Exploring Educational Theory 2012_scd

2012 DJ

Exploring Educational Theory

Abridged

Contributing Lecturer David Jennings & Paul Surgenor

UCD Teaching and Learning

Please note the materials in this workbook are based on the contents of UCD Teaching and Learning’ Open Educational Resources website, for

further details and online activities visit: www.ucdoer.ie

2012 DJ

The UCD Centre for Teaching and Learning 2

Notes:

2012 DJ


Table of Contents

Exploring Educational Theory ..................................................................................... 1

What is Learning? .................................................................................................... 4 Successful Learning ................................................................................................ 5

Education Theory ..................................................................................................... 6 Learning Theory Definitions ..................................................................................... 8

Epistemology & Learning Theories ........................................................................ 11 Psychological Perspectives ................................................................................... 15

Constructivism & Social Constructivism ................................................................ 20 Main Constructivist Theorists ................................................................................ 23

Models of learning in the Constructivist Realm ..................................................... 26 Applying Constructivism Approaches in the Classroom ....................................... 29

Social Constructivism in the classroom ................................................................ 31 Reciprocal Teaching .......................................................................................... 31 Cooperative Learning ......................................................................................... 31

Situated Learning ............................................................................................... 31 Anchored Instruction .......................................................................................... 32

Selected Bibliography ........................................................................................ 34

Please note the materials in this workbook are based on the contents of UCD Teaching and

Learning’ Open Educational Resources website, for further details and online activities visit:

www.ucdoer.ie

2012 DJ


What is Learning?

Learning is a latent construct and everyone has their own idea of what it is, how it occurs,

and the relationship between teaching and learning:

-‐ I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think – Socrates

-‐ I never teach my pupils; I only attempt to provide the conditions in which they can

learn – A. Einstein

-‐ Personally, I am always ready to learn, although I do not always like being taught – W.

Churchill

-‐ ... education at the University mostly worked by the age-‐old method of putting a lot of

young people in the vicinity of a lot of books and hoping that something would pass

from one to the other T. Pratchett

In psychology and education a common definition of learning is a process that brings

together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring,

enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views

(Illeris,2004; Ormrod, 1995).

Most people, even within the educational profession, have not reflected on what their own

idea or theory of learning is. With this in mind...:

Task:

Take three minutes to think about your own ideas of learning. Without worrying about

technical terminology, how would you define your ideas or theories of learning?

2012 DJ


Successful Learning (Race, P. 2006)

Before we delve into theoretical terminology let us step back and consider what we deem

learning to be in laymans terms, and what are the key constituents of ‘successful’ learning,

and how might they inform our conception of theories?

Task:

Think of something you are good at… something that you know you do well.

Describe, in a few words, how you became good at this…

Collectively the most common themes in answering are:

• Practice, repetition – How is this enabled in our teaching?

• By doing it – Do we have enough labs, seminars, ‘work-‐place scenarios’?

• By trial and error – How might we capture this in our assessment protocol?

• By getting it wrong first, then learning from mistakes – Is this possible to accept in

professional programmes, how do we enable this process?

Consider the following and keep it in mind as you begin to read the theoretical approaches…

Five Factors underpinning Successful Learning

Wanting motivation, interest, enthusiasm

Needing necessity, survival, saving face

Doing practice, trial and error

Feedback other people’s reactions seeing the results

Digesting making sense of what has been learnt, realizing, gaining ownership.

DJ_2012


Education Theory

Education theory is the theory of the purpose, application and interpretation of education

and learning. It is largely an umbrella term, being comprised of a number of theories, rather

than a single explanation of how we learn, and how we should teach. Rather, it is affected

by several factors, including theoretical perspective and epistemological position.

There is no one, clear, universal explanation of how we learn and subsequent guidebook as

to how we should teach. Rather, there are a range of theories, each with their background

in a different psychological and epistemological tradition. To understand learning then, we

have to understand the theories, and the rationale behind them.

While much learning can be attributed to social imitation or cultural lessons, Bereiter (1990)

queries how we acquire more complex knowledge, and states that it is this learning that

gives rise to the need for an educational learning theory.

Why use Theories?

