Executive Functioning and Sentence

ComprehensionSarah Key-DeLyria, Ph.D., CCC-SLP

Portland State University

Learning Objectives1. Define the categories of executive functions.

2. Define specific types of executive function skills within the general categories.

3. Name tasks that are thought to test several specific executive functions.

4. Name specific executive function skills that may be used at different points during sentence comprehension.

Executive Functioning: What is it?• A collection of constructs

PLANNING1,4,5,6,7

UPDATING4,5,7,9,15 SHIFTING & INHIBITION

GOAL FORMULATION1

Internally or Externally Generated1;Requires at least Intention1, Motivation1, and Self awareness1,2,3

CARRYING OUT ACTIVITIES1

e.g., Initiate, Switch, Stop Sequence, Maintain, in an Orderly & Integrated Manner

EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE1

Working Memory5,7,9,15

Modify15 or Update Information4,8,9,15 or Internal representation4

Sequencing4

Manipulate information9

Monitoring of information4

 

DUAL TASK or TIME SHARING 4,15,19

Allocate resources between tasks or processes

Sustained attention1,2

Not necessarily a component but required for successful planning Hypothesizing and Hypothesis Testing6

Generate Alternatives4 or Verbal/ Design Fluency5,20

Problem Solving5,8,9

Decision making5

Rule Detection10

Strategizing4

Conceptual Framework1

 

e.g., Monitor1,4, Self-Correct, Regulate Tempo & Intensity

Effective performance is required throughout many of the above processes

Terms Referring to Shifting• Selectively attend to one and

inhibit* effect of other stimuli2,5,15

• Engage/Disengage appropriately8

• New operation despite negative priming/ interference8

• Mental Flexibility8,16

• Cognitive Flexibility4,5,8,20

• Cognitive Control17

• Inhibitory Control16,18

• Attentional Control16,18

• Attention Shifting17

• Set shifting8,15,16,17

• Switching1,4,5,19

 

Conflict resolution17

Shifting due to an internal representation not compatible with current demands

Shifting terms are mostly synonymous but not always used with the same definitions or tasks20. Switching also refers to switching repeatedly in the dual task sense.

*Types of Inhibition11

• Motor response Inhibition12

• Cognitive Inhibition12,13

Suppresses irrelevant information already in working memory• Resistance to Interference13

Prevents irrelevant information from entering working memory• Unintentional Inhibition8,12

Can lead to reactive inhibition8

• Inhibition of prepotent response4,8

• Current target requires a ‘no’ response but it required ‘yes’ recently14; Intentional Inhibition8,12

• Reactive Inhibition7,14

o Inhibition of Return (IOR)8,21

Target in a location that was previously cued; IOR occurs after a brief period of enhancement with the initial cueo Negative Priming8

Current target where a distractor used to be 

1Lezak, 1982 2Stuss & Alexander, 2000 3Spreen & Strauss, 1998 4Salthouse et al., 2003 5Alvarez & Emory, 2006 6Lehto, 1996 7Grossman et al., 2002 8Miyake et al., 2000 9Carpenter, Just, & Reichle, 2000 10Jurado & Rosselli, 2007 11Some consider inhibition to be a possible underlying feature of all EF subcomponents (Miyake et al., 2000); the inhibition types listed are not necessarily mutually exclusive 12Harnishfeger, 1995 13Wilson & Kipp, 1998 14Jonides, Smith, Marshuetz, Koeppe, & Reuter-Lorenz, 1998 15Collette & Van der Linden, 2002 16Mazuka, Jincho, & Oishi, 2009 17Novick et al., 2005 18Cowan, Fristoe, Elliott, Brunner, & Saults, 2006 19Baddeley, 1996 20Flexibility is often used loosely to refer to shifting, switching or even to take many viewpoints, especially in novel contexts3. Spreen and Strauss (1998) separate cognitive flexibility into spontaneous flexibility, synonymous with fluency, and reactive flexibility, defined as shifting. 21Klein, 2000

Executive

Function Categori

es

Important Subcomponents• Planning

• The delineation & identification of alternatives, organization, decision-making, and strategizing in relation to current choices or behaviors

• Directed towards to future• Helps to update goals• Involves Strategizing• Involves Hypothesizing

Important Subcomponents• Carrying out activities

• Cognitive Control• Coordinate thoughts and actions in accordance with internal goals

(overarching resource)• Indicates how much “top-down” control to exert

• Set shifting• Doing something despite interference, negative priming, distraction

(Miyake et al., 2000)• OR inhibit a previous item and activate a new item• OR maybe just activating a new item enough to shift well

• Conflict Resolution• Monitors levels of conflict to pass on to ‘control centers’• Seeks an alternative• Set shifting needs conflict resolution to determine level of control

Important Subcomponents• Carrying out activities

• Cognitive Inhibition• Resistance to interference• Inhibition of a prepotent response• Negative priming

• Monitoring/ Error detection• Conflict resolution?

