08/03/1998

SharonK.Rich,AlvinG.AlleyneIntecEngineeringInc.Houston

Theenclosedexpansionloopliesondeckinpreparationforinstallation(Fig.1).

The"dogoff"clamp(left)hasbeeninstalledontheflowline(Fig.2,[14,229bytes]).Thebearclamp,forpipelineexpansionloopalignmentawaitsinstallation(Fig.3[10,568bytes]).Theenclosedexpansionloopisbeingloadedoutforinstallation(Fig.4[15,105bytes]).

RecentdesignandconstructionofaGulfofMexicosubseapipelineillustratetheuseofburied,enclosedexpansionloopstoresolveproblemsfromexpansionandupheavalbuckling.

Buried,subseapipelinesoperatingathightemperaturesandpressuresexperienceextremecompressiveloadscausedbytheaxialrestraintofthesoil.Thehighaxialforcescombinedwithimperfectionsintheseabedmayoverstressthepipelineorresultinupheavalbuckling.

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Typically,expansionloops,or"doglegs,"areinstalledtoprotectthepipelinerisersfromexpansionandtoalleviateaxialforces.Buriedexpansionloops,however,arerenderedvirtuallyineffectivebythelateralrestraintofthesoil.Alternativemethodstoreduceexpansionmayincreasethepotentialofupheavalbucklingoroverstressingthepipeline.

Therefore,systemdesignmustconsiderexpansionandupheavalbucklingtogether.Discussedherearemethodsofpreventionandcontrolofexpansionandupheavalbuckling,evaluatingtheimpactontheoverallsystem.

Expansion,bucklingforces

Apipelinewillexpandorcontractwhentemperatureandpressurevaryfrominstallationconditions.Conditionsduringconstruction,therefore,becomethereferencetemperatureandpressure.Forpresentpurposes,discussionwillbelimitedtoexpansion,butsimilarissuesmayrequireaddressingforcontraction.

Asthepipelineexpands,itwillfollowthepathofleastresistance,whichleadsdirectlytotheriserstotheplatform.

Ifthelowerriserspanisinsufficientlyflexibletoabsorbexpansionwithinthepermissiblestresslimit,expansionloopsaretypicallyplacedjustbeforeeachriser.Whentheloopsdonotfunctionproperly,aswhenburied,theyoverstressatthefirstbendexperiencingthepipelineexpansion.

Theseveralmethodsreadilyavailabletoreducetheexpansioninthepipelineresultinbuildupofaxialforcesinthepipelineandleadtoupheavalbuckling,amodeoffailureintrenchedandburiedpipelines.Pipelinesrestingontheseabedmayalsobucklebuttendtobucklelaterallywherethereisinsignificantresistance.

Upheavalbucklingresultsfromtheaxialforcegeneratedfromtheexpandingpipelinecombinedwithanuneventrenchbottomwhichresultsfromthetrenchingprocess,undulationsintheseabed,arockformation,oranareaofdensersoil.Trenchunevennessisgenerallyreferredtoasan"imperfection."

Axialforceandimperfectionarerelated.Ingeneralterms,themoreuneventhetrenchprofile,thelowertheaxialforcerequiredtoproduceanupheavalbuckle.

Methodstocontrolexpansionandupheavalbuckling,discussedpresently,wereinvestigatedforthedesignofahighpressureandtemperature,buriedsourgasflowlineoffshoreinMobileBay,Ala.,foramajoroperator.

Controllingexpansion

Thereareseveralconventionalmethodsusedtohandleexpansionwhich,alongwithsomeunconventionalmethods,wereinvestigatedandincludethefollowing:

Anchorflangesandconcreteand/orroughfusionbondedepoxy(FBE)coatingseachperformsthesamefunctionofincreasingthefriction,thusreducingoreliminatingexpansioninthepipeline.Thisincreaseinfriction,however,resultsinthebuildupofaxialforcesinthepipelinecontributingtoincreasedriskofupheavalbuckling.

Coldspringingtheriserhasprovensuccessfulformanypipelines.Coldspringingprestressestheriserduringconstruction,resultinginsplittingthedifferencebetweentheprestressandtheexpansionloadstobeencounteredduringoperation.Thisallowstherisertoaccommodatelargeramountsofexpansion.Coldspringingallowsforthenaturalreliefofthepipelinestressesthroughtheriser.Evenallowingforcoldspringing,themiddleofthepipelinemaybeanchoredbecauseoffrictionandexperiencethemaximumaxialforcepossiblyresultinginupheavalbuckling.

