Eye movements and variations in reading time

Psychol Res (1981) 4 3 : 6 9 - 7 9 Psychological Research © Springer-Veflag • 1981

Eye Movements and Variations in Reading Time

Alan Kennedy and Barbara Pidcock

Department of Psychology, University of Dundee, Scotland

Summary. Passages of prose were constructed which obeyed a stylistic convention referred to as 'dovetailing'. For a given pair of sentences the final position of the first, and the initial position of the second, had the same referent. It was shown that critical dovetailed lines of text were read more rapidly than lines containing the same information, but lacking sequential structure. Degrading text by obscuring all interword spaces removed this reading time advantage. Analysis

of subjects' eye movements during reading suggested that reading facilitation, induced by dovetailing, may result, not only from higher-order structural properties of text, but also from local features (particularly word-length information and associative relationships between words) known to influence eye movements.

Introduction

This paper is concerned with variations in 'reading time' defined as the time taken to read successive lines of text. Measures of reading time are derived typically from experimental situations in which subjects perform a self-paced task in which, by pressing a key, text is presented line by line on a screen. There is evidence that this measure provides a sensitive index of some of the processes underlying comprehension: for example, ambiguity in text produces measurable changes in reading time (Just and Carpenter 1977); subjects are slower to read lines of text containing low-frequency exemplars (as opposed to common instances) of a previously presented category (Garrod and Sanford 1977); and direct reference to an antecedent leads to shorter reading time than indirect (Carpenter and Just 1978).

The mechanisms underlying variation in reading time are not well understood, but two broad classes of model can be distinguished. The first makes reference to the manner in which the text itself is organised, (what might be termed its logical properties). It seems plausible that a reader will direct attention to those lines in a text that call for particular mental effort, such as might be required for understanding a difficult point of cross reference. In certain rhetorical or stylistic conventions, for example, adherence to the 'Given-New Contract ' in presenting information (Haviland and Clark 1974) appears to

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70 A. Kennedy and B. Pidcock

rest on the psychological assumption that there is a natural or 'logical' way in which material can be entered into memory. Clark (1977) summarises the position thus: '.... the speaker agrees to try to construct the Given and New information of each utterance in context ... so that the listener is able to compute from memory the unique Antece- dent that was intended for the Given information ...' What Clark proposes here is that there is a particular way of framing sequences of sentences such that they can be readily assimilated into memory. The determinants of this 'natural' progression are, in part, prag- matic; that is, they turn on what the speaker belives the listener already knows. It appears that the principle can be extended naturally to cover a similar 'contract ' between writer and reader. For example, Smith (1971) analysed a passage of prose designed to present a complex philosophical argument and found that it conformed to such principles. The author (Bertrand Russell) consistently constructed sentences such that 'new' information occurred at the ends of sentences. One implication of these studies is that fluency in reading, indexed by reading time, reflects the way in which what is read has been organised (see also Kintsch and Monk 1972). The reader must work out the intended referents of any referring expressions. If this is made difficult because of the organisation of the text, then the underlying mental processes - what Clark (1977) calls 'bridging' - may take longer. In fact an accepted literary device is to minimise this processing load by 'dovetailing' pairs of sentences, such that the beginning of the second has the same referent as the end of the first (Eastman 1970). Looked at in this light, therefore, fluency in reading reflects, in part, fluency in writing: the structure and organisation of text playing a part in determining the speed at which it can be read.

