Ew Afgewerkte Final

832019 Ew Afgewerkte Final

httpslidepdfcomreaderfullew-afgewerkte-final 159

1

Sint-Romboutscollege

Mechelen

Fascinating MagnetismThe phenomena caused by the magnetic field of the sun

Promotor de Heer L VERVOORT C VERBEKE

Grieks-Wiskunde

6D nr 5

Schooljaar 2008-2009



2

Preface

Satisfaction this is what I first felt when I realised I finished my final work Itrsquos great to be

capable of saying I reached my purpose and overlook the result To realise it I spent a lot of

time on it learning tremendously and having fun at the same time

Thatrsquos why I would like to thank some people who supported and helped me to complete this

paper First I would like to thank my Dad because he has been supporting me from the very

beginning starting at creating ideas for my final work until finishing the very last bit I would

like to thank my Mum for driving me to the library every time and the people of Urania who

made it possible for me to lend out the books I needed for this paper and especially Mrs

Jozefa De Laet

I thank my school the Sint-Romboutscollege for making it possible to make this paper and

for letting me experience this I thank Mrs Messiaen because she checked my final work on

English grammar and spelling I want to thank Mr Onsia too for willing to answer questions

and for his concern Last but not least I would like to thank my promoter Mr Vervoort for thegreat confidence in me for helping me for reading my final work and giving good advice

Thanks to all Enjoy the reading

Christine Verbeke



3

A summary of my paper generated by Wordle



4

Table of contents

Introduction 6

Chapter 1 Anatomy of the sun 7

11 The three outer layers of the sun 712 The photosphere 7

13 The chromosphere 7

14 The corona 8

Chapter 2 Observation of the sun 10

21 History 10

22 Light 10

221 Visible light 10

222 Composition of light 11

223 Non-visible light 11

23 Spectroscopy 11231 Introduction to spectroscopy 11

232 Continuous spectrum 11

233 Line spectrum 11

2331 Absorption spectrum 11

2332 Emission spectrum 12

234 The Zeemaneffect 12

Chapter 3 The solar cycle 13

31 Introduction 13

32 Differential rotation 13

33 When the years passhellip 13

34 Other cycles 15

341 The 22-year-cycle 15

342 The 27-day-cycle 15

343 Other cycles 16

35 Solar maximum and minimum 16

36 Mysteries of the solar cycle 16

Chapter 4 Phenomena caused by the magnetic field of the sun 17

41 Sunspots 17

411 What are sunspots 17412 What do sunspots look like 17

42 Prominences 18

421 What is a prominence 18

422 What is a prominence made of 19

423 How do prominences originate 19

424 What do prominences look like 20

4241 Different groups of prominences 20

4242 Quiescent prominences 20

4243 Active prominences 20

4244 Eruptive prominences 20

43 Coronal holes 2144 Corona loops 21



5

441 What is a corona loop 21

442 Where and when do corona loops originate 21

45 Solar flare 22

451 What is a solar flare 22

452 Where and how do sun flares originate 23

46 Coronal mass ejections 24461 What is a coronal mass ejection 24

462 Reconnection 24

47 Solar wind 25

471 What is the solar wind 25

472 What do we know about the solar wind 25

473 Heliosphere 26

Conclusion 27

Glossary 28

Appendix I The sun in figures 31

Appendix II Anatomy of the sun 33

Appendix III Granulation 34

Appendix IV Spicules 35

Appendix V The most important satellites observing the sun 36

Appendix VI Wavelengths 41

Appendix VII Absorption lines in the sunrsquos spectrum 42

Appendix VIII The solar cycle 43

Appendix IX Butterfly-diagram 44

Appendix X The Wolf-numbers 45

Appendix XI Filaments and prominences 49

Appendix XII The reconnection of magnetic loops 50

Appendix XIII Different prominences 51

Appendix XIV Polar crown 53

Appendix XV Coronal holes 54

Appendix XVI Coronal mass ejection 55

Bibliography 56

Webography 58



6

Introduction

The sunrsquos magnetic field and its effect on the sunrsquos plasma 1 are complex phenomena to

understand and to explain However even if yoursquore not an expert on this subject you still

should be capable to understand this paper on the magnetic field of the sun

In the first chapter you will find an introduction to the anatomy of the sun which can be

helpful to understand the phenomena described in the following chapters Chapter two

contains some history and facts about the observation of the sun always interesting to know

Next you will find a brief explanation of the sunrsquos magnetic field in chapter three and four

Chapter three deals with the magnetic field from a long term perspective It describes the so-

called solar cycle Chapter four is about the magnetic field on a smaller scale Sunspots and

solar flares are well-known but what is the underlying explanation for these phenomena

I must admit that science is not yet capable to fully explain all the phenomena that originate

from the sunrsquos magnetic field Most of the time astronomers can explain what happens butthey cannot tell exactly why Thatrsquos why astronomy is an important science and even today a

lot of questions remain unresolved

1 Words which are explained in the glossary are marked with a



7

Chapter 1 Anatomy of the sun

11 The three outer layers of the sun

The three outer layers of the sun are the photosphere the chromosphere and the corona

In these three layers the phenomena caused by the magnetic field take place You can find thesun in figures in appendix I and a cross-cut of the sun in appendix II

12 The photosphere2

If we look at the sun3 it is the photosphere (sphere of light) we can see The photosphere is

the innermost of the three outer layers and it is about 500km thick which is negligible in

comparison with the sunrsquos total diameter Because the other two layers are transparent to most

wavelengths of visible light we see through them and hence we see the photosphere The

photosphere has a temperature of around 5800K and consists of plasma It emits 99 of the

total radiation4 Only by observing the suns surface we can already spot different phenomena for example granulation (see appendix III) caused by convection A super

granule can even reach a diameter larger than the earthrsquos and can contain more than 900

smaller granules We can also observe sun spots that are caused by the suns magnetic field

This phenomenon will be discussed in section 41

13 The chromosphere5

The chromosphere (lsquocolour spherersquo) is the layer above the photosphere It is about 10 000

kilometres thick Hence it is also a thin layer of the sunrsquos structure because it is just one

percent of the sunrsquos total diameter For centuries this layer has been only visible during total

solar eclipses (see figure 1) Nowadays astronomers are able to continuously observe the

chromosphere by using special filters that let only pass light with wavelengths that are

strongly emitted by the chromosphere and (almost) not by the photosphere In observation

many different emission lines can be detected but the Hα is the brightest for the

photosphere Hα means that the emitted light of the chromosphere is coming from hydrogen

atoms Thatrsquos why the chromosphere spreads out a red glue The chromosphere is colder than

the photosphere The temperature falls to 4000K but if we move further away from the sun

the temperature will increase again which is very surprising since we move outwards It will

even reach a temperature of 10 000K In the colder chromosphere we can find lots of jets of

gas which are called spicules Spicules can last for several minutes and every second morethan 300 000 spicules cover the sunrsquos chromosphere6 A picture of such spicules can be found

in appendix IV

2 COMINS NF and KAUFMANN III WJ Discovering the universe eighth edition WH Freeman and

Company New York 2008 p 288-2893 Never try to look at the sun without special eye protection or if you are using a telescope without a safe

solar filter 4 LILENSTEN J and BORNAREL J Sous les feux du soleil EDP Sciences Les Ulis Cedex A 2001 p 245 COMINS NF and KAUFMANN III WJ Discovering the universe eight edition WH Freeman and

Company New York 2008 p 2906COMINS NF and KAUFMANN III WJ Discovering the universe eighth edition WH Freeman and

Company New York 2008 p291



8

Figure 1 The chromosphere spreading out red

httpwwwwindowsucaredusunimageseclipsechromosphere_sun_eclipse_1999jpg

14 The corona7

A lot of people have already seen a (partial) solar eclipse On some places when the moon is

completely in front of the sun we can see a wonderful glow appearing around the dark

shadow of the moon This wide-stretched expanding glue of light is called the corona

However we cannot see the suns corona when there isnt a solar eclipse because the light

emitted by the suns surface outshines the coronas light by far Yet we can use a coronagraph

to observe the sun This instrument is like a telescope but it covers the surface of the sun with

a black circle If we take a closer look at the suns corona we can distinguish some visible

structures such as corona loops which are explained in chapter 4 The lines which can be

observed in the corona suggest that the sun has a strong magnetic field

Figure 2 The sunrsquos corona

httpapodnasagovapodap060407html

The corona extends millions of kilometres into space and is a very tenuous layer of the sun

Yet it reaches a temperature of over one million Kelvin This enormous increase of the

temperature was discovered around 1940 by Bengt Edleacuten (a Swedish professor of physics and

astronomer who was specialized in spectroscopy 1906-1993) who did some experiments

with ionized gas8 The spectrum of the sunrsquos corona contained much emission lines from

7

SMITS F lsquoDe coronarsquo Heelal February 1999 p 40-428GREEN SF and JONES M H An introduction to the Sun and Stars The Open University Cambridge

2004 p 31



9

some highly ionised elements for example Fe13+ which tells us that the corona has a

temperature from one million Kelvin up to two million Kelvin 9 Despite this very high

temperature the corona has a very low density If it had the density of the sunrsquos surface it

would certainly outshine the photosphere10

Yet not all the secrets of the corona have been solved yet Some scientists already had someideas of where the high temperature of the corona comes from but none of them are fully

satisfactory One of the explanations is the theory of the spicules These spicules would heat

the temperature of the corona since they are very common on the sunrsquos surface On the other

hand it is possible that little solar flares heat up the corona Their amount seems so large that

these small solar flares can be an important element in the explanation for the high

temperature of the sunrsquos corona But the most acceptable explanation so far is the one of the

Alfveacuten waves11 Alfveacuten waves are formed by the local movement of the magnetic fields The

gas in the corona moves upwards and downwards along the magnetic field lines But the gas

struggles against this vibration The Alfveacuten wave will lose its energy and it will convert this

energy into heat But there are also many other possible explanations for the extremely high

temperature of the sunrsquos corona Recently the idea of reconnection has been developed Theconcept of the reconnection is briefly explained in the section of solar flares 12

