Events and Occurrents

Tutorial: International Conference on Biomedical Ontology 2009

By Randall R. Dipert

www.dipert.org

Events and OccurrentsTopics:

Session 11. Importance of Events and My Approach to Ontology2. Events and Occurrents in applied ontologies: SUMO

(IEEE), Process Specification Language (PSL ISO), DOLCE, UCore 2.0 and UCoreSL, and BFO ( ISO?)

3. Defining Event and Occurrent4. Kinds of OccurrentSession 2 Slide 455. Mental events6. Acts7. Quasi-continuants: forest fires and hurricanes8. The Relationship of Events to Continuants

1.1 Importance of Events and Occurrents: Terms

Event

Occurrent (NCOR’s BFO: Basic Formal Ontology)

Processual entity (BFO)

Process (BFO)

Perdurant

1.2 Importance of Events and Occurrents

Importance of events:• biomedical events :disease or malfunction,

micro- and macro-events

• ethics, law• psychology: mental events• engineering: making, modifying,

destroying entities• military (engagement, battle, campaign, war)• Causal statements in all sciences:

Event1 causes Event2• Everyday language

1.3 Approach to Ontology• Personal History

LogicDiagrammatic notations in logicLogic and Ontology of RelationsNon-Standard LogicsTheorem-proving/inference enginesCommon Logic/CLIF

OntologyArtifacts, ActionsFoundations of ontologyMilitary ontology (and Military Ethics &

game theory)--Command and Control Project for the U.S. Army

1.4 Approach to Ontology

• Personal History

Logic

Ontology• Conception of Ontology

Formal ontology (more logic, less mereology)

Realism: Focus on concrete entities

(entities with spatial/temporal attributes)

Structures and Arrangements

Applied Ontology: theoretical and working commitment to Basic Formal Ontology

(BFO)

2.1.0

Survey of Selected Ontologies and the Place of Events in Them

2.1.1 SUMO (Suggested Upper Merge Ontology) Hierarchy

2.1.2 SUMO Hierarchy• - entity• - physical• + object• + self connected object• + region• + collection• + agent• - process• + dual object process• - intentional process

+ motion• + internal change• * shape change• + abstracthttp://virtual.cvut.cz/kifb/en/toc/65.html accessed 11 JUNE 20009

2.1.3 SUMO Hierarchy(Detail under “Process”: Dual object Process)

- entity - physical + object - process + dual object process

substituting                     transaction                     comparing                     attaching                     detaching                     combining                     separating

- intentional process+ motion

+ internal change * shape change + abstracthttp://virtual.cvut.cz/kifb/en/toc/65.html accessed 11 JUNE 20009

2.1.4 SUMO Hierarchy(Detail under “Process”: Intentional Process)

intentional process+ intentional psychological process

+ recreation or exercise + organizational process + guiding + keeping * maintaining + repairing + poking + content development - making * constructing - manufacture * publication * cooking

+ searching + social interaction * maneuver

2.2.1 DOLCE

2.2.2 DOLCE

http://wonderweb.semanticweb.org/deliverables/documents/D18.pdf

2.2.3 DOLCE

http://wonderweb.semanticweb.org/deliverables/documents/D18.pdf

2.3.1 UCore 2.0

2.3.2 UCore 2.0

2.3.3 UCore 2.0

UCore 2.0 Taxonomy using Owl Extractor (VB) on UCoreOwl.owl

ThingEntity

CargoCollectionOfThingsCyberAgentDocument …

EventA thing that happens or takes place. [Verbatim

from Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th

Edition, 2008]

2.3.4 UCore 2.0Taxonomy for Event (excerpt 1)

UCore 2.0 Taxonomy using Owl Extractor (VB) on UCoreOwl.owl

EventAlertEventCriminalEventCommunicationEvent

An event by which information is exchanged between parties. [Derived from Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th Edition, 2008]

CyberSpaceEventAn event that occurs on a computer or within a computer network. [Derived from Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th Edition, 2008]

EconomicEventAn event relating to, or based on the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services

…

2.3.5 UCore 2.0Taxonomy for Event (excerpt 2)

EventExerciseEvent

A maneuver or simulated operation involving planning, preparation, and execution carried out for the purpose of training and evaluation. [Derived from JCS Joint Publication 1-02, DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms.]

