 D 2 B 2 A 2 A 2 C 2 C 2 E 3 D 3 D 3 C 3 B 3 D 3 E 3 A 3 E 3 E 3 B 4 C 4 B 4 A 4 A 4 B 4 D 4 E 4 A 4 E 4 B 5 E 5 A 5 E 5 A 5 A 5 C 5 D 5 D 5 C 5 C 6 A 6 A 6 B 6 D 6 C 6 C 6 B 6 B 6 B 6 C 7 B 7 D 7 C 7 B 7 C 7 B 7 A 7 E 7 A 7 B 8 A 8 E 8 D 8 C 8 A 8 A 8 C 8 B 8 B 8 A 9 D 9 E 9 A 9 B 9 B 9 E 9 E 9 C 9 D 9 D

10 E 10 A 10 E 10 E 10 B 10 D 10 A 10 C 10 B 10 B 11 C 11 E 11 D 11 B 11 C 11 D 11 E 11 C 11 E 11 E 12 B 12 A 12 E 12 C 12 E 12 B 12 D 12 A 12 D 12 D 13 D 13 C 13 B 13 A 13 A 13 E 13 A 13 D 13 E 13 E 14 A 14 C 14 B 14 E 14 C 14 D 14 E 14 E 14 D 14 A 15 A 15 C 15 E 15 E

15 A 15 A 15 C 15 E 15 E 16 D 16 D 16 A 16 C 16 B 16 B 16 A 16 C 16 C 17 E 17 A 17 C 17 C 17 C 17 B 17 A 17 C 17 E 18 D 18 B 18 B 18 C 18 A 18 C 18 C 18 E 18 D 19 E 19 E 19 A 19 D 19 C 19 D 19 D 19 C 19 A 20 B 20 A 20 D 20 A 20 D 20 E 20 B 20 C 20 C

BAĞLAÇLAR

TEST 6 TEST 7 TEST 8 TEST 9 TEST 10 TEST 11 TEST 12 TEST 13 1 A 1 A 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 A 1 D 1 C 2 A 2 A 2 D 2 A 2 D 2 B 2 B 2 A 3 B 3 D 3 C 3 C 3 B 3 C 3 E 3 B 4 E 4 C 4 B 4 B 4 A 4 C 4 D 4 E 5 D 5 E 5 D 5 D 5 D 5 E 5 B 5 A 6 C 6 B 6 C 6 C 6 C 6 D 6 A 6 E 7 D 7 A 7 E 7 D 7 D 7 E 7 C 7 D 8 E 8 E 8 B 8 E 8 D 8 B 8 A 8 E 9 A 9 D 9 E 9 A 9 B 9 C 9 E 9 B

10 D 10 B 10 A 10 B 10 B 10 D 10 A 10 A 11 A 11 A 11 A 11 E 11 A 11 C 11 D 11 E 12 D 12 E 12 C 12 D 12 D 12 B 12 C 12 D 13 A 13 C 13 D 13 A 13 A 13 C 13 E 13 E 14 E 14 D 14 A 14 E 14 E 14 A 14 B 14 B 15 B 15 B 15 E 15 C 15 A 15 B 15 D 15 B 16 A 16 D 16 B 16 B 16 C 16 C 16 A 16 D 17 B 17 E 17 A 17 C 17 A 17 D 17 C 17 A 18 E 18 B 18 B 18 E 18 D 18 C 18 B 18 E 19 D 19 E 19 C 19 B 19 E 19 D 19 D 19 C 20 A 20 E 20 D 20 D 20 D 20 B 20 A 20 A

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