Evolved Gas Analysis by Mass Spectrometry

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Evolved Gas Analysis by MassSpectrometryS. Materazzia & R. Risolutiaa Department of Chemistry, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, Rome,ItalyAccepted author version posted online: 30 Jan 2014.Publishedonline: 24 Apr 2014.

To cite this article: S. Materazzi & R. Risoluti (2014) Evolved Gas Analysis by Mass Spectrometry,Applied Spectroscopy Reviews, 49:8, 635-665, DOI: 10.1080/05704928.2014.887021

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Applied Spectroscopy Reviews, 49:635–665, 2014Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 0570-4928 print / 1520-569X onlineDOI: 10.1080/05704928.2014.887021

Evolved Gas Analysis by Mass Spectrometry

S. MATERAZZI AND R. RISOLUTI

Department of Chemistry, “Sapienza” Universita di Roma, Rome, Italy

Abstract: Periodic publications have been published that address advances in evolvedgas analysis techniques, because the correct interpretation for the mechanism of athermally induced reaction, involving the formation of gaseous species, is stronglydependent on the characterization of the evolved products.

When the nature of volatile products released by a substance subjected to acontrolled-temperature program are online determined, the results allow one to provea supposed reaction, either under isothermal or under heating conditions.

Very recent analytical applications of evolved gas analysis performed by massspectrometry, selected among those published in 2012 and 2013, are collected in thisreview.

Keywords: EGA, evolved gas analysis, MS, mass spectrometry, EGA-MS, TG-MS

Introduction

The characterization of products evolved from thermally induced reactions allows one tocorrectly interpret the releasing step or the decomposition mechanism. It is recognized thatboth infrared spectroscopy and mass spectrometry can provide such characterization. Bothhave been utilized by researchers in various forms of evolved gas analysis (EGA). Periodicpublications have been published that address advances in EGA techniques (1–5).

Very recent analytical applications of EGA performed by mass spectrometry (EGA-MS), selected among those published in 2012 and 2013, are collected in this review. Manyexamples are reported from the literature, and often the references are generally obtainedfrom the journals that specialize in thermal analysis. Thermal analysis, especially ther-mogravimetry (TG), is very useful for the quantification of each single gaseous evolutionprocess as the result of an increasing thermal ramp or a defined isothermal temperature.Consequently, thermoanalytical techniques are usually online coupled with a mass spec-trometer, by means of a heated transfer line, to perform EGA. However, the number ofpublications on hyphenated techniques continues to grow in areas of specialized applica-tions; as a consequence, it is not unusual for an article on the topic to appear in an unfamiliarjournal or a trade-specific publication. The problem is that unless the terminology relatingto the specifics of the hyphenated technique are present in the published keywords, thearticles may be difficult to locate. As a result, certain important articles may have beenoverlooked, and the authors apologize for such inadvertent omissions.

Address correspondence to S. Materazzi, Department of Chemistry, “Sapienza” Universita diRoma, p.le A.Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy. E-mail: [email protected]

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636 S. Materazzi and R. Risoluti

Recent Applications of EGA-MS

Saccharides derivatives are polymers synthesized from glucose and fructose with an acry-loyl group in the sugar molecule. Bednarek and Szafran reported the decomposition ofsaccharides derivatives in comparison to commercial substances during the process ofbinder removal from ceramic samples (6). EGA-MS showed what types of gases are re-leased to the atmosphere during the thermal decomposition of polymers. The measurementsallowed establishing the sintering program of the green ceramic samples and to evaluatewhether harmful NOx gases are released to the atmosphere (6). The impact of the contam-inants in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles after use on the decomposition of thepolymer itself after the recycling process was analyzed by sorption experiments on harmfulsubstances in PET bottles. In order to monitor the presence of contaminants in recycledPET and the evolution of thermal decomposition products of the samples, virgin PET, con-taminated PET flakes, and recycled PET were studied. The thermal degradation productsof PET were achieved by pyrolysis and temperature-programmed EGA-MS (7). The ther-mal decomposition of brominated epoxy oligomer natural polymer mixtures was examinedby pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) and mass spectrometrycoupled to TG techniques in order to clarify the reactions between the components of themixtures. It was found that the decomposition of both celluloses shifts to the temperaturerange of BrEpoxy decomposition (8). The impact of the CO2 cofeed on the pyrolysis ofstyrene butadiene rubber (SBR) was investigated using TG analysis (TGA) coupled to onlineGC/MS. A direct comparison of the chemical species evolved from the thermal degradationof SBR in N2 and CO2 led to a preliminary mechanistic understanding of the formation andrelationship of light hydrocarbons (C1–4), aromatic derivatives, and polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons, clarifying the role of CO2 in the thermal degradation of SBR (9). Takingthe overlap of two weight-loss peaks into consideration and separating them, Dong et al.analyzed the multiple-step model of polyvinyl chloride pyrolysis using the Coats-Redfernmethod. It was found that the pyrolysis of polyvinyl chloride consisted of three reactions,whose reaction models were all second order. This method was proved accurate by com-parison between simulated and experimental TG curves. The mass spectrometry of evolvedgases agreed well with the TG curves (10). Smith and coworkers characterized dense poly-mer membranes that have been used for over 30 years for industrial applications in hydrogenseparation, including syngas ratio adjustment, refinery off-gas purification, and ammoniapurge gas recovery, by EGA-MS (11). Homo- and copolymers of N-vinylimidazole belongto a rapidly emerging class of polymeric materials. Because these materials can be utilized inseveral high-temperature processes and applications, such as catalysis, fuel cells, polymericionic liquids (12), precursors for new materials by thermolysis, etc., and because fundamen-tal details on the thermal behavior of such polymers are lacking, systematic investigationswere carried out to reveal the stability and the mechanism of thermal decomposition ofpoly(N-vinylimidazole) by using a variety of techniques, including TG-MS (13). Guo et al.studied the thermal degradation behaviors of prepared polyimines by means of TG analysisonline coupled to MS (14). Solubility switching of polymers is very useful in thin-layerprocessing of conjugated polymers, because it allows for multilayer processing and in-creases the stability of the polymer. Acid-catalyzed thermocleavage of ester groups fromthiophene polymers carrying primary, secondary, and tertiary substituents has been exam-ined by TGA-MS using different sulfonic acids (15). The hollowness of crosslinked hollowphenolic fibers was regulated successfully from 9 to 80% by adjusting the curing tempera-ture of the partially crosslinked fibers. The prepared hollow phenolic fibers with differenthollow dimensions were characterized with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), tensile

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Evolved Gas Analysis by Mass Spectrometry 637

strength, TG-differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and TG-MS. (16). Polymer–graphiteoxide interactions are demonstrated to induce thermal instability in both the polymer andthe graphite oxide phase in conditions of maximum polymer uptake, in which the polymerchains are either intercalated into the graphite interlayer or adsorbed on the sheets. The ther-mal stability of intercalated poly(ethylene oxide) in graphite oxide was determined by usinga combination of techniques including X-ray diffraction and EGA-MS in dynamic (non-isothermal) and static (isothermal) modes (17). The thermal decomposition of polyethyleneglycol was investigated by using a technique combining EGA (time-resolved pyrolysis) withion-attachment MS. This technique allows the detection of intact pyrolysis products andtherefore offers the opportunity for direct real-time monitoring of thermal by-products (18).A processable poly[(n-propylamino/methylamino)borazine] has been pyrolyzed in Ar tostudy its thermal decomposition behavior. The structural evolution and chemical compo-sition change during pyrolysis were characterized by chemical analysis, TG-MS, Fouriertransform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelec-tron spectroscopy (XPS). The results indicated that the polymer-to-ceramic transition ofpoly[(n-propylamino/methylamino)borazine] involved two steps. Below 400◦C, the gasspecies were mainly methane and methylamine, whereas from 400 to 900◦C they weremethane and n-propylamine (19). The thermal degradation behavior and its mechanismof rigid and soft polyurethanes were investigated by EGA-MS and EGA-GC/MS. Foursteps of thermal degradation processes were found in EGA-MS analysis and evolved gasesfrom each thermal zone were analyzed by EGA-GC/MS. From the results, it is suggestedthat thermal degradation of polyurethanes might occur due to increased bond strain of thepolymer chain due to increasing temperature and the sequence of thermal degradation inthe polymer chain is from hard segment to soft segment through four steps of thermaldegradation (20). Two polymer–metal complexes were synthesized by the reaction of athiourea–formaldehyde resin and transition metal ions. Their thermal degradation was in-vestigated using EGA by both online coupled TG-FTIR and simultaneous TG-MS (21).A new class of polyurethanes has been designed containing tertiary carbamate groups inthe main chain of the polymer, which enable the resulting polymer to degrade completelyunder acid and thermal treatment. The decomposition temperatures of the polymers weredetermined by measuring the evolution of carbon dioxide and other decomposition productsusing TG-MS (22). Physical and chemical properties of raw and modified activated carbonwere analyzed to investigate the effects of adsorbate properties on activated carbon adsorp-tion performance (23). Regdon et al. investigated the effect of the length of the polymerchain and the concentration of triethyl citrate used as a plasticizer on the thermal stabilityof the film structure in the case of two ethyl cellulose films (24). The influence of storagetime was studied by monitoring the changes in the thermoanalytical parameters and byperforming TG-MS examinations (24). Evolved gas analysis of the thermal degradation ofpolyurethane foams indicated that the phosphoramidates are volatilized in the first stageof thermal decomposition and are primarily active in the gas phase (25). Varganici et al.elucidated the thermal decomposition process of some cellulose and poly(vinyl alcohol)-based cryogels as films. Evolved gas analysis was performed coupled to a quadrupolemass spectrometer and an FTIR spectrophotometer equipped with external modulus for gasanalyses (26). Pyrolysis of N-doped organic xerogels prepared from different N-containingprecursors has been studied by TG-MS (27).

