266 Geographica Helvetica Jg. 61 2006/Heft 4

Exploring innovative strategies for livelihoods in a slash-and-burn contextin MadagascarExperiencing the role of human geography in sustainability-oriented research

Peter Messerli, Bern

1 Introduction

Madagascar. located 375 km off the coast of Mozam-bique, is considered to be the 4,h biggest island in theworld. Due to its particular evolutionary history, theisland boasts a rich biodiversity characterised by a

high degree of endemicity. Mittermeier et al. (1999)declared Madagascar to be a hotspot of biodiversitythat should be protected at any cost. He thereby drawsattention to the manifold environmental problemsthe island faces, of which deforestation on the easternescarpment is the most prominent. Deforestation is

largely attributed to slash-and-burn agriculture - locallyknown as tavy. Farmers practice tavy mainly for uplandrice, transforming primary forest into secondary forestand fallow Vegetation. Increasing population densi-ties combined with unfavourable social and politicalparameters have caused fallow periods to be shortenedto 3-5 years, leading to a reduction in soil fertility andfallow Vegetation, both critical for production. With therapid decrease in productivity, the financial Situation ofpeasant households is at risk. This Situation is furtheraggravated by the resulting necessity of households toconcentrate on short-term food and livelihood needs.As a consequence, their capacity to intensify land useand cultivate new land is undermined.

The ongoing degradation of Madagascar's forests is

attracting the interest and concern of more and moreexternal actors. The government has drawn attentionto the precarious Situation of the nation regarding ownfood production, emphasising the expected impact onforeign exchange when food imports become nec¬

essary. International voices link deforestation withglobal warming and declining biodiversity. This has

often resulted in development proposals with a con-servation-bias that inadequately acknowledge theSituation and needs of farmers. Slash-and-burn farm¬ers continue to be held responsible for deforestation,degradation, low productivity and slow technologyadaptation. Accordingly, external recommendationsaim at sensitising farmers to the long-term benefitsof conservation and setting up rules and repressivemeasures. Despite increasing investments by devel¬

opment and conservation agencies in Madagascar,the efficiency of currently applied strategies remainsquestionable. Not only is deforestation increasing at a

rate of 150'000 ha per year (Food and AgricultureOrganization (FAO) 1997), but a steady growth ofpoverty and vulnerability of peasant livelihoods mayalso be observed

It is mainly in the last 20 years that research has turnedto the investigation of alternatives to slash-and-burn.In Madagascar, as well as at an international level,two major approaches to the above can be identi¬fied. The first focuses on stabilising agriculture and

securing livelihoods by mitigating the negative effectsof slash-and-burn. Considerable research has beendedicated in this area to technical alternatives to fire(e.g. Alegre et al. 1989; Wilson & Lal 1986), theuse of agroforestry components for soil conservation(Hurni & Nuntapong 1983; Roder 1997), the use offertilizer (Nicholaides et al. 1985; Sanchez 1985) orthe transfer of nutrients through green manure (e.g.Fagerström et al. 2001; Rao et al. 1998). In Mada¬

gascar, such experiments were partly tested throughresearch institutes (Centre de Cooperation interna¬tionale EN RECHERCHE AGRONOMIQUE POUR LE DEVEL¬

OPPEMENT (CIRAD) 1996; Rakotomanana et al. 1989),but important experiences were also gained throughintegrated conservation and development projects(e.g. Peters 1998). As part of the second approach,research endeavours also focused on the replacementof slash-and-burn cultivation by more intensive landuse Systems, such as e.g. livestock breeding, complexand diversified agroforestry Systems (Garrity 1995),intensified irrigated rice production. On the east¬

ern escarpment of Madagascar, this approach has a

long-standing history, having been introduced duringcolonial times (De Coignac et al. 1973). The resultshave been critically reviewed in Oxby & Boerboom(1985). In recent years, research and developmentwork has focused increasingly on particular compo¬nents of such alternative production Systems, such asintensified irrigated rice (Rabearimanana 1988; Val-lois 1996), improved marketing networks (Partage1997), as well as non-agricultural activities including,amongst others, ecotourism and handicraft produc¬tion (Kremen et al. 1999; Swanson 1996). The maincriticism brought against both approaches concernsthe need for external inputs (Bertrand et al. 1997;Weischet 1987), the neglect of the general socio-eco¬nomic parameters (Noordwijik et al. 1997; Roder etal. 1995), and the lack of attention given to specificlivelihood strategies and their inherent rationality(Garreau et al. 2001; Werner 1993).

source: https://doi.org/10.7892/boris.71568 | downloaded: 30.6.2020

Exploring innovative strategies for livelihoods in a slash-and-burn context Peter Messerli 267

Taking the current State of research and the particu¬lar context of Madagascar as a starting point, the Swiss

National Science Foundation Project BEMA (BilanEcologique ä Madagascar) studied the problems linkedto slash-and-burn cultivation on the eastern escarpmentof Madagascar between 1994 and 2002. A multi-disci-plinary team of Swiss and Malagasy students selecteda case study approach for investigation of the regionof Beforona, which is situated along the highway RN2connecting Antananarivo and Taomasina and Covers a

transect from primary forest to highly degraded zones(cf. Figure l).The research results presented in this arti¬cle reflect the findings of the study group that pursuedthe overall goal of identifying alternative and more sus¬

tainable land use strategies in a slash-and-burn context(Messerli 2004). The group aimed at understandingcurrent peasants' strategies and exploring processesof adopting and adapting innovative components sup¬

porting sustainable development.