The sunrsquos corona may look ordinary but yet it gives birth to an event that is called the solar

wind (see chapter 4) This solar wind is caused by an outflow of gases coming from the

sun13 Itrsquos important to understand how the solar wind works because the solar wind can

cause some aggravating side effects on earth for example it can cut off the electricity on earth

for millions of people or disturb the working of satellites if it gets too strong But the solar

wind also causes the beautiful phenomenon of the aurora on earth Yet this is not the focus

of this paper

9 GREEN SF and JONES M H An introduction to the Sun and Stars The Open University Cambridge2004 p 3110

NASA The corona Internet (httpsolarsciencemsfcnasagovcoronashtml) 180107COMINS NF and KAUFMANN III WJ Discovering the universe eighth edition WH Freeman andCompany New York 2008 p 29111 DAY C Alfveacuten waves may heat the Sunrsquos corona Internet (httpblogsphysicstodayorgupdate200903alfven-waves-may-heat-the-sunshtml) 310309

12 JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 4913BEATTY JK PETERSEN CC and CHAIKIN A The new solar system eighth edition Cambridge

University Press Cambridge 1999 p 28



10

Chapter 2 Observation of the sun

21 History

Men have been observing the sun from the very beginning We know that the sun was very

important for the prehistoric people many historical monuments testify this One of the mostfamous monuments is Stonehenge14 Men were constructing Stonehenge for centuries during

the Stone Age We cannot assume that ancient observers of the sun could predict solar

eclipses but they were able to build a construction that was adjusted to the rising of the sun

on special days such as Solstice Stonehenge is not the only example of the importance of

the sun over the years There is also Newgrange a well-known passage-tomb situated in

Ireland north of Dublin and many other monuments

In the beginning our sun was regarded as a God Nowadays we no longer see the sun as a

God or a natural force But still the sun is strongly influencing our lives It still provides us

with light and warmth and makes it possible to live on earth Many scientists have been

interested in the sun All of them wanted to know how the sun really functions

Letrsquos take a quick tour through the history of the observation of the sun Scientists of ancient

China made the first record of a solar eclipse in 2134 BC In the Middle Ages Galileo (1564-

1642) used the first telescope to map the sunspots he saw on the sunrsquos surface

Unfortunately he watched through his telescope without a special filter blinding himself On

April 2 1845 Louis Feacutezeau and Leacuteon Foucault had a world scoop they took the first

photograph of the sun clearly registrating the sunspots15

Years later the first satellites observing the sun called OSOrsquos (Orbiting Solar

Observatories)

16

have been launched into space to observe the 11-year-solar cycle between1962 and 197517 Many of them followed the most important satellites observing the sun are

described in appendix V Nowadays satellites keep an eye on the sun every second Still the

mystery of the sun and her magnetic field hasnrsquot been solved completely yet

22 Light18

221 Visible light

Light is a form of electromagnetic waves The light we see is actually only a small fraction of

all the light emitted in the universe A huge part of all the emitted light is not visible to our eyes Thatrsquos why men made telescopes especially designed to observe the light we canrsquot see

with our eyes

14 OFFICIAL SITE OF STONEHENGE About Stonehenge Internet (httpwwwstonehengecouk)(03022009)15

HILL S and CARLOWITZ M The sun Abrams New York 2006 p 82 83 9316

JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 8917

WIKIPEDIA Orbiting Solar Observatory Internet (httpenwikipediaorgwikiOrbiting_Solar_Observatory)2401200918 COMINS NF and KAUFMANN III WJ Discovering the universe eighth edition WH Freeman and

Company New York 2008 chapter 4GREEN SF and JONES M H An introduction to the Sun and Stars The Open University Cambridge 2004 p 18-26



11

222 Composition of light

Light is composed of waves Different wavelengths represent different colours The colour of

the light depends on the wavelength λ Wavelength is measured in nanometre Visible light

has a range from 400 nanometre to 700 nanometre It consists of red orange yellow green

blue and violet Of all the visible light violet light has the shortest wavelength and red lightthe longest

223 Non-visible light

As previously mentioned visible light is not the only light in the universe There are many

more wavelengths Maxwell (1831-1879) discovered the infrared radiation This light has a

longer wavelength than red light This however is not visible to the human eye Apart from

infrared light much other not-visible light has been discovered Radio waves have the longest

wavelength of all We use them for example for our mobile phones Gamma rays have the

shortest wavelength of all We use gamma rays for cancer radiotherapy The other wavelengths of light are visible in appendix VI

23 Spectroscopy19

231 Introduction to spectroscopy

An interesting way of observing the sun is using spectroscopy We can distinguish 3

different types of spectra continuous spectrum absorption spectrum and emission spectrum

The last two are called line spectra This means we will not observe the spectrum of the

emitting body itself but we will use another medium in this case thin gas

232 Continuous spectrum

Continuous spectrum means we use the unbroken range of wavelengths to observe objects

emitting light We observe the light emitted by an object directly without using a medium

This method however isnrsquot used very often because itrsquos difficult to observe an object

directly

233 Line spectrum20

2331 Absorption spectrum

For the absorption spectrum we use absorption lines These lines are created by the thin gas

(which gas doesnrsquot matter but the absorption lines will be different then) The wavelengths of

the body we want to observe go through the tin gas but the atoms of the gas will absorb some

of the wavelengths Because those wavelengths are absorbed by the atoms of the gas the

19 GREEN SF and JONES M H An introduction to the Sun and Stars The Open University Cambridge

2004 p 20-2620COMINS NF and KAUFMANN III WJ Discovering the universe eighth edition WH Freeman and

Company New York 2008 p 109-113



12

wavelengths cannot appear in the absorption spectrum of the body we observe We can notice

in appendix VII the absence of some wavelengths by the black lines Such lines are called

absorption lines They correspond to the wavelengths that are absorbed by the gas

2332 Emission spectrum

We can also examine the light emitted by the gas The atoms of the gas absorb some

wavelengths emitted by the object we actually want to observe but afterwards they will emit

those wavelengths again as photons This gives us a number of bright lines called emission

lines For many gases the wavelengths of the absorption lines will be the same as those

from the emission lines


In 1896 Pieter Zeeman (1865-1943) discovered that some spectrum lines split up A spectrumline emitted in a magnetic field will split up into different spectrum lines close to each other

This is called the Zeemaneffect

If the magnetic field is strong enough and is parallel with the direction of observation the

absorption line splits up into two lines one on the left side of the normal absorption line

(which means a smaller wavelength) and one on the right side of the absorption line (which

means a higher wavelength) If there is a magnetic field straight on our direction of

observation the absorption line will even split up into three lines one line will represent the

normal absorption line the other two will be just like with a parallel magnetic field

Figure 3 The Zeemaneffect

httpchemteaminfoGalleryGallery16html

How does a magnetic field influence an electron We can find an explanation in the Quantum

theory The magnetic field will interact with the atoms so that the electrons will reach

slightly different energy levels Atoms with different energy levels will emit different

wavelengths This explains the multiple lines of the Zeemaneffect

The divergence of the splitting depends on the force of the magnetic field which means we

can determine the size of the magnetic field by observing the Zeemaneffect

21VAN DEN BERGHE S lsquoHet Zeemaneffectrsquo Heelal september 1998 p 228-231

KOPANSKI J Atom Internet (httpknolgooglecomkjan-kopanskiatom1amrwrct7rvi27) 060209



13

Chapter 3 The solar cycle

31 Introduction

In this chapter we will concentrate on the long term evolution of the global magnetic field of

the sun It is important to understand the long-term evolution of the global magnetic field of the sun because the global magnetic field has a great influence on the magnetic field on a

local scale The sunrsquos magnetic field changes every 11 years This is why we call it the 11-

year-solar cycle However strictly speaking it is a 22-year-cycle This will be explained later

on in this chapter The record of the first solar cycle started in 175522 Since then itrsquos

currently already the 24th solar cycle

32 Differential rotation

As well as the earth the sun rotates But the sun isnrsquot made of the same matter as our earth on

the surface The sunrsquos surface is made of plasma Because of the plasma the sun will rotateat different speeds depending on latitude At the equator the sun makes a full rotation every

25 days But the rotation will slow down when the latitude increases This means that at the

poles the sun will rotate much slower At the poles the rotation time is 36 days This creates a

gap of more than 10 days23

Astronomers believe that it is only the surface of the sun that undergoes differential rotation

The inner core moves more like a solid body such as the earth but it is still unclear if this is

the case24

33 When the years passhellip25

Differential rotation is the main cause of all the complex phenomena that will be discussed

later on because this differential rotation causes the solar cycle and magnetic disturbance

As mentioned previously before the sunrsquos surface rotates much faster at the equator than at

the poles the plasma around the equator will move faster This is shown in figure 4 on the

next page Since the sun keeps on rotating in the same direction the plasma at the equator will

move much faster26

The magnetic field that the sun normally would have is the same type as the magnetic field of the earth This means the sun normally has the magnetic field resembling to the magnetic field

of a bar magnet Magnetic field lines move from north to south and at the poles the density of

the magnetic field is compact because there the magnetic field lines come together

22 JANSSENS J The case of the missing solar cycle (published in lsquoheelalrsquo January 2008) Internet (httpusers

telenet be jjanssensMSCwebEngpdf)23

DETHIER T Het zonnestelsel Standaard Uitgeverij 1992 p 77-7824

RUSSELL R Rotation of the sun Internet (httpwwwwindowsucaredutourlink=sunSolar_interiorSun_layersdifferential_rotationhtml) 1608200525 CUYPERS J and others lsquoLa rechercheacute en heacuteliophysique en Belgiquersquo Space connection October 2007 p

6-726GREEN SF and JONES M H An introduction to the Sun and Stars The Open University Cambridge

2004 p 72-73



14

Figure 4 The magnetic field lines of the sun change because of the differential rotation

httpircameraasarizonaeduNatSci102lecturessunhtm

If we apply the differential rotation on this magnetic field the magnetic field lines under the

photosphere of the sun will move faster at the equator This will cause the following

structure seen on figure 4 on the sun in the middle The magnetic field lines will continue to

get mixed up and the magnetic field lines will pile up This process takes several years

Finally the magnetic field lines will be stacked almost parallel to the sunrsquos equator This is

the sun on the right side in figure 427 You can find a more specific drawing of this process in

appendix VIII

Eventually after approximately eleven years the magnetic field lines will be piled up in such

a way that finally the magnetic field lines will start to pop out of the sunrsquos surface This willcause sunspots Sunspots appear in pairs one with a south ldquopolerdquo and one with a north

ldquopolerdquo The north ldquopolerdquo contains magnetic field lines that are directed outwards and the south

ldquopolerdquo contains magnetic field lines that point inwards28 Sunspots are discussed in more

detail in the next chapter When the sunspots almost come to an end the loops will reconnect

with another sunspot over the equator This connection will cause a switch of the poles (see

figure 5) The South Pole will become the North Pole and vice versa This model is called the

magnetic dynamo proposed by Horace Babcock (1912-2003)29

27GREEN SF and JONES M H An introduction to the Sun and Stars The Open University Cambridge

