EVOLUTION OF WATER REUSE

A.N. Angelakis

Institute of Crete,

National Agricultural Research Foundation,

71307 Iraklion, Greece

13th ESAMUR Technical Conference, Murcia, Spain

November 16 & 17, 2017

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

ProlegomenaBronze Age (ca. 3200-1100 BC)

Minoan era (ca. 3200-1100 BC) Mycenaean civilization (ca. 1600-1100 BC)

Historical times (ca. 630 BC- 330 AD)Archaic Greece (ca. 630-490 BC)

Classical and Hellenistic periods ( ca.490-76 BC)Roman period (ca. 67 BC-330 AD)

Byzantine and Ottoman times Modern times (1900 to present times)Future trends/Directly potable reuseConclusions

PROLEGOMENA

Revisit the past then to know the unknown

Confucius (551 – 479 BC), Ancient Chinese philosopher

Όμοια γάρ ως επί το πολύ τα μέλλοντα τοις γεγονόσι

Most future facts are based on those in the past

Aristotle (384-322 BC), Ancient Greek Philosopher

The more you look back in the past, the more you see into the future

Winston Churchill (1874–1965)

• The studies of the Ionian philosopher Anaximander (ca. 610-547 BC) on the meteorological phenomena enabled him first to refer to hydrological processes and broadly speaking to water cycling. Rains are generated from the evaporation (atmis) that is sent up from the earth toward under the sun (Hippolytus, Ref. I6, 1-7-D.559 W.10)

• Later on Aristotle (384-322 BC) understand the water phase change: The sun causes the moisture to rise…………….Even if the same amount of water does not come back every year and in a given place, yet in a certain period all quantity that has been abstracted is returned (ibid, II.2, 355a 26). (Koutsoyiannis and Angelakis, 2003).

• Water reuse is misunderstood

• The true is that all water in Earth is always reused (is not consumed)

WATER REUSE IN PREHISTORIC TIMES

The first historical evidence of effluent reuse for irrigation goes back to Minoan and to Indus valley civilizations in ca. 2500 BC. (Angelakis et al., 2005).

The most impressive water-related technological achievements occurred at that time in Crete and in Mohenjo-Daro and other places in Indus valley.

Development of innovative technological achievements for water and wastewater capture, conveyance, storage and “treatment”. Also, many of technological achievements occurred in that Era, initiated and preceded the science of wastewater recycling and reuse.

IN THE BRONZE AGE (CA. 3200-1100 BC)

• Example 1.

• In the villa of Hagia Triada sewage and rainwater were collected in a typical rectangular storage cistern (dimensions 1.6x2.0x6.0 m³) from where it was possibly used for washing or other household uses or irrigation.

Part of the central sewerage and drainage system of the villa Hagia Triada inMinoan Crete and cistern used for storage and land application purposes.

Palace of Phaistos overview

Example 2

(a) (b)

Disposal of rainwater and sewage in the palace of Phaistos.In this palace, collection facilities were diverting the sewage and storm water

downhill to the farmland.

Remains of central sewerage and drainage in Mohenjo-Daro and scheme of domestic wastewater disposal to the streets and then

probably to the land of the Indus valley civilization (De Feo et al., 2014)

Example 3

• Minoan land treatment systems were improved and used in Classical and Hellenistic times in an ameliorate way.

• At that time in Athens, the drains and sewers delivered storm water and wastewater to a collection basin outside the city, implementing for that also the Eridanos river (De Feo et al., 2014). From that basin, the effluents were conveyed through brick-lined conduits to irrigate agricultural lands (Tzanakakis et al., 2014).

• Two references are found in the Bible for wastewater application to the land.

• During the Roman times the scale of these practices was extended.

HISTORICAL TIMES (CA. 630 BC- 330 AD)

Water reuse cisterns in Lavrion, Attica (5th c. BC): (a) Cistern of collecting andstoring rain water and (b) a pre-cistern' located nearby the main cistern, used assettlement or sedimentation tank (Tzanakakis et al., 2014).

Remains of sewers and drains in Hellenistic Athens: Drains south of the Middle Stoa in Hellenistic Agora and clay made drain which conveyed wastewater of surrounding houses and to worships southeast of the Acropolis.