2 Approach and methodology

The approach selected to support the overall research

goal involved three Steps, each step aiming at illumi-nating a different aspect relevant to sustainable devel¬

opment (Breu 2006):(i) The multidisciplinary studies carried out during

the early phases of the BEMA project yieldedinteresting insights into ecological, socio-eco¬nomic and cultural processes and dynamics. Thisdescriptive knowledge, which can best bedescribed as Systems knowledge, was broughtinto an interdisciplinary synthesis;

(ii) As sustainable development is a normative con¬

cept, research alone cannot reflect on alterna¬tive land use practises. In order to capture thedifferent opinions related to development direc¬

tion, a multi-level stakeholder analysis was car¬

ried out. This resulted in so-called target knowl¬edge, which guided subsequent studies;

(iii) The identification of «most promising» devel¬

opment paths resulted in new questions regard¬ing practical realization. This need for transfor¬mation or operational knowledge led to experi¬mental on-farm research exploring, on the onehand, specific agricultural, organisational andeconomic innovations, and on the other, theirintegration into existing livelihood strategies.

The third step of this approach - lo which the resultspresented in this article mainly refer - was built on thetheoretical basis of an actor-oriented perspective ofpeasant strategies (Wiesmann 1998). This theoreticalorientation emphasises the term «strategy» and drawsattention to the central implication this emphasishas for both research and practise: a certain activity

Comoro Is.0Antsiranana

y.Tsaratanana5 2876

:$ 8

oToamasinaAntananarivo

BeforonaTsialaj .Villi.'2E43

IndianOceanFianarantsoa

v*C

MADAGASCAR

<t>

300 km

:1

-. :

O)

Fig. 1: Madagascar and the research site in Beforonaon the eastern escarpmentMadagaskar und das Unlersuchungsgebiet von Befo¬

rona am OstabhangMadagascar et la region d'etude de Beforona sur le ver-sanl est

Source: Relief based on Schweizerischer Mittelschulatlas1972,© Schweizerische Konferenz der kantonalen Erzie¬

hungsdirektoren (EDK); cartography: A. Brodbeck

or change in activity can not be understood withouttaking into account the manner in which it is an inte¬

gral part of the process of optimisation within the net¬

work of activities, and without relating the network ofactivities to the structure of meanings, as well as to theperception of dynamic parameters.

Methodologically, this research orientation impliedcollaboration with local land users in an on-farm set-

268 Geographica Helvetica Jg. 61 2006/Heft 4

ting. An intensive culture of dialogue and exchange ofknowledge was established, allowing explicit expres¬sion of meanings and strategies that shape the differ¬ent activities of the land users. At the same time, itallowed reflection on and complementation of scien¬

tific knowledge.

In a first phase, experimentation was carried out withSingle innovative activities. They involved technical,organisational, and institutional aspects, which gener¬ally referred to production and marketing activities.Farmers and researchers jointly defined the objec¬tives, implemented the necessary tasks, and assessedthe outcomes with regard to ecological, economic andsocio-cultural indicators. Each experimental activitywas repeated by five to ten peasant households.

In a second phase, the focus shifted from Single inno¬vative activities to their integration within a set of mul¬

tiple activities corresponding to the respective liveli¬hood strategies. The research questions guiding thesetrials were as follows: (a) Can the simultaneous adop-tion of innovative activities bring about a significantand viable change in livelihood strategies? (b) Whatis the appraisal of these modified strategies in ecologi¬cal, economic, and socio-cultural terms? Three pilothouseholds entered into a close collaboration withthe research team combining at least three of the ear-lier tested experimental activities. This collaborationlasted for over two years and involved frequent andregulär meetings to design, implement, and adapt thechosen activities. The monitoring was carried out usingquantitative as well as qualitative methods (Okali etal. 1994; Werner 1993), of which the households' dia-ries proved to be a valuable source of information.Most important findings were shared among differentpilot households and with a wider Community throughfield days, panel group discussions and broadcasts onthe local radio.