Since 'reading time' is time spent inspecting lines of text, it is possible to see the measure in terms of an aggregate of those fixations and saccades which take place during inspection. Variations in patterns of eye movements may, therefore, produce variations in reading time: they represent its substructure. However, the relationship is a complex one, since factors leading to increases in fixation duration could also lead to larger saccades and fewer fixations. If experimental manipulations can be shown to influence reading time they do so by changing either the duration of fixations, their number, their distribution, or all of these. Thus a second line of attack on variations in reading time can be found in treating the determinants of alterations in patterns of eye movements. It is important to note that the principal sources of influence here may not be organisational properties of text. There have been comparatively few studies in which eye movements have been measured directly in situations known to produce variations in reading time, but the available evidence suggests at least three important variables which could influence fluency. Firstly, word-length information is available to the skilled reader, and appears to be used to control eye movements (Ranklin and Barber 1978). This kind of 'peripheral search guidance' has been described by Hochberg (Hochberg 1976; Hoch- berg and Brooks 1970) who sees it as operating, in some situations, to guide the reader's eyes to appropriate informative regions in a text. Word length information is available quite far into peripherical vision, although estimates of the extent vary, and possibly reflect demand characteristics of particular experimental situations (Rayner 1978). Secondly, eye-movement control is sensitive to the effects of associative and semantic priming within text. Words that are predictable, or that exist in the mental lexicon in a primed state may be located earlier, fixated more often, or fixated for a longer duration (Kennedy 1978). It is possible that words in parafoveal vision are identified on less

Eye Movements and Reading Time 71

evidence when priming or context makes them predictable. Finally, there is evidence of what might be termed 'strategic' control of eye movements during reading - the control mechanisms determining regressive saccades. Carpenter and Just (1978), for example, have shown that subjects, on finding an ambiguous pronoun in text, look at potential referents. In one sense it could be argued that these regressive fixations are not necessary, since the subject has already read the relevant information and could, in principle, carry out the necessary logical operations in memory. In fact, however, subjects choose to 're-enter' points of cross-reference in memory by carrying out fresh inspections, and since additional time is needed, overall reading time will be increased.

These sources of influence on eye movement control may arise from organisational properties of text, but only as a side-effect. For example, the rhetorical convention of 'dovetailing' may lead to more instances of primed words falling within a single visual span. There is, from this point of view, no need to invoke memory processes (e.g., the ease of assimilating material into existing memory structures) as an explanation of reading facilitation. Increased fluency may arise solely as a result of local physical properties of text.

The purpose of the present study was to examine in detail a situation in which variations in reading time could be expected, and to attempt an analysis of these in terms of measured eye movements. This exploration of various aspects of the components of reading time variation was intended to shed some light on the two classes of model described above.

Four passages of prose were constructed which met the general stylistic convention described by Eastman (1970). The passages contained pairs of sentences such that the final position of the first sentence and the initial position of the second had the same referent. This was achieved by employing pairs of synonyms or near-synonyms in successive sentences. An example of text of this form with critical words italicised is shown in (1) and (2) below:

... when there suddenly appeared a tiger. The wild beast caught one (1) of their number, a girl of sixteen or seventeen years of age (2)

This can be contrasted with text in which the same information is presented but which is not 'dovetailed':

... when there suddenly appeared a tiger. One of their number, a girl (3.) of sixteen or seventeen years of age was caught by the wild beast (4)

Passages of the first form were referred to as sequential (SEQ) and those of the second as non-sequential (NON-SEQ). Lines (1) and (3) are referred to as critical (CRIT) for the purposes of measurement, although in the case of (3) this is an arbitrary choice (i.e., it contains only the first of the pair of synonyms).

The materials were presented either in a 'dear ' version, or with all inter-word spaces filled using the letter x, producing lines such as:

... whenxtherexsuddenlyxappearedxaxtiger.xThexwildxbeastxcaughtxone (5) Variations of this experimental manipulation have been studied systematically by Fisher (1976), who has argued that constraining the number of available peripheral cues causes a constriction of the functional visual field, producing 'tunnel-vision' reading, which forces even the fluent reader to adopt a word-by-word input strategy.

It was hypothesised that in SEQ passages those lines of text in which an antecedent and its referent occurred (CRIT lines) should be read faster than other lines. Comparison


of CRIT and NON-CRIT lines in NON-SEQ passages should show no such advantage. It was also hypothesised that reading time would be greater under conditions of visually degraded stimulus presentation. However, the critical prediction focusses on the nature of the obtained interactions. If the predicted reading time advantage is additive across the conditions of clear and degraded text then it would seem likely that it is a reflection of memory processes: information - however slowly acquired - being assimilated either easily or not into an existing memory structure. On the other hand, if the reading time advantage arises to any significant degree as a result of local factors influencing effective visual search, then there should be a significant interaction: the degraded stimulus condition wiping out any advantage due to text structure.