The decomposition steps of biomimetic complexes has been reported by Vecchio et al.(28) and Materazzi and coworkers in several published papers (29–34). The thermal decom-position of K[Cr(C2O4)2(OH2)2] was studied using the TG-MS technique. The influenceof the complex structures and configurational geometry on the stability of the transition

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products and the pathways of thermal transformations was discussed (35). Simulated ther-mal evolved gas analyzer analyses have shown that a CO2 release detected between 400and 680◦C using a Phoenix Lander’s thermal evolved gas analyzer instrument may havebeen caused by a reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrated magnesium perchlo-rate. These results have important implications for the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosityrover. Heating soils may cause inorganic release of CO2; therefore, detection of organicfragments, not CO2 alone, should be used as definitive evidence for organics in Martiansoils (36). A Hiden evolved gas analysis–quadrupole mass spectrometer (EGA-QMS) sys-tem represented the EGA-QMS component of Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM), and aPicarro cavity ring down spectrometer (EGA-CRDS) represented the EGA-tunable laserspectrometer component of SAM (37). Mos et al. reported a differential thermal analysis(DTA)-TG-MS study of a novel zirconium oxo-hydroxypropionate complex, obtained bythe reaction of zirconium acetylacetonate with propionic acid, used as an oxide precursorfor applications in Zr based thin films deposition (38). Acetate hydrate was investigatedusing in situ high-temperature FTIR spectroscopy (in N2), high temperature XRD (in air),and TG/DTA-MS techniques (Ar and dry air). In dry air, the decomposition reaction is com-pleted around 330◦C and CeO2 was formed as the final product (39). Simultaneous thermalcharacterizations of scandium hydrogenphosphite Sc2(HPO3)3 were conducted under inertconditions in flowing argon up to 1300◦C. The first significant mass loss step detectedbetween 700 and 800◦C is mainly caused by the release of hydrogen resulting in the forma-tion of optical transparent, red nanocrystalline agglomerates (40). A solution-processableZn(EtXn)2(octylamine) precursor has been used to deposit nanocrystalline ZnS thin filmsthat can effectively host CdSe-CdS-ZnS quantum dots (QDs) with their native surface chem-istry intact. The formation of such hybrid QD:ZnS composites proceeds through the initialdecomposition of the octylamine-stabilized zinc xanthate precursor to form nanocrystallineZnS. To gain insight into this decomposition process, Todescato and coworkers have uti-lized headspace GC-MS, TG coupled with MS, grazing angle attenuated total reflectanceFTIR spectroscopy, and grazing angle XRD (41). The deactivation and destabilization ofcopper sulfide when exposed to an oxidizing environment has led to economic concernsbecause this sulfidic material can be easily destroyed by a series of oxidation processes.A promising and effective remediation technique in limiting the contact between covel-lite (CuS) and oxygen has been developed using a simple, hassle-free, noncorrosive, andecofriendly pretreatment of nitrogen approach. This remediation technique was shown tobe as effective as various techniques including TGA-MS analyses that have confirmed thatcovellite prepared with the pretreatment of nitrogen does not oxidize to any mixed phasecompound (42).

Bretti et al. reported the characterization of dopamine complexes (43). The ther-mal stability of Mg-doped LiCoO2, synthesized by a solid-state reaction as a positiveelectrode material for lithium-ion batteries, was confirmed by DSC and EGA-MS (44).The diffusion flame combustion behavior of several solid oxidizers (ammonium nitrate,phase-stabilized ammonium nitrate, ammonium perchlorate, and ammonium dinitramide)in combination with a hydrocarbon fuel (ethylene) was examined by Young et al. (45). Theroom-temperature precipitation from aqueous solutions reported by Nitsche et al. resultedin the hitherto unknown metastable stoichiometric iron selenide (ms-FeSe) with tetrago-nal anti-PbO type structure (46). Samples with improved crystallinity were obtained bydiffusion-controlled precipitation or hydrothermal recrystallization. The relations of ms-FeSe to superconducting η-FeSe1-x and other neighbor phases of the iron–selenium systemwere established by high-temperature XRD, DSC/TG/MS, and several other spectroscopictechniques (46). Pt films were deposited onto molybdenum grids by an ion-beam-assisted

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deposition method. Electron emission characteristics of molybdenum, with and without Ptfilms, contaminated by active electron emission substances (Ba and BaO) were measuredby analogous diode method. XRD and combined TG-DTA-MS were used to study thereaction between Pt and BaO in simulation experiments (47). The synthesis of a seriesof ferrite and cobaltite spinels was investigated by Angus et al. (48). The ferrites wereprepared at a calcination temperature of 800◦C and the cobaltites at 500◦C. TG-MS in-dicated that reduction of CoIII to CoII occurs at ca. 800◦C and for both the ferrites andthe cobaltites, the evolution of water and CO2 during calcination suggested the presenceof both species in the precipitates (48). A TG study of some ferrocene derivatives withliquid crystalline properties was conducted by Lisa et al. (49). The TG-MS-FTIR studyrevealed a higher ionic current intensity for the m/z = 28 ionic fragment in the first stage,which means that thermal degradation begins in the N N group and continues bysplitting the aromatic rings, the other linkage groups, and the cholesteryl ending groups.In addition, EGA revealed the highest amount of CO2 in the gases resulting from thermaldecomposition (49). The thermal decomposition characteristic patterns of biocarbonatesamples from TG-MS confirmed that possible organic functional groups existing in thenatural samples are the amide group and amide acid group, which is in very good agree-ment with the results of FTIR and laser Raman analysis (50). Supercritical fluids offer fastand facile routes toward well-crystallized, tailor-made cerium oxide nanoparticles. Mech-anisms were proposed for the interaction of primary and secondary alcohols with CeO2

surface and its functionalization during the synthesis based on FTIR and TGA-MS studies(51). A straightforward synthesis methodology for the preparation of rhodium and goldcarboxylates was reported by Tuchsherer et al. (52, 53). The decomposition of the obtainedcompounds was studied by a TG-MS coupled technique, which showed their differing ther-mal behavior (52, 53). Iodide contamination removal using calcined MgAl-CO3-layereddouble hydroxides (denoted as CLDH) was conducted in batch conditions. The reconstruc-tion of CLDH to I-LDHs due to uptake of iodide ion was confirmed by XRD patterns,FTIR spectroscopy, and TG-MS measurements (54). EGA-MS also allowed the character-ization of N-phosphonomethyl aminodiacetic acid intercalated into the interlayer spacingof layered double hydroxides by an anion-exchange method (55) and of a difunctionalbenzoxazine monomer based on 4,4′-diamino diphenyl methane obtained by two curingprotocols (56).