MilitaryEventAn event relating to the activities of armed forces. [Derived from Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th Edition, 2008]

PoliticalEventAn event relating to the government or public affairs of a country. [Derived from Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th Edition, 2008]

TerroristEventAn event relating to a person, organization, or other groups of people who use violence and intimidation in the pursuit of political aims.

…

2.3.6 UCore 2.0Relations (Excerpt)

Controls have control or command of.AgentEntityRelationshipType

InvolvedIn Oxford (derived): to experience or participate in an activity or situation.

AgentEventRelationshipTypeCauseOf Oxford: be the cause of; make happen.

CauseOfRelationshipType [RRD: EventEvent?]LocatedAt Entity [RRD ?]LocationExtendedRelationshipTypeOccursAt Oxford (derived): happen; take place at. OR exist or be found to be present at a location. EventLocationRelationshipTypeDistinctFrom Oxford: recognizably different or individual.

ThingThingRelationshipTypeSameAs ThingThingRelationshipTypeAffiliatedWith Oxford (derived): attached or connected with. closely

associated with.

ThingThingRelationshipType …

2.4 E.J. Lowe, The Possibility of Metaphysics (2001)

2.5.1 BFO (Basic Formal Ontology)

“The great divide

BFO recognizes a basic distinction between two kinds of entities: substantial entities or continuants, and processual entities or occurrents.”

From A. Spear et al., BFO Manual (2006)

2.5.2 Common Upper OntologyFrom: Basic Formal Ontology (BFO

1.0 2006)Continuant only

2.5.3 Occurrent is_a hierarchy (BFO 1.0 2006)

2.5.3.i BFO 2.0continuant

independent continuantmaterial entity

objectfiat object partobject aggregate

object boundarysite

dependent continuantgenerically dependent continuantspecifically dependent continuant

qualityrealizable entityroledisposition

capabilityfunction

+spatial region…

2.5.3.ii BFO 2.0occurrent

processual entity process process boundary process aggregate

fiat process part processual context, deprecated +spatiotemporal region

…+temporal region

…

2.5.4 RelationsFrom: OBO Foundry

Relation Ontology (RO)

ummary Table

is_a EntityEntitypart_of “integral_part_of “proper_part_of “located_in “contained_in “adjacent_to “transformation_ofderives_frompreceded_by OccurrentOccurrenthas_participant EventContinuanthas_agent EventContinuantinstance_of InstanceKind

Entities

UPPER Continuants (CUO)

Occurrents

War sound Hurricane IntentionA Command

MIDDLE

human being weapongovernment portion of food

military organizationvehicle

War with rifles (T) Sound of M2 (T)WW II (P) Intention toKatrina (P) parachute (T) An ROE (T) My intention now notCaptain Mullan’s to parachute (P) Ship’s Order 16 AUG 1945 CL53/A3 1(2)

LOWERA Marine (Type) My M14 (P)The U.S. (Particular) Sandwich (T)BCT (T)Ford Focus, HMMWV (T)

(T) = Type(P) = Particular

2.6.1 Mapping the Layers of a Command and Control (C2) Ontology

2.7.1 CYC Upper Ontology

3.1 Defining “Events”

Inadequate:

Entities that occur or happen.

3.2 Defining “Continuants”

Entities that exist, or can exist, through time.

x is_a Continuant iffa. x is an Independent_Entityb. It is possible that:

x exists at time t1 [temporally_located_at],

x exists at time t2, andt1 and t2 are non-overlappingtime intervals or time instants

3.3 A Definition of Event

x is an Event [Event: event-like entity] iff

There exists a temporal proper_part of x, OR

x could have a temporal part, OR

x necessarily occupies a temporal

instant

3.4.1 The Ontology of modal notions

Modal notions (possibility, necessity) ineliminable?

1. There exist alternative possible worlds:

David Lewis’ Modal Realism.

But: Ontologically unpalatable.

2. There exists an entity, y, such that

y is the same narrow natural kind as x, and

y has temporal proper parts.

3.4.2 Applying the Modal Definition

AppliedThere exists an entity, y, such that y is the same narrow natural kind as x, andy has temporal proper parts.

Consider the event:the fastest Dipert ever ran (assume there

is just one).

We would naturally say that this occurred or happened, so it appears to be an event.

3.4.3 Applying the Modal Definition

Now consider the fact that:Dipert ran his fastest for only for one, absolute time-instant. Therefore this event has no temporally proper parts.