3 Results

Before presenting the results of the third research stepdealing with the exploration of innovative livelihoodstrategies, it is important to understand the main con¬clusions drawn from the preceding two steps of theresearch approach:(i) Conclusions from the interdisciplinary synthesis

of Systems knowledge: By studying the key factorsof the land use System in a dynamic way (Brand1998; Brand & Pfund 1998; Pfund 2000; Terre-Tany/BEMA 1997,1998a, 1998b), it was concludedthat even though measures to mitigate the mostimminent problems linked to decreasing produc¬tivity in upland rice represent a necessity for localfarmers, these would not allow the vicious circle

of degradation, decreasing yields and over-exploi-tation to be broken in the long term. More prom¬ising paths for sustainable development appearedrather to lie in the promotion of a diversified pro¬duction System that aims at a better balance be¬

tween food security and income generation (Mes¬

serli 2000).(ii) Conclusions from the multi-level stakeholder

analysis producing target knowledge: The com¬

parative assessment of different stakeholders'visions revealed that the often praised win-winsituations between local and external actors, andbetween conservation and development interests,represent utopian desires rather than reality. How¬

ever, promising areas in the land use System couldbe identified, where trade-offs between subsist¬

ence needs, market development and more sus¬

tainable natural resource management seem fea-sible (Messerli 2004,2005).

3.1 Promising innovative land use practisesBased on the insights mentioned above, four majorinnovative activities were tested to assess their poten¬tial to support peasant's livelihoods and contributetowards a more sustainable natural resource manage¬ment:(a) Intensification and extension of irrigated ricecultivation. The tests on intensification and extensionof irrigated rice cultivation brought to light that froma technical point of view, the potential of the regionis not yet fully exploited. If the currently irrigablesurfaces were to be developed further, the share oftotal rice demand covered by irrigated rice could beincreased from 16% to 46%. Furthermore, if the avail¬able and known cultivation methods for increasingyields were applied, irrigated rice production couldeven cover 92% of total demand. This economicallyand ecologically desirable scenario is, however, ham-pered by conflicts over land access and organisationalproblems related to transhumance for upland rice cul¬

tivation. Furthermore, the risk imposed by destructivecyclones also hinders peasant households from makingthe considerable investments necessary for enhancingthis activity. The risk for a household to experiencemajor damage on one of their fields was estimated atabout 10% per season.

(b) Intensification of home gardens and marketingnetworks. Labour or time invested into home gardensdirectly competes with time invested into subsistence

production. Even though home gardens provide 50-80% of household income, they only receive 8% oftotal labour input and occupy 7% of total land surface.As food security demands growing labour input, homegardens are neglected and long-term investments nec¬

essary for maintaining coffee, spices, and precious fruitcultivation can no longer be ensured. The intensifica-

Exploring innovative strategies for livelihoods in a slash-and-burn context Peter Messerli 269

tion trials of home gardens therefore aimed at produc-ing regulär income in the short-term (integration ofginger, vegetables) and at ensuring the production ofstaple crops usually associated with upland rice (beans,

com, vegetables). It was shown on the one hand, thatthese agroforests are ecologically highly sustainable,and on the other hand, that revenues are significant,ensuring a return of investment in the long-term.Ginger thereby proved to play a crucial role, allowingfor a tripling of productivity compared to traditionalcultivation methods. The revenues could further beincreased by support given for marketing of produceunder an organic label.

(c) Integration of pig-breeding. Different householdstested the suitability of pig-breeding both for incomegeneration and as a Supplement of their nutritionaldiet. It was shown that the technical feasibility and theeconomic success depended closely on the linking ofpig-breeding with other activities. Only householdsthat already pursued permanent agriculture (homegardens, irrigated rice) were able to ensure the neces¬

sary care of animals kept in stables. At the same time,fodder could be supplied by waste products from homegardens and paddy production. Conversely, pig düngproved to be a highly valuable input for compost pro¬duction, which led to the high productivity of ginger inhome gardens. In sum, pig breeding as a stand-aloneactivity did not meet expectations whereas in asso¬

ciation with other production components, it had an

important multiplicator effect on economic profitabil-ity and ecological viability.

(d) Intensified upland rice production with improvedfallow. To counteract the enormous loss of nutrientsduring fire cycles, the attempt was made to replacetraditional burning with natural decomposition ofbiomass over an extended period of six months. In a

next step, rice was planted by direct seeding or follow¬ing a reduced burning of remaining biomass. Beans orcorn were then planted, to be followed by an improvedfallow consisting of leguminous and spontaneous spe¬cies. The results of the new crop rolation indicate thatnutrient management could insofar be improved as

nutrient availability in top soils was increased by 60%on average and rice yields could be doubled. However,an important asset of traditional burning techniquescame to light: the efficiency of the technique withregard to weed control. Without application of tradi¬tional burning techniques, time invested for weedingincreased significantly. Even if the experiment demon-strated that a more viable production of upland riceis feasible and that it can even be economically moreprofitable, certain important limitations persisted.Firstly, farmers often try to maximise the fallow landthey are putting under cultivation as proof of need,an important factor in upholding their traditional

access rights to land. Secondly, the tested methodsare technically restricted to foot slopes, as erosion ofunburnt biomass would cover the young rice sproutsand prevent their füll development. In sum, intensifiedupland rice production does not appear to be a viablealternative to large-scale slash-and-burn cultivation. Itmight, however, complement the production activitiesof households already focusing on permanent and sed-

entary land use.