Lalia-Kantouri et al. reported a thermoanalytical analysis of two cobalt (II) com-plexes with neocuproine and the anion of a substituted salicylaldehyde ligand with thegeneral formula [Co(X-salo)2(neoc)], to determine their thermal degradation in inert at-mosphere, which was found to be a multistep decomposition related to the release of theligand molecules (57). EGA by coupled TG-MS verified the elimination of a formaldehydemolecule in the first decomposition stage, initially proposed by the percentage mass lossdata (57). A TG-MS system was used to analyze principal volatile thermal decompositionand fragmentation products evolved during pyrolyses of Ce(III) and Sm(III) complexes indynamic flow of air atmosphere (58). The simultaneous DSC/TG-MS-FTIR method hasbeen used to explore the thermal stability of four neutral metal-complex dyes 1–4, where thetwo axially coordinated dimethylformammide molecules in Ni(II) and Cu(II) complexes ex-hibit distinguishable decomposition behavior because of their different M O bond lengthsoriginating from the Jahn-Teller distortions (59). The formation, stability, and decomposi-tion of CO2-intercalated graphene oxide was analyzed by FTIR, TG-MS, TG-FTIR, atomicforce microscopy, and SEM for the first time. The formation starts at 50◦C and develops upto 120◦C. At higher temperatures, the decomposition of CO2-intercalated graphene oxideoccurs due to the release of water, CO2, and CO that can be monitored by TG-MS and TG-IR

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analysis. To elucidate the formation process of CO2, TG-MS analysis proved the crucialrole of water during CO2 formation (60). The reaction of Na/K-reduced graphite withhexyliodide represents a new, versatile, and mild approach to synthesize alkylated graphenederivatives, which were characterized by a combination of Raman spectroscopy, transmis-sion electron microscopy (TEM), and TG/MS analysis (61). Evolved gas analysis–ionattachment mass spectrometric analysis of the principal species produced by the pyrolysisof Mn2(CO)10 in an infrared image furnace indicated the presence of Mn(CO)5 in thegas phase (62, 63). An investigation of the interaction of Bi(III) with an aqueous solu-tion of sulfanilic acid at a higher temperature was performed by Zahariev and coworkers(64). The new Bi(III) complex was characterized by various methods, including elementalanalysis, DTA, TG-MS, DSC, FTIR, and powder XRD (64). A detailed analysis of thethermal decomposition of yttrium trifluoroacetate under different atmospheres was pre-sented by Eloussifi et al. (65). By EGA-MS analysis, the first exothermic decompositionstage was shown to involve the complete removal of carbon (organic part) and the for-mation of yttrium fluoride. This process is characterized by a fast mass loss rate. Then,yttria (Y2O3) is formed at 1200◦C through a slow process controlled by the out-diffusionof fluorine, which involves the formation of yttrium oxyfluoride as an intermediate (65).The thermal stability of carbonate precursors of yttrium oxide was studied by TGA withEGA-MS on TA Instruments equipment. The thermolysis of Y2(CO3)3·nH2O (n = 2.46)is a complex process and includes several stages of elimination of water (90–285◦C) andcarbon dioxide (66). De Bakker and coworkers presented the results of the thermal decom-position studies on the 2-form (2MgO.MgCl2.6H2O) and 3-form (3MgO.MgCl2.11H2O)magnesium hydroxychlorides (67). Magnesium hydroxychlorides form from the reactionof MgO with MgCl2 brines. They have historically been of importance as the componentsof Sorel cements. More recently, they have taken a central role in proposed flowsheetsfor chloride leaching of laterite nickel ores, with the chloride units being captured inmagnesium hydroxychloride precipitates. The DTA-TG-MS curves revealed a two-stagedecomposition pathway for both hydroxychlorides, passing through currently unknownintermediates (67).

A detailed analysis of the thermal decomposition of barium trifluoroacetate under dif-ferent atmospheres was presented by Farjas et al. (68). TG, DTA, and EGA were used forin situ analysis. The presence of oxygen significantly advances the decomposition, whereasthe presence of water vapor has a minor effect. The suggested mechanism has been discloseddue to MS analysis of the volatiles formed during decomposition (68). Thermogravimetrycombined with EGA-MS has been used by Frost et al. to characterize the minerals ardealiteand crandallite and to ascertain the thermal stability of these cave minerals (69, 70).The thermal properties of sulfate-intercalated Mg-Al layered double hydroxide were in-vestigated using simultaneous TG-MS and the elimination behavior of sulfur oxides fromthis double hydroxide was examined (71). Tetraamminecadmium (II)-bis(permanganate)was prepared and its crystal structure was elucidated with XRD-Rietveld refinement andvibrational spectroscopic methods. The 1-D perdeuterated complex was also synthesizedto distinguish the N-H(D) and O-H(D) fragment signals in the TG-MS spectra and to elu-cidate the vibrational characteristics of the overlapping Mn-O and Cd-N frequencies (72).Mixed-ligand octahedral titanium (III) complexes with the tridentate salicylaldehydesemi-,thiosemi-, and isothiosemicarbazone and pyridine were synthesized by Saxena and Saxena,and the thermal decomposition of the complexes was investigated by TG, coupled TG-MSmeasurements, and DSC (73). The thermal behavior of hexaammine nickel (II) nitrateand tris(ethylenediamine) nickel (II) nitrate was investigated by means of simultaneousTG-DTA-MS studies and temperature-resolved XRD techniques under inert atmospheric

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conditions (74). TG-MS was used to detect the decomposition products of polyhedraloligomeric octa(propargylaminophenyl)silsesquioxane and its cured products with increas-ing temperature in an inert atmosphere (75) and to investigate the reactivity of PbO andFe2O3 with HBr from thermal degradation of tetrabromobisphenol A under inert and oxi-dizing atmospheres (76). Simultaneous thermal analysis with EGA (STA-EGA) was used tostudy the ability of 1,3-alternate conformer of tert-butylcalix[4]arene with four n-propoxysubstituents to be applied for detection of nitrogen dioxide in reversible sensors. Using theSTA-EGA method, the nature and conditions of charge-transfer complex (CTC) bleach-ing were characterized, including the conditions of its reversible change of color fromwhite to dark blue and back at CTC formation and decomposition (77). Novel polymericformates were synthesized through solvothermal methods. All of the compounds werecharacterized through single-crystal/powder XRD, IR spectroscopy, and TG-MS analysis(78, 79). Among the furan-based compounds, furfural shows interesting properties as abuilding block or industrial solvent. EGA-MS analysis was applied to characterize furfuralproduced from pentosan-rich biomass via xylose cyclodehydration. According to recentstudies, the reaction mechanism is different in the presence of Lewis (L) or Brønsted (B)sites (80). Glycyrrhetinic acid is a pentacyclic triterpenoid derivative, and its biologicalactivity has been studied thoroughly, though the reason for its wide spectrum of action isnot fully understood. Anghel and coworkers studied the thermal behavior of glycyrrhetinicacid, taking into account the presence of thermally sensitive functions (hydroxyl, carboxyl,ketone) in the molecule (81). After melting at 296◦C, a clear thermooxidative degradationwith a maximum rate at 380◦C takes place. A comparison of FTIR unique attenuated to-tal reflectance spectra of the initial sample, the remainder by 500◦C, together with EGA,allowed some comments on the reaction mechanism (81). The mechanism and stability ofdimethylol urea to polycondensation were investigated using TG-MS for EGA and a non-isothermal model-free induction period kinetic analysis (82). The products evolved duringthe thermal decomposition of a kaolinite–urea intercalation complex were studied usingTG-FTIR-MS. The results showed that the evolved products obtained were mainly dividedinto two processes. It was consequently concluded that the thermal decomposition of thekaolinite–urea intercalation complex includes two stages (83).

The decomposition and kinetics of 1-methyl-2,4,5-trinitroimidazole were studied byseveral thermoanalytical techniques, including TG-DTG, TG-FTIR, TG-MS, and rapidcool FTIR in situ thermolysis cell or fast thermolysis probe with rapid-scan FTIR(thermolysis/RSFTIR and fast thermolysis/RSFTIR) methods (84). Intumescent material,2,6,7-trioxa-1-phosphabicyclo-[2,2,2]-octane-4-methanolphosphate (PEPA), was synthe-sized and characterized using FTIR, 1H-NMR, and 13C-NMR. The degradation propertiesof PEPA were studied by employing TG and TG-MS techniques (85). The thermal decom-position kinetics and mechanism of a newly synthesized pyrazole were studied by meansof different heating rate DSC, thermolysis in situ rapid-scan FTIR, and simultaneous TG-MS (86). A systematic study that altered the number of β-hydrogen atoms susceptibleto Hofmann elimination and introduced increased steric hindrance of substituted (ethyl,n-propyl, isobutyl, and neopentyl) alkyltrimethylammonium cations was performed. Themechanism of the thermal decomposition of these four ammonium cations in deuteroxideform was studied using EGA because of their potential importance in alkaline membranefuel cells or electrolyzers. The products of the decomposition reactions are in many casesthe expected Hofmann elimination products (trimethylamine and olefins); however, as thenumber of β-hydrogen atoms decrease or they become more sterically encumbered (fromthe addition of adjacent methyl groups), nucleophilic attack of hydroxide on the methylgroups increases in relative importance (87).