2004 p 72-7328 LANG KR Sun earth and sky Springer Germany 1995 p 8229

COMINS NF and KAUFMANN III WJ Discovering the universe eighth edition WH Freeman andCompany New York 2008 p 297-298JANSSENS J lsquohet maximum van de 23ste zonnenvlekkencyclus (II)rsquo Heelal November 1998 p 284



15

Figure 5 The switching of the magnetic poles of the sun

GREEN SF and JONES M H An introduction to the Sun and Stars The Open University Cambridge 2004 p73

When finally the poles have switched and the magnetic field lines are disentangled the cycle

will just start over again for another eleven years Because the magnetic poles of the sun

switch every eleven years the cycle is called the 11-year-solar cycle

34 Other cycles

341 The 22-year-cycle

If we take the magnetic poles into account however the 11-year-cycle becomes a 22-year-

cycle because the magnetic poles switch If we want to consider the strict cycle which means

that we take the magnetic poles into account we have to call the solar cycle a 22-year-cycleIt takes eleven years to switch the magnetic North Pole into a South Pole and another eleven

years to switch them back This cycle is called the Hale-cycle named after George Ellery

Hale (1868-1938) who was an American solar astonomer and active in different

observatories30

342 The 27-day-cycle31

The 27-day-cycle taking the average of the sunrsquos rotation time is a cycle that is directly

connected to the rotation time of the sun The sunspots the coronal holes and other

phenomena that are related to the activity of the sun rotate too This means that the activity of the sun is connected to the rotation cycle For example the part of the sun that we can see will

be less active when the sunspots are not visible because the sunspots influence the solar

activity When the sunspots appear again the activity of the sun will rise This cycle is also

known because of the coronal holes that influence the solar wind

30JANSSENS J lsquohet maximum van de 23

stezonnenvlekkencyclus (II)rsquo Heelal November 1998 p 284-290

31 JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 113



16

343 Other cycles

Astronomers believe that there must be some other cycles of an even longer basis Different

researchers have been looking for other solar cycles Some thought they found a 55-year

cycle However this cycle was very irregular Max Waldmeier (1912-2000 a very eminent

solar astronomer of the 20th

century) found a 90-year-cycle However lots of other cycleshave been ldquofoundrdquo There have been postulated a 2300-year-cycle too But the records of

solar cycles are too recent to prove this cycle 32

35 Solar maximum and minimum

The Royal Greenwich Observatory has been observing the sunspots since 1874 The

information of their observations includes the size the position and the number of sunspots

during all the recorded solar cycles If we put all this information into a graph we can see the

so-called butterfly-graph (appendix IX) With this information we can conclude that sunspots

do not appear at random33

At the beginning of a new solar cycle the first sunspots appear at latitude of 45 degrees Later

on sunspots will appear at the equator too When the sunspots begin to appear at 45 degrees a

new cycle has started again34 The solar minimum is the starting point of the solar cycle At

the beginning sunspots are very rare sometimes there are none If there are any sunspots they

will occur at higher latitudes The solar activity is the least on solar minimum Then it is a

good time for astronauts to go into space because there are less sunspots and less solar flares

and other phenomena that can influence the solar wind and so the space weather When the

solar activity is the highest the solar cycle reaches its maximum There will be a lot of

sunspots which now occur on lower latitudes too35 The time to go from a solar minimum to a

solar maximum is around four years During this time the solar activity will rise and when it

reaches its maximum it will slowly decline The decrease takes much more time than the

increase of the solar activity around 7 years The time between a solar minimum and

maximum and between a solar maximum and minimum can vary and is different for every

solar cycle36

36 Mysteries of the solar cycle

Astronomers have been able to find out a lot of details about the solar cycle However we are

still not able to predict the maximums and minimums of the solar cycles preciselyAstronomers havenrsquot been capable to draw up a model that allows us to predict the exact

number of sunspotshellip You can compare it to predictions for the weather to comehellip

32JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 113-114

33HATHAWAY D H The sunspot cycle Internet (httpspacesciencespacerefcomsslpadsolarsunspots

htm) 0401200034 JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 10335

WINDOWS TEAM Maunderrsquos Butterfly Diagram Internet (httpwwwwindowsucaredutourlink=sunactivitybutterflyhtml) 200036 JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 99-100



17

Chapter 4 Phenomena caused by the magnetic field of the sun

41 Sunspots

411 What are sunspots

Sunspots appear on the sunrsquos surface when the magnetic field lines under the photosphere

are piled up too much and they finally pop out into the chromosphere Sunspots are normally

found in groups The number of sunspots is dependent on the solar activity when the solar

activity reaches its maximum there will be many more sunspots than at solar minimum

Measuring the magnetic field in sunspots with the Zeemaneffect makes clear that the

strength of the magnetic field is much stronger in sunspots than in the surrounding

photosphere Itrsquos more than thousand times stronger the magnetic field strength in magnetic

fields varies from 1000 to 4000 Gauss while the surrounding area circles around 1 Gauss

(comparison the earthrsquos magnetic field strength is about 05 Gauss)37

412 What do sunspots look like

When magnetic field lines pop out of the photosphere they will form magnetic loops (figure

6 on the right side) Between this magnetic loops there will be formed a flux tube The

magnetic field lines in the sunspot will distort the convection under the surface (see figure 6

on the left side) They will pull the plasma downwards and will prevent the warm plasma

from going upwards and reach the sunrsquos surface Eventually the temperature in the sunspot

will cool down38

Figure 6 Left side convection in sunspotsRight side magnetic field lines in sunspots

JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p41

37

RUSSELL R Sunspots and magnetic fields Internet (httpwwwwindowsucaredutourlink=sunatmospheresunspot_magnetismhtmlampedu=high) 06090838 JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 40-41



18

We can distinguish 2 areas the black sunspot and the surrounding bright surface of the sun

The sunspot itself consists of the very dark centre called the umbra and the surrounding

orange-brown environment called the penumbra The penumbra consists of an amount of

small little striated f igures that come out of the umbra A sunspot can reach a diameter of

300 000 kilometres39 The temperature in the sunspots centre is much cooler than in the

photosphere because of the convection explained above It measures around 4 200 K whilethe photosphere has a temperature of 6000 K40

Figure 7 The composition of a sunspot

httpwwwjaxajparticlespecialastroshimizu02_ehtml

A sunspot appears black to our eyes However appearances are deceptive the dark sunspot

only seems dark because we see it against a much warmer environment If we h ad seen itagainst a black surface it would have been much brighter than the moonrsquos glowing41

The amount of sunspots varies from very few till over more than a hundred The amount of

sunspots can be predicted by the Wolf-numbers named after Johann R udolf Wolf (1816-

1893) a Swiss astronomer best known for his research on sunspots42 However I wonrsquot

explain this method in this paper You can find a briefly explanation in appendix X Yet this

method is only capable to predict the amount of sunspots approximately

42 Prominences

421 What is a prominence

The luminosity of the sun outshines lots of phenomena that take place on the surface of the

sun and even far away from the sun The sunrsquos corona is one example But luckily

prominences are quite visibly when we observe the sun A prominence is a huge cloud of gas

that is cooler than his environment It is trapped between two horizontal magnetic field lines

For human eyes it seems to spread out dark but this is only because a prominence has a much

39 LILENSTEN J and BORNAREL J Sous les feux du soleil EDP Sciences Les Ulis Cedex A 2001 p 3540 OTTERSDORF M Astronomy On the sunspot cycle Internet (httpuserszoominternetnet~matto

MCASsunspot_cyclehtmZeeman effect) 03110341JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 41

42 JANSSENS J lsquoHet maximum van de 23ste zonnevlekkencyclus (I)rsquo Heelal October 1998 p 256-263



19

lower temperature then the sunrsquos chromosphere (similar to sunspots which spread out dark

too) The dark lines in appendix XI are also known as filaments A filament is a line between

to magnetic fields with opposite polarities (appendix XI)43

Figure 8 A solar prominence

httpcosmic-webcoukp=274more-274

422 What is a prominence made of

The gas from the prominence is coming from the chromosphere So the prominences have

approximately the same composition as the chromosphere A good way to observe

prominences is to use red Hα or blue Hβ spectrum lines Hα absorption lines indicate a

temperature lower than 10 000 Kelvin These spectrum lines justif y that the temperature of a prominence is remarkably lower than the temperature of the corona 44

423 How do prominences originate

A prominence is a result of the magnetic field Particles of the sun can transport warmth very

fast if they move alongside magnetic field lines If they want to move straight to a magnetic

field line the transport of warmth is negligible So prominences that are trapped between 2

magnetic fields only have one way to be heated This brings on a temperature that is notably

lower then the temperature in the corona45

The origin of prominences is similar to the origin of solar flares When two magnetic loops

of opposite polarity start to approach each other they will reconnect and form some new

loops This is shown in appendix XII Some mass from the sun will be trapped between the

new magnetic field lines and will form a solar prominence 46

43COMINS NF and KAUFMANN III WJ Discovering the universe eighth edition WH Freeman and

Company New York 2008 p 29944 SMITS F lsquoProtuberanzenrsquo Heelal Juli 1991 p 18345 LANG KR Sun earth and sky Springer Germany 1995 p 134-14046

MARTENS PC and ZWAAN C Origin and evolution of filament-prominence systems Internet ( httpwwwioporgEJarticle0004-637X558287253575webpdfrequest-id=73e38daa-69ae-4e01-b9a6- b4bd0ba071dd) 092001



20

424 What do prominences look like47

4241 Different groups of prominences

As you can see on the pictures in appendix XIII prominences can have different shapes and

forms Thatrsquos why astronomers classify them into different groups the quiescent prominences the active prominences and eruptive prominences

4242 Quiescent prominences

Quiescent prominences can appear everywhere on the sun and are not depending on latitude