Theories are used for numerous reasons:

1. Help explain a puzzling or complex issue and to predict its occurrence in the future

- Learning is a latent variable so there is no clear and universal way to explain and

predict learning. To help explain this process, therefore, theories based on differing

epistemological positions have been developed to explain the procedure.

2. Allow the transfer of information in one setting to that of another

-‐ The complex and comprehensive conceptual explanations provided within the

framework of a theory can be applied in different settings. Theories provide different

"lenses" through which to look at complicated problems and social issues, focusing

their attention on different aspects of the data and providing a framework within

which to conduct their analysis (Reeves, Albert, Kuper, & Hodges, 2008).

2012 DJ


3. Theories provide greater opportunities for improvement by design

-‐ By providing information about the mechanisms underlying learning and

performance, an awareness of theories and can help us to design environments to

improve potential for learning

In terms of the application of psychological theories about learning and instruction to

education, Sternberg (2008) proposes five reasons:

1. Doing so enables one to have a scientific basis for education in how people think, feel,

and/or motivate themselves rather than only to guess what intuitively might make

sense.

2. Good theories are specific enough to specify what the educational interventions should

look like.

3. If the theory is sufficiently specific, it will also specify what the assessments of

instruction should look like.

4. Good theories are disconfirmable, so they provide the basis for discovering whether the

intervention actually does or does not work.

5. One of the best ways to test theories and advance is through practical implementations.

The process of learning focuses on what happens when the learning takes place. A learning

theory is an attempt to describe what happens when we learn and how we learn. Although

something we often take for granted, learning is a complex process which, according to Hill

(2002) has two main functions: the first is that it provides us with the vocabulary and

conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe; and the

second that it directs us where to look for solutions to practical problems. While theories

themselves don’t give us solutions, they do direct our attention to those variables that are

crucial in finding solutions

2012 DJ


Learning Theory Definitions

Most theorists agree that learning cannot be studied directly, but its nature can be inferred

from changes in behaviour (apart from B.F. Skinner who claims that behavioural changes are

learning and therefore no further process need be inferred). The majority of learning

theorists share the following basic definitional assumptions about learning:

1. Learning is referred to as a persistent change in human performance or potential

-‐ True whether or not they actually have an opportunity to exhibit the newly acquired

performance

2. To be considered learning, a change in performance must come about as a result of the

learner’s experience and interaction with the world

- Some changes (e.g., fine motor control) can be attributed to maturation and

therefore may not considered learned.

- Behaviour changes (e.g., search for food when hungry) are explained on the basis of

temporary states but don’t imply learning.

- Learning requires experience, but what these are, how they’re used, & how they

bring about learning constitute the focus of every learning theory.

The history of the application of psychological theories to education has been described as

‘a spotty one’ (Sternberg, 2008). John Dewey (1938/1997) was among the first serious

scholars of education to take this task seriously, and much of contemporary psychology of

education may be seen as originating in large part with Dewey’s work.

There is an implicit assumption that there is a tangible connection between educational

theory and practice. In reality though, the relationship between educational theory and

classroom practice is more complex than is usually assumed. Below, Saugstad (2002)

discusses the differing definitions of theory and practice:

2012 DJ


Epistemology & Learning Theories

Epistemology basic is a branch of philosophy that investigates the origin, nature, methods,

and limits of human knowledge. Such beliefs influence the development of knowledge

because they are considered to be the central values or theories that are functionally

connected to most other beliefs and knowledge (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997).

Our own personal epistemology influences our own theories of learning, and consequently,

how we approach, design, and delivery our classes. The terms used to describe

epistemological positions vary, depending on whether it’s describing the origin or the

acquisition of knowledge. A brief overview of the key terms is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Key Epistemological Terms

Origin of Knowledge

Objectivism Interpretivism Pragmatism

Acquiring Knowledge

Empiricism Constructivism Pragmatism

Pre-‐procedural knowing Constructed knowing Procedural knowing

DJ_2012


Objectivism

What is knowledge? Posits that knowledge is absolute and true, and is independent

from and outside of the individual. Learning involves the transfer

of what exists in reality to what is known by the learner.

Source of

knowledge?

Reality exists external to the individual, so therefore knowledge

simply exists and there is no need to construct knowledge.

Knowledge is acquired by experience.

Associated

terminology?