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“Manganese violet” pigments have been known for over 150 years but are receiving re-newed interest due to their nontoxicity and earth-abundant components. Begum and Wrightidentified two polymorphs, designated as α- and β-NH4MnP2O7, that provide the strongcoloration and compared them to a commercially available sample (88). Ultraviolet (UV)-visible spectroscopy was used to characterize optical behavior and a combination of TG-MSand in situ high-temperature powder XRD were used to determine thermal decompositionpathways (88). Imidazolium-2-carboxylates and (benz)imidazolium hydrogen carbonateswere independently employed as organic precatalysts for various molecular N-heterocycliccarbene-catalyzed reactions. A coupled TG-MS system allowed analysis of the principalvolatile thermal decomposition and fragmentation products of the hydrophobic tholins un-der dynamic conditions and an inert atmosphere. During their thermal degradation, whichoccurs in two stages, a wide variety of hydrocarbon products including methane, vinylmonomers (such as ethylene and propylene), acetylene, oligomers, and some other un-known compounds were found (89). The polymer-to-ceramic transformation of a hafniumalkoxide–modified polysilazane was investigated via TGA coupled with in situ MS. The re-sults indicated that the structural evolution of the polysilazane upon ceramization is stronglyaffected by the modification with hafnium alkoxide. Furthermore, this study revealed theformation of a SiHfCNO amorphous single-phase ceramic via pyrolysis of the polymerat 700◦C, whereas at higher pyrolysis temperatures precipitation of hafnia was observed,leading to an amorphous hafnia/silicon carbonitride ceramic nanocomposite (90). Post et al.investigated bauxite samples from Boke-Mine, Guinea, West Africa, by TG-DSC, TG-MS,dilatometry, and laser flash analysis (91). The thermal behavior of humic acids of fusainand humic acids of demineralized fusain were investigated at heating rates of 5, 20, and50◦C min−1 using an open system TG analyzer coupled to a QMS (92).

A metal–organic gel catalyst based on Fe(NO3)3 and benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylic acidwas synthesized and characterized by IR, elemental analysis, TG-MS, Mossbauer spec-troscopy, and environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM)-TEM. The Fe-BTCgel catalyst was demonstrated to use only water as solvent and does not require any or-ganic solvents. A progressive addition of hydrogen peroxide significantly improved theconversion of benzyl alcohol (93). A number of physical–chemical techniques as XTF,EGA-MS, temperature-programmed reduction, XPS, and chemical analysis were used tocharacterize the precursors, activated, and spent Cu-ZrO2 catalysts (94). The magneticmesoporous material Fe/CMK-3 acting as a catalyst–sorbent was synthesized by using or-dered mesoporous carbon CMK-3 as the supporter, Fe(NO3)3 as the iron source, and glycolas the reducing agent. Combined TG-MS analysis was used to investigate the catalyticoxidation of phenol on Fe/CMK-3 and the ignition characteristics of the catalyst–sorbent(95). A TG-MS approach was used to semiquantitatively monitor the gases, especially H2,that were released during pyrolysis over catalysts with and without Pd promoters (96).Vanadium oxide catalysts coated on MgO, Al2O3, and mixed oxide (obtained by thermaltreatment of hydrotalcite) were synthesized and thoroughly characterized. The DeSOx testswere carried out gravimetrically in a TGA/MS system at similar temperature conditionsof those used in fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) units (97). The effects of cesium dop-ing introduced into a copper catalyst with the composition corresponding to that for theindustrial catalysts used for low-temperature water–gas shift process were investigated.Precursors and catalysts were characterized by several techniques including temperatureprogrammed desorption EGA (98). The catalytic performance of NiAl2O4 catalyst in thepartial oxidation of methane was investigated by Lopez-Fonseca and coworkers (99). Thisbulk catalyst was more active (70% conversion at 625◦C) than alumina-supported nickel

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catalysts prepared by conventional impregnation. Fresh and spent catalysts were char-acterized by spectroscopic techniques and TG-MS analysis. Deposition of ammoniumsulfates over catalysts was observed during selective catalytic reduction of NOX by NH3

in the presence of SO2 and H2O, which resulted in catalyst deactivation and equipmenterosion (99). Li et al. studied the decomposition behavior of NH4HSO4 deposited on differ-ent cokes in a TG-MS system (100). EGA-MS-FTIR was applied to study azo-polysiloxanicmaterials that may be used as supports for cell culture. This type of polymer may gener-ate nanostructured surfaces when subjected to laser irradiation, yielding a cell responsethat depends on surface relief. Modification of cell growth supports using nanostructuredsynthetic materials improves the general understanding of the complex mechanisms thatcontrol cell adhesion and migration in normal conditions, as well as in various pathologies.These polymers require good thermal stability, because they need to be able to withstandboth the interaction with the laser source, as well as various sterilization processes, withoutnoticeable alteration in structure and properties (101).

A new method for the preparation of titania photocatalyst was proposed by Pulisova andcoworkers (102). Precursors of the photoactive titania were prepared from TiOSO4.nH2Osolution by precipitation with ammonia and addition of H2O2 or HNO3, respectively. TG,DTA, ETA, EGA/MS detection, and FTIR were used to characterize the thermal degradationof the titania precursor and to determine the optimal temperature to obtain the photoactivetitania (102). Supported nickel metal can be used as a tar-cracking catalyst in the thermalprocessing of large organics to give H2. A TG-MS coupled instrument was used to studythe influence of the Ni catalyst and support materials on the H2 yield and selectivity (103).Molybdenum disulfide promoted with alkali metals is one of the most studied catalysts forthe conversion of synthesis gas to alcohols. The catalysts prepared by impregnation showedpoorer performance. TG-MS results indicated that physical mixing leads to catalysts thatlose sulfur at temperatures above 330◦C. (104).

A free-base tetra sodium meso-tetra (p-sulphonatophenyl) porphyrin and its corre-sponding metalloporphyrins with Co, Ni, and Zn were synthesized and characterizedand were subjected to EGA-MS analysis in an argon atmosphere to study the evolvedgases/species during the thermal events. This information was useful to determine the ringopening sequence of these porphyrins at corresponding temperatures (105).

In the pharmaceutical field, the dehydration/desolvation of two hydrated solvates ofthe important compound finasteride (namely, bisfinasteride monohydrate monotetrahydro-furan and bisfinasteride monohydrate mono-1,4-dioxane) was studied by solid-state nuclearmagnetic resonance, powder XRD, TGA (including coupling with MS), and dynamic vapursorption (106). Clay minerals are common ingredients in therapeutic and pharmaceuticalproducts and acaı phytochemicals show disease prevention properties. The extract of theacaı fruit was mixed with water suspensions of layered silicates in different proportions.FTIR, Raman, and electronic spectroscopic data showed that flavylium cations were suc-cessfully intercalated between the inorganic layers. TG-MS data showed a significant gainin the thermostability of the organic species in relation to anthocyanins in the extract andthe MS curves related to CO2 release (m/z = 44) are ascendant above 200◦C when the dyecations are confined to the inorganic structure (107). Fulias and coworkers characterizedthe thermal behavior of active substances by EGA-MS (108–110).

In order to better understand the volatilization process for ionic liquids, the vaporevolved from heating the ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide was analyzedvia tunable vacuum ultraviolet photoionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry and EGA-MS (111).