Theriserbendmaybereinforcedwithabrace,distributingtheforcesovermoreoftheriser.Reinforcingislimitedintheamountofexpansionitmayaccommodate,however,anddoesnotalleviatetheforcesinthemiddleofthepipeline.

Pipeinpipeconstructionisanoptionthathasbeenutilizedwhenothersolutionsfail.Itiscostlybecausetheproductcarrierpipeisinsideajacketpipenormallytwosizeslarger.Thetwopipesaremechanicallyconnectedwithbulkheadsthattransfertheloadsfromthecarrierpipetothejacketpipe.

Whilethecarrierpipeexpands,thejacketpiperesiststheexpansionloads.Thespacingandsizeofthebulkheadsare

determinedtoeliminatebucklingofthecarrierpipewithinthejacketpipetominimizeinstallationexpense.

Thestructuraldesignofthepipeinpipevirtuallyeliminatesexpansionandthepotentialofupheavalbucklingifthesystemisproperlydesigned.Thecostofextramaterials,however,andthelengthyprocessoffabricatingthepipeinpipewarrantinvestigationofotheroptions.

Expansionloopsanddoglegsservethepurposeofactingasaspringtoaccommodateexpansionattherisers.SeveralexpansionloopanddoglegconfigurationswereinvestigatedfortheinstallationinMobileBay,includingconventionalUloopsofvariousdimensions,andvariousanglesforthedoglegs.

Itwasfoundthatburiedexpansionloopsanddoglegsexperiencehighlateralresistancethatinturncreateslocalizedhighstressesatthefirstbend.Onlyashortlengthoftheexpansionloopwasburied,withminimaleffectiveness.

Toillustratetherelativeeffectiveness,itwasfoundthataconventionalexpansionloop40x40ftwaseffectiveonlyover4ftwhenburiedandhadamuchreducedcapacityforexpansion.Similartoothermethods,theexpansionloopplacedattheriserwouldnotrelievethestressesinthemiddleofthepipeline.

Azigzagshapedpipelinehasbeenemployedtoaccommodateexpansionandrelieveaxialforcesthroughoutthepipeline.1

Thepipejointswerebentinazigzagconfigurationanddoublejointedforinstallation.Eachjointaccommodatedsomeoftheexpansionandrelievedsomeoftheaxialforce.

Althoughthissolutionhasapplications,theadditionalcostandconcernsoffabricationandinstallationlimititsapplicability.

Snakingthepipelineduringinstallationappearedpromisinginprincipal.Thepipelinewouldactasitsownspringthroughoutthelength,accommodatingtheexpansionandalleviatingtheaxialforces.

Severalconfigurationsthatwereconsideredeasilylayablewereinvestigatedforarangeofsoilconditions.Itwasdeterminedthatthepipelinefollowsthepathofleastresistance,whichisaxially.

Snakingthepipelinerequiresadditionalpipewhichcontributestomorecostsandmoreexpansionattheends.

Controllingupheavalbuckling

Upheavalbucklingmaybecontrolledoreliminatedwithrockdumporadditionalburial.Eachmethodappliesadditionalweightonthepipeline,preventingupwardmovement.

Therockdumpmaybeappliedwhereneeded,usuallyafterabucklehasoccurred,orovertheentirepipeline.Theadditionalweightonthepipelinealsoreducesexpansionoverthelengthofthepipeline,thusreducingstressattherisers.

Thissimplesolutionis,however,costlyanddoesnotaddresstheentireproblem.

Whilethepipelinemaybeheldbelowtheseabedbytheweightonit,itmaybeoverstressed.Mostcodesallowthepipelinetoexperiencepredictableandcontrollableoverstresswithinastrainlimitation.

Althoughthisoptionshouldbetakenadvantageof,itstillmaynotbeenoughforallcases.Smalldiameterpipelinesareparticularlysusceptibletoupheavalbucklingandoverstressingandrequireadditionalconsideration.