Experiment 1

Method

Subjects and Apparatus. These were 20 student volunteers (aged approximately 20 yrs), 11 men and 9 women. All were unaware of the purpose of the experiment and were paid 50p for participating. Stimulus materials were presented using a Tektronix 4035 display coupled to a Nova-2 computer. The computer controlled the order of presentation of material and measured subjects' reading times. Subjects were tested indivi- dually in a sound-deadened room.

Materials. Four passages of prose were constructed, approximately 20 lines in length, headed by an appropriate title. Each passage was written in a SEQ and NON-SEQ version. Each of the four SEQ versions contained slightly different numbers of dovetailed sentences, but on average there were six per passage. These were so constructed that the end of the first sentence and the beginning of the second fell within a single line of text. The pairs of related words occurring in such CRIT lines (e.g., tiger and beast in (1) above) had a mean separation of 9.85 character spaces in SEQ versions. The separation was 60.30 in NON-SEQ versions.

For each passage, in both its SEQ and NON-SEQ version, the text was prepared for presentation either with all inter-word spaces filled by the letter x (condition X) as in (5), or as clear text (condition X). In addition, practice passages in both X and X versions were constructed on topics unrelated to the experimental material.

Design. For each of the four base passages there were four possible modes of presentation: SEQ-X; SEQ-X; NON-SEQ-X; and NON-SEQ-X. Subjects read four different base passages, each allocated to one of these four presentation modes. Allocation of passages to experimental conditions was balanced so that over subgroups of four subjects each passage was allocated to all four experimental conditions. Sets of passages were otherwise randomised across subjects, as was order of presentation within subjects, with the constraint that SEQ and NON-SEQ versions alternated. It will be clear from this design that no subject read more than one version of the same passage.

Procedure. Subjects were seated comfortably in front of the CRT with a response button in their preferred hand. Before presentation of a passage the instruction 'press button when ready' was displayed. Following this initial button-press, subjects were presented


with passages line by line, presentation rate being controlled by the subjects' responses. Subjects were told to press the bu t ton when they had read one line and were ready for the next. All lines appeared in the same physical location. Before presentation of the experimental material subjects had extensive practice with passages in both X and X versions. They were instructed that some later passages would also contain the letter x in place of spaces, and that this would make reading difficult.

The signal 'press but ton when ready' reappeared after the completion of each passage. The subjects were not told that their reading t ime was being recorded and were instructed to read at their normal rate. They were warned that at the conclusion of the experiment they would be given a comprehension test on each passage.

Results and Discussion

Reading times for the first and last lines of each passage were excluded from the analysis: in the case of first lines, reading times were sometimes unusually long, reflecting subjects' orientation to the particular experimental condition, and in the case of last lines, aware that there was no succeeding text, subjects sometimes failed to press the response button.

It is an unavoidable feature of the design of the experimental materials that SEQ and NON-SEQversions of passages differ in structure. For the purposes of analysis CRIT lines in SEQ versions of passages were those lines that contained both related words across a sentence boundary, in NON-SEQ versions CRIT lines were arbitrarily taken as those containing the first of the two related words. The separation between related words in NON-SEQversions led to their appearing on separate lines.

Mean reading times in the various sub-conditions of the design are given in Fig. 1. These data were submit ted to analysis of variance in which factors were SEQvs NON- SEQ, X'vs X, and CRIT vs NON-CRIT. It was found that NON-SEQ passages overall

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non-crit

X x X x

Presentalion Condition

Fig. 1. Mean Reading Times for CRIT and NON-CRIT lines under conditions of clear text presentation (2) or with inter-word spaces filled (X). SEQ and NON-SEQ passages are shown separately


m

were read faster than SEQ: F (1,19) = 7.38, P < 0.01. Passages in X conditions were read faster than in X: F (1,19)= 110.63, P < 0.001. CRIT lines were read faster than NON- CRIT: F (1,19) = 7.68, P < 0.01. The factors of CRIT-NON-CRIT and X - X interacted: F (1,19) = 4.40, P < 0.05 and there was a significant triple interaction, F (1,19) = 4.25, P < 0.05.