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Investigation of thermal degradation is essential for understanding flame-retardantmechanisms and further tailoring of materials. Polycarbonate was compounded with solidbisphenol A bis(diphenyl phosphate) (S-BDP) and organo-montmorillonite (OMMT) toform a nanocomposite with mainly intercalated and partially exfoliated morphology, andthe main flame-retardant activity of the nanocomposite was shown to be in the condensedphase as revealed by TGA coupled with FTIR and TG/MS. Although the main gaseouspyrolysis products of polycarbonate cannot be greatly altered by S-BDP and OMMT, thecarbonate linkage would be stabilized and vigorous decomposition at higher temperaturewould be delayed, and thereby char residue formation could be promoted (112). TG andTG-MS measurements were used to investigate the reactivity of ZnO with HBr originatingfrom thermal degradation of brominated flame retardants under various atmospheres. It wasfound that HBr is an excellent brominating agent for ZnO and separates zinc as a volatilebromide from the solid residue. Simultaneous TG-MS measurements indicated that thepresence of ZnO strongly influences the brominated flame-retardant degradation pathwayand causes enhanced char formation (113). Investigations of the flame retardance of sev-eral additives were reported by Xu et al. (114, 115). The degradation of flame-retardanthigh-impact polystyrene was examined by TG-MS and compared with that of polystyrene(116). The flame retardance of the wood samples treated with K2CO3, melamine-modifiedphenolic resin, and their mixture was studied with the limiting oxygen index method. Thethermal degradation process and the composition of the products in gas phase were de-termined by TG-MS analysis, which showed that the K2CO3 accelerates the dehydrationreaction of wood and promotes the formation of more H2O, CO2, and char residue (117).EGA-MS was used to study the thermal degradation of an epoxy- and phenol-formaldehyderesins blend. The results revealed that the thermal degradation process can be subdividedinto four stages (118). A new set of polymers, which could act as flame-retardant addi-tives by blending with “commodity” polymers, was synthesized by chemically modifyingpoly(vinylalcohol) through reaction with a phosphorous-containing reagent. A detailedstudy of their thermal degradation was performed by EGA-MS (119). The new phospho-rus flame-retardant methyl-DOPO (9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-methylphosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide) is known to show an excellent flame-retarding behavior in flex polyurethane foamby acting mainly in the gas phase. Konig and Kroke investigated the flame-retardant workingmechanism of methyl-DOPO and its ring-opened analogue MPPP (methylphenoxyphenyl-phosphinate) by TG-MS, FMVSS 302, and cone calorimeter measurements (120). Un-der TG-MS conditions comparable concentrations of low-molecular-weight species suchas HPO, mathrmCH3PO, or PO2 are released. These species are able to scavenge theH- and OH- radicals in the radical chain reactions of the flame, leading to a sig-nificant increase in the CO/CO2 ratio and the smoke density during cone calorimeterexperiments (120).

Thiourea formaldehyde resin (TFR) has been synthesized by condensation of thioureaand formaldehyde in acidic medium and its thermal degradation has been investigatedusing TG-FTIR-MS during pyrolysis and combustion. The results revealed that the thermaldecomposition of TFR releases NH3, CS2, CO, HCN, HNCS, and NH2CN as volatileproducts during pyrolysis, and the main products in the second stage are NH3, CO2, CS2,SO2, and H2O during combustion. It was found that the thermal degradation during pyrolysisof TFR produced more hazardous gases like HCN, NH3, and CO compared to combustionunder similar conditions (121). Pulse electric current sintering was used to prepare acompact from resinificated hydrous silk powder. No dependence on molding pressure andtemperature were found in XRD or FTIR analysis, except for a compact molded at 473 K, forwhich silk fibroin decomposition was confirmed by DSC, EGA-MS, and molecular weight

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measurements. The resin showed heat resistance and strength/modulus comparable to thoseof general-purpose epoxy resins (122). Ammonia-catalyzed resin and resin modified byboric acid were studied by EGA-MS. The results showed that the molecular structure ofresin was altered and the B-O bond with high bond energy was formed after modificationby boric acid and thus the char yield of phenolic resin was improved (123, 124).

Torrefaction is a thermal pretreatment process to pretreat biomass in the temperaturerange of 200–300◦C under an inert atmosphere. It is known that the torrefaction processstrongly depends on the decomposition temperature of the lignocellulosic constituents inbiomass, namely, hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. The process was carried out in a TGanalyzer coupled with MS. The results implied that torrefaction was strongly dependenton the thermal decomposition behavior and composition of lignocellulosic constituents(125, 126). Biomass as an energy source has many advantages over fossil residues, but itpresents an important drawback: in local environments, such as homes, people are exposedto some harmful gases evolved during the biomass degradation process. In order to as-sess the effectiveness of dilution over grape pomace, an abundant residue in Extremadura(Spain), blending it with Pyrenean oak was needed. Some parameters were measured bya coupled TG-MS technique during the combustion of these blends to obtain much infor-mation about kinetics and evolved gases emissions (127). Weng and coworkers reportedthe pyrolysis process of poplar biomass, a potential biofuel feedstock, studied using tun-able synchrotron vacuum ultraviolet photoionization mass spectrometry (128). The massspectra at different photon energies, temperatures, and time-evolved profiles of selectedspecies during poplar pyrolysis process were measured (128). The emission of nitrogenoxide (NOx) from biomass combustion is still a concern, even though the nitrogen contentof biomass in general is relatively low. The impact of protein nitrogen on emissions ofnitrogen species from combustion processes was investigated by TG-MS combustion tests,which were used to calculate the char combustion kinetics and conversion of char nitrogento different nitrogen-containing species. Results indicated that there may be a correlationbetween the proportion of pyridinic and pyrrolic nitrogen (129). Jones and coworkers com-pared the combustion properties of raw and torrefied short rotation coppice willow withthose of typical bituminous power station coals (130). The fuels were analyzed using a num-ber of standard fuel characterization tests. The chars were subjected to TG-MS combustiontests, which were used to calculate the char reactivities and fate of char nitrogen (130).The pyrolysis behaviors of corn stalk and its three real components (i.e., hemicellulose,cellulose, and lignin) were investigated by TG-MS and Py-GC/MS. The thermal behav-ior and evolution profiles of major volatile fragments from each sample pyrolysis werediscussed in depth, while paying close attention to the impact and contributions of eachcomponent on the raw material pyrolysis (131). An EGA-MS study on lignin decompositionunder different (oxygen-containing) atmospheres was carried out to investigate the thermalperformance of lignin during pyrolysis, oxidative gasification, oxy/fuel combustion, andCO2 gasification (132, 133). The thermal behavior of selected species of biomass fuels(broad-leaved bark and red pine xylem) was investigated using a coupled TG-DTA/MS at atemperature range from room temperature up to 800◦C in an air atmosphere at three heatingrates (134). Sanchez-Silva et al. studied the pyrolysis characteristics of three lignocellulosicbiomasses (fir wood, eucalyptus, and pine bark) and a marine biomass (Nannochloropsisgaditana microalgae) (135). A study of the volatile products formed in the process ofthermocatalytic destruction of a hardwood and the carbonizates on its basis was performedby coupling TG to MS (136). The thermal behaviors of a sewage sludge sample, woody(black locust, poplar, and willow) and herbaceous (energy grass and wheat straw) biomass,as well as mixed (sewage sludge and black locust in ratios 1:1 and 1:3) samples were

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compared under inert and oxidative atmospheres. TG-MS experiments were performed todetermine the mass loss of the samples and the formation of volatile products as a functionof temperature in an inert atmosphere. Wood and herbaceous biomass samples evolvedvarious organic products (aldehydes, ketones, acids, furan derivatives, etc.) in addition towater and gaseous products. Sewage sludge released mainly water, carbon oxides, methane,hydrogen, hydrocarbons, ketones, acids as well as sulfur- and nitrogen-containing products(137, 138). Pyrolysis of waste materials, biomass wood waste, waste tire, refuse-derivedfuel, and waste plastic was performed using two TGAs coupled to a mass spectrometerand the other to an infrared spectrometer. The kinetic parameters of the pyrolyzed wastematerials obtained by TG-MS and TG-FTIR analyses were compared using a model basedon first-order reactions with a distribution of the activation energies (139–141). A thermo-analytical approach based on coupled MS was used to study the behavior of coke and palmshells at high temperatures, with a focus on gas formation (142). Two time-of-flight massspectrometers with different soft photoionization techniques were simultaneously hyphen-ated to a thermobalance and applied in form of a newly developed prototype for EGA ofpyrolysis gases from biomass and biochar (143).

A study of the thermal decomposition of olive oil was carried out in dynamic runs undera helium atmosphere using TG-MS in order to observe the evolution of some compoundsand to discuss the information that could be obtained. From the overall analysis of the data,a scheme of reactions was proposed and kinetic values were calculated by integration ofthe differential equations and minimizing the squared differences between the experimentaland calculated values (144).