67 BC-330 AD (ROMANS)

Scale of the projects increased highly during the Roman period (e. g. Cloaca Maxima)

Public toilets facilities became common and private toilets usually lacked running water (were commonly located near the

kitchens)Dysentery and different kinds of diarrheas were common

THE OUTFALL OF THE CLOACA MAXIMA INTO THE RIVER TIBER

It is still visible today near the Ponte Rotto and Ponte Palatino

(width max 4.50 m height max 3.60 m length ca 800 m)

330-1650 AD

Mainly Dark ages:

-Several

- Traditionally referring to the Middle Ages, where a

demographic, cultural and economic deterioration

occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the

Roman Empire or simply to the light vs darkness

(a) (b)

Chinampas (floating gardens) developed to a large scale by Aztecs (1150 –

1350 AD): (a) View of the plots currently and (b) view of an entire one of 100-1000 m2 and a total area of 120,000 ha (suporting 15-20 inh./ha).

BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN TIMES

• During that time very little progress was obtained• Until 12th century the practice of land treatment disappeared

and the concept of sanitation was totally lost

• A new concern to health and water issues appeared during the Renaissance when cesspools were used as sedimentation tanks and soil infiltration of the liquid was practiced

WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND REUSE (Land Treatment Development): 1650-1900 AD

• In the more recent history, the first large-scale projects of unintended reuse were set during the period from ca. 1650 to 1900 when “sewage farms” were first developed in central Europe… (Paranychianakis et al., 2011).

• 1531. Wastewater effluents were being used in Poland (Bunzlaw) and Germany, for beneficial crop production

• 1650. Α project was developed in Edinburg (Scotland) • 1840 to 1890. In England, ‘sewage farming’ became relatively common as

the first attempt to protect public health and to control water pollution• 1853. The first irrigation sewage farm was established at Rugby, England • 1870. Intermittent filter introduced by Sir Edwin Franklin provided the

first evidence that LTS is a purification process rather than disposal • 1880s. The first LTS appeared in the USA• 1890s. LTS extended to Mexico and Australia• 1890. Germ theory development, by Winogradsky, showed that certain

species of bacteria were responsible for nitrogen oxidation• 1894. Rafter and Baker reported the outstanding ability of intermittent

filters to remove bacteria (99.9%) from raw sewage

SELECTED EARLY LAND TREATMENTS AND REUSE SYSTEMS(Adapted from Tzanakakis et al., 2014)

Location Date

started

Type of system Area

(1000 ha)

Flow

(m3/d)

Europe

Bunzlaw, Poland 1531 Sewage farms

Edinburgh, UKa 1650 Sewage farms

Berlin, Germany 1874 Sewage farms 2.7 N/A

Braunschweing, Germany 1896 Sewage farms 4.4 60.0

Croydon-Beddington, UK 1860 Sewage farms 0.25 17.4

Leamington, UK 1870 Sewage farms 0.16 3.4

Milan, Italy

Paris, France 1869 Irrigation 0.64 30.3

Wroclaw, Poland 1882 Sewage farms 0.80 10.6

USA

Calumet City, MIb 1888 Irrigation 0.005

South Framingham, MA 1889 Irrigation

Woodland, CAb 1889 Irrigation 0.07 15.5

Fresno, CAb 1891 Irrigation 1.60 10.6

San Antonio, TX 1895 Irrigation 1.60 75.7

Vineland, NJb 1901 Rapid infiltration system 0.0026 3405.9

Ely, NV 1908 Irrigation 0.16 6.1

Lubbock, TXb 1915 Irrigation

Others

Mexico City, Mexico 1896 Irrigation 40.00 650.0

Melbourne, Australia 1897 Irrigation 4.16 189.3

Adapted from Tzanakakis et al., 2014; Reed and Crites, 1984; Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., 1991.

a The value of wastewater as a fertilizer was well recognized since 1650.

b Systems in use still recently.