Objectivism is linked with empiricism -‐ a process of gaining

knowledge, in which sensory experience (what we can quantify

with our own senses) is the only valid source of knowledge.

Kuhn and Weinstock (2002) describe this way of knowledge

acquisition as ‘pre-‐procedural knowing’, or the first way to

approach acquiring information.

In English?

Type of class/lecture

style?

2012 DJ


Pragmatism

What is knowledge? Pragmatism regards knowledge as a worthy but improbable goal.

This approach emphasises theories of meaning (of what works)

with the understanding that this may not reflect reality.

Source of

knowledge?

Knowledge is interpreted and negotiated, through a process of

experience and reason.

Associated

terminology?

Pragmatism also used when describing the acquisition of

knowledge, and involves active processing where no single truth

exists (Brownlee et al, 2008). Kuhn & Weinstock (2002) describe

this way of knowledge acquisition as ‘procedural knowing’

In English?


style?

2012 DJ


Interpretivism

What is knowledge? In constructivism knowledge is not uniform and identical. Rather,

it’s constructed at an individual level and exists in multiple

formats.

Source of

knowledge?

Knowledge is gained through reason, by considering the

available information and assembling a personal interpretation.

It’s not concerned with whether knowledge is true in the

absolute sense, since truth depends on the knower’s frame of

reference.

Associated

terminology?

Interpretativism is linked with constructivism. Knowledge is

constructed individual or collectively, and varies from person to

person. These ‘constructed knowing’ beliefs are more likely to

be linked to constructivist beliefs in learning (Brownlee, 2003;

Hammer, 2003), which are based on a view of knowledge as

complex, tentative, and needing to be actively critiqued (Gill,

Ashton, & Algina, 2004).

In English?


style?

Each learning theory, or psychological explanation of teaching and learning, can be traced

back to one of these main epistemological traditions.

2012 DJ


Psychological Perspectives

The study of learning itself isn’t a discipline, it has been approached by researchers from a

variety of disciplinary perspectives which has resulted in a large number of theoretical

approaches, e.g.:

Gestalt Psychoanalysis

Cognitivist Behaviourist/Neo-‐behaviourist

Constructivist/Social constructivist Experiential learning

Humanist Social Learning

Progressive enquiry Situated learning

Theories into models

Models help us to make sense of our world, offering us a way of comprehending an

otherwise incomprehensible problem. They help us to visualize a problem and break it down

into discrete, manageable units. Like any other instrument, a model assumes a specific

intention of its user (Ryder, 2009)

The broad range of theories that can be identified in, and applied to, learning in the

classroom reflects the different ways in which epistemological traditions influence the

experiences we have and how we feel they impact on learning.

2012 DJ


Figure 2: Approaches within Behaviourism

Classical Conditioning

Law of Effect Operant Conditioning

BEHAVIOURISM

Advanced Organizers

Cone of Experience

Information Processing

Dual Coding Theory

Concept Mapping COGNITIVISM

Figure 3: Approaches within Cognitivism

2012 DJ


Figure 4: Approaches within Constructivism

Which perspective?

Shulman (1988) suggests that we should adopt the attitude of the ‘disciplined eclectic’ –

view each theory critically for what it can contribute to solving important instructional

problems.

PBL The Project Method

Play/Role Play

Schema Theory Situated Cognition Observational Learning Theory

Andragogy

Cognitive Flexibility Theory

Cognitive

Apprenticeship

Generative Learning

CSCL/CSILE Instruction

Conversation Theory

Discovery Learning Interpretation Construction

Action Research Anchored

Instruction Activity Theory

Structural Knowledge

Goal-‐based Scenarios

Social Constructivism

Inquiry Teaching Mind Tools

CONSTRUCTIVISM

DJ_2012

UCD Teaching and Learning 19

Behaviourism Cognitivism Constructivism

Proponents Surface learning; basic

skills

Any deep processing:

exploring/organizing

content

Collaborative learning

Applications Instructor designs the

learning environment.

Instructor manages

problem solving and

structured search

activities, especially with

group learning strategies.

Instructor mentors peer

interaction and continuity

of building on known

concepts.

Design

focus

Largely passive,

responding to stimuli

Actively process, store,

and retrieve information

for use.

Learners create their own

unique education because

learning is based on prior

knowledge.

