Children’s Direct Exposure to Types of Domestic Violence ...
Exposure to community VIOLENCE
description
Transcript of Exposure to community VIOLENCE
EXPOSURE TO COMMUNITY VIOLENCEInga BregePSYC 1016 - Trauma and Development
Main Topics for Discussion
Overview of Exposure to Violence Forms and Prevalence
Consequences Psychological, Behavioral & Academic
Moderators Conclusion
04/21/23
2
Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
Forms & Prevalence
Overview
04/21/23
3
Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
Exposure to Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
4
Exposure to interpersonal violence in one’s community
Mazza & Overstreet (2000) Direct and Indirect
Personal victimization Witnessing violent events
Shahinfar et al. (2000) Mazza & Overstreet (2000)
Levels of Violence Exposure Primary (victimized) Secondary (witnessed) Tertiary (heard about)
Buka et al. (2001)
Direct vs. Indirect
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
5
Victimization “Intentional acts initiated by another
person to cause one harm (e.g., being chased, threatened, beaten up, robbed, mugged, raped, shot, stabbed, or killed)” Buka et al. (2001)
Witnessing Violence Observing an experience of physical threat,
harm, or even death of another individual Shakoor & Chalmers (1991)
Forms & Levels
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
6
Environment of Exposure Domestic Violence (Familial and Home) Community Violence (Residential or School)
Zinzow et al. (2009)
Community Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
7
“The presence of violence and violence related events within an individual’s proximal environment, including home, school, and neighborhood; it may involve direct or threatened harm, be witnessed or experienced and involve known and unknown perpetrators”
Shahinfar et al. (2000) “The frequent and continual exposure
to the use of guns, knives, and drug and random violence.”
Mazza & Overstreet (2000)
Forms of Community Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
8
Severe Shootings Threats with a weapon Mugging/Robbery Stabbing Homicide
Mild Chasing Beating Shoving/Grabbing
Shahinfar et al. (2000)
Prevalence of Community Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
9
Increasing at epidemic proportions Stein et al. (2003)
Youths younger than 25 are twice as likely to be a victim of violence
Bureau of Justice Statistics (1991) Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman (1994)
Regional & national surveys show 1/3 junior high and high school students have been threatened with physical harm
American School Health Association (1989) Centers for Disease Control (1993)
National study of adolescences showed 39.4% have witnessed violence
Kilpatrick, Saunders & Smith (2003)
Prevalence of Community Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
10
Homicide second leading cause of death in 15-24 year olds at 20.3:100,000 Inner-city youth at 143.9:100,000
Anderson et al. (1997) Fingerhut et al. (1992)
From 1970-1991, rate for teenage deaths due to homicide increased 220%
Bureau of Justice Statistics (1993)
Prevalence of Community Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
11
Rates increase within urban, low-income populations
Richters & Martinez (1993) 165 elementary school students in
Washington D.C. Exposure to violence (e.g. shooting,
stabbing, chases by gangs) 84% had witnessed violence 21% had been victims
Prevalence of Community Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
12
Dyson (1990) 530 Chicago elementary school children 33% witnessed shooting 31% witnessed stabbing 84% witnessed a beating
Prevalence of Community Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
13
Rates increase within minority populations
In 1994, the Children's Defense Fund reported: Males 15 - 24: African-Americans nearly 10
times more likely to be murdered than Whites Females 15 - 24: African-Americans nearly 5
times more likely to be murdered as Whites Slocumb (2001)
Prevalence of Community Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
14
Overstreet & Dempsey (1999) 75 African American youth age 10 - 15
years, living near housing projects in New Orleans
83% knew someone who died because of violence
43% have seen a dead body 85% witnessed drug dealing 10% threatened with murder
Prevalence of Community Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
15
Aisenberg (2001) 31 Latino children in Head Start classroom
exposed 80% exposed to 1+ community violence event
Bell & Jenkins (1993) 536 African American Chicago elementary
school children 26% witnessed someone getting shot 30% witnessed robbery 78% witnessed beating
Other Community Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
16
Electronic Aggression 50% increase in youth reporting
victimization through electronic media between 2000 and 2005. Wolak et al. (2007)
Teen Dating Violence 1 in 3 have experienced some kind of
relationship violence 1 in 4 have experienced physical abuse
Centers for Disease Control (2006)
Prevalence of School Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
17
220 school-associated violent deaths in U.S. between 1994 and 1999 172 were committed by students
Anderson et al. (2001) 36% of urban middle and high school
students reported gangs at their schools National Center for Education Statistics (2006)
1/3 of 5th to 12 graders had been exposed to school violence within the last month Shoving, grabbing, stealing, weapons
Goldstein & Conoley (1997)
Prevalence of School Violence
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
18
65% of high school student have easy access to guns
80% know someone who has carried weapon to school
Sheley & Wright (1995) Many who are victims of bullying
Nansel et al. (2003) School bullying & guns
5391 students in grades 7, 9, and 11 in an urban public school
Bully victims are more likely to find it “not wrong” to bring a gun to school Glew et al. (2008)
Discussion
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
19
What could be some limitations in assessing the prevalence of exposure to violence?