There are vast resources of oil shale in the Western United States. Development oftechnically and economically effective technologies for the conversion of oil shale to liquidfuels will help provide a long-term and secure source of transportation fuels. Developinggood understanding of the decomposition kinetics of oil shale to oil and other products,along with the oil compositional information, is important regardless of the process used.Mass spectrometry affords the opportunity to obtain compositional information while thedecomposition is being measured quantitatively (145).

The pyrolysis behavior of bitumen was investigated by Zhao et al. (146) using a TG-MSsystem and a DSC as well as a Py-GC/MS.

The kinetics and reaction chemistry for the pyrolysis of maplewood lignin were inves-tigated by Cho et al. using both a pyroprobe reactor and TGA-MS (147). The performanceof titania-supported molybdenum carbide, nitride, phosphide, and oxide catalysts was com-pared for catalytic hydrodeoxygenation of phenol. Phenol was selected as a stable modelcomponent for lignin degradation products in fast pyrolysis bio-oil. The synthesis andformation path of the materials was evaluated by the use of complementary characteriza-tion techniques (148). The thermal degradation of four lignins of different raw materialsand manufacturing processes was comparatively studied by TG-MS/FTIR and Py-GC-MS (149).

Bidi tobacco smoke, a complex mixture of toxic and carcinogenic chemicals, causesa large and growing number of premature deaths in South Asian countries, especially inIndia and Bangladesh. The evolved products during the thermal degradation of bidi tobaccopowder were measured using TG-FTIR-MS. The results revealed that the main gases andvolatile products released during the combustion and pyrolysis of bidi tobacco powderare CO, CO2, NH3, HCN, NO, isoprene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein, etc. (150).Pyrolysis characteristics and mechanism of tobacco stem were studied by Py-GC/MS, TG-FTIR, and TG-MS techniques. The composition of evolved volatiles from fast pyrolysis of

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tobacco stems was determined by Py-GC/MS analysis, and the evolution patterns of themajor products were investigated by TG-FTIR and TG-MS (151).

The synthesis of double-layer-type dendrimers with carbazole and phenylazomethineas the dendron with a symmetric tetraphenylmethane core was reported by Albrecht et al.(152). These dendrimers were thermally stable (T d10% over 500◦C) with the TG-MS studyrevealing a degradation mechanism occurring first at the inner-layer phenylazomethinegroup (152).

Novel organic–inorganic hybrid materials based on trivalent lanthanides (Ln = Y, La,Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu) and 1,4-phenylbis(phosphonate)(153) obtained under hydrothermal conditions either by oven heat or microwave irradiationwere described. Several series of compounds were characterized by powder XRD, TEM,SEM-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopies, and thermal analyses (TG-MS and DSC)(154). A cost-effective and potentially industrially scalable, in situ functionalization proce-dure for preparation of soluble graphene nanoribbons from commercially available carbonnanotubes was presented by Genorio et al. (155, 156). The physical characteristics of thefunctionalized product were determined using SEM, EGA, spectroscopies, and GC-MSanalytical techniques (155, 156). A DTA/TG system coupled to a mass spectrometer wasused to further elucidate the nature of the phase transformations that occurred upon heatingof a lateritic ore in the presence of sulfur (157). Mohsin and coworkers studied the ther-mal decomposition of the backbone binder component of bodies prepared from premixedFez12% Cu with 50 vol% binder fabricated by a powder injection molding technique. Theinvestigation of solvent-dewaxed Fez12% Cu parts was made at different heating rates. TheTG-MS technique allowed evaluating the chemical pathway of the degradation reaction bydetermining the decomposition products evolving during the thermal process (158). Or-ganic aerogels were fabricated by sol-gel polymerization of melamine and formaldehydemonomers. The porous morphology, structure, and thermal stability of the aerogels werecharacterized by nitrogen adsorption, FTIR spectroscopy, and TG-MS (159). HierarchicalZSM-5 zeolites with micro-, meso-, and macroporosity were prepared from diatomite ze-olitization through a vapor-phase transport process on solid surfaces. The aromatizationperformance of the catalysts was investigated on a fixed bed reactor by using FCC gasolineas feedstock. The crystal phase, morphology, pore structures, acidity, and coke deposi-tions of the hierarchical ZSM-5 zeolites were characterized by means of XRD, SEM, andTG-MS (160). Low-cost natural zeolites were studied as alternative materials for ozoneabatement, with particular attention on the effect of compensating cation content of naturalzeolite on ozone removal. Characterization of natural and modified zeolites was performedby spectroscopic techniques, TGA coupled with MS, and temperature-programmed des-orption of ammonia (161). The thermal degradation of a core–shell type structure hasbeen studied by TG in a nitrogen atmosphere up to 500◦C. EGA was performed using acoupling to a QMS and an FTIR spectrophotometer equipped with an external modulusfor gas analyses (162, 163). A novel method for the fabrication of highly uniform oxidedispersion–strengthened materials made by chemical processing was presented by Walh-berg and coworkers (164). The powders were fabricated by a two-step route starting with achemical synthesis at room temperature, producing nanocrystalline yttrium-doped tungstentrioxide hydrate precursor powders. TGA with EGA revealed the presence of ammoniumnitrate in the precursors (164). A powder mixture of cubic silicon, hexagonal boron ni-tride, and graphite, with a molar ratio of Si:BN:C = 2:1:3, was high-energy ball milled for40 h under an argon atmosphere. The physical and surface characteristics, microstructures,and behavior on heating of the as-milled SiBCN powder were carefully studied by SEM,

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nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms, XPS, FTIR, XRD, TEM, and TG-DTA-MS-IR (165).

A range of amorphous, hard, and oxidation-resistant Si-B-C-N-O coatings were de-posited on various technically important metallic and ceramic substrates by using electroncyclotron resonance plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition at moderate temperatures.Dense and pore-free coatings with controllable compositions were shown to be obtainedby adjusting the mole fractions of a mixture of Si(CH3)4, BF3, H2, N2, and He. Thefilm microstructure and its complex chemical bonding were determined by a range ofspectroscopic techniques. TGA-MS analyses of the coatings, carried out at temperaturesup to 1350◦C in ambient air, indicated no degradation up to 1350◦C (166).

The desorption behavior of LiBH4-MgH2 nanocomposites with and without titaniumisopropoxide additive was investigated with samples where hydrogen was partly replacedby deuterium. Thermal analyses together with the identification of the evolved gas speciesshowed a significant isotope scrambling once the desorption process has started (167).Cabasso et al. reported the development of nanostructured synthetic carbon materialsthat were synthesized by thermal decomposition of aromatic-rich polyethers: poly(etherether ketone) and poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) (168). These polymer-basednanostructured carbons are efficacious for gas adsorption and storage. Analysis of thefragments evolved under various carbonization temperatures and the correlation betweenthe activation and carbonization temperatures provides a mechanistic perspective of thepore evolution during activation (168). The synthesis of C/Li2MnSiO4 nanocomposite ma-terials and investigation of their structural and electrochemical properties was reported(169). C/Li2MnSiO4 nanocomposites were produced in a one-step process using a sol-gel method. The morphology and properties of these nanocomposite materials were in-vestigated by MS-EGA-TG/DTG (169). Selected instrumental techniques including TG-MS and variable-temperature–diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopywere used to investigate the role of moisture in the rehydroxylation reaction, whichcauses expansion and mass gain in fired clay ceramics (170), and the resulting hybridorganic–inorganic oleylamine@MoS2-CNT nanocomposites with different compositions,obtained by thermal decomposition of tetrathiomolybdate in the presence of oleylamineand high-quality multiwalled carbon nanotubes (171). The polymer-to-ceramic transfor-mation of the iron-modified polysilsesquioxane and the evolution at high temperatures ofthe synthesized SiFeOC-based nanocomposite were studied by means of EGA as well asXRD (172).