The participatory evaluation of the above-mentionedinvestigation can be summarised as follows: even ifthe outcomes were generally highly appreciated inecological, economic, as well as socio-cultural terms,farmers often remained reluctant to continue these

activities, as they came into conflict with the overallset of activities of the household. The intensificationof home gardens, for example, was highly rated, butseemed only justifiable if transhumance related to tavywould be abandoned at the benefit of irrigated rice

production. In other words, only an adaptation of theentire strategy would allow integrating new activitiesand exploiting the necessary synergies of the proposedinnovations.

3.2 Integrating innovations: towards sustainable landuse and livelihood strategies

Based on these insights, subsequent trials were startedwith three so-called pilot households that showed aninterest in experimenting simultaneously with a set ofinnovative activities. From a palette of possible inno¬

vations, these households selected components thatcorresponded best to their household compositionand their environmental context, as well as reflectingtheir preferences. Over a period of two years, a veryclose collaboration developed between these house¬

holds and the involved researchers, leading not onlyto an enriching and constructive exchange of knowl¬edge, but also enabling a close monitoring of the out¬

comes.

A first important indicator used to appraise the modi¬fied strategies of the households was the time investedin different activities (cf. Figure 2). Compared to the

average labour investment of households in the samearea, the changes experienced by the pilot house¬holds was significant. Whereas households (A) and

(B) reduced their investments into tavy significantly,household (C) resigned entirely from slash-and-burncultivation. This allowed for a considerable redistri¬bution of working days into other land use activi¬ties such as rice irrigation, livestock breeding, homegarden production and marketing. Activities relatedto subsistence production could thereby be decreasedfrom 55% to 28% on average, whereas cash produc¬tion saw an increase from 29% to 44%. Moreover,the pilot households were able to invest more time

270 Geographica Helvetica Jg. 61 2006/Heft4

Labour investments per household(3 pilot households compared to the average of the zone)

45¦ Average of zone

H Pilot Household (A)

¦ Pilot Household (B)

H Pilot Household (C)

3 25on* 20

VaI2 15 i;:

m«S3Slash-and- rngated rice

burn

Home Ginger on Other staple Livestock Marketing Daily labour Other

garden slope crops activities

(improved)

Socialactivities

Fig. 2: Time invested by pilot households as compared to household averages from the same areaArbeitsinvestitionen von Pilothaushalten in Prozent ihrer gesamten Arbeitsleistung, im Vergleich zum Durch¬schnitt derselben RegionInvestissements en travail eles menages pilotes en pourcentage de la capacite totale de travail, comparee ä la

moyenne de la meme regionSource: Messerli 2004;Terre-Tany/BEMA 1998a

into social and other activities such as visits. travel-ling to town, participating in farmers' associations,and leisure.

An economic balance of these sets of activities showsthat in general terms, the monetary turnover increasedby a factor of 2 to 4. Figure 3 shows clearly that thisnot only enabled increased investment of capital intoagricultural production but a ränge of other benefitsas well. Furthermore, households were able to increasetheir expenditure on health, clothing and other con-sumables.

From an ecological perspective, the improvementsbrought about by the introduction of these innovativeactivities reflected the positive experiences alreadymade in the earlier research phases. Slash-and-burncultivation was reduced in all households. rangingfrom complete abandonment to a decrease of culli-vated surface by about 50%. The success of the riskytransfer of ginger production from steep slopes to the

home gardens also contributed significantly towardsenvironmental improvement. Finally. the integrationof pig-breeding and the related use of compost inhome garden production further enhanced ecologicalsustainability.

The acceptance of these innovative activities by theinvolved households in socio-cultural terms provedto be ambiguous. On the one hand. the effects on theindividual households were considered to be on thewhole very positive. Aspects mentioned includedthe improved distribution of labour between house¬hold members (women and children were relievedfrom weeding on tavy fields). the increased avail¬

ability of time allowing investment into social capi¬tal, as well as the improved availability of fundingfor health, clothing. schooling and other consuma-bles. On the other hand, negative experiences werereported regarding changed relations to the largersocial Community. The conversion to permanentagriculture, the neglect of traditional tavy farming.