Role of

learner

Climate for learning: does

the environment have the

right stimuli to promote

learning?

Readiness: students will

learn concepts that are

maturing.

Learners customize their

learning: provide a range

of learning activities and

concepts for core course

objectives.

Prior knowledge: design

learning to assist students

to build on what they

know.

Opportunity: ZPD = area

between what a learner

can do individually vs.

assisted by peer

interaction and teaching.

Inquiry learning: teachers

are not the sole possessors

of knowledge and

perspective but co-‐

learners and guides.

Task:

Take six minutes to think about your own ideas of learning. Try to apply the relevant

terminology -‐ how would you define your ideas or theories of learning?

DJ_2012


Constructivism & Social Constructivism

“Constructivism is the philosophical and scientific position that knowledge arises through a

process of active construction.” (Mascolol & Fischer, 2005)

“As long as there were people asking each other questions, we have had constructivist

classrooms. Constructivism, the study of learning, is about how we all make sense of our

world, and that really hasn’t changed.” (Brooks, 1999)

Background

Constructivism and Social Constructivism are two similar learning theories which share a

large number of underlying assumptions, and an interpretive epistemological position.

Both approaches Social constructivism

-‐ Deep roots classical antiquity. Socrates, in

dialogue with his followers, asked directed

questions that led his students to realize

for themselves the weaknesses in their

thinking.

-‐ Learning is perceived as an active, not a

passive, process, where knowledge is

constructed, not acquired

-‐ Knowledge construction is based on

personal experiences and the continual

testing of hypotheses

-‐ Each person has a different interpretation

and construction of knowledge process,

based on past experiences and cultural

factors.

-‐ Emphasis is on the collaborative nature of

learning and the importance of cultural

and social context.

-‐ All cognitive functions are believed to

originate in, and are explained as products

of social interactions

-‐ Learning is more than the assimilation of

new knowledge by learners; it was the

process by which learners were integrated

into a knowledge community.

-‐ Believed that constructivists such as Piaget

had overlooked the essentially social

nature of language and consequently

failed to understand that learning is a

collaborative process.

2012 DJ


Underlying Assumptions

Jonassen (1994) proposed that there are eight characteristics that underline the

constructivist learning environments and are applicable to both perspectives:

1. Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations of reality.

2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of

the real world.

3. Constructivist learning environments emphasize knowledge construction instead of

knowledge reproduction.

4. Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful

context rather than abstract instruction out of context.

5. Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments such as real-‐

world settings or case-‐based learning instead of predetermined sequences of

instruction.

6. Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection on experience.

7. Constructivist learning environments "enable context-‐ and content-‐ dependent

knowledge construction."

8. Constructivist learning environments support "collaborative construction of

knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for

recognition."

Epistemology

The default epistemology in education is an empirical/reductionist approach to teaching and

learning. The shared epistemological basis for these two perspectives, on the other hand, is

interpretativism, where knowledge is believed to be acquired through involvement with

content instead of imitation or repetition (Kroll & LaBoskey, 1996).

There is no absolute knowledge, just our interpretation of it. The acquisition of knowledge

therefore requires the individual to consider the information and -‐ based on their past

experiences, personal views, and cultural background -‐ construct an interpretation of the

information that is being presented to them.

DJ_2012


Students ‘construct’ their own meaning by building on their previous knowledge and

experience. New ideas and experiences are matched against existing knowledge, and the

learner constructs new or adapted rules to make sense of the world. In such an

environment the teacher cannot be in charge of the students’ learning, since everyone’s

view of reality will be so different and students will come to learning already possessing

their own constructs of the world.

Teaching styles based on this approach therefore mark a conscious effort to move from

these ‘traditional, objectivist models didactic, memory-‐oriented transmission models’

(Cannella & Reiff, 1994) to a more student-‐centred approach.

Query:

How would you respond to the suggestion that an interpretativist epistemology

applies only to Arts or Humanities subjects, and not more Scientific or Mathematical subjects?

2012 DJ


Main Constructivist Theorists

John Dewey (1933/1998) is often cited as the philosophical founder of this approach. Bruner

(1990) and Piaget (1972) are considered the chief theorists among the cognitive

constructivists, while Vygotsky (1978) is the major theorist among the social constructivists.