They can reach into the corona over 2 500 till 40 000 kilometres Quiescent prominences last

the longest of all prominences Some of them even last several solar rotations long These

prominences are very long and not so wide During its lifetime a quiescent prominence moves

slowly to the poles When they are found at the poles of the sun they are called a lsquopolar

crownrsquo (appendix XIV)48

4243 Active prominences

Their name already suggests where they can be found active prominences are found in the

active regions of the sun moreover in the presence of sunspots These prominences

however only have a short lifespan only several hours But within this short lifespan they do

change form adjusting to the magnetic field lines within a short period of time Because

these prominences are located in active regions there are many more reconnections and so

the form will change more rapidly

4244 Eruptive prominences

These prominences only last a couple of minutes and are connected to active sunspots as well

It is possible that after one died out another immediately gives birth in the same region Other

eruptive prominences are known to be bubbles of gas that are issued from active sunspots

There have been some records of eruptive prominences that bump into other prominences and

push the other prominences back in the sunspot49

47 KNISELY D Solar prominences Internet (httpwwwicstarscomHTMLSolarSectionHAlpha OBSERVINGTHESUNHAlpha3html) (03042009)

SMITS F lsquoProtuberanzenrsquo Heelal Juli 1991 p 182-185

ELLERMAN F Solar prominences Internet (httparticlesadsabsharvardedufull 1928ASPL173E0000074000html) (03042009)48

KNISLEY D Solar prominences Internet (httpwwwicstarscomHTMLSolarSectionHAlphaOBSERVINGTHESUNHAlpha3html) (03042009)49 PRIEST E R Dynamics and Structure of Quiescent Solar Prominences Internet (httpbooksgooglebe

booksid=h599q3jz1w4Campdq=quiescent+prominencesampprintsec=frontcoverampsource=blampots=58b79Qeyabampsig=1eklQ-WszOIebZZaq7fq7gm6bxAamphl=nlampei=urPtSe7ZCo61-Qa166jHDwampsa=Xampoi=book_resultampct=resultampresnum=3PPA6M2) 1989



21

43 Coronal holes50

When looking at the sun with an x-ray telescope we can see dark regions across the sun

These dark regions are called coronal holes Coronal holes have an open magnetic field

structure This means that the magnetic fields lines do not angle downwards but they extend

into space indefinitely Due to this the particles of the sun are capable to reach out far intospace without any struggles against the magnetic field With this outflow of gases from the

sun coronal holes are one of the most important sources of the (high-speed) solar wind

(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops

441 What is a corona loop

If we look closer at a pair of sunspots we can see an emission of plasma alongside

magnetic field lines that originate in the sun spots A corona loop can extend into the coronaas the name suggests Those loops contain plasma that can reach a temperature higher than

106 Kelvin Corona loops can best be observed by ultra-violet and x-ray images because of

the high temperature The high temper ature brings on a high vibration of the atoms This

trembling causes the emission of x-rays51

Figure 9 A close up of corona loops

httpwwwdaviddarlinginfoencyclopediaCcoronal_loophtml

442 Where and when do corona loops originate

The magnetic field lines of sunspots move outwards from the sun into the corona and form

broad loops This makes it possible to trap hot gas with a temperature up to 40 million K

Those magnetic field loops trap hot plasma into the sunrsquos atmosphere The magnetic force

pushes particles around along the magnetic lines but at the same time the atoms circulate

around the magnetic field lines (see figure 10) The speed of their movements depends on the

50

ENCYCLODPEDIA OF SCIENCE Corona hole Internet (httpwwwdaviddarlinginfoencyclopediaC coronal_holehtml) (04042009)51 JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 52-54



22

density of the magnetic field So if a particle moves from the top of a loop to the bottom it

will slow down just like in traffic jams Eventually it will reach the bottom but the bottom is

highly compressed (because the magnetic field lines converge at the bottom of the loops) so

that the particle will be shot back along the magnetic field line (see figure 10)

Figure 10 the movement of particles in corona loops

GD HOLMAN lsquoThe mysterious origins of solar flaresrsquo Scientific America April 2006 p24-29 volume 294number 4

Hence the particles will move up and down along the magnetic field lines Atoms that are

charged the same will cause electric currents (just like in a battery) These currents will

generate a new magnetic field and the old magnetic field in combination with the new one

will cause a high distortion in the magnetic field of the sun This is the moment when the

corona loop will transform into a solar flare

45 Solar flare52

451 What is a solar flare

A solar flare is a sudden powerful explosion in the solar atmosphere caused by a disruption

in the magnetic field of the sun Because of the disruption mass from the sun will be movedup and form a solar flare A solar flare can equal the energy of billions of atomic bombs

within a few minutes The strongest solar flares are measured during the solar maximums

because then the sunrsquos magnetic activity is the strongest53 Since the sunspots in the presence

of solar flare have a very high magnetic field it is likely that a solar flare would even have a

higher magnetic field But in reality the magnetic field of a solar flare is only half of the

magnetic field of a sunspot The intensity of the magnetic field is lsquoonlyrsquo 500 Gauss54

52 HOLMAN GD lsquoThe mysterious origins of solar flaresrsquo Scientific America April 2006 p 24-31 volume

294 number 453JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 55-57

54 JANSSENS J lsquoZonnefakkelsrsquo Heelal Oktober 1994 p 256



23

Figure 11 You can see the magnetic fieldlines in the solar flare on the right side

Large solar flare recorded by SOHO EIT304 instrument 512x512 version Animation (980kMPEG) CourtesySOHO(ESAampNASA)

httpwwwteachersparadisecomencyenwikipediassusunhtml

452 Where and how do sun flares originate

Astronomers have long been speculating how solar flares exactly originate In 1992 Satoshi

Masuda (graduated at the University of Tokyo) discovered on pictures of the Japanese

Yohkoh Satellite that the far end of a solar flare emitted unusually short wavelengths very

short x-rays The source must be a concentration of gas with a temperature of about 100million K concluded Masuda But this discovery provoked some new questions why was the

high temperature at the top of the flare and not at the bottom where the gas is more compact

Why does the plasma stay confined instead of spreading out into the universe In order to

obtain more information to try to solve this problem astronomers started observing the sunrsquos

radiation of ultraviolet and x-rays frequently In 2002 NASA even launched the RHESSI

(Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager) which was intended to bring solar flares

into pictures55

These observations provided evidence that sun flares surge up in regions where the magnetic

field is very strong ndashmost common in the presence of sun spots At this point we have to call

over the corona loops As mentioned before corona loops are electric currents of atoms

which move alongside magnetic field lines When the atoms are shot back alongside the

magnetic field line there seems to occur a distortion of the magnetic field This distortion will

end up in a solar flare All the mass of the corona loop will be shot into space and form a solar

flare

But how can such enormous mass of the solar flares be shot into s pace This has been a very

interesting question However Peter Alan Sweet (1921-2005)56 succeeded in finding an

55 GD HOLMAN lsquoThe mysterious origins of solar flaresrsquo Scientific America April 2006 p 27 volume 294

number 456UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW Bibliography of Peter Sweet Internet (httpwwwuniversitystoryglaacuk

biographyid=WH2144amptype=P) (10042009)



24

answer already in 1956 If magnetic field lines break apart and then reconnect they bring

together two opposing fields that will cancel each other and cause a huge burst of energy The

reconnection will create new magnetic field lines This reconnection is called the Sweet-

Parker reconnection Yet this is a slow reconnection which cannot take place at the base of a

solar flare with a dazzling speed Fortunately Harry P Petschek published an article about

reconnection in 1964 and solved that problem under certain circumstances it is possible toreconnect much faster which explains solar flares This faster reconnection is also called the

Petschek reconnection But unfortunately with the current technology it is not yet possible to

take pictures of those reconnections57

If the energy comes from the reconnection then where does this reconnection take place

From pictures of solar flares astronomers discovered that at the top of the corona loop a

mysterious x-ray source was found The x-ray source began to give a higher energy level and

at the same time the particles move down towards the sunrsquos surface Yet the x-ray source

stays at the same placehellipThen when the x-rays reach their maximum the loop suddenly

changes direction But this time the x-ray source will move upwards too unexpectedly it

moves at the speed of light approximately three hundred thousands kilometres an hour awayfrom the sun This is the same speed as the coronal mass ejections

46 Coronal mass ejections

461 What is a coronal mass ejection58

Coronal mass ejections (CMErsquos) (appendix XVI) are huge amounts of gas some billions of

plasma from the sun that are ejected into space Their temperature can reach 25 million K59

A coronal mass ejection can last for several hours and it can at last enter the solar wind A

CME can reach a speed of 50kms- 2000kms which means more than 7 million kilometres

an hour60 The mass of a large CME varies from 5 x 106 to 5 x 1013 kg61 During a solar

maximum there are more coronal mass ejections than during a minimum but they can occur

at any time of the solar cycle Coronal mass ejections are related both to solar flares and

prominences Very heavy coronal mass ejections can cause some geomagnetic storms on

earth

462 Reconnection

The reconnection of a solar flare can end up in a coronal mass ejection When magneticfield lines that are opposite are starting to reconnect and form new magnetic field lines half of

the magnetic field lines will point downwards and join some existing magnetic loops

However the other part of the magnetic field lines will move upwards at a very high speed

and will form some loops more upwards Between those loops that moved downwards and

those that moved upwards there is some mass that isnrsquot connected to the sun anymore It is

57GD HOLMAN lsquoThe mysterious origins of solar flaresrsquo Scientific America April 2006 p 29 volume 294

number 458

BRAEUNIG R A Glossary Internet (httpwwwbraeunigusspaceglossaryhtm) 200659 LILENSTEN J and BORNAREL J Sous les feux du soleil EDP Sciences Les Ulis Cedex A 2001 p 4460 Cuypers J and others lsquoLa rechercheacute en heacuteliophysique en Belgiquersquo Space connection October 2007 p 10-