Exploring innovative strategies for livelihoods in a slash-and-burn context Peter Messerli 271

Household Revenues

E Market speculations

HDay labour

Livestock

Other Crops

0 Paddy rice

D Ginger slope

9r000'000

OOu'000

7'000'000

6'0U0'UU0

5 5'u00'000

SHorne garden(improved)ö 4'UOO'OOO

3r000'000

2'000'000

ruoo-ouu

Average of Pilot Pilot Pilotzone Household Household Household

(A) (B) (C)

Household Expenditures

S Others

BD Health care

¦ Clothing

DU Livestock

HCeremonies

EAgric. investments

DRice

H Daily products

m

Average of Pilo! Household Pilot Household Pilot Household

zone (A) (B) (C)

Fig. 3: Comparison of household revenues and expenditures of three pilot households with household averagesof the same area (4'000 FMg ~ 1 CHF)Haushallseinkommen und -ausgaben der drei Pilothaushalte im Vergleich zum Durchschnitt derselben Region(4'000 FMg ~ 1 CHF)Revenus et depenses eles trois menages pilotes compares ä la moyenne de la meme region (4'000 FMg -1 CHF)Source: Messerli 2004; Terre-Tany/BEMA 1998a

as well as the improved economic Situation led to a

social marginalisation of these households, which inone case even culminated in sanclions (land access,social exclusion). This development illustrates thatthe introduction and management of innovativeactivities must always be endorsed and supported bya larger Community. It also contradicts a commonlyreceived wisdom that innovations are best propa-gated by individual farmers in view of triggering a

snowball effect.

In summary, these integrative trials with pilot house¬

holds - despite their limited number - support the

argument that the simultaneous introduction of a

combination of different innovative activities maylead to a significant modification of land use and liveli¬hood strategies in the direction of sustainable devel¬

opment. The complementarities and the synergies ofthese innovative activities in economic, ecological andsocio-cultural terms thereby represented the most cru¬cial factor for success.

4 Conclusions

Based on interdisciplinary studies of the land use

System (knowledge of Systems) and a multi-stake-holder analysis of future development visions (targetknowledge), this research was initiated under thepremise that the most promising development alterna¬tives to slash-and-burn consist of a gradual conversioninto a more intensive and permanent agriculture. Thefocus was thereby laid on the exploration of transfor¬mation knowledge, i.e. the definition of suitable inno¬vative activities and the testing thereof with regard toextent and manner in which they affect current landuse and livelihood strategies. It was shown that evenif activities result in ecological, economic and socialimprovements. their adoption and adaptation by peas¬ant households remains the most critical issue. A Set¬

up of on-farm trials enabled three pilot households tocombine different innovative components according totheir current strategy and their particular context. Theresults revealed that a significant change of strategy

272 Geographica Helvetica Jg. 61 2006/Heft 4

is possible leading to improved economic, ecologicaland socio-cultural sustainability. The viability of suchinnovations within a larger social Community, as wellas issues related to scaling-up and -out remain futureresearch challenges.

In view of current applied conservation and develop¬ment strategies, it is important to draw upon the les-sons learnt by asking which were the most importantfactors enabling households to adopt and adapt suchinnovations. The results presented here indicate thatthe following factors played an important role: theavailability of a palette of innovative activities, whichwere jointly developed and tested by researchersand farmers in the local context; the empowermentof households to choose and implement innovations,which best corresponded to their specific livelihoodstrategy; the availability and the improvement of mar¬

keting networks for cash crops and agricultural inputs;and finally the endorsement of innovative activitiespursued by Single households by the larger Commu¬nity. For many of these factors, the good accessibilityof the study site along the main road can be considereda bonus, but not as a guarantee for success. Further, itwas of outmost importance that improvements werenot sought through silver-bullet Solutions based onone innovation, but rather through a set of innovativecomponents, carefully chosen and combined by thehouseholds themselves. Finally, a continuous processof negotiation between research and concerned actorswas very important, linking problem-identification,search for Solutions, and implementation, therebyreplacing the traditional sequence of «understanding»and «acting» (Wiesmann 2006).

ReferencesAlegre, J.C., Sanchez, P.A., Palm, CA. & J.M. Perez(1989): Comparative soil dynamics under differentmanagement options. - In: Caudle, N. & C.B. McCants(eds): Trosoils technical report 1986-1987. - Raleigh:North Carolina State University: 102-110.

Bertrand, A., Lemalade, J.-L. & F. Rasambomanana(1997): La riziculture de tavy: au-delä d'une impossi-ble interdiction seculaire vers une fixation des surfaces

par l'amelioration des varietes et des techniques. - In:Karoka 15.