Discussion
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
20
Failure to distinguish between direct and indirect exposure as well as severe and mild exposure
Relationship between the witnessed victim or perpetrator
Richters & Martinez (1993) Parental versus child report discrepancies Parental coping or simply underestimate child's
exposure Child confuses experiences of witnessing versus
victimization Richters & Martinez (1993)
Child's failure to distinguish fantasy from experience
Allen et al. (1999) Shahinifar et al. (2000)
Psychological, Behavioral and Academic
Consequences
04/21/23
21
Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
Consequences
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
22
Psychological 50% of children exposed to violence with develop a
psychiatric disorder Martinez & Richters (1993)
Behavioral Anti-social & Aggressive Exposure predicted violent behavior among urban
African American and White 3rd and 8th graders Singer et al. (1999)
Exposure predicted externalizing symptoms 2 years later Schwab-Stone et al. (1999)
Higher levels of exposure associated with violent adolescents Flannery, Singer & Wester (2001)
Academic
Psychological Consequences
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
23
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Re-experiencing/intrusive thoughts Avoidance Arousal
Posttraumatic Stress (PTS) symptoms Anxiety Depressive symptoms Somatization
Major Depressive Disorder Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Mazza & Overstreet (2000)
Psychological Consequences
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
24
Exposure results in distinct psychological effects Even after controlling for external stressors
such as poverty, poor housing, single parent households
Many co-occurring symptoms suggest distinct reactions Mazza & Overstreet (2000)
Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
25
Child and adolescent exposure to community violence frequently results in PTSD/PTS symptoms
Mazza & Overstreet (2000) Fitzpatrick and Boldizar (1993)
221 African Americans age 7 - 14 years, in 8 urban housing communities
Only 11.9% showed no PTSD symptoms Overstreet et al. (1999)
75 African American age 10 - 15 years, living near public housing in New Orleans
Average 6.2 PTSD symptoms 33% reported symptoms similar to PTSD criteria Exposure predicted PTSD, independent of age, gender
and other nonviolent stressors
PTSD/PTS Comorbidty
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
26
Fletcher (1996) High rates of generalized anxiety disorder, depression,
and dissociation Elementary school children also displayed adjustment
disorder, separation anxiety, and low self-esteem Preschoolers showed similar patterns of co-occurence
Mazza & Reynolds (1999) Depression, suicidal ideation, and PTSD symptoms all had
significant correlation with exposure (p<.001) Found PTSD mediated depressive and suicidal symptoms Suggests violence exposure results initially in PTSD/PTS
symptoms and later manifest into comorbid symptoms Kliewer et al. (1998)
Found intrusive thoughts about violence mediated symptoms of depression and anxiety
Depression
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
27
Martinez & Ritchers (1993) Inner-city elementary students exposed to
violence displayed significantly more depression symptoms
Singer et al. (1995) 3,735 high school students Community violence accounted for significant
portion of variance in depressive symptoms Independent of family and age factors
Gorman-Smith & Tolan (1998) 245 Latino and African American students Exposure significantly correlated to present and
subsequent anxiety and depression symptoms
Suicidal Ideation
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
28
Freeman et al. (1993) 223 elementary students, 6 - 12 years old Found suicide ideation rates for children exposed to
community violence was similar to those without previous exposure
Vermeiren et al. (2002) 1509 adolescents in Antwerp, ranged from 12 - 18
years Suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm were both
related to violence exposure Why discrepancy? Suicide may be
dependent on age
Anxiety
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
29
Hill & Madhere (1996) 150 African American children in inner-city areas Violence exposure, including anticipation of retaliation,
predictor for anxiety levels Fletcher (1996)
Anxiety in preschoolers and elementary students after experiencing trauma
Cooley-Quille (1995) Found no association between exposure and anxiety in
37 school children White et al. (1998)
385 children between 11 and 14 Dramatic reduction in anxiety symptoms compared to
national norm (>1 standard deviation less)
External Consequences
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
30
Aggressive/Antisocial Behavior DuRant et al. (1994)
225 African American youth, age 11 -19, living in or around nine housing complexes
44.4% males and 52.4% females have attacked someone out of anger
64.6% males and 55.5% females involved in physical fight in past year
19.2% males and 13.5% females attacked someone with weapon and intent to seriously injure or kill
Found previous violence exposure strong predictor to current violent behavior
Schwab-Stone et al. (1999)
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
31
2 cross-sectional samples of 6th, 8th, and 10th graders in Eastern urban schools
1,100 adolescents participated in both 1994 and 1996 studies
Exposure correlated significantly to both internal and external symptoms
Same across gender and ethnicity Stronger correlation for internal
symptoms in younger group Stronger correlation for external
symptoms in older group
Schwab-Stone et al. (1999)
7/7/2009Violence in School and Community 04/21/23
32
Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
Discussion
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
33
How do the authors account for the results regarding anxiety?
How else might you explain these findings?
Discussion
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
34
Would expect the same effects for both victimization and witnessing violence?