The nature of the 3-way interaction was explored by separate analysis of SEQ and NON-SEQVersions. As is evident from the figure, the interaction arises as a result of the reading time advantage for CRIT lines in the X condition for SEQ passages. This advantage is removed in the X condition. The interaction between CRIT - NON-CRIT and

- X was significant for SEQversions, F (1,19) = 4.73, P < 0.05 but not for NON-SEQ, F < I .

Errors in the subsequent comprehension test were 10%, over all conditions. There were no significant differences in error rates between experimental conditions or between experimental conditions or between passages.

The results of this experiment may be interpreted in the following way. In SEQ versions of passages there is a significant advantage secured in reading time for crtitical lines over other lines. However, this advantage appears only under conditions of clear text presentation. When inter-word spaces are filled there is, of course, an increase in overall reading time, but the critical line advantage disappears. In NON-SEQ passages related pairs of words are distributed more widely through the text: no advantage accrues in reading time to lines defined here as CRIT. It will be noticed in fact that reading times for both sets of lines are similar to, and faster than, NON-CRIT lines in SEQpassages. It could be, therefore, that the reading time in SEQversions should be construed as a decrement in NON-CRIT lines. Notwithstanding this speculation, however, the significant interaction casts doubt on the hypothesis that reading time variations are related to organisational properties of text. Since such properties obtain in both X and X conditions of presentation the alternative hypothesis, that the reading time advantage may relate to local facilitation of patterns of eye movement, requires further investigation. Experiment 2 was carried out to examine subjects' eye movements directly during the reading of SEQ and NON-SEQ passages.

Experiment 2

Metbod

Subjects. These were a further 10 student volunteers, five female and five male. They were unaware of the purpose of the experiment and were paid £1 for participating.

Apparatus. Text was presented to subjects by a VR-14 point plotting display coupled to a PDP-12 computer. Eye movements were recorded using an infra-red reflection technique which provided an analogue signal to the computer. During the presentation of text, eye movement data were sampled every millisecond and recorded on magnetic tape.

Materials and Design. The measurement of eye movements involved different apparatus from that used in Experiment 1 and it was necessary slightly to reduce the line-length of passages to accomodate them on the display. This was achieved by recasting the passages employed in Experiment 1, shortening line-length by removing some words, and


also by using more lines per passage. However, the relative position of critical words within lines was only very slightly altered. The pair of related words occurring in critical lines had a mean separation of 10 characters in SEQ passages and 58.1 in NON-SEQ (compared to 9.85 and 60.30 in Experiment 1). The distinction between SEQ and N O N - S E Q and between CRIT lines and others was preserved. Versions of the passages were prepared for both X and X display. The design of the experiment was identical to that of Experi- ment 1.

Procedure. Subjects were seated comfortably in a darkened sound-deadened room, looking slightly upwards towards the display. The head was fixed rigidly by means of a dental composition bite bar on a heavy metal frame. Before presentation of the passages the eye movement system was calibrated. This involved an initial optical procedure in which the infra-red detectors were lined up, and a check made that suitably large analogue voltage resulted from a horizontal excursion of the eyes across the (blank) CRT. Following this procedure, subjects engaged in a self-calibration process by moving a marker across the CRT screen by means of a lever. The subject fixated the marker and the computer detected changes in a voltage controlled by the lever and at the same time sampled the signal from the eye movement detectors. At the conclusion of the calibration (when the marker reached the extreme right edge of the screen) the computer had constructed a table of eye movement voltages for all possible horizontal screen positions. This procedure was based on the method described by O'Regan (1978): it allows for a very accurate and fast determination of eye position during reading, and has the advantage of making no assumptions about the linearity of the detectors, since eye position is measured directly and not estimated from a restricted set of fixation points.

Text was displayed using a standard character-generation program based on a matrix of 6 x 6 points. During the display, horizontal eye movement data were sampled from the subject's left eye. Estimates of position were accurate to one letter. Between each passage the subject completed the self-calibration procedure (taking approximately 1 min). Before and after the presentation of each passage, target letters were presented to provide a later check on calibration accuracy. In all other respects the procedure'was identical to that used in Experiment 1.