2004 p 68



25

known that for an amount of solar flares that this mass between the loops will end up in a

coronal mass ejection Yet this doesnrsquot count for all the solar flares The coronal mass

ejection only takes place if the magnetic field lines twist around each other while forming the

letter lsquoSrsquo (see figure 12)62

Figure 12 Here you can see the reconnection that takes place before the coronal mass ejection starts

httpwwwnasagovmission_pagessolar-bsolar_005html

Certainly we will be capable to answer all the questions about solar flares and coronal mass

ejections in the nearby future But there are also some very interesting questions left what is

at the basis of the acceleration of the atoms in solar flares How does magnetic reconnection

originate Hopefully we will find the answers in the near future

47 Solar wind

471 What is the solar wind

Every second of every day of the year the sunrsquos corona emits a continuous stream of mass

from the sun The temperature of the corona is so high that the sunrsquos magnetic field just

cannot control the outflow of particles We know that the particles are accelerated but

astronomers cannot explain all the details about the solar wind yet

472 What do we know about the solar wind

The speed of the solar wind can change it differs from 300kmh up to 800kmh This speed

depends on the outflow of gases If there is a corona hole pointing towards the earth the solar

wind will reach a speed of around 800kmh The different speeds can interact with each other

and form a new speed according to the rules of light emission When two emissions connect

with each other they can form a faster or slower solar wind just like waves can interact and

form new waves

62BOEN B Birth of a coronal mass ejection Internet (httpwwwnasagovmission_pagessolar-b

solar_005html) 290408



26

The ionized atoms with very high temperature coming from the sunrsquos corona are one of the

most important parts of the solar wind but the magnetic fields are important too The

magnetic field outside the sun gets wrapped into a spiral called the Parker-spiral named after

the scientist who described it as the first one (because the sun rotates) This influences the

magnetic field of the sun from the outside The solar wind is emitted in spiral too (see figure

13)

Figure 13 The course of the solar wind caused by the rotation of the sun

httpheliosgsfcnasagovsolarmaghtml

473 Heliosphere

We can describe the heliosphere as a gigantic magnetic bubble around the sun This is

everywhere in space till where the sunrsquos magnetic field reaches and still has an influence The

heliosphere is filled with solar wind although the solar wind has a very low density Yet it

is a very hot wind but because of the very low density it does not have such a great influence

on earth However it can cause some energetic storms on earth63

63 NASA The heliosphere Internet (httpheliosgsfcnasagovheliosphhtml) 20012009



27

Conclusion

The sunrsquos magnetic field is a complex system to understand Yet I hope you have learned a

lot from this paper and that you do understand the exiting phenomena described in the

previous chapters

We can discuss the sunrsquos magnetic field from two perspectives The first one is looking at the

magnetic field for global long-term changing dimensions The second way is based on

phenomena on lower scale

The global changes involve the solar cycle and the switch of the magnetic poles The solar

cycle is divided into a decrease of the solar activity until it reaches solar minimum and an

increase of the solar activity until it reaches solar maximum The frequency of the phenomena

that can be found in the outer layers of the sun are directly connected to the solar activity and

thus to the solar cycle Sunspots are the easiest to see they appear as black spots against the

much brighter surface of the sun Corona loops are connected to sunspots and can extend into

solar flares and solar prominences These flares and prominences can burst out into a coronalmass ejection All these phenomena influence the sun and its solar wind how small their part

may be The solar wind has a directly influence on the earth

There is still much to be discovered Astronomers hope to discover much more about the

magnetic field of the sun Today many astronomers and scientists are observing the sun and

every day they discover more and more aspects of the sun Recently a group of researchers

led by David Jess of Queens University Belfast has revealed why the sunrsquos atmosphere is

hotter than its surface64 As you can see astronomy is a very developing science

64

CORDIS Researchers reveal why Suns atmosphere is hotter than its surface Internet (httpcordiseuropaeusearchindexcfmfuseaction=newsdocumentampN_LANG=ENampN_RCN=30598amppid=0ampq=87F36474805A6BEC0B89404F72D0351Famptype=sim) 20032009



28

Glossary

Absorption lines A dark line superimposed on a continuous spectrum when a gas absorbs

light from a continuous source that is hotter than the absorbing gas

Aurora Light radiated by atoms and ions formed by the solar wind in the earthrsquos upper atmosphere seen most commonly in the polar regions

Chromosphere The layer in the solar atmosphere between the photosphere and the corona It

is the lowest layer of the atmosphere characterized by reddish hue and by an increase of the

temperature with altitude through all but its lower regions

Convection The transfer of heat from a region of high temperature to a region of lower

temperature by the displacement of the cooler molecules by the warmer molecules The hot

gas will be moved upwards the cool gas will be pushed downwards into the sun

Corona The sunrsquos outer atmosphere It is very extensive and has a very low density It isextremely hot

Coronal hole A dark region of the sunrsquos inner corona as seen at X-ray wavelengths

Coronal loop Closed loops of magnetic field lines extending from the sunrsquos photosphere into

the corona which contain plasma at high temperature They are typically observed through

ultraviolet or x-ray emission from the hot plasma

Coronal mass ejection Large volumes of high energy gas released from the sunrsquos corona

Differential rotation The rotation of a non rigid object in which parts at different latitudes or

different radial distances move at different speeds

Dynamo theory The generation of a magnetic field by circulating electric charges

Eclipse The blocking of a part or all of the light from the moon by the earth (lunar eclipse) or

from the sun by the moon (solar eclipse)

Emission lines Emission lines are used in physics chemistry and astronomy to determine

what kind of gas is doing the emission Every element has a different electronic structure and

will thus have a different emission line fingerprint Emission lines are produced whenelectrons in atoms jump from one energy level to lower energy level

Filament A dark curve seen above the sunrsquos photosphere that is the top view of a solar

prominence

Flux tube Is a generally tube-like (cylindrical) region of space containing a magnetic field

such that the field at the side surfaces is parallel to them Both the cross-sectional area of the

tube and the field contained may vary along the length of the tube but the magnetic flux is

always constant



29

Geomagnetic storm When unusually strong surges of solar wind (charged particles from the

Sun) hit the Earth This effect causes variations in the magnetic field which surrounds the

Earth The visible results are eg the aurora (Northern and Southern lights)

Granulation Granules are related to the convective zone The granulation that shows up in the

photosphere is a result of the rising and falling of hot gas that takes place in the convectivezone

Hα absorption line An absorption line due to an electronic transition in hydrogen atoms in

which the atom absorbs a photon so that the electron makes a transition from a state

corresponding to the electronic energy level with n=2 to the one above with n=3 The photon

wavelength in a vacuum is 6563 nm

Heliosphere The volume of space within which the sun through the solar wind influences its

environment in the interstellar medium

Magnetic dynamo A theory that explains phenomena of the solar cycle as a result of periodicwinding and unwinding of the sunrsquos magnetic field in the solar atmosphere

Magnetic reconnection A process taking place in a plasma in which neighbouring

oppositely directed magnetic field lines suddenly part and reconnect in a new configuration

The abrupt change in a magnetic field represented by this process can release large amounts

of energy and it is thought to be important in explaining solar flares and other phenomena

Penumbra The portion of a shadow in which only part of the light source is covered by the

shadow-making body

Photosphere The region in the solar atmosphere from which most of the visible light escapes

into space

Plasma A fourth state of matter (not found naturally on Earth) of very hot gases Plasma is a

fluid with the ability to carry electric currents with no local accumulations of electric charge

Prominence Flamelike protrusion seen near the limb of the sun and extending into the solar

corona The side view of a filament

Quantum theory A theory in physics based on the principle that matter and energy have the

properties of both particles and waves created to explain the radiation of energy from a blackbody the photoelectric effect and the Bohr theory and now used to account for a wide

range of physical phenomena including the existence of discrete packets of energy and

matter the uncertainty principle and the exclusion principle Itrsquos a theory of the interaction of

matter and radiation developed early in the twentieth century which is based on the

quantization of energy and applied to a wide variety of processes that involve an exchange of

energy at the atomic level

Reconnection See magnetic reconnection

Solar cycle A 22-year-cycle during which the sunrsquos magnetic field reverses its polarity twice

Solar flare A violent eruption on the sunrsquos surface



30

Solar wind An outward flow of particles (mostly electrons and protons) from the sun

Solstice Either of two points along the ecliptic at which the Sun reaches its maximum

distance north or south of the celestial equator

Spectroscopy Concerns the production and study of spectra

Spectrum The result of electromagnetic radiation passing through a prism or grating so that

different wavelengths are separated

Spicule Short-lived (lifetime from rising to falling is about 15 minutes) jets vertical to the

solar surface that are several thousand kilometres long and about 1 kilometre thick (see also

appendix IV) in the solar chromosphere

Sunspot A temporary cool region in the solar photosphere created by protruding magnetic

fields

Umbra The central completely dark portion of a shadow

Zeemaneffect A splitting of spectra lines in the presence of a magnetic field

Bibliography and webography of the glossary

COMINS NF and KAUFMANN III WJ Discovering the universe eighth edition WH

Freeman and Company New York 2008 535 p

GREEN SF and JONES M H An introduction to the Sun and Stars The Open University

Cambridge 2004 373 p

httpenmimihuastronomygranulationhtml

httpenmimihuastronomyplasmahtml

httpwwwspacecomspacewatchspace_weather_glossaryhtml

httpenmimihuastronomyemission_linehtml

httpenmimihuastronomyabsorption_linehtml

httpwwwpbsorgfaithandreasonphysglossqm-bodyhtml

httpwwwanswerscomtopicquantum-theory

httpenwikipediaorgwikiFlux_tube



31

Appendix I The sun in figures

Physical quantity Comment

Radius 695 510 km 109 x earths radius

Mass 1989 x1030 kg 332 946 earths mass

Mass sun in the solar

system

9986 Total mass sun total mass of

our solar system

Volume 1412 x10sup3sup3 cmsup3 13 million x earths volume

Age 455 milliard years

Luminosity 3854 x 10sup3sup3 ergss

Magnitude -2773

Density center 1513 gcmsup3

Density mean 1409 gcmsup3

Pressure center 2334 x1011 bars

Pressure photosphere 00001 bar

Temperature center 15 557 000deg K

Temperature photosphere 5 780deg K Various sources mention

different grades

Temperature corona 2 000 000 to 3 000 000deg K

Rotation time at North or

South pole

up to 35 days on earth

Rotation time at Equator 25 days on earth The difference in rotation

times is called differential

rotation

Rotation time general 2538 days on earth

Mean distance sun-earth

(AU)

14959787 x108 km 1 AU = 1 Astronomical Unit

= 149 598 000 km

Chemical composition of

the sun ( of total number

of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01

Various sources mention

slightly different percentages



32


the sun ( of total mass)

Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169



Total transforming of

hydrogen into helium persecond

700 billions of kilograms of

hydrogen are transformedinto 6957 billions of

kilograms of helium each

second

Based on the following references

- BEATTY JK PETERSEN CC and CHAIKIN A The new solar system fourth edition

Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1999 p 421

- LILENSTEN J and BORNAREL J Sous les feux du soleil EDP Sciences Les Ulis

Cedex A 2001 p 247

- LANG KR Sun earth and sky Springer Germany 1995 p 282- DENTHIER T Het zonnestelsel Standaard Uitgeverij 1992 p 415

- JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 p 254- VOLKSSTERRENWACHT URANIA VZW De zon Internet(httpwwwuraniabesterrenkundezonnestelselzonphp) (01012009)



33

Appendix II Anatomy of the sun

httpwwwcosmographicacomgalleryinfographicssolar_anatomyhtml

The middle the sun consists of a heavy core this consists of plasma just as the outer layers

of the sun but the pressure in the core is so high that it behaves much more like a solid bodyThe most outer layer is the corona it reaches far into space More to the inside there is the

chromosphere and then the photosphere The corona the chromosphere and the

photosphere are explained in chapter 1



34

Appendix III Granulation

httpwwwwindowsucaredutourlink=sunSolar_interiorsolar_furnacehtml

At the surface of the sun we can find granules These are created by convection the warmest

parts of the sunrsquos interior move upwards and the colder parts at the surface move downwardsThis causes currents of plasma The dark lines are the colder particles We see them darker

because they emit less light than their surrounding neighbourhood



35

Appendix IV Spicules

Picture httplpc1clpccdcccauslpcharpellastro20a20deinfo_s09htmInformation httpwwwdaviddarlinginfoencyclopediaSspiculehtml

On this picture you can see spicules Spicules only last for several minutes and can be foundin the chromosphere They are little jets of gas There also exist macrospicules that can be

approximately ten times larger than a normal spicule



36

Appendix V The most important satellites observing the sun

Here you can find the most important satellites observing the sun and their missions

Solar and Heliospheric Obseratory (SOHO)

httpsohowwwnascomnasagovaboutabouthtml

SOHO the Solar amp Heliospheric Observatory is a project of international collaboration

between ESA and NASA to study the Sun from its deep core to the outer corona and the solar

wind

SOHO was launched on December 2 1995 The SOHO spacecraft was built in Europe by an

industry team led by prime contractor Matra Marconi Space (now EADS Astrium) under

overall management by ESA The twelve instruments on board SOHO were provided by

European and American scientists Nine of the international instrument consortia are led by

European Principal Investigators (PIs) three by PIs from the US Large engineering teamsand more than 200 co-investigators from many institutions supported the PIs in the

development of the instruments and in the preparation of their operations and data analysis

NASA was responsible for the launch and is now responsible for mission operations Large

radio dishes around the world which form NASAs Deep Space Network are used for data

downlink and commanding Mission control is based at Goddard Space Flight Center in

Maryland

More information about SOHO can be found on

httpsohowwwnascomnasagovaboutdocsSOHO_Fact_Sheetpdf



37

Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE)

httptracelmsalcomProjectMissionmissionhtm

TRACE enables solar physicists to study the connections between fine-scale magnetic fields

and the associated plasma structures on the Sun in a quantitative way by observing the photosphere the transition region and the corona With TRACE these temperature domains

are observed nearly simultaneously (with as little delay as only a second between different

wavelengths) with a spatial resolution of one second of arc

This is accomplished by obtaining precisely coaligned image sequences of photosphere

transition region and corona with high spatial resolution and uninterrupted viewing of the

Sun for up to eight months

TRACE Mission

TRACE explores the magnetic field in the solar atmosphere by studyingbull The 3-dimensional field structure

bull Its temporal evolution in response to photospheric flows

bull The time-dependent coronal fine structure

bull The coronal and transition region thermal topology

TRACE was launched on a Pegasus launch vehicle from Vandenberg Air Force Base in April

1998 The launch was scheduled to allow joint observations with SOHO during the rising

phase of the solar cycle to sunspot maximum No transition region or coronal imager has

witnessed the onset and rise of a solar cycle

Pegasus in flight

The two satellites provide complementary observations TRACE produces the high spatial

and temporal resolution images while SoHO yields images and spectral data out to 30 solar

radii at much lower spatial and temporal resolution Jointly they provide the opportunity to

obtain simultaneous digital measurements of all the temperature regimes of the solar

atmosphere in both high-resolution imaging and spectroscopy

With these data we expect to shatter the current ignorance of coronal heating and impulsive

MHD phenomena with benefits not only to solar physics but also to studies ranging from

stellar activity to the MHD of accretion disks The magnetograms produced by MDI on SoHO

provide a complete record of the eruption and distribution of photosphere magnetic fields

which will be invaluable for understanding TRACE observations of coronal hole formation

and coronal mass ejections Both of these phenomena have profound effects on our space

environment and the Earth`s magnetic field

TRACE is the first US solar research satellite since the Solar Maximum Mission

Coordination with SOHO provides an unprecedented opportunity to follow the emergence of

magnetic flux from the base of the convection zone deep inside the Sun through the

photosphere chromosphere and transitional region to the low-beta outer corona while

observing the effects of this emergence such as coronal mass ejections with high spatial andtemporal resolution



38

The transition from the photosphere where magnetic fields and plasma are in rough

equipartition to the corona where magnetic fields dominate is extremely difficult to model

and until recently to observe at high temporal and spatial resolution Many of the physical

problems that arise here such as plasma confinement reconnection wave propagation and plasma heating arise throughout space physics and astrophysics The detailed study of these

processed in the solar outer atmosphere is invaluable to astrophysics in general and stellar

studies in particular

More information about TRACE observations can be found on

httptracelmsalcomOperationsGeneraloperatiohtm



39

Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI)

httphesperiagsfcnasagovhessibrochurehtm

What Questions will HESSI Address

bull How is such a large amount of energy released so rapidly during a flare

bull How are so many electrons and protons accelerated so quickly to such high energies

bull Where are the electrons and protons accelerated in the solar atmosphere and where do

they deposit their energy

How will HESSI Address these Questions

HESSI shown below will concentrate on electrons and protons accelerated in solar flares

through observations of the X-rays and gamma rays that they produce

bull HESSI will obtain the first ever X-ray and gamma-ray images of flares from 100 keV

to 20 MeVbull HESSI will do the first ever nuclear gamma-ray line spectroscopy of solar flares

bull HESSI will obtain pictures of flares in X-rays with an angular resolution of 2

arcseconds a factor of three better than previously possible

bull HESSI will measure X-ray and gamma-ray spectra with less than 1 keV energy

resolution a factor of 20-40 better than previously possible with scintillation counters

More information about the RHESSIrsquos Mission can be found on

httphesperiagsfcnasagovhessiconcepthtm



40

Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE)

httplaspcoloradoedusorcesciencebackgroundhtm

The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) is a NASA-sponsored satellite

mission that is providing state-of-the-art measurements of incoming x-ray ultraviolet visiblenear-infrared and total solar radiation The measurements provided by SORCE specifically

address long-term climate change natural variability and enhanced climate prediction and

atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun

its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind

The SORCE spacecraft was launched on January 25 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to

provide NASAs Earth Science Enterprise (ESE) with precise measurements of solar

radiation It launched into a 645 km 40 degree orbit and is operated by the Laboratory for

Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) at the University of Colorado (CU) in Boulder

Colorado USA It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance (TSI) that

began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral

irradiance from 1nm to 2000nm accounting for 95 of the spectral contribution to TSI

SORCE carries four instruments including the Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM) Solar

Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE) Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM) and

the XUV Photometer System (XPS)

The primary goal of the NASA Earth Observing Systems (EOS) SOlar Radiation and Climate

Experiment (SORCE) is to enable solar-terrestrial studies by providing precise daily

measurements of the total solar irradiance (TSI) and the solar spectral irradiance atwavelengths extending from the ultraviolet to the near infrared The following lists the

SORCE science objectives

1 Make accurate measurements with high precision of total solar irradiance connect

them to previous TSI measurements and continue this long-term climate record

Provide TSI with an accuracy of 001 (100 parts per million) based on SI units and

with a long-term repeatability of 0001yr

2 Make daily measurements of the solar ultraviolet irradiance from 120 to 300 nm with

a spectral resolution of 1 nm Achieve this spectral irradiance measurement with an

accuracy of better than 5 and with a long-term repeatability of 05yr Use the

solarstellar comparison technique to relate the solar irradiance to the ensembleaverage flux from a number of bright early-type stars (same stars used by the UARS

SOLSTICE program)

3 Make the first measurements of the visible and near IR solar irradiance with sufficient

precision for future climate studies Obtain daily measurements of solar spectral

irradiance between 03 and 2 microm with a spectral resolution of at least 130 an

accuracy of 003 and a long-term repeatability of better than 001yr

4 Improve the understanding of how and why solar irradiance varies estimate past and

future solar behavior and investigate climate responses

More information about SORCE can be found on

httplaspcoloradoedusorcesciencescience_opshtm



41

Appendix VI Wavelengths

httpeosweblarcnasagovEDDOCSWavelengths_for_Colorshtml

As you can see on the figure visible light situates in the centre of the wavelengths having not

the shortest nor the longest wavelengths Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength radioways the longest All sort of wavelengths are used for daily purpose like radio waves for

radio and TV and gamma rays for treatments



42

Appendix VII Absorption lines in the sunrsquos spectrum

Picture httpwwwsolarnavigatornetthe_sunhtmExplanation COMINS NF and KAUFMANN III WJ Discovering the universe eighth edition WHFreeman and Company New York 2008 p 109

This photo is called a spectrogram It contains the spectrum of the sun All the black lines are

absorption lines The amount of black lines is related to the amount of elements that the sun

is emitting From a spectrogram we can deduct a lot of things including their mass the

temperature of the surface the chemical composition of the sun rotation rates and much

more





44

Appendix IX Butterfly-diagram

httpspacesciencespacerefcomsslpadsolarimagesbflygif

A butterfly-diagram

In a butterfly-diagram we can find the sunspots with their latitude (y-axis) through the years(x-axis) As you can see the sunspots appear like lsquobutterfliesrsquo this was discovered in 1904 by

Edward Maunder (1851-1928 an English astronomer best remembered for his study of

sunspots and the solar magnetic cycle) Thatrsquos why this graph is also called Maunders

butterfly diagram



45

Appendix X The Wolf-numbers

httpsidcomabenews106sunspotnumberclarifiedpdf

The sunspot number clarified By Petra Vanlommel

Which kinds of daily International Sunspot Numbers (ISN) are currentlypublished by the SIDC