Brand, J. (1998): Das agro-ökologische System amOstabhang Madagaskars. Ressourcen- und Nutzungs¬dynamik unter Brandrodung. - Dissertation, Centrefor Development and Environment, GeographischesInstitut der Universität Bern.Brand, J. & J.-L. Pfund (1998): Site- and watershed-level assessment of nutrient dynamics under shiftingcultivation in eastern Madagascar. - In: Agriculture,ecosystems and environment: 71:169-183.Breu.T (2006): Sustainable land management in the

Tajik Pamirs. The role of knowledge for sustainable

development. - Dissertation, Centre for Developmentand Environment, Geographisches Institut der Uni¬versität Bern.Centre de Cooperation internationale en recher¬che agrönomique pour le developpement (CIRAD)(1996): Le semis direct, un mode de gestion agro-biologique des sols. - In: Agriculture et developpe¬ment 12:38-62.De Coignac, B., Bailly, M. & M. Ramanahadray(1973): Essai d'amenagement des terres dans la zoneforestiere de l'est de Madagascar - Experience des vil¬

lages de Marolafa et Andranomody. - In: Bois et foretsdes tropiques 152:3-18.Fagerström, M.H., Hoang, M., van Noordwuk, M.,Thai, P. & N. Cong Vinh (2001): Innovations withinupland rice-based Systems in northern Vietnam withTephrosia Candida as fallow species, hedgerow, ormulch: net returns and farmers' response. - In: Agri¬culture, ecosystems and environment 86:23-37.Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1997):State of the World's forests. - Oxford: Words and pub¬lication.Garreau, J.M., Alexandris, L. & M.R. Manantsara(2001): La Gelose: condition prealable pour l'innova¬tion et le developpement dans le contexte de la culturesur brülis. - In: Projet BEMA et Projet EPB (Ecologie,Politique, Biodiversite) (eds): Culture sur brülis: versl'application des resultats de recherche. - Actes de l'ate-lier du 26-28 mars 2001, Antananarivo: Projet BEMA/FOFIFA (Centre National de la Recherche Appliqueepour le Developpement Rural), Projet EPB/ESSA-Foret (Departement des Eaux et Forets de l'EcoleSuperieure des Sciences Agronomiques).Garrity, D.P. (1995): Improved agroforestry tech¬

nologies for conservation farming: pathways towardsustainability. - In: IBSRAM Proceedings 14: Interna¬tional Workshop on conservation farming for slopinguplands in Southeast Asia: challenges, opportunitiesand prospects, 1994 Nov., Manila. - Bangkok: Inter¬national Board for Soil Research and Management:145-168.

Hurni, H. & S. Nuntapong (1983): Agro-forestryimprovements for shifting cultivation Systems - Soilconservation research in northern Thailand. - In:Mountain research and development 3,4:338-345.Kremen, C, Razafimahatratra, V, Guillery, R.P.,

Rakotomalala, J., Weiss, A. & J.-S. Ratsisompat-rarivo (1999): Designing the Masoala National Parkin Madagascar based on biological and socioeconomicdata. - In: Conservation biology 13,5:1055-1068.Messerli, P. (2000): Use of sensitivity analysis to eval¬

uate key factors for improving slash-and-burn cultiva¬tion Systems on the eastern escarpment of Madagascar.- In: Mountain research and development 10,1:32-41.Messerli, P. (2004): Alternatives ä la culture sur brülissur la falaise est de Madagascar. Strategies en vue

Exploring innovative strategies for livelihoods in a slash-and-burn context Peter Messerli 273

d'une gestion plus durable des terres. - African stud¬ies series A17, Berne: Geographica Bernensia.Messerli, P. (2005): Brandrodung auf Madagaskar.Lösungsansätze für das Dilemma zwischen klein¬bäuerlicher Existenzsicherung und Ressourcenschutz.- In: Geographische Rundschau 57,4:50-57.Mittermeier,R.,Myers,N. & CG. Mittermeier (1999):Hotspots: earth's biologically richest and most endan¬

gered terrestrial ecosystems. - Mexico City: CEMEX.Nicholaides, J.J., Bandy, D.E., Sanchez, P.A., Benites,J.R, Villachica, J.H., Coutou, A.J. & CS. Valverde(1985): Agricultural alternatives for the AmazonBasin. - In: Bioscience 35: 279-285.

Noordwijk, M., Tomich, TP, De Foresta, H. & G.Michon (1997): To segregate - or to integrate. - In:Agroforestry today 9,1:6-9.Okali, C, Sumberg, J. & J. Farrington (1994): Farmerparticipatory research: rhetoric and reality. - London:Intermediate Technology on behalf of the Overseas

Development Institute.Oxby, C & D. Boerboom (1985): Alternatives and

improvements to shifting cultivation on the east coastof Madagascar. - In: Food and Agriculture Organi-zation/Forestry Department (ed.): Changes in shift¬

ing cultivation in Africa. Seven case studies. FAO for¬

estry paper 50,5:109-139.Partage, J-L. (1997): La commercialisation des pro¬duits agricoles par les groupements de petits produc-teurs. - Rapport de mission d'assistance techniqueä la composante zones tropicales humides du projetPNUD FAO MAG 97/001, volume D, Annexe III. Ata-narivo: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).Peters, J. (1998): Transforming the integrated conser¬vation and development project (ICDP) approach.Observations from the Ranomafana National ParkProject, Madagascar. - In: Journal of agricultural andenvironmental ethics 11:17-47.