Results and Discussion

Data took the form of total fixation duration (Time-On or T.O.) for each word in each passage. These data were provided by a pattern-analysing program which determined the location of fixations within each word boundary. The T.O. data were scaled to T.O. per letter to control for the effects of word length (since there is an increased likelihood of eye movements falling within the boundary of longer words).

The analysis was confined to T.O. for the two critical related words. These were present in the same line in SEQ passages and were distributed between lines in NON-SEQ passages. The mean T.O. for word 1 (Wl) and word 2 (W2) under ~ and X conditions of presentation are shown in Fig. 2. The figure also shows the mean T.O. for all words in the NON-CRIT lines of SEQ passages as an estimate of the baseline difference produced by the X - X condition.

Since W1 and W2 are different words, comparisons of absolute levels of T.O. are not possible, but valid comparisons may be made between the magnitude of the X ' - X

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A. Kennedy and B. Pidcock

Fig. 2. Mean Time-On for first (Wl) and second (W2) words in SEQ (S) and NON-SEQ (NS) passages. The 'baseline' condition shown is mean T.O. for all words in NON-CRIT lines of SEQ passages

difference for the various conditions. The apparent difference in slope for the W1-SEQ conditions was examined by means of analysis of variance on the X - X differences for the four main conditions (WIS; W1NS; W2S; W2NS). There was a significant main effect for Conditions: F(3,27) = 3.51, P < 0.05. Newman-Keuls tests confirmed that this significant effect related only to the W1-SEQ condition.

Mean T.O. was greater overall (combining W1 and W2) for SEQ passages than NON- SEOo t (9) -- 2.5, P < 0.02. In an a t tempt to discover whether these differences should be interpreted as faciliation for particular conditions, comparisons were made between the 'baseline' data and the average SEQ and NON-SEQ data. It was found that where NON-SEQT.O. was not different from the baseline (t (9) = 1.7); T.O. in SEQ conditions was significantly longer, t (9) -- 4.6, P < 0.01).

Although there is no way of easily interpreting the absolute levels of T.O. in Fig. 2, the interactions found may he examined in the light of the results of Experiment 1. The data are compatible with the view that in SEQ passages there is a relationship between

the manner in which W1 and W2 are examined, but that this relationship is present only

in the X condition. In NON-SEQ passages, no such relationship obtains: the times spent fixating W1 or W2 do not differ from the overall mean fixation duration. This interpre- tat ion can be further examined in three ways: 1) by computing the correlation in T.O. for W1 and W2 in the four sub-conditions and testing the prediction that a significant correlation should obtain only in the SEQ-X condition; 2) by looking for possible evidence of a trade-off in fixation time between W1 and W2 in SEQoX passages; 3) by ex- amining the size and direction of saccades leaving W1 in the various conditions and testing the prediction that this should be longer for SEQ-X" passages.

The obtained rank-order correlations between measures of T.O. for W1 and W2 were p = 0.6, P < 0.05 for SEQ-X;p = -0.05 for SEQ-X;p = 0.06 for NON-SEQ-X; and p = -0.34 (not significant) for NON-SEQ-X. The first prediction is thus confirmed: there is a relationship, albeit a relatively slight one, between the time spent fixating Wl and W2 in the SEQ passages, for the X condition only.


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Fig. 3. Time-On W1 as proportions of Time-On (Wl + W2) for SEQ and NON-SEQ passages

The hypothesised trade-off in T.O. between Wl and W2 (present across very different absolute levels of T.O) stems from the argument outlined in the Introduction. If the

reading time advantage in the SEQ-X condition arises as a result of local priming effects influencing eye movements, then W2 will be fixated earlier on average. Fixated earlier, that is, because it is identified earlier: the effect being a by-product of launching a saccade from W1 earlier than would otherwise occur. Since there are wide variations in

absolute levels of T.O., the hypothesis was tested by computing the proportion, T.O.