Dewey

John Dewey rejected the notion that schools should focus on repetitive, rote memorization

& proposed a method of "directed living" – students would engage in real-‐world, practical

workshops in which they would demonstrate their knowledge through creativity and

collaboration. Students should be provided with opportunities to think from themselves and

articulate their thoughts.

Dewey called for education to be grounded in real experience. He wrote, "If you have

doubts about how learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder, consider

alternative possibilities and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence."

Piaget1

Piaget rejected the idea that learning was the passive assimilation of given knowledge.

Instead, he proposed that learning is a dynamic process comprising successive stages of

adaption to reality during which learners actively construct knowledge by creating and

testing their own theories of the world.

Although less contemporary & influential, it has inspired several important educational

principles such as:

1 A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors should never tell students anything directly but, instead, should always allow them to construct knowledge for themselves. This is actually confusing a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of knowing. Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is constructed from the learner’s previous knowledge, regardless of how one is taught. Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new knowledge.

DJ_2012


- Discovery learning

- Sensitivity to children’s’ readiness

- Acceptance of individual differences

- Learners don’t have knowledge forced on them – they create it for themselves

Bruner

Influenced by Vygotsky, Bruner emphasises the role of the teacher, language and

instruction. He thought that different processes were used by learners in problem solving,

that these vary from person to person and that social interaction lay at the root of good

learning.

Bruner builds on the Socratic tradition of learning through dialogue, encouraging the learner

to come to enlighten themselves through reflection. Careful curriculum design is essential

so that one area builds upon the other. Learning must therefore be a process of discovery

where learners build their own knowledge, with the active dialogue of teachers, building on

their existing knowledge.

Bruner initiated curriculum change based on the notion that learning is an active, social

process in which students construct new ideas or concepts based on their current

knowledge. He provides the following principles of constructivistic learning:

− Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the

student willing and able to learn (readiness).

− Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral

organization).

− Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going

beyond the information given).

Vygotsky

Social constructivism was developed by Vygotsky. He rejected the assumption made by

Piaget that it was possible to separate learning from its social context.

DJ_2012


According to Vygotsky:

Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level

and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then

inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to

logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as

actual relationships between individuals. (p. 57)

Although Vygotsky died at the age of 38 in 1934, most of his publications did not appear in

English until after 1960. There are, however, a growing number of applications of social

constructivism in the area of educational technology.

By the 1980s the research of Dewey and Vygotsky had blended with Piaget's work in

developmental psychology into the broad approach of constructivism. The basic tenet of

constructivism is that students learn by doing rather than observing. Students bring prior

knowledge into a learning situation in which they must critique and re-‐evaluate their

understanding of it.

This process of interpretation, articulation, and re-‐evaluation is repeated until they can

demonstrate their comprehension of the subject.

2012 DJ


Applying Constructivism Approaches in the Classroom

General Overview

In the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the students.

The classroom is no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") pours knowledge into

passive students, who wait like empty vessels to be filled. In the constructivist model, the

students are urged to be actively involved in their own process of learning.

In the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge as a dynamic,

ever-‐changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully stretch and explore

that view -‐ not as inert factoids to be memorized.

Key assumptions of this perspective include:

1. What the student currently believes, whether correct or incorrect, is important.

2. Despite having the same learning experience, each individual will base their learning on the

understanding and meaning personal to them.

3. Understanding or constructing a meaning is an active and continuous process..

4. Learning may involve some conceptual changes.

5. When students construct a new meaning, they may not believe it but may give it provisional

acceptance or even rejection.

6. Learning is an active, not a passive, process and depends on the students taking

responsibility to learn.

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry

methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find

solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as

exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more

questions

DJ_2012


There is a great deal of overlap between a constructivist and social constructivist classroom,

with the exception of the greater emphasis placed on learning through social interaction,

and the value placed on cultural background. For Vygotsky, culture gives the child the

cognitive tools needed for development. Adults in the learner’s environment are conduits

for the tools of the culture, which include language, cultural history, social context, and

more recently, electronic forms of information access.

In social constructivist classrooms collaborative learning is a process of peer interaction that

is mediated and structured by the teacher. Discussion can be promoted by the presentation

of specific concepts, problems or scenarios, and is guided by means of effectively directed

questions, the introduction and clarification of concepts and information, and references to

previously learned material.