Designprocess

Investigationoftheseoptionsdeterminedthatexpansionloopsoverthelengthofthepipelinemustbeemployedtoprotecttherisersandreducetheaxialforcewithinthemiddleofthepipeline.Thisconclusionledtotwooptions:usingmanysmallburiedloopsorfindingawaytohaveseverallargerloopsworkasiftheywerenotburied.

Becauseitwasimpracticaltoinstallmanysmallloops,methodsofpreventingsoilfromaccumulatingaroundtheexpansionloopwhenburiedwasinvestigated.

Researchofmethodstoisolatetheloopsfromthesoildeterminedthatthemostlikelycommerciallyavailableoptioncalledfor

concrete"doghouses."Theseareusedtoprotectpipelinesandexpansionloopsfromdroppedobjects.

Buttherewasnoexistingconfigurationofthedoghousessuitableforburial.Andfabricationofcustomconcretehousingswasexpensiveandheavyforconstruction.Therefore,itwasconcludedthatfabricationofasteelenclosurewasthemostlikelysolution.

Withadirectionforthesystemdesignidentified,theexpansionloopdesignwasoptimized.Becauseoftheweightofthesteelenclosureaddedtotheexpansionloop,itwasdesirabletominimizethesizeandquantityoftheexpansionloops.

ExpansionloopshapesinvestigatedincludedU,omega,helix,anddoublehelix.Afiniteelementanalysis(FEA)modelwasdevelopedforeachshape.

Thehelixwasfoundthemostefficientbyfar.Thedoublehelixwouldprovideadditionalbenefitbutalmostdoubledthematerialcostsandweight.Theresultingenclosurewouldalsohaveprotrudedfromthenaturalseabedorrequiredadditionalburial.

Theinitialsize,quantity,andplacementoftheexpansionloopsweredeterminedwithamathematicalmodelbasedoninternaldesign

guidelinesusingtheultimatesoilfriction2forburiedpipelines.Fromthemathematicalmodel,theanchorlocationsandexpansioncouldbedetermined,resultingintheplacementandsizingoftheexpansionloops.

Theoptimumspacingwouldprotecttherisersfromoverstressingandminimizetheaxialforceswithinthepipeline,thusreducingpotentialforupheavalbuckling.

Thelowertheaxialforcescouldbemade,thelargertheimperfectionheightsthatcouldbeallowedduringconstruction.Theaxialforcesmustbereducedtoaleveltoallowachievableimperfectionheightsduringconstruction.

Theupheavalbucklingpotentialandcorrespondingstresslevelswerecheckedthroughoutthedesignwithamathematicalmodel.3

Thisconstantverificationofthedesignaidedintheoptimizationofthesystemdesign.

FEAmodeldevelopment

AnFEAmodeldevelopedforthedesignusedindustryrecognizedsoftware.Tospeedinvestigationofmanyoptions,aprogramforthemodelwasdevelopedwiththesystemnodalconfiguration,elementdefinition,andtemperaturegradientcalculatedinaspreadsheettobereadintotheprogram.

Thetemperaturegradientwascalculatedbasedontheresultsofthethermalhydraulicanalysis.Thisenabledeachnodetohaveauniquetemperature,reducingpotentiallyunnecessaryconservatism.Mostoftheinputvalueswerecalculatedintheprogramtominimizeinputchangesfromcasetocase,thusreducingentryandcheckingtime,andpotentialforerror.

Thesoilwasmodeledindetail.Thesoilwasrepresentedaxiallyandlaterallyalongthelengthofthepipeline.

Nonlinearspringswereusedtorepresentthesoil'sresistancetomovement.Thelateralresistancefortheriserbendswasmodeledseparatelyateachnodetoallowforthesoil'spressurevariancewithburialdepth.

TheresultsoftheFEAmodelprovedthemathematicalmodelaccurate.TheinitialplacementandsizeoftheexpansionloopsprovedtobealmostperfectlyoptimizedonthefirstconfigurationoftheFEAmodel.Themathematicalmodelprovedtobeslightlyconservativeandthusausefulpreliminarydesigntool.

Designoptimizationhadtoconsidervaryingsoil,startup,andoperatingconditions.Thefinalconfigurationhadtosatisfyallconditions.ThemathematicalmodelwasusedtoreduceFEAmodelconfigurationchangestoachievefasteroptimization.

Thespacingoftheexpansionloopsconsideredthejointlengthstoallowforeaseofplacementduringinstallation:ajointspacing,forexample,similartothatspecifiedforanodes.