Direct vs. Indirect Exposure
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
35
Kliewer et al. (1998) Both types of exposure accounted for
similar variance in internal symptoms Martinez & Richters (1993)
Same level of depression and distress reports in children
Direct vs. Indirect Exposure
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
36
Mrug & Windle (2009) Prospective study of 603 early adolescents in
Birmingham, AL; two sets of data 16 months apart Higher levels of witnessing violence in first phase
positively predicted early initiation of alcohol use Victimization reports in first phase decreased risk
of early alcohol initiation over time Schwartz & Proctor (2000)
4th - 6th graders in urban schools Witnessing violence associated with generally
positive beliefs about aggression, including it is appropriate response to ambiguous peer behavior
Victimization instead associated with emotional regulation and social difficulties
Academic Consequences
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
37
Negatively affects performance in schools, measured by decrease in grades, standardize testing, and attendance
Henrich et al. (2004) Hurt et al. (2001) Schwartz & Gorman (2003)
Academic Consequences
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
38
Academic decline may be result of psychological consequences
Henrich et al. (2004) Schwartz & Gorman (2003)
Deficient emotion and behavior regulation could impair academic performance
Re-experiencing, increased arousal, and difficulty attending to present surroundings
Fear of traveling to school or even of school itself
Oppositional behavior resulting in suspension
Mathews et al. (2009)
Academic Consequences: PTS/PTSD
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
39
Positive relationship between exposure and PTS and negative relation between PTS and test scores
Thompson & Massat (2005) 47 low-income African American children,
ages 10-13, moderated performance on schoolwork & tests
Mathews et al. (2009) Students with significant PTS symptoms
performed worse academically than those without
Saigh et al. (1997)
Academic Consequences: Depression
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
40
Mediated relation between exposure and academic performance in standardized test scores and GPA
Schwartz and Gorman (2003) Longitudinal study showed no
mediating effects Henrich et al. (2004)
Discussion
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
41
What other factors could affect academic performance in adolescents exposed to community violence?
Academic Consequences
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
42
Absenteeism may be affected by exposure to violence, independent of psychological effects
Violence and victimization in schools results in avoidance
30 - 40% of middle school students chronically absent in impoverished areas
Chang & Romero (2008) Only predictor of absences was poverty
Mathews et al. (2009)
Moderators of Consequences
04/21/23
43
Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
Resiliency & Risk Factors
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
44
Community violence concurrent with other factors Poverty Minority status Limited resources
Garbarino et al. (1992) Exposure to Violence may consequently
outweigh pre-existing resilience factors (i.e. high self-esteem)
Mazza & Overstreet (2000)
Moderators: Maternal Figures
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
45
Richters & Martinez (1993) Maternal education moderated distress
symptoms Fitzpatrick & Boldizar (1993)
Maternal presence did impact depressive symptoms, but did act as moderator for exposure to violence
Overstreet et al. (1999) Maternal presence moderated for violence
exposure and depressive symptoms
Moderators: Family Size
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
46
Overstreet et al. (1999) Smaller family size moderated depressive
symptoms in those previously exposed to community violence
Discussion
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
47
Smaller families typically result in higher academic performance and better behavioral adjustment in at-risk populations.
Werner & Smith (1982) Why would larger family size serve
as a protective factor in this case? What does this suggest about
interventions addressing community violence exposure?
Moderators: Family Dynamics
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
48
Family Support Emotional/Behavioral & academic success
moderated by family stable and safety, not exposure Richters & Martinez (1993)
Positive perceptions of parent-child relationships & ability to talk to parent/caretaker about violence served as protective factor in moderating exposure and PTSD, anxiety and depression symptoms Kliewer et al. (1998)
Moderators: Family Dynamics
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
49
Family Structure & Cohesion 245 African-American boys disadvantaged,
urban communities Exposure related to aggression in highly
structured families Lower level of cohesion associated with
increase internal symptoms Gorman-Smith & Tolan (1998)
Positive qualities & less democratic parenting
Baldwin et al. (1990)
Moderators: Social Cognition
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
50
Guerra et al. (2003) 4,458 children living in urban neighborhoods,
ages 5 – 12 years and measured aggressive cognitions and behaviors Aggressive fantasy (Rosenfeld, Huesmann, Eron &
Torney-Purta, 1982) Normative beliefs Approving Aggression
(Huesmann & Guerra, 1997) Exposure effect in higher rates of
aggression, normative beliefs about aggression, and aggressive fantasy
The effects on social cognition were evident in ages 9-12
Moderators: Social Cognition
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
51
Social cognition mediated relationship between violence exposure and aggression
Community violence effects children over time in their development of associated cognitions
Conclusions
04/21/23
52
Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
Preventative Measures
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
53
Head Start Program Exposure to Violence Screening
Process Head Start Program Redirect Cognitions
Main Topics for Discussion
Overview of Exposure to Violence Forms and Prevalence
Consequences Psychological, Behavioral & Academic
Moderators Conclusion
04/21/23
54
Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
Thank you.
04/21/23Exposure to Community Violence | Inga Brege
55