But: There are other human beings like Dipert who have or will run their

fastest for more than one instant.

Dipert walked (skipped, fell,…) his fastest for more than one instant. The activities of skipping, falling, … are of the relevantly same kind as running.

Or more informally:“It’s possible that Dipert drops dead in the next instance.” is true

because: Implicit Reference Class= Human beings AND

some one of these will drop dead in the next minute.

4.1 The BFO is_a hierarchy for Event

Entity

Occurrent

Event-like Entity (BFO: Processual Entity)

Bona fide Event (BFO: Process)

Event Aggregate (BFO: Process Aggregate)

Event Boundary (BFO: Process

Boundary)

4.2.1 Ontological Classifications of Events

Are there other ontological subkinds of event?I. Time instant, time interval distinction produces:

Instantaneous eventOngoing event

This dichotomy is what might be called a: BFO-implied Event-Type

It is derived from BFO distinctions in other partsof the is_a hierarchy.

They are OWL restrictions, but are not parts of a proper is_a hierarchy, and hence not true kinds

4.2.2 Ontological Divisions among Event

Are there other ontological kinds of event?I. BFO-implied Event-Type (cont.)

Time instant, time interval distinctionInstantaneous eventOngoing event

Absolutely and at a level of granularityAt one level of granularity, the beat of Dipert’s heart at 12 amYesterday is instantaneous; at another it is on-going (theperiod of increase of blood pressure above diatolic level, thepeak sysstolic blood pressure, the period of decrease.

At one level of granularity my step at some particular time (aspart of walking) is instantaneous, at another not.

4.2.3 Ontological Divisions among Event

Are there other ontological kinds of event?I. Other BFO-implied Event-Type distinctions: (cont.)

Change in a fiat-object partChange in an objectComing into being of independent continuant, etc.

4.3 Ontological Divisions among Event

II. Repeated, vs. simple, continuous (non-repeated) events

III. Bona fide unified event aggregates: digestion, life processes. Proper processes.Sequences of repeated events of different event-kindsSpatially separated events or event-sequences (cognitive nervous system activity and digestive activity, both part of life-process bona fide event aggregate).

Problem: geological, stellar processes

4.4 Ontological Divisions among Event

IV. Active events (changes among continuants or of relations among them) vs. states

DOLCE: active (events) vs stative perdurants

V. Activities vs non-activitiesActivity: aggregate of events with the same major participant (object or bona fide object aggregate)

My running. My intentionally changing bodily location. Human activity, criminal activity.

4.5 Ontological Divisions among Event

VI. Distinctions among change-eventsi. Going out of existence of one or more

continuantii. Coming into existence of one or more continuantiii. Change in one or more inherent attributes:

QualityRealizable

RoleDisposition

CapabilityFunction

[Can be treated as (i) or (ii)]iv. Change in location, velocity, acceleration,…

4.6 Process Description Language (PSL)

There are four primitive classes, two primitive functions, and three primitive relations in the ontology of PSL Core. The classes are OBJECT, ACTIVITY, ACTIVITY_OCCURRENCE and TIMEPOINT. The four relations are PARTICIPATES-IN, BEFORE, and OCCURRENCE-OF. The two functions are BEGINOF, and ENDOF. ACTIVITIES, ACTIVITY_OCCURRENCES, TIMEPOINTs (or "POINT”s, for short), and OBJECTs are known collectively as entities, or things. These classes are all pairwise disjointed.

4.7 Process Description Language (PSL)

Kind Informal DefinitionAchievement An achievement is an activity whose

effects achieve the preconditions for some other activity.

Repairable- A repairable fluent is a fluent such that, fluent whenever the fluent does not hold, there exists an activity-occurrence that causes the fluent to hold again. …

4.10.2 Relations In the Reasoning about States Extension (from PSL 1.0)

Day 2 Events and OccurrentsTopics:

Session 11. Importance of Events and Approach to Ontology2. Events and Occurrents in applied ontologies: SUMO (IEEE), Process

Specification Language (PSL), DOLCE, UCore 2.0 and UCoreSL, and BFO ( ISO?)