Three daily indices are currently published by the SIDCthe Estimated ISN (EISN)the Provisional ISN (PISN)the Definitive ISN (DISN)Although they are all based on the same type of observations ie visual sunspot counts as ameasure of solar activity they are obtained from different data sets by different processingmethods with different accuracies and they serve different purposes

In the ideal case the three numbers are equal but in practice it is inevitable that there aresmall differences Therefore It is useful to explain what each index actually means

What is the source of the Wolf number

Once per day observers worldwide communicate their measured Wolf number (= 10G + S)based on visual sunspot (S) and group (G) counts to the World Data Center for the SunspotIndex Presently this is done through a dedicated password-protected WEB form the Wolfinterface However some observers still use the old way of reporting their observations onpaper through regular mail This method slows down the final processing but for the sake ofcontinuity in the index it is important to keep these observers included as some of them

represent the longest individual datasetsThe observers give the exact observing time the observing conditions the total numbers(group count sunspot count and Wolf number) and optionally the NorthSouth and centralzone numbers The observers using the web interface can provide their results to the SIDCimmediately after each observation However some users prefer to insert their data as ablock creating some delay but this must be done at least once a month

The personal reduction coefficient K

A personal reduction coefficient K is calculated for each station It has values typically in therange 04 and 17 and leads to a normalized sunspot number K(10G+S) In other words theK factor rescales the raw sunspot counts of each observer to the ones of Rudolph Wolf the

astronomer who introduced the above Wolf formula thus simulating the same eyes sametelescope and same conditionsDuring the procedure for calculating the Provisional ISN the K factor of every station iscomputed for every observation that passes the elimination procedure Once a year apersonal K factor for every station and for every month of the previous year is calculated Ayearly mean K value per station is also computed

The estimated sunspot index

The Estimated ISN (EISN) is calculated and issued on a daily basis for the day of calculationand the day before Only the total EISN is calculated with no hemispheric index It is anautomated procedure and no manual intervention is done The EISN is meant as a quicktemporary and approximate index for real-time applications



46

We use the raw Wolf number from all observatories that have provided counts early in theday ie before 1230 UT Typically there is between 10 and 20 stations available Thecalculation of the EISN is based on a simple and straightforward statistical method The Wolfnumbers are multiplied with the yearly mean K factor (see paragraph about the personalreduction coefficient K) The EISN is a simple average of the K-scaled values after excludingany individual value that deviates abnormally from the other valuesOnce the Provisional ISN (PISN) is calculated after the end of a month the temporary EISNis dropped and replaced by the PISN

The provisional sunspot Index

The Provisional ISN (PISN) is calculated and issued on the first of every month Theoutcome is a daily total and hemispheric sunspot number for the entire elapsed month Anexample on the first of September we calculate the daily PISN for each day of August ThePISN is computed semi-automatically with as little manual intervention as possibleTo calculate the PISN values for the concerned month we use all Wolf numbers Typicallythere is data from around 65 stations available

The calculation of the PISN is based on an extensive statistical treatment This treatmentfilters out any abnormal daily observation or the complete data set from an erratic station(quality control) This prevents long-term drifts in the resulting index One of the key elementsderived from this processing is to update the K reduction coefficients for each station theevolution of each station is monitored for each day relative to the entire networkA subset of the contributing stations also provides hemispheric counts A similar process isapplied to the North and South counts to derive the hemispheric PISN There is an additionalconstraint the sum of the North and South ISN must match the total ISNThe PISN replaces the EISN And once the Definitive ISN (DISN) is calculated the DISNreplaces the PISN

The definitive sunspot index

The Definitive ISN is calculated and issued on a quarterly basis when we have collecteddata from all the contributing observatories This is the final index and it is appended to thehistorical sunspot index time series The same semi-automated treatment as for the PISN isnow applied to the full data set If the result agrees within 5 of the PISN value the PISN iskept and becomes definitive Otherwise the new calculated value replaces the PISN andbecomes the definitive ISNIt is only at this stage and only in peculiar situations that a manual verification by ourscientific staff is required For example this happens when the observed raw Wolf valuesfrom the whole network are clustered around two distinct values This special case can becaused by small short-lived isolated sunspots (lifetimes lt 24 hours) or by the appearance ordisappearance of a large group at the solar limb in the course of one UT dayThe DISN replaces the provisional and estimated International Sunspot Number

Handling very low activity levels

One of the situations requiring a human arbitration is associated with single small isolatedand short-lived sunspots This is most noticeable around the minimum of the solar activitycycle like the one occurring now in 2008 Due to the 24hour binning (observations aregrouped between 0hUT and 24hUT) and the variable ability of each observer to detect thesmallest sunspots we end up with some stations reporting one sunspot and others who didno see any sunspot Let us explain further No sunspot may mean that the sunspot waspresent but the observer was unable to see it because of poor observational conditions such

as weather a small telescope On the other hand it may also indicate that the sunspot hadactually vanished by that time while it was present earlier on the same day



47

Individual stations do not observe at exactly the same timeIn order to validate the existence of such a marginal reported sunspot a qualified SIDCscientist must then check the detailed chronology within that day and consider the overallobserver capability (value of K coefficient)In common practice the fact that a sunspot is reported by a significant group of observersleads to the inclusion of the sunspot on that date thus neglecting the no-sunspotobservationsThe rationale is multiple observations of a sunspot exclude the possibility that the reportedsunspot was an independent false detection So a sunspot was really present on that dayalthough it may have existed only for part of the day or it was small enough to be missed bypart of the observers with smaller instruments or imperfect atmospheric conditionsAlso keep in mind that the sunspot index is derived with a limited precision just like any otherindex If the monthly mean sunspot number is 0 or 05 you can definitely say that activitywas low

What index should be used

If you want to perform long-term investigations the definitive ISN series is definitely the mostsuitable However there is a delay of a few months So when investigating the last cycle andrecent evolution use the definitive numbers in combination with the provisional ISN to be upto date to the last month The provisional numbers are also used in models forecasting thesunspot number for the coming months Now if you need a proxy for solar activity in a modelthat runs in real-time then you may use the estimated ISNImprovements and rethinking of the processing method is an ongoing project We arecurrently developing an alternative program for calculating the PISN Of course long-termconsistency is vital Therefore a cross-analysis between the output from the old and newsoftware must be applied over an extended period



48

Above graphs show different kinds of the International Sunspot Number The left plot gives an overview from 1700 up to now from the yearly (black) and monthly smoothed Sunspot Number The graph in the right top corner shows the monthly and monthly smoothed sunspot number while the graph in the right bottom corner show the daily monthly smoothed monthly sunspot number For every the time range of investigation there is an appropriate sunspot number



49

Appendix XI Filaments and prominences

httpsohowwwnascomnasagovpickoftheweekold26feb2004

This is a picture taken by SOHO on 26 February 2004



50

Appendix XII The reconnection of magnetic loops

httpwwwioporgEJarticle0004-637X558287253575webpdfrequest-id=73e38daa-69ae-4e01-b9a6- b4bd0ba071dd

In (a) sunspot B and C have different polarity and move towards each other The twomagnetic loops will reconnect and form one big magnetic loop showed in (b) This will

happen to other magnetic loops too as can be seen in (c) When G en F are close enough they

will reconnect and so E en H will reconnect too It is possible that the magnetic field line is

trapped around another in this case AD The mass ejected from the sun will be trapped

between the magnetic field lines and form a solar prominence





52

httptheinvisibleagentwordpresscom20090117amazing-celestial-images

An group of active prominences


httpwhassupinthemilkywayblogspotcom200903cloudy-planhtml

A picture taken by SOHO In the left corner you can see the prominence with twisted

magnetic field lines



53

Appendix XIV Polar crown

httpsciencenasagovheadlinesy200817sep_polarcrownhtm

Photograph of a polar crown taken on 13 June 1999 by the Meudon Observatory



54

Appendix XV Coronal holes

httpsunearthdaynasagov2007multimediagal_020php

The black segment is a huge coronal hole The bright parts are x-rays from sunspots



55

Appendix XVI Coronal mass ejection

httpzuserver2staruclacuk~idhapodap000309html

Picture of a CME taken by SOHO in February 2000



56

Bibliography

Books

BEATTY JK PETERSEN CC and CHAIKIN A The new solar system fourth edition

Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1999 421 p



DETHIER T Het zonnestelsel Standaard Uitgeverij 1992 415 p

GOLUB L and PASACHOFF JM Nearest star the surprising science of our sun Harvard

university press Harvard 2001 267 p



HILL S and CARLOWITZ M The sun Abrams New York 2006 239 p

HOLMAN GD lsquoThe mysterious origins of solar flaresrsquo Scientific America April 2006 p

24-31 volume 294 number 4

JANSSENS J Zon en aarde een unieke relatie Garant Antwerpen 2003 254 p

KELLER H-U Van Supernovarsquos tot zwarte gaten Tirion Natuur AH Baarn 2003 169 p

LANG KR Sun earth and sky Springer Germany 1995 282 p

LILENSTEN J and BORNAREL J Sous les feux du soleil EDP Sciences Les Ulis Cedex

A 2001 247 p



57

Articles

CUYPERS J and others lsquoLa rechercheacute en heacuteliophysique en Belgiquersquo Space connection

October 2007 20 p

DE KEYSER J lsquoDe magnetopauzersquo Heelal maart 1998 p 66-73

JANSSENS J lsquoHet maximum van de 23ste zonnevlekkencyclus (I)rsquo Heelal Oktober 1998 p

256-263

JANSSENS J lsquohet maximum van de 23ste zonnenvlekkencyclus (II)rsquo Heelal November

1998 p 284-290

JANSSENS J lsquoZonnefakkelsrsquo Heelal Oktober 1994 p 256-261

SMITS F lsquoDe coronarsquo Heelal Februari 1999 p 40-42


VAN DEN BERGHE S lsquoHet Zeemaneffectrsquo Heelal September 1998 p 228-231



58

Webography

BOEN B Birth of a coronal mass ejection Internet

(httpwwwnasagovmission_pagessolar-b solar_005html) 290408

BRAEUNIG R A Glossary Internet (httpwwwbraeunigusspaceglossaryhtm) 2006

CORDIS Researchers reveal why Suns atmosphere is hotter than its surface Internet