Whentheoptimizedconfigurationwasdeterminedfromthemathematicalmodel,thesystemwasverifiedwiththeFEAmodeltomeetallconditions.Withtheexceptionoffurtherdesignscenarios,theconfigurationrequirednofurtherrefinementfromthatproposedbasedonthemathematicalmodel.

Temperatureconsiderations

Caremustbetakenwhenestablishingthecasestobeinvestigatedwithrespecttotemperature.Aspreviouslymentioned,thetemperatureatwhichthepipelinewasinstalledisthereferencetemperatureforallfurtherexpansion.Thisreferencetemperatureisoftenconfusedwithambienttemperaturesusedforthermalhydraulicanalysis.

Thisanalysistypicallyusedthelowestambienttemperaturetobeexperiencedduringoperationastheworstcaseforhydrateformationingaslinesandwaxbuildupinoillines.

Itisnottheworstcaseforexpansion,however.Thatcaseisthehighestflowrate,atthehighestinlettemperatureandpressure,andatthehighestambienttemperature.Itislikelythatthereferencetemperatureforexpansionwillbedifferentfromtheambienttemperatureforthethermalhydraulicanalysis.

Thetemperatureinteractionmaybeillustratedwiththecaseofawinterorspringinstallation,establishingalowreferencetemperature,thenlateroperatingthepipelineinthesummer,withahighambienttemperature.

Thisscenariorepresentstheworstcaseforexpansion.Itcanbeseenthatitmaybebeneficialtoinstallhightemperaturepipelinesinthesummertominimizethedifferencebetweenthereferenceandoperatingtemperatures.

Enclosuredesign

Withthesizerequirementsfortheexpansionloopsestablished,onlydesignoftheenclosureremained.Throughoutthesystemoptimizationprocess,theexpansionloopdesignwasconsideredbasedonweight,fabrication,groundshippinglimitations,andinstallation.

Withtheseconsiderationsalreadyinvestigated,theenclosuredesignwaslefttoconsideruninhibitedexpansionloopmovement,structuralintegrityduringhandlingandinstallation,easeoffabrication,liftingmethods,andeaseofburial.

Fromtheseconsiderations,thedesignwasdevelopedwiththeuseofindustryrecognizedstructuralsoftware.

Themajorconcernsinthestructuraldesignoftheenclosurewere:

TodesigntheshellplatingtoresistthesoilpressureloadsintheburiedconditionToensuretheshellwasadequatefordifferentialhydrostaticpressureduringthefloodingoperation,forretrievalattheendoflife,orunplannedretrievalduringtheinstallationoperationToavoidhighshockloadsintheliftslings.

Theparticularconcernwithshockloadingwasaresultoftherelativelylargemassofenclosedwaterandhydrodynamicaddedmassincomparisontothelowsubmergedweight,especiallybeforeinstallationfloodingwascomplete.

Ifupwardhydrodynamicaccelerationresultedinforcesgreaterthanthesubmergedweight,theslingswouldgoslackandthestructurewouldfreefallduringthedownwardacceleration.

Themaindesignfeaturesoftheenclosureincludethefollowing:

TeflonpaddedsupportsaboveandbelowtheexpansionlooptoprovideforfreemovementMoneloverlayontheexpansionloopattheentranceandexitoftheenclosureforabrasionresistanceBafflestominimizesoilthatenterstheenclosurefromaccumulatingneartheexpansionloopStiffenerstoreduceplatethicknessLargeandnumerousventswithcapsforrapidfloodingOpencentertominimizeweightandaidinburialInstallationcollarsaroundthepipeontheinsideoftheenclosuretoresistinstallationtensionontheexpansionloop.

Fig.1showstheenclosureonthedeckoftheinstallationbarge,presentingthegeneralconfigurationoftheenclosure.

Installation

Amonginstallationoptionsconsideredwerethefollowing:

InstallingtheexpansionloopinthepipestringonthebargePickingupthepipelineafterinstallation,cuttingoutalengthofpipe,andinstallingtheexpansionloopUsingaspoolpieceflangedinthepipestringduringinstallationandpickingupthepipelineafterinstallationtoreplacethespoolpiecewiththeexpansionloop.