(W1)/T.O. (W1 + W2), for each condition. These data are shown in Fig. 3. Again, SEQ-

NON-SEQ comparisons in terms of absolute levels are precluded because of differences

between passages, but X - X comparisons can meaningfully be made. The difference

shown for SEQ passages was significant, t(9) = 2.54, P < 0.02. The apparent small in-

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X

Presentation Condition

Fig. 4. Saccade size, in character spaces, following fixation on W1 in SEQ and NON-SEQ passages


crease for NON-SEQ passages was a chance effect, the difference being non-significant, t(9) = 1.1.

If information available to the eye movement control system during fixation on Wl is used to guide saccades to W2 in the SEQ-.X condition then this fact should be reflected in saccade size. Figure 4 shows the saccade extent before the next fixation after a fixation on Wl (not, of course necessarily on W2 itself). This is shown in terms of character spaces to the right (when regressions occurred they were treated as negative right saccades). As the figure indicates, the X - X comparison for SEQ passages was significant, t(9) = 2.34, P < 0.02. There was no siginiflcant difference for NON-SEQ passages, t < 1.

General Discussion

The results of these two experiments show that reading time variations, in the situation employed here, are probably the result of the facilitation of eye movements induced by local contextual effects in critical lines within a passage. If a reading time advantage for critical lines in clear text results from ease of assimilating the material to a data base, or from some other memory operation, it is difficult to see why it should be lost when the text is made more difficult to read. The data presented do not, of course, suggest that all variation in reading time is accounted for by factors influencing efficient visual search. It does appear, however, that the more important influences of this kind operate at a relatively low level: factors such as word length and inter-word priming. Very little is known about the extent, if any, of control over eye movements exerted by such high level factors as theme, overall structure, or the kind of organisational variables proposed by Clark. Before analysing all variations in reading time in terms of memory processes, therefore, it would be prudent to consider some of the sources of influence on eye movements discussed in Experiment 2.

The significant interactions obtained in reading time measures, fixation duration, and mean saccadic extent suggest that degrading text removes, selectively, features that in the critical lines allow the reader to identify more accurately, or more rapidly, the next informative region for inspection. It should be noted that the two related words in critical lines of SEQ passages had an average separation of approximately 10 character spaces. Thus, fixations in the centre of word 1 would allow for the extraction of word- length information from word 2 in peripheral vision. Further, although purely semantic effects may only operate over a quite restricted span (Rayner 1978, suggests 4 - 6 characters) this span might itself be increased, given that a strong associative relationship obtains between the two words: Underwood (1979 a and 1979 b) and Underwood, Parry and Bull (1978) have demonstrated that the context available during a single fixation may be integrated with context available prior to the fixation. Similarly, Kennedy (1978) has argued that stimulus priming might act to reduce the evidence needed for complete identification Of words in peripheral vision, so permitting longer saccades, variations in fixation duration, and more accurate location. The evidence from Experi- ment 2 provides further support for this view.

Note. This research was supported by a Grant (No. HR-6309) from the Social Science Research Council of the United Kingdom.


References

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Carpenter PA, Just MA (1978) Reading comprehension as the eyes see it. In Just MA, Carpenter PA (eds) Cognitive Processes in Comprehension. Erlbaum, New Jersey

Clark HH (1977) Bridging. In Johnson-Laird PN, Wason PC (eds) Thinking. Cambridge University Press, London

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Kintsch W, Monk D (1972) Storage of complex information in memory: some implications of the speed with which inferences can be made. J Exp Psychol 94:25-32

O'Regan JK (1978) A new horizontal eye movement calibration method: Subject controlled 'smooth pursuit' and 'zero drift'. Behav Res Meth Ins 10:393-397

Ranklin JE, Barber PJ (1978) Peripheral vision cues during reading. Paper presented to the British Psychology Society Conference, York

Rayner K (1978) Eye movements in reading and information processing. Psychol Bull 85:618-660

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Underwood G, Parry RS, Bull LA (1978) Simple reading tasks are affected by unattended context. In: Gruneberg MM, Sykes RN, Morris PE (eds) Practical aspects of memory. Academic Press, London

Received January 3, 1980/Accepted February 23, 1981

Eye movements and variations in reading time

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