An efficient and versatile approach for the organic/organometallic functionalization ofsingle-walled carbon nanotubes capable of imparting multimodality to these fundamentalnanostructures was described by Tuci et al. (173). All materials and intermediates were char-acterized with respect to their most relevant aspects/properties by TEM microscopy, TGAcoupled with MS analysis of volatiles, elemental analysis, cyclic voltammetry, and Ramanand UV/Vis spectroscopy (173). The effect of macromolecular polyurethane compatibi-lizer on the structural, mechanical, and thermal properties of polyoxymethylene/organicallymodified montmorillonite (POM/OMMT) nanocomposites was investigated by Leszczyn-ska and Pielichowski (174). The thermal stability of the obtained systems was significantlyenhanced by the compatibilizer in both oxidative and inert atmospheres. Hyphenated TG-FTIR and TG-MS methods were used for identification of gaseous products of degradation.The results showed less intensive evolution of formaldehyde and formic acid during thethermal degradation of POM/TPU/OMMT nanocomposites (174). A fundamental analyt-ical and electrochemical study on various sulfur-poly(acrylonitrile) (175) composites forLi-S batteries synthesized at various temperatures was presented by Fanous and coworkers

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(176). In addition to spectroscopic techniques, TG-MS measurements showed a degrada-tion of the composite prepared at temperatures >450◦C, rendering 390–460◦C the optimumtemperature range for synthesis (176).

Fluids with thermally conductive nanoparticles can provide improved heat transfer.Practical nanofluids will likely be based on lubricating oils for the continuous phaseand systems that have extended service temperature ranges. A model system based onpoly(α-olefin) synthetic base oil modified with poly(dimethylsiloxane) to lower the mix-ture’s pour point with graphite as a conductive additive was studied by Kanniah et al.,and SEM, FTIR, and TG-MS measurements were used to verify the presence of couplingagents on the surface and to estimate the thickness of the coatings (177). Upon separa-tion of the mixture, each functionalized graphite type migrated exclusively to its preferredphase (177). The structure function of hollow carbon nanoparticles as support of Pt parti-cles in the dehydrogenation of cyclohexane was studied by Du et al. (178). The catalystsand supports were characterized by XRD, TEM, TG-MS and N2 adsorption/desorptiontechnologies (178). Palladium nanoparticles protected by polyvinylpyrrolidone were syn-thesized by the reduction-by-solvent method and deposited onto alumina by the wet im-pregnation method. The metallic colloid has been left for different times (aging times) atroom temperature and under open bench conditions before deposition of the particles onthe support. The colloids were analyzed by TEM, and the catalysts prepared were char-acterized by TEM, TG-MS, XPS, and IR spectroscopy (179). The thermal properties ofmicrocapsules containing carbon nanofibers suspended in ethyl phenylacetate were inves-tigated by TGA coupled with MS by Sanchez-Silva et al. (180). The effects of aluminumnanoparticles on the thermal decomposition of ammonia perchlorate were investigated bya hyphenated DSC-TG-MS-FTIR (181).

Chemical looping combustion to solid fuels for the purpose of electric power generationfrom coal is a focus of research. Four different coal-derived fly ashes obtained fromelectric power plants (subbituminous, bituminous, Texas lignite, and Powder River Basinsubbituminous) were used to study the effect of the ash on the ability to oxidize the carbonin a beneficiated gasification coal char containing 58.9% carbon. Mixtures of char/oxygencarrier/ash with increasing ash contents to 75% were tested in a thermal analyzer coupledto a mass spectrometer system at 950◦C and a purge of argon (182). To identify the maincompounds affecting the weight changes of bottom ash in conventional loss on ignition testsand to obtain a better understanding of the individual processes in heterogeneous (waste)materials, evaluations were performed from a refuse-derived fuel incineration plant and ahospital waste incineration plant using EGA-MS analysis of the gaseous decompositionproducts (183). The combined TG-MS techniques were used to analyze the emissionof gaseous species containing nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine during the pyrolysis processof straw and bituminous coal (184). Lin and coworkers reported the pyrolysis characteristicsof Shendong Shangwan coal and its macerals concentrate (185). To study the gas generationcharacteristics of coal measures source rock during the high evolution stage, which cannotbe investigated by the common pyrolysis equipment, a TG-MS equipment was employedto study the pyrolysis products characteristics of coal, and then hydrocarbon gas generationkinetic behaviors were investigated (186). The effects of the C/Fe2O3 molar ratio andalkali carbonate addition on the reduction rate of coal char with an Fe2O3 oxygen carrierand the feasibility of coal char direct CLC with an alkali–carbonate-impregnated Fe2O3

oxygen carrier were investigated using TGA coupled with an MS (187). The water vaporinfluence on the reactivity and capacity of three commonly used oxygen carriers, iron,nickel, and copper based, on chemical looping combustion was investigated. Oxygen carriersamples with increasing metal loadings on the alumina support were prepared through freeze

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granulation and evaluated by a TG-MS coupled water vapor generator system under cyclingreducing–oxidizing gases at 950◦C (188).

Studies on the thermal decomposition of molten salts used for thermal energy storagein concentrating solar power were carried out by Olivares (189) and Olivares and cowork-ers (190). The studies were done by simultaneous DSC/TG-MS analysis between roomtemperature and 1000◦C in argon, nitrogen, air, and oxygen atmospheres. It was foundthat the thermal stability of the salt can be significantly enhanced by controlling the at-mosphere and that the salt operated in an inert atmosphere could be used at temperatureof at least 610◦C, whereas in an oxidizing atmosphere it could be used between 650 and700◦C (189, 190).

DSC-TGA-MS analysis and TEM and SEM microscopies were utilized to investi-gate ink composition, nanoparticle coating, and print quality of a new low-cost, massproducible, miniaturized antenna solution utilizing screen-printed magnetic thick films ofcobalt nanoparticle ink. The ink has a curing temperature lower than 125◦C, feasible print-ing characteristics, and metal loading higher than 85 wt%. The properties are achieved byusing an oxidatively polymerizing natural fatty acid, linoleic acid, as both a surfactant anda binder (191).

Cross-linked membranes for gas separation have been prepared by thermal treat-ment of carboxylated polymers of intrinsic microporosity (C-PIMs). The optimal cross-linking temperature was investigated and possible cross-linking pathways involving arylradical–induced thermal decarboxylation were provided, while several other possible mech-anisms were ruled out. Carboxylated PIMs are accessible by controlled hydrolysis ofthe nitrile-containing parent polymer. The resulting cross-linked PIMs were insoluble intypical solvents and were characterized by FTIR, TG-MS, TG-FTIR, and gel contentanalysis (192).

Copper indium disulfide thin films were prepared by an alternative solution-basedcoating process adapted from the well-established aqueous metal salt/thiourea precursorsystem. Chemical and morphological changes during the thin-film formation were detectedand explained by time-resolved simultaneous grazing incident small- and wide-angle X-rayscattering measurements, SEM, and simultaneous TG-MS (193). The thermal decompo-sition of barium and yttrium trifluoroacetate thin films under different atmospheres waspresented by Eloussifi and coworkers (194, 195). Polyimide thin films were irradiated witha high-energy beam of heavy ions. Proton backscattering spectroscopy was used to measurethe composition of the films, which showed that oxygen was the element that exhibited themost rapid loss from the film. The gases evolved from the film during polymer modificationwere monitored using a QMS for residual gas analysis. (196). The EGA-MS method wasdescribed as a new approach for determining the degree of imidization in polyimide filmsby Kim et al. (197).

To understand the KHCO3/K2CO3 equilibria at the fuel cell conditions, Arizaleta andcoworkers builted a “tubing bomb” reactor that was suitable for use at pressures of 2,000psi and temperatures of 300◦C (198). The liquid-phase chemistry was studied by exposingsolutions of potassium bicarbonate in the pressure vessel to temperatures near 300◦C at theirsaturation pressure, different time frames, and different cooling treatments. Three differentanalyses of the final solutions were utilized: pH measurement, TG-MS of the dry crystalsat the Hungarian Academy of Science, and titration (198). The composite anode materialfor a solid oxide fuel cell was prepared and studied. In order to improve ionic conductivity,Al2O3 was added at a synthesis stage to cermet material. EGA-MS and dilatometry wereused to determine thermal treatment of samples and to study mechanical compatibility ofelectrolyte and cermet anode material (199).

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Celik and coworkers reported on improved power conversion efficiencies for bulkheterojunction hybrid solar cells based on CdSe nanorods (200). The sequential decreasein the ligands in the cell synthesis was confirmed by a combination of TG-MS (200).