Role of the teacher

Constructivist teachers do not take the

role of the "sage on the stage." Instead,

teachers act as a "guide on the side"

providing students with opportunities to

test the adequacy of their current

understandings

Role of the student

The expectation within a constructivist

learning environment is that the students

plays a more active role in, and accepts

more responsibility for their own learning.

2012 DJ


Social Constructivism in the classroom

Reciprocal Teaching

Where a teacher and 2 to 4 students form a collaborative group and take turns leading

dialogues on a topic. Within the dialogues, group members apply four cognitive strategies:

i. Questioning

ii. Summarizing

iii. Clarifying

iv. Predicting

This creates a ZPD in which students gradually assume more responsibility for the material,

and through collaboratation, forge group expectations for high-‐level thinking, and acquire

skills vital for learning and success in everyday life.

Cooperative Learning

More expert peers can also spur children’s development along as long as they adjust the

help they provide to fit the less mature child’s ZPD.

Situated Learning

As early as 1929 concern was raised (Whitehead) that the way students learned in school

resulted in a limited, ‘inert’ form of knowledge, useful only for passing examinations. More

recently several theorists have argued that for knowledge to be active it should be learned:

• In a meaningful context

• Through active learning

The general term for this type of learning activity is situated learning. Situated learning

proponents argue that knowledge cannot be taught in an abstract manner, and that to be

useful, it must be situated in a relevant or "authentic" context (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis,

1997).

DJ_2012


Anchored Instruction

The anchored instruction approach is an attempt to help students become more actively

engaged in learning by situating or anchoring instruction around an interesting topic. The

learning environments are designed to provoke the kinds of thoughtful engagement that

helps students develop effective thinking skills and attitudes that contribute to effective

problem solving and critical thinking.

Anchored instruction emphasizes the need to provide students with opportunities to think

about and work on problems and emphasizes group or collaborative problem solving.

Other things you can do:

• Encourage team working and collaboration

• Promote discussion or debates

• Set up study groups for peer learning

• Allocate a small proportion of grades for peer assessment and train students in the

process and criteria

• Show students models of good practice in essay writing and project work

• Be aware of your own role as a model of ‘the way things are done...’be explicit

about your professional values and the ethical dimensions of your subject

Assessment

Constructivists believe that assessment should be used as a tool to enhance both the

student's learning and the teacher's understanding of student's progress. It should not be

used as an accountability tool that serves to stress or demoralise students. Types of

assessment aligned to this epistemological position include reflective journals/portfolios,

case studies, group-‐based projects, presentations (verbal or poster), debates, role playing

etc.

DJ_2012


Within social constructivism particularly there is greater scope for involving students in the

entire process:

i. Criteria

ii. Method

iii. Marking

iv. Feedback

Brooks and Brooks (1993) state that rather than saying "No" when a student does not give

the exact answer being sought, the constructivist teacher attempts to understand the

student's current thinking about the topic. Through nonjudgmental questioning, the teacher

leads the student to construct new understanding and acquire new skills.

Task:

Individually, take one class you have given recently, or will be giving shortly. Which

elements of this class could you change to align it with either the constructivist or social

constructivist perspective?

2012 DJ


Selected Bibliography

Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. Allyn & Bacon, Boston: MA

Hill, W.F. (2002) Learning: A survey of psychological interpretation (7th ed), Allyn and Bacon,

Boston, MA.

Jordan, A., Carlile, O., & Stack, A. (2008). Approaches to learning: A guide for teachers.

McGraw-‐Hill, Open University Press: Berkshire.

Ormrod, J.E. (1995). Human Learning (2nd ed.). New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Race, P. (2006) The Lecturer's Toolkit: A Practical Guide to Assessment, Learning and

Teaching. Routledge

Ryder, M (2009) Instructional Design Models. Downloaded from

http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html on 30 March 2009)

Selected Resources

List of learning theories and how they apply to practice:

http://tip.psychology.org/

List of models and good info on each:

http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html

Outline of learning theories:

http://www.learning-‐theories.com/

End of WorkBook

Exploring Educational Theory 2012_scd

Documents

Transcript of Exploring Educational Theory 2012_scd