Testing Executive Functions

Tasks Planning Constructs Shifting & Inhibiting Constructs

Effective Performance Constructs

Tower of Hanoi (Simon, 1975)

Overall planning, Strategizing, Hypothesizing

“Avoiding perseveration”; Impulse control, Inhibition

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (Berg, 1948)

Overall planning, Problem Solving

(Mental/Cognitive) Flexibility, Inhibitory Control, Shifting

Trail-Making Test (WAIS-IV) Overall planning (Tralis B)

Cognitive Flexibility, A: Maintaining Sequences; B: Alternating Between Sequences

Multiple Errands Test (Shallice & Evans, 1978)

Overall planning, Rule detection, Time management

Tasks Planning Constructs

Shifting & Inhibiting Constructs

Effective Performance Constructs

Cognitive Estimates Test (Shallice & Evans, 1978)

Overall planning, Estimation

Verbal or Design Fluency (Benton & Hamsher, 1989)

Overall planning, Strategizing, Maintenance of set

Monitoring to avoid repetition

Stroop (Stroop Color and Word Test, Golden)

Cognitive control, Conflict resolution, Inhibition, Inhibition of prepotent response, Negative priming, Stroop interference, Mental flexibility, Processing speed!...

Delayed letter verification

Updating, Cognitive control

Tasks Planning Constructs

Shifting & Inhibiting Constructs

Effective Performance Constructs

Plus-minus task (Miyake et al., 2000)

Shifting

Flanker task Resistance to interference

Antisaccade task Inhibition of prepotent response

Plus-minus task65 64 1124 92 9835 30 2198 83 3121 59 9794 14 4736 64 4956 6 1846 14 9137 85 3985 32 9366 29 5586 74 112 14 3217 29 8365 7 5064 92 3843 37 9992 13 138 75 7838 61 4386 96 9053 50 8944 64 283 81 9271 92 8091 76 7664 54 3061 68 2016 26 69

How do we comprehend sentences?• Rules, Context, Meaning• But when?

• Incrementally!

• Theories of sentence processing• Garden Path Model (Frazier, 1987; Frazier & Rayner,

1982)• Multiple Constraints Model (Trueswell, Tanenhaus, &

Garnsey, 1994)• “Good Enough” Model (Christianson, Hollingworth,

Halliwell, & Ferreira, 2001)

How do we test sentence comprehension?• Informal assessment• Token Test• New! Northwester Assessment of Verbs and

Sentences (NAVS)

Executive Function and Sentence Comprehension ARE linked• January et al., 2009• Novick et al., 2004, 2005• Prior & Gollan, 2013• Ye & Zhou 2008, 2009• Grossman et al., 2002; Waters & Caplan, 1997 (PD)• Novick et al., 2010; Hamilton & Martin, 2005 (VLPFC

damage cases)• Sesma et al., 2009 (ADHD)• Christiansen et al., 2010 (Aphasia: Agrammatism)• Hinchliffe et al., 1998 (TBI)

Temporarily Ambiguous Sentence Comprehension

While the man hunted the deer ran into the woods.

Conj VPNP

IP

PPV

IP

VP

NP

IP

?

Conj NP VPNP

VP

PP

IP IP

IPChristianson et al., 2001

Ambiguous Sentence Resolution and EFs• Pre-sentence

• Planning• Goal setting• Where’s the data?

• Initial interpretation• Maintaining the goal• Sequencing• Strategic Planning• Hypothesizing (Novais-Santos et al., 2007)• Cognitive Inhibition of possible alternatives in WM

Ambiguous Sentence Resolution and EFs• Wait, what? (encountering an unexpected ending)

• Monitoring/ Error detection• Conflict resolution (Ye & Zhou, 2008)• Cognitive control (Novick et al., 2004, 2005)• Hypothesizing?• Maintaining the goal?

• Resolving (maybe)• Set shifting• Maybe not fully inhibiting that first parse• Switching (Novais-Santos et al., 2007)• Negative Priming• Inhibition of a prepotent response

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