Surface fire can induce heat transfer into the soil, creating a carbonized environment,which may alter the chemical compositions of soil organic matters (201). Polypyrrole thinfilms were studied by Serra Moreno et al. (202). A surface soil was carbonized at up to600◦C with limited air to simulate soils experiencing a surface fire, and Cr(VI) removalon the carbonized soils was investigated. TG-MS spectra indicated that C2H4, CH3OH,and C3H8 were the major components in the evolved gases from the pyrolyzed soil (203).Madarasz and coworkers studied the loss of volatile components from two types of quasi-solid gel electrolytes to be used in Gratzel-type alternative solar cells (204). In addition, twoonline coupled EGA tools (TG-EGA-FTIR and TG/DTA-EGA-MS) were applied to checkthe gel electrolytes for thermal vaporization, degradation, and decomposition processes asa function of temperature during dynamic heating in air (204).

Hydrogen substitution at the oxygen sites of 1111-type layered nickel oxyarsenidesLnNiAsO (Ln = lanthanoid) was successfully performed by Matsuishi and coworkers byusing a high-pressure synthesis technique with LnH2 as a key component of the startingmixture (205). Electron-probe microanalysis and TG-MS indicated that up to 18% of theoxygen sites could be substituted by hydrogen (205).

The pyrolysis of waste-printed wiring boards was investigated by a TG-DTA-MSfurnace. The kinetics and the control of emitted gas during pyrolysis with and withoutchemical additives were studied. Moreover, the possibility of controlling the amount of toxicexhaust gases like HBr, C6H6, Br2, Cl2, and HCl and recovering beneficial gaseous fuelslike CH4 and H2 from the pyrolysis process were discussed (206). Thermal decompositionof printed circuit boards was studied by Ortuno et al. to compare the thermal behavior ofprinted circuit boards of mobile phones before and after the removal of the metallic fractionby acid washing (207).

Automobile shredder residues are materials that are rejected in the metal recoveryprocess for end-of-life vehicles. These residues are composed of such materials as plastics,foams, glasses, rubbers, textiles, remaining metals, and soils. The disposal is a difficulttask, due to increasingly restrictive reuse policies. The gas release behavior of pyrolyzedautomobile shredder residue was measured using a TG-MS apparatus, and this thermoox-idative process was observed under different N2/O2 volume ratios. The final weight/initialresidue weight ratio for pyrolyzed residues decreased from 43.4 to 10.1% with increasingoxygen concentrations (208). Waste electric and electronic equipment and automotive plas-tic shredders contain nitrogen-containing polymers such as polyamides and polyurethanes.Thermal decomposition of these polymers leads to pyrolysis oil in which unwanted N-containing compounds are also present. Catalytic pyrolysis demonstrated to be a wayto reduce the oil’s N-content or to obtain valuable products. Bozi et al. examined theslow heating rate pyrolysis of zeolite–polyamide and zeolite–polyurethane mixtures byTG-MS (209).

Ammonium dinitramide (ADN) is one of the several promising new solid propellantoxidizers. It is of interest because its oxygen balance and energy content are high, and itis also halogen free. One of the most important characteristics of a propellant oxidizer,however, is stability, and ADN is known to degrade to ammonium nitrate during storage,which will affect its performance. Matsunaga et al. focused on the effects of aging on thethermal decomposition mechanism of ADN (210). The thermal behaviors of ADN andADN/ammonium nitrate mixtures were studied, as were the gases evolved during theirdecomposition by EGA-MS (210).

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Pyrolysis and combustion of worn-out tires are increasing options for their energeticvalorization. Results from TG-MS/TG-GC-MS analysis and lab-scale reactor tests werereported by Rada et al. (211). From the thermal decomposition of the tire, a gas (20%), atire pyrolysis oil (40%) and a solid char (40%) resulted (211).

DSC/TG-MS analysis was applied to characterize the decomposition properties of agranulated soda–lime–silica glass batch that contained different concentrations of sodiumsilicate solution as a binder, prereacted in the temperature range 775–850◦C. The resultsshowed that using a granulated glass batch provides an increase in batch chemical activityat the stage of silicate formation in comparison with a loose glass batch (212).

Using MS, an analysis of gas evolved from samples of green sand heated in a vacuumwas shown to comprise water steam with traces of carbon oxides. Sea coal added to thesand resulted in the evolution of carbon oxides and hydrocarbons (213).

Pfeiffer et al. investigated whether the lunar regolith simulant JSC-1A can be “loaded”with hydrogen, nitrogen, and the noble gases helium and argon in an attempt to simulatesolar wind–implanted particles by means of ion implantation (214). For that purpose, theyexposed specifically pretreated JSC-1A material to an energetic ion beam of 150 keV ofthese elements until their expected concentrations reached those reported for real lunar soilmaterial (based on Apollo material). The ion-implanted regolith simulant samples werethen analyzed by TGA-MS for their gas release patterns (214).

Japanese lacquer artwork is one of the most famous cultural heritages in Japan.The main component of the Japanese lacquer is urushiol, which consists of phenolderivatives. The dimerization process of urushiol has been investigated in detail, butthe structure of urushiol polymer has not. In studies published by Niimura, the struc-ture was investigated by using hyphenated TG-MS and was demonstrated to be effec-tive in detecting the thermal degradation products of urushiol polymer as the evolvedgas (215, 216).

The Proceedings of the 10th Annual International Energy Conversion EngineeringConference includes 130 papers, whose topics include experimental research on biomasscombustion by TG-DTA/MS analysis (217).

An experimental setup that allows simultaneous TG-MS investigations of air-sensitivecompounds in argon was presented by Hoffmann and coworkers (218). The setup con-sisted of a commercially available thermobalance with mass spectrometer and a glove box.Modifications needed for installations within the glove box were summarized. The properfunction of the new setup up to 800◦C was demonstrated by the thermal decomposition ofCuCl2·2H2O (218).

Fujii developed the technique of Li+ ion-attachment mass spectrometry (IAMS), amethod that has shown promise in the fields of chemical analysis, plasma diagnostics,chemical process monitoring, and thermal analysis (219). The experimental setup is suchthat Li+ ions get attached to chemical species (R) by means of intermolecular associationreactions to produce (R + Li)+ adduct ions, which are then transferred to a QMS. AnIAMS system provides only molecular ions and permits direct determination of unstable,intermediary, and/or reactive species. In addition, it is highly sensitive because it involvesion-molecule reactions. With regard to its applications for thermal analysis, one of itsgreatest advantages is that it can be used to directly analyze gaseous compounds becauseit provides mass spectra only of the molecular ions formed by Li+ ion attachment to anychemical species introduced into the spectrometer, including free radicals. Coupled withEGA, IAMS works well for the analysis of nonvolatile, untreated, and complex samplesbecause the simplicity of the ion-attachment spectrum permits the analysis of mixturesof electron-impact spectra that are difficult to interpret (219). The thermal decomposition

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kinetics and shelf-life of vitamin C in nitrogen or air were studied using TGA and EGA-Li+IAMS (220) and pyridoxine, an important vitamer in food and pharmaceutical products(221). Li+ ion-attachment MS with a temperature-programmed direct probe allowed theanalysis of nonvolatile complex natural materials (222).

A simultaneous TG-DSC device was coupled to single-photon ionization–time of flightmass spectrometry for EGA. The application of vacuum ultraviolet photons (8–12 eV) forsoft ionization allows almost fragment-free ionization. Thus, it becomes possible to interpretmass spectra of complex matrices, like natural products evolving simultaneously severalmolecules, without an additional separation step (223).

Mathews et al. reported the more significant advances in analytic techniques(chemical and physical) and molecular-based simulations that has expanded the abil-ity to quantify coal properties and explore the behavior, including TG-MS applications(224).

Selck et al. proposed a low-cost MS attachment for TGA constructed from readilyavailable commercial instruments and components (225). It was shown that the bene-fits of this setup include excellent mass-flow repeatability, simple design, and signif-icantly lower adoption cost compared to ready-built commercial solutions. The inclu-sion of an open source software package allowed semi-automated, highly simplified dataanalysis (225).

The increasing number of papers published on ionic liquids generates an extensivequantity of data. The thermal stability data of divergent ionic liquids were collected byMaton et al. with attention to the experimental setup (226). The influence and importanceof the latter parameters were broadly addressed and discussed, along with state-of-the-artmethods, such as EGA-MS (226).

The relationships between the Gramm-Schmidt profile and the DTG curve (dm/dt)were theoretically analyzed by Pop et al. (227).

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Evolved Gas Analysis by Mass Spectrometry

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