Pfund, J.-L. (2000): Culture sur brülis et gestion des

ressources naturelles. Evolution et perspectives detrois terroirs ruraux du versant Est de Madagascar.- These No. 13966, Ecole polytechnique federale deZürich (EPFZ), Zürich, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosys¬tems, Groupe de Foresterie pour le Developpement.Rabearimanana, L. (1988): Le paysan de l'Est de

Madagascar. Du tavy a la riziculture irriguee - unemutation tardive. - In: Omaly sy anio 27, Universited'Antananarivo: 75.

Rakotomanana, J.L., Andriamampianina, N & MV.Ravaoharisoa (1989): Recherches sur l'agroforesterieet problemes de sa diffusion dans la region de Befo¬

rona. - Departement des Recherches Forestieres etPisicoles (DRFP), Antananarivo.Rao, M.R., Niang, A., Kwesig, F., Duguma, B., Fran-zel, S., Jamat, B. & R. Bureseh (1998): Soil fertilityreplenishment in sub-saharian Africa. New techniquesand the spread of their use on farm. - In: Agroforestrytoday 9,2:38.

Roder, W., Phengchanh, S. & B. Keoboulapha (1995):Relationships between soil, fallow period, weeds andrice yield in slash-and-burn Systems of Laos. - In: Plantand soil 176:317-362.Roder, W. (1997): Slash-and-burn rice Systems in tran¬sition. Challenges for agricultural development in thehüls of northern Laos. - In: Mountain research and

development 17,1:1-10.Sanchez, P.A. (1985): Fertilizers make continuouscropping possible in the Amazon. - In: Better cropsinternational 1:12-15.Swanson, R. (1996): Parcs nationaux et reserves, le nou¬

veau modele de Madagascar en matiere de conservationde la biodiversite: lecons apprises ä travers les Projets deConservation et de Developpement Integres (PCDI). -

Rapport de l'Association Nationale pour la Gestion des

Aires Protegees (ANG AP), Antananarivo (non-publie).Terre-Tany/BEMA (1997): Un Systeme agro-ecologi-que domine par le tavy: la region de Beforona, falaiseEst de Madagascar. - Cahiers Terre-Tany/BEMA 6,Antananarivo: Projet Terre-Tany/BEMA.Terre-Tany/BEMA (1998a): Les strategies endogeneset la gestion des ressources naturelles dans la regionde Beforona. Resultats des recherches pluridisciplinai-res de la phase 1995 ä 1998. - Cahiers Terre-Tany/BEMA 8, Antananarivo: Projet Terre-Tany/BEMA.Terre-Tany/BEMA (1998b): Une experience de syn¬these environnementale. Etude de cas Falaise-Est. -Cahiers Terre-Tany/BEMA 3, Antananarivo: ProjetTerre-Tany/BEMA.Vallois, P. (1996): Discours de la methode du riz. Rap¬

port sur la nouvelle riziculture malgache, considereesous ses aspects techniques, theoriques, economiques,sociologiques et culturels. - 2'ömc edition, Antananarivo:Institut de promotion de la nouvelle riziculture.Weischet, W. (1987): Neue Ergebnisse zum ProblemDauerfeldbau im Bereich der feuchten Tropen. - In:Becker, H. & W-D. Hütteroth (Hrsg.): Tagungsbe¬richt und wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen. Sonder¬druck Deutscher Geographentag München. - Stutt¬

gart: Franz Steiner Verlag: 66-85.

Werner, J. (1993): Participatory development ofagricultural innovations. Procedures and methods ofon-farm research. - Schriftenreihe der GTZ 234,Rossdorf: TZ-Verlags-Gesellschaft.Wiesmann. U. (1998): Sustainable regional develop¬ment in rural Africa. Conceptual framework and casestudies from Kenya. - African studies series A14,Berne: Geographica Bernensia.Wiesmann, U (2006): Transdisziplinäre Forschung:notwendig und einlösbar? - In: Uni Press. Forschungund Wissenschaft an der Universität Bern, 128:13-14.Wilson. G.F & R. Lal (1986): New concepts for post-clearing land management in the tropics. - In: Lal, R.,Sanchez, P.A. & R.W. Cummings (eds): Land Clearingand development in the tropics. - Rotterdam: Bal-kema: 371-382.