(httpcordiseuropaeusearchindexcfmfuseaction=newsdocumentampN_LANG=ENampN_R

CN=30598amppid=0ampq=87F36474805A6BEC0B89404F72D0351Famptype=sim) 20032009

DAY C Alfveacuten waves may heat the Sunrsquos corona Internet

(httpblogsphysicstodayorgupdate200903 alfven-waves-may-heat-the-sunshtml)

310309

ELLERMAN F Solar prominences Internet (httparticlesadsabsharvardedufull

1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)

ENCYCLODPEDIA OF SCIENCE Corona hole Internet

(httpwwwdaviddarlinginfoencyclopediaC coronal_holehtml) (04042009)

HATHAWAY D H The sunspot cycle Internet

(httpspacesciencespacerefcomsslpadsolarsunspots htm) 04012000

JANSSENS J The case of the missing solar cycle (published in lsquoheelalrsquo January 2008)

Internet (httpuserstelenetbejjanssensMSCwebEngpdf)

KNISELY D Solar prominences Internet

(httpwwwicstarscomHTMLSolarSectionHAlphaOBSERVINGTHESUNHAlpha3html)

(03042009)

KOPANSKI J Atom Internet (httpknolgooglecomkjan-

kopanskiatom1amrwrct7rvi27) 060209

MARTENS PC and ZWAAN C Origin and evolution of filament-prominence systems

Internet (http wwwioporgEJarticle0004-637X558287253575webpdfrequest-

id=73e38daa-69ae-4e01-b9a6-b4bd0ba071dd) 092001

NASA The corona Internet (httpsolarsciencemsfcnasagovcoronashtml) 180107

NASA The heliosphere Internet (httpheliosgsfcnasagovheliosphhtml) 20012009

OFFICIAL SITE OF STONEHENGE About Stonehenge Internet

(httpwwwstonehengecouk) (03022009)

OTTERSDORF M Astronomy On the sunspot cycle Internet

(httpuserszoominternetnet~matto MCASsunspot_cyclehtmZeemaneffect) 031103

PARIAT E and SCHMIEDER B Magnetic flux emergence Internet(httpwwwscholarpediaorgarticleMagnetic_field_emergence) 18042008



59

PRIEST E R Dynamics and Structure of Quiescent Solar Prominences Internet

(httpbooksgooglebe booksid=h599q3jz1w4Campdq=quiescent+prominencesampprintsec=fro

ntcoverampsource=blampots=58b79Qeyabampsig=1eklQ-

WszOIebZZaq7fq7gm6bxAamphl=nlampei=urPtSe7ZCo61-

Qa166jHDwampsa=Xampoi=book_resultampct=result ampresnum=3PPA6M2) 1989

RUSSELL R Rotation of the sun Internet

(httpwwwwindowsucaredutourlink=sunSolar_interior

Sun_layersdifferential_rotationhtml) 16082005

RUSSELL R Sunspots and magnetic fields Internet

(httpwwwwindowsucaredutourlink=sunatmospheresunspot_magnetismhtmlampedu=hig

h) 060908

UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW Bibliography of Peter Sweet Internet

(httpwwwuniversitystoryglaacuk biographyid=WH2144amptype=P) (10042009)

WIKIPEDIA Orbiting Solar Observatory Internet

(httpenwikipediaorgwikiOrbiting_Solar_Observatory) 24012009

WINDOWS TEAM Maunderrsquos Butterfly Diagram Internet

(httpwwwwindowsucaredutourlink=sun activitybutterflyhtml) 2000



2

Preface

Satisfaction this is what I first felt when I realised I finished my final work Itrsquos great to be

capable of saying I reached my purpose and overlook the result To realise it I spent a lot of

time on it learning tremendously and having fun at the same time

Thatrsquos why I would like to thank some people who supported and helped me to complete this

paper First I would like to thank my Dad because he has been supporting me from the very

beginning starting at creating ideas for my final work until finishing the very last bit I would

like to thank my Mum for driving me to the library every time and the people of Urania who

made it possible for me to lend out the books I needed for this paper and especially Mrs

Jozefa De Laet

I thank my school the Sint-Romboutscollege for making it possible to make this paper and

for letting me experience this I thank Mrs Messiaen because she checked my final work on

English grammar and spelling I want to thank Mr Onsia too for willing to answer questions

and for his concern Last but not least I would like to thank my promoter Mr Vervoort for thegreat confidence in me for helping me for reading my final work and giving good advice

Thanks to all Enjoy the reading

Christine Verbeke



3




4

Table of contents

Introduction 6




14 The corona 8


21 History 10

22 Light 10











31 Introduction 13



34 Other cycles 15



343 Other cycles 16




41 Sunspots 17


42 Prominences 18












5



45 Solar flare 22




462 Reconnection 24

47 Solar wind 25



473 Heliosphere 26

Conclusion 27

Glossary 28

















Bibliography 56

Webography 58



6

Introduction

















7





12 The photosphere2
























in appendix IV








8



14 The corona7

















7


2004 p 31



9






















of this paper







10


21 History



















Observatories)

16




22 Light18

221 Visible light



with our eyes








11













23 Spectroscopy19










directly

233 Line spectrum20











12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









3




4

Table of contents

Introduction 6




14 The corona 8


21 History 10

22 Light 10











31 Introduction 13



34 Other cycles 15



343 Other cycles 16




41 Sunspots 17


42 Prominences 18












5



45 Solar flare 22




462 Reconnection 24

47 Solar wind 25



473 Heliosphere 26

Conclusion 27

Glossary 28

















Bibliography 56

Webography 58



6

Introduction

















7





12 The photosphere2
























in appendix IV








8



14 The corona7

















7


2004 p 31



9






















of this paper







10


21 History



















Observatories)

16




22 Light18

221 Visible light



with our eyes








11













23 Spectroscopy19










directly

233 Line spectrum20











12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









4

Table of contents

Introduction 6




14 The corona 8


21 History 10

22 Light 10











31 Introduction 13



34 Other cycles 15



343 Other cycles 16




41 Sunspots 17


42 Prominences 18












5



45 Solar flare 22




462 Reconnection 24

47 Solar wind 25



473 Heliosphere 26

Conclusion 27

Glossary 28

















Bibliography 56

Webography 58



6

Introduction

















7





12 The photosphere2
























in appendix IV








8



14 The corona7

















7


2004 p 31



9






















of this paper







10


21 History



















Observatories)

16




22 Light18

221 Visible light



with our eyes








11













23 Spectroscopy19










directly

233 Line spectrum20











12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









5



45 Solar flare 22




462 Reconnection 24

47 Solar wind 25



473 Heliosphere 26

Conclusion 27

Glossary 28

















Bibliography 56

Webography 58



6

Introduction

















7





12 The photosphere2
























in appendix IV








8



14 The corona7

















7


2004 p 31



9






















of this paper







10


21 History



















Observatories)

16




22 Light18

221 Visible light



with our eyes








11













23 Spectroscopy19










directly

233 Line spectrum20











12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









6

Introduction

















7





12 The photosphere2
























in appendix IV








8



14 The corona7

















7


2004 p 31



9






















of this paper







10


21 History



















Observatories)

16




22 Light18

221 Visible light



with our eyes








11













23 Spectroscopy19










directly

233 Line spectrum20











12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









7





12 The photosphere2
























in appendix IV








8



14 The corona7

















7


2004 p 31



9






















of this paper







10


21 History



















Observatories)

16




22 Light18

221 Visible light



with our eyes








11













23 Spectroscopy19










directly

233 Line spectrum20











12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









8



14 The corona7

















7


2004 p 31



9






















of this paper







10


21 History



















Observatories)

16




22 Light18

221 Visible light



with our eyes








11













23 Spectroscopy19










directly

233 Line spectrum20











12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









9






















of this paper







10


21 History



















Observatories)

16




22 Light18

221 Visible light



with our eyes








11













23 Spectroscopy19










directly

233 Line spectrum20











12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









10


21 History



















Observatories)

16




22 Light18

221 Visible light



with our eyes








11













23 Spectroscopy19










directly

233 Line spectrum20











12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









11













23 Spectroscopy19










directly

233 Line spectrum20











12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









12































13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









13


31 Introduction















the case24







move much faster26









2004 p 72-73



14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









14









appendix VIII














15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









15






34 Other cycles







observatories30













16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









16

343 Other cycles


























solar cycle36











17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









17


41 Sunspots

















will cool down38



37




18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









18
















42 Prominences












19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









19


























20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









20
































21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









21

43 Coronal holes50






(appendix XV)

44 Corona loops















50




22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









22












45 Solar flare52














23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









23














into pictures55







flare








24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









24


























earth

462 Reconnection







number 458



2004 p 68



25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









25











47 Solar wind












form new waves





26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









26






13)



473 Heliosphere









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









27

Conclusion



previous chapters

















64




28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









28

Glossary

























prominence




always constant



29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









29


















shadow-making body


into space

















30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









30











fields


















31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









31






system


our solar system




Magnitude -2773







different grades



South pole




rotation



(AU)


= 149 598 000 km



of atoms)

Hydrogen 921

Helium 78

All others 01





32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









32



Hydrogen 7346

Helium 2485

All others 169








second





Cedex A 2001 p 247





33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









33









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









34








35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









35







36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









36







wind










Maryland





37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









37










TRACE Mission









Pegasus in flight




















38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









38











39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









39





















40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









40






























SOLSTICE program)











41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









41








42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









42







more





44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908











44



A butterfly-diagram




butterfly diagram



45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









45

















46












47






48




49






50












52









53






54






55






56

Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


1928ASPL173E 0000074000html) (03042009)









(03042009)















59











h) 060908









46












47






48




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A 2001 247 p



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October 2007 20 p



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Webography









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Bibliography

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A 2001 247 p



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Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


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49






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52









53






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Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



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Articles


October 2007 20 p



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1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


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h) 060908









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Bibliography

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A 2001 247 p



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Articles


October 2007 20 p



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1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









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Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



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Articles


October 2007 20 p



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1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


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Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


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Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



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Articles


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1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









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Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



57

Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


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59











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Bibliography

Books

















A 2001 247 p



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Articles


October 2007 20 p



256-263


1998 p 284-290







58

Webography









310309


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59











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Articles


October 2007 20 p



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1998 p 284-290







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Webography









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Ew Afgewerkte Final

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