3. Defining Event and Occurrent4. Kinds of Occurrent

Session 25.0 Stating Neil Williams’ analyses of dispositions (from

Day PM) in BFO5. Mental events6. Acts7. Quasi-continuants: forest fires and hurricanes8. The Relationship of Events to Continuants

5.1 Relations in an OntologyAn applied ontology:

Upper Level; basic, formal ontology• is_a hierarchy of basic ontological kinds• Basic ontological relations

Kinds have instances, and relations hold for some particulars in every non-trivial (non-empty) world.

3. Non-ontological kinds (red, human being)4. Non-ontological relations (gravitational attraction,

has_institutional_power_over)5. Truths about particulars.

5.01 Two Kinds of BFO-ized Dispositions

Auto-dispositions:Disposition d1 that inheres in Continuant c1 brings about (in

certain circumstances) an Event e1 such that c1 participates_in e1Examples: fragility of glass brings about the breaking of the glass; solubility of salt brings about the dissolving of salt in a solvent-fluid.

Alter-dispositions:Disposition d1 that inheres in Continuant c1 brings about (in

certain circumstances) an Event e1such that Continuant c2 (c2≠c1) participates_in e1and c1 does not.Examples: x scratches y, x gravitationally attracts y.

5.02 Correlative (“Reciprocal”)Dispositions in

BFOIff ContinuantType C1 [salt] dissolves in

ContinuantType C2 [water]Then ContinuantType C2 [water] is a solvent for

ContinuantType C1 [salt].

Iff ContinuantType C1 [diamond] scratches ContinuantType C2 [glass]

Then ContinuantType C2 [glass] is scratchable by ContinuantType C1 [diamond]

Cf. The Moh Scale of scratchability

5.02 BFO-izing DispositionsThe harmless part of the Simple Conditional Analysis of

Dispositions:

AxiomIf Disposition d1 to EventKind E1 at TimeKind/Region T1

inheres_in Continuant c1 at Time (Interval | Instant) t1then

for all ProcessualContexts ?p1 [:d1] if c1 is_in_context ?p1 [:d1] at t1 then there exists a time ?t2 and Event ?e1

such that?e1 is temporally_located_at ?t2,?e1 is_instance_of E1 and?t2 part_of T1

5.2 Relations in an Event Ontology

Candidate Relations for events:• All relations that hold for all entities:

part_of, overlaps, located_at,…Distinctive:• Continuant participates_in Event• EventKind1=Coming into being of continuant including

dependent ones (e.g., addition of a quality or disposition)• EventKind2=Going out of being of continuant including

dependent ones• EventKind3=Changes of a continuant’s location, velocity,

….

5.3 Mental Events

Psychology first, because it’s a necessary prelude for discussion of Acts/Actions.

At a minimum, a psychology of cognitive entities like human beings requires events of:Thinking about…Believing…Desiring (an evaluative mental state)…Intending

5.4 Mental Events: Thinking-about

“My thinking about flowers yesterday”This has characteristics of an event:

• Thinking-about occurred or happened• Has a beginning and end (4 pm, 4:10 pm)• Not material (Lowe:non-substantial; CYC: intangible)• Thinkings-about are often caused and can themselves

cause (e.g., by thinking about plants and thinking about vases, respectively).

• Has temporal parts, e.g.: my thinking about flowers between 4 pm and 4:01 pm.

5.5 Mental Events: Thinking-about

“My thinking about flowers yesterday”This has characteristics of an event (continued):

• There exists an information content entity that inheres in me and represents flowers.

• Continuants (me, my brain,…) participate_in this thinking-about.

• This thinking-about is (likely) a process taking place in my nervous system.

• This information content entity was present at least between 4:00 and 4:10 and fulfilled the role of “being thought about by me.”

5.6 Mental Events: Believing and Valuing

My (manifest) believing and valuing has similar event-like characteristics.

• Manifest believing and valuing requires co-extensive thinkings-about

• “My (manifest) intending to water the flowers yesterday” is similarly an event.

• Intending typically requires contemporaneously or prior believings and valuings: e.g., “I believe water is necessary for my plants’ living” and “I want my plants to live.”

6.1.1 Acts: the intend-relation

Proposal:

There is a basic 4+ place relation:intend (Person, Disposition, Information-content

entity: Objective, Time)• The disposition is the behavior that results from bringing

about an instance of the Objective.• The ICE-Objective typically includes times and places of

its realization (e.g., in the next 24 hours). • The disposition may be a weak one and is usually

conditioned by circumstances.