• Until 1950 LTS continued to build up at slower rate in the Europe and USA. At this period the number of land treatment systems was estimated to be 3,400 which consisted of 15 to 20% of wastewater treatment facilities under operation in USA

• After the 2nd World War Conventional (centralized) systems were highly developed. LTS declined and their interest was still remaining only where the cost of construction, operation and maintenance of the conventional plants is prohibitive or too high, e. g. small communities (<5,000 e. p.), clusters of homes, isolated rural communities, or institutions

• In such cases LTS are recognized as an alternative or supplement to conventional wastewater treatment plants that can be both environmentally sound and economically viable

• The first reclamation and reuse projects were established after 1915 in California (California State Board of Public Health set up the first water reuse regulations for the irrigation of crops consumed cooked)

AFTER 1900

1900-TODAY

• At the end of the 19th century and the early 20th century, after the intense industrialization and urbanization, the first modern urban wastewater treatment plants began to be constructed in Central Europe, USA and other parts of the world, and ecstatic application systems , due to their high cost and low hygienic conditions

• At the same time, the first decentralized sewage treatment and re-use systems appeared, especially in multi-storey buildings in Japan. Modern treatment technology allows sewage treatment to the quality of drinking water

WATER REUSE CATEGORIES AND MAJOR CONSTRAINS

Application Major constrains

Irrigation (both agricultural and landscape)

- Seasonal demand - Usually away from the point of water reclamation

Industrial use - Constant demand but site specific

Non-potable urban uses - Limited demand - Requirement for dual piping systems

Recreation/environmental uses - Site specific

Indirect potable use through groundwater recharge

-Requires suitable aquifer

Indirect potable use throughsurface water augmentation

- Requires available reservoir between the points of water reclamation and reuse

Direct potable use - Public perception issues

EVOLUTION OF THE WATER REUSE CRITERIA GLOBALLY(Paranychianakis et al., 2015)

Year Short description

<1918 Before 1918, wastewater was applied to the land for irrigation and disposal purposes invarious regions

1918 California State Board of Public Health set up the first water reuse regulations for theirrigation of crops consumed cooked

1973 WHO releases water reuse guidelines aimed mainly for developing countries including qualitythresholds (100 FC/100 mL) and treatment requirements

1977 Italy regulates water reuse for irrigation

1978 California water reuse regulations (Title 22) provide limits for unrestricted irrigation

1978 Israel issues regulations for water reuse in irrigation defining treatment requirements,quality limits (unrestricted irrigation

1983 State of Florida: No detectable E. coli/100 mL for crops consumed raw

1983 Feachem Report (Feachem et al., 1983)

1984 State of Arizona: Criteria for virus (1 virus/40 L) and Giardia (1 cyst/40 L)

1985 The Engelberg Report (IRCWD, 1985)

1986 UNDP/World Bank Report: A theoretical epidemiological model was developed forquantitative risk assessment (Shuval et al., 1986)

REUSE CRITERIA (CONTINUE)

1989 WHO first revision of water reuse guidelines (unrestricted irrigation:1000 FC/100 mL;

1 nematode egg/L) based on the conclusions of the previous reports (WHO, 1989)

1989 Tunisia issues standards for water reused in irrigation

1991 French recommendations for water reuse based on WHO guidelines

1992 US EPA publishes guidelines for water reuse to guide states to set up their own

criteria

1996 Mexico changes its standards to control wastewater discharges moving from a vision to

control pollution in rivers to consider the water quality need for water reuse

1999 Revised Israel regulations: Unrestricted irrigation <1 FC/100 mL Multi-barrier

approach

1999 Australian guidelines were published defining four microbiological qualities of recycled

water corresponding to the intended uses (NHMRC 1999)

2000 State of California regulations revised to include additional applications of water reuse

2003 WHO Report on Artificial Recharge of Groundwater with Recycled Water

2003 Revised Italian regulations for water reuse

2004 US EPA revises its guidelines of water reuse to include IPR

2005 Cyprus issues criteria for water reuse in agriculture

REUSE CRITERIA (CONTINUE)2006 WHO releases its second revision of water reuse guidelines ‘Treated Wastewater in

Agriculture: Risk analysis and management’ which adopt a quantitative risk assessment

methodology (WHO 2006)

2006 “Australian guidelines for water recycling: Managing health and environmental risks”