274 Geographica Helvetica Jg. 61 2006/Heft 4

Summary: Exploring innovative strategies for liveli¬hoods in a slash-and-burn context in Madagascar.Experiencing the role of human geography in sustain-

ability-oriented researchSlash-and-burn agriculture on the eastern escarpmentof Madagascar is held responsible for the ongoingdeforestation of the remaining primary forests. Furtherconsequences attributed to the method are the degra¬dation of fallow land, resulting in a loss of productivity,which is considered to be a threat to food security andthe livelihoods of the peasants. The research resultspresented here contribute to current conservationand development efforts regarding alternative landuse Systems by studying how households can success-fully adopt and adapt innovative strategies. Based onan interdisciplinary synthesis of knowledge about theland use System and a transdisciplinary analysis ofmulti-stakeholder interests, promising developmentroutes were identified and tested. The results of theintroduction of Single innovative activities indicatedoverall improvement in ecological, economic andsocio-cultural terms. However, the successful adoptionby peasant households could only be achieved wherehouseholds were able to simultaneously combine dif¬ferent innovative activities. This combination maxim-ised synergies and reduced potential conflict betweenindividual innovations and the existing livelihoodstrategy of a household. Consequently, important basic

parameters for such a process could be defined, suchas liberty of choice, accessibility and market networks,as well as Joint development of innovations betweenconcerned actors and researchers.

Zusammenfassung: Untersuchungen zu innovativenLebensunterhaltsstrategien im Brandrodungsfeldbauauf Madagaskar. Erfahrungen einer nachhaltigkeits-orientierten humangeographischen ForschungBrandrodung am Ostabhang Madagaskars wird füreine unaufhaltsame Entwaldung der verbleibendenPrimärwälder verantwortlich gemacht. Sie bedrohtaber gleichzeitig auch die Lebensgrundlagen derlokalen Bevölkerung. Die Ernährungssicherheit wirdheute durch den Verlust an nutzbarem Brachelandund der damit verbundenen Abnahme der Produkti¬vität in Frage gestellt. Die vorliegenden Forschungs¬ergebnisse unterstützen gegenwärtige Anstrengungenzur Entwicklung nachhaltiger Landnutzungs-Strate-gien, indem sie der Frage nachgehen, wie kleinbäu¬erliche Haushalte Innovationen in ihre bestehendenStrategien integrieren können. Ausgehend von einerinterdisziplinären Synthese bestehenden Wissens überdas Landnutzungssystem und einer transdisziplinärenAnalyse von Nutzungsansprüchen unterschiedlicherInteressensgruppen wurden viel versprechende Ent¬

wicklungspfade identifiziert und getestet. Es konntegezeigt werden, dass einzelne innovative Aktivitätendurchaus zu Verbesserungen in ökologischer, ökono¬

mischer oder soziokultureller Hinsicht führen. Dieerfolgreiche Integration in bestehende Landnutzungs¬strategien ist jedoch nur möglich, wenn ein Haus¬halt mehrere Innovationen gleichzeitig aufnimmt,dadurch Synergien steigert und Konflikte zwischeneinzelnen Innovationen und der vorherrschendenLandnutzungstrategie vermeiden kann. Als wichtigeRahmenbedingungen für diesen Schritt werden derbestehende Handlungsspielraum der Kleinbauern, dieErschliessung des Raumes, aber auch die gemeinsameEntwicklung von Innovationen zwischen Betroffenenund Forschern genannt.

Resume: Des strategies innovatrices pour ameliorerles conditions de vie des populations vivant de laculture itinerante sur brülis ä Madagascar. Le röle dela geographie humaine dans la recherche orienteevers la durabiliteLa culture itinerante sur brülis dans la partie est de

Madagascar engendre non seulement une deforestationcontinuelle des forets primaires restantes, mais menaceegalement les moyens d'existence des populations loca¬les. La securite alimentaire est mise en question ä tra¬

vers une degradation des jacheres et une perte de pro¬ductivite croissante. La recherche presentee contribueaux efforts de conservation et de developpement visantl'identification des strategies d'utilisation des terres demaniere plus durable, en se penchant sur la question de

l'adoption des innovations par les menages. En partantd'une synthese environnementale et d'une apprecia-tion transdisciplinaire des parties prenantes ä plusieursechelles, des pistes prometteuses de developpementont ete identifiees et testees. II a ete montre que des

activites innovatrices particulieres pouvaient enlrainerdes ameliorations ecologiques, economiques et socio-culturelles considerables. Cependant, l'adoption par les

menages concernes n'est atteinte que si plusieurs acti¬

vites innovatrices sont adoptees simultanement. afin demaximiser les synergies et d'eviter des conflits entre lesinnovations particulieres et la Strategie d'utilisation des

terres existantes. Des conditions cadres pour une teileadoption englobent la liberte de choix des paysans. le

desenclavement de la region, ainsi qu'un developpe¬ment concerte d'innovations entre acteurs concerneset chercheurs.

Dr. Peter Messerli, Centre for Development and Envi¬

ronment, University of Berne. Institute of Geography.Steigerhubeistrasse 3, CH-3008 Berne, Switzerland.e-mail: peter.messerli@cde.unibe.ch

Mcinuskripteingang/received/inanuscrit entre le12.5.2006Annahme zum Druck/accepied for publication/acceptepour Timpression: 8.12.2006