Thefirstoptionwasselected.Itwouldrequirecarefulplanningandcoordinationwithasecondvessel,butitwasseenasthemostefficientmeansofinstallation.

Thesecondvesselwastobeajackuptoprovidestabilityfortheexpansionloopduringinterfacewiththesurf.Thelaybargewouldpasstheexpansionlooptothejackupandcontinuelayingawayasthejackuplowerstheexpansionlooptotheseabed.

Thesecondoptionwasselectedasthealternatemethod.Expansionloopinstallationrequirescalmerweatherthannormallaying.Therefore,ifweatherweredelayinginstallationbutnormallaycouldoccur,thelaybargecouldlatercomebackandinstalltheexpansionloops.

Ifthisoptionwereemployed,considerationofanygaininthepipelineduringtheliftingwouldhavetobecompensatedforbyplacingtheexpansionloopawayfromtheoriginalpositionofthepipeline.Ifslackweretakenupbytheexpansionloop,itseffectivenesswouldbediminishedoreliminated.

Thethirdoptionwasnotconsideredviablebecauseofthehighpressure,sourgas.Potentialleakingoftheflangewasanunacceptablerisk.Inothercases,thismaybethemostefficientmethodofinstallation.Aswiththesecondoption,gaininthepipemustbeconsideredandaccountedfor.

ConstructionwascarriedoutinDecember1997throughFebruary1998.Installationprocedureswerecarefullyplannedtominimizedelay.

Theprocedureforinstallingtheenclosedexpansionloopsinvolvedthefollowingsteps:

1. Usinga"dogoff"clamptosecurethepipelineandreleasethetensioners(Fig.2)2. Cuttingthepipeandpushingthecutpipebackuptheweldingstall3. Positioningtheenclosureinthepipestring4. Liningupthepipelineandexpansionloopwithabearclampforwelding(Fig.3)5. Oncethepipelineandexpansionloopweresecured,removingtheclampandfinishingtheweld6. RepeatingSteps4and5fortheothersideoftheexpansionloop7. Passingtheenclosurefromthebargecranetothejackupcrane8. Pullingthebargeforwardwhileloweringtheenclosurewiththejackup(Figs.4and5).

Thisprocedurewasfollowedduringinstallationandworkedwithoutdelayorincident.

Thefinaltaskforconstruction,buryingtheenclosures,wasperformedwithhandjetting.Itwentwell,withtheexceptionofweatherdowntime.

References

1. Lanan,G.A.,andBarry,D.W.,"MobileBayFairwayFieldFlowlineProject,"24thAnnualOffshoreTechnologyConference,May1992,Houston.

2. Audibert,J.M.E.,etal.,"DesignofPipelinestoResistSeafloorInstabilitiesandhydrodynamicForces,"ASMEEnergyTechnologyConferenceandExhibition,Houston,November1978.

3. Palmer,A.C.,etal.,"DesignofSubmarinePipelinesAgainstUpheavalBuckling,"22ndAnnualOffshoreTechnologyConference,May1990,Houston.

TheAuthors

Chineseplantcommissionspropyleneunit

01/30/2015SanyuanPetrochemicalCo.Ltd.(SPCL),asubsidiaryofZhejiangFulingHoldingGroup,hascommissioneda450,000tonne/yearpropanedehydrogenation...BHI:Texasanchors90unitplungeinUSrigcount

01/30/2015TheUSdrillingrigcountplunged90unitsamajorityofwhichwereinTexastosettleat1,543rigsworkingduringtheweekendedJan.30,BakerH...BHPtodrillfirstdeepwaterwelloffTrinidadin2016,energyministersays

SharonK.RichisaprojectengineeratIntecEngineeringInc.,Houston,with6years'experienceininternationaloffshorepipelineprojectsfortheoilandgasindustry.RichholdsaBSinmarineengineeringfromTexasA&MUniversityandisamemberoftheSocietyforNavalArchitects&MarineEngineers.

AlvinG.AlleyneisaseniorprojectmanageratIntec,currentlyonassignmenttoIntecEngineeringBV,Leiden.Hehas33years'experienceininternationaloffshoredesignandconstruction.AlleyneholdsaBSfromtheUniversityoftheWestIndies,Trinidad,anMBAfromtheUniversityofHouston,andisaregisteredprofessionalengineerinTexas.

Copyright1998Oil&GasJournal.AllRightsReserved.

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