2006 Portugal releases regulations for water reuse (Portuguese Standard NP 4434)

2007 Spain issues water reuse regulations (Royal Decree 1620/2007)

2010 France sets water reuse criteria (OJFR August 2, 2010)

2011 Greece water reuse regulations (Hellenic Ministry of Envirn….., 2011).

2013 EU Commission assigns to the working group “Program of Measures” the development of a

strategy for the maximization of water reuse in EU. This action may initiate the

development of EU-based criteria

2013 ILSI publishes its criteria to reuse water in the food and beverage industry

2014

2014

California Depart. of Public Health regulations for potable water reuse through aquifer

recharge (CDPH 2014)

Revised French water reuse regulation (OJFR, June 24, 2014)

2015 ISO Standards (Guidelines for agricultural irrigation). Developed by ISO in collaboration

with CEN (5 water qualities, the stringent: thermotolerance coliforms ≤ 10 /100 mL)

2017

2017

World Health Organization, Geneva, Potable Reuse: Guidance for Producing Safe Drinking

Water (WHO 2017)

EU minimum quality requirements for water reuse in agricultural irrigation and aquifer

recharge (JRC 2017)

SINGLE USE OF WATER WILL NOT BE SUSTAINABLE

FOR MOST LARGE CITIES IN THE WORLD

Adapted from United Nations Foreign Policy

DISTRIBUTION OF LARGE CITIES IN THE WORLD IN 2014

WHAT IS THE ENERGY USAGE FOR POTABLE REUSE?

PLANNED POTABLE REUSE(IN SEARCH OF A COMMON VOCABULARY)

1. Groundwater augmentation (With six-month or greater retention time in an environmental buffer)

2. Surface water augmentation (With six-month or greater retention time in an environmental buffer with an initial dilution of 100 to 1)

3. Raw water augmentation (Commingling with other raw sources followed by treatment in a water treatment facility)

4. Drinking water augmentation (Finished water delivered directly into a treated water supply distribution system)

PICTORIAL VIEW OF POTABLE REUSE

REPRESENTATIVE POTABLE REUSE PROJECTS

POTENTIAL WATER RESOURCES FOR RECLAMATION AND REUSEa

Water source Description

Blackwater Wastewater originating from toilets and/or kitchen sources (i.e., kitchen sinks and dishwashers).

Graywater Wastewater collected from non-blackwater sources, such as

bathroom sinks, showers, bathtubs, clothes washers, and laundry sinks.

Wastewater (local)

Water from combined graywater and blackwater sources, which is not discharged to a collection system (e.g., wastewater from a residence served with a septic tank or seepage pit).

Roof runoff Precipitation from rain or snowmelt events collected directly off a roof surface that is not subject to frequent public access.

Stormwater Precipitation runoff from rain or snowmelt events that flows over land and/or impervious surfaces (e.g., streets, parking lots, and rooftops).

Condensate Water vapor that is converted to a liquid and collected, the most common source in buildings being air conditioning, refrigeration,

and steam heating. Shallow groundwater

Groundwater located near the ground surface in an unconfined aquifer and, therefore, subject to contamination from infiltration of surface sources.

Foundation

water

Shallow groundwater collected from drainage around building

foundations or sumps. Blended water Various combinations of water derived originally from

blackwater, graywater, wastewater, roof runoff, stormwater, condensate, or foundation water.

aAdapted from Sharvelle et al. 2017.

CONCLUSIONS

• Water reuse has a long history. The first indications of wastewater reuse for irrigation goes back to Minoan and Indus valley civilizations.

• These practices has further improved in Classical and Hellenistic times.• During the Roman period the scale of wastewater reuse systems was

highly increased.• Land application of wastewater known as "sewage farming", has been

practiced for centuries as a mean to manage wastewater and reuse to control pollution and to eliminate risks for public health.

• Significant changes in wastewater management occurred since the beginning of 20th century

• In the future, potable reuse will be a critical element in the development of sustainable strategies for water supply, especially in high density urban areas.

• Must think of wastewater differently (i.e., a source of drinking water).

• In promoting potable reuse, the profession must speak with a unified vocabulary.

TAKE HOME MESSAGES

1. Wastewater is a renewable

recoverable source of drinking

water, resources, and energy.

2. Concept of One water

THANK YOU

FOR LISTENING