6.1.2 Acts: the intend-relation

Proposal:

There is a basic 4+ place relation:intend (Person, Disposition, Information-content

entity: Objective, Time)

Continued:• A person’s having a disposition, even if accompanied by

an ICE, is not sufficient for this intention-relation to be hold: I can think about gravity, and have the disposition to be pulled to the floor, but this is not thereby an intention to keep my feet on the floor.

6.2 Acts: Definition

Definition of Act: An event that is brought about, in the proper way, by an intending.

UCore-SL (Semantic-Layer):

Definition: An Event that is performed by some Agent.

6.3 Acts and Other Events

There are various kinds of event that are brought about by an intending1. An Act: An Event that conforms to the ICE-objective and is brought about in the proper way.2. A Non-Act Event: conforms to the ICE-objective but is not brought about in the proper way3. A Non-Act Event: does not conform to the ICE-objective:

3.1 Unforeseen effects (events)3.2 Foreseen but unintended, even undesired,

effects (events):(Bratman): jogging wears down shoes.

“Collaterial damage”; “Double Intent”

6.4 Kinds of Acts

Simple acts (E.J. Lowe): Intended, but without prior means-end reasoning, elemental motor skill “Raising my hand.”

Habitualized non-simple acts: riding a bicycle, calligraphy.

Non-habitualized non-simple acts: immediately preceding means-end reasoning brings it about in the proper way.

6.5 Other Classifications of Acts

SUMO:

+ intentional psychological process poking+ recreation or exercise content development+ organizational process - making+ guiding + searching+ keeping + social interaction* maintaining * maneuver+ repairing

6.6 Other Classifications of Acts

Proposal 1:Intentional Psychological ActManeuever Act

SimpleNon-simple

Communicative ActPerceptual Act (Observation…) Simple/Non-simpleManipulating/moving object Act

Activating, Deactivating e.g., turning onMaking, modifying, destroying

ModifyingmaintainingRepairing

6.7 Other Classifications of Acts

Proposal 2 (derived from other BFO Kinds and relations)

Intentionally bringing-about eventIntentionally interrupting/stopping eventIntentionally moving selfIntentionally moving other continuantsIntentionally creating a continuantIntentionally modifying continuant

Intentionally bringing about quality/disposition

Intentionally removing quality/disposition

7.1 Quasi-Continuants

Named Forest-fires, hurricanes, tornados, cold/warm front,… (Environmental events)

Named depressions, recessions, booms,… (Economic events)

Named battles, wars,… (Military Events)

7.2 Quasi-Continuants

Named Environmental events, Economic events, Military events

Continuant characteristics:Have proper namesThe same over time: Katrina entered the Gulf of

Mexico, then struck New Orleans. The Great depression worsened, the battle turned.

7.2 Quasi-Continuants

Named Environmental events, Economic events, Military events

Non-Continuant characteristics:Happen, occurImmaterial, insubstantial, intangibleHave temporal parts: phases, stages,…

8.1 Are Events Reducible to (Facts about) Continuants or

Continuants to Events?1. It thunders.

It rains.

And other events with no named continuant-participants

2. Process Philosophy: there are nothing but events.A.N. Whitehead, W.V. Quine, N. Rescher. What we call

continuants are just certain patterns of events.(An anticipation of 4 dimensionalism.)

8.2 Are Events Reducible to (Facts about) Continuants or

Continuants to Events?Process Philosophy (con.)a. Most events are named and delineated by reference to

their continuant participants, activities of participants, locations, etc.

b. We know of subatomic events only through continuants (artifacts).

c. Without continuants, the coding of a description of reality is inefficient. (Natural Laws are the simplest, most accurate codings of state transformations.)

8.3 Are Events Reducible to (Facts about) Continuants or

Continuants to Events?Consider these facts:Quality q1 inheres in Continuant c1 at time t1.q2 does not inhere in c2 at t1.No quality inheres in c3 at t1. (c3 does not exist.)

q1 does not inhere in c2 at t1+k. c1 lost q1q2 inheres in c2 at t1+k c2 acquired q2No quality inheres in c3 at t1+k c3 still doesn’t exist.

No quality inheres in c1 at t1+k+k c1, c2 went out ofNo quality inheres in c2 at t1+k+ k existence.q3 inheres in c3 at t1+k+k c3 came into

existence.