European History: Part II

European HistoryBroad Historic Overview

Period: Age of Revolutions,European Imperialism and Nationalism

POLS 208 European StudiesEuropean University of Lefke

Early 19th Century dominated by the aftermath of the French Revolution

Prussia, Austria & Netherlands expanded by the peace settlement in 1815 while others such as Poland dissolved in the process of state consolidation

Heightened sense of nationalism thanks to the spread of the Enlightenment Ideas

Social conflicts on the rise

The commons vs. monarchs/autocrats

Age of Revolutions


Important economic shift precipitates conflicts of the 19th Century

Growing industrial base encourages urbanization

New agrarian technologies, few workers greater output

Industrial revolutions in Britain, Prussia and Netherlands in the late 18th Century

France, Italy and USA in the 19th Century

Russia and Austria fails to industrialize

Industrial Revolution


First evidence of industrial production found in large cities of early modern Europe

Specialization of trade and production in specialist workshops

Tradesmen employ larger team of workers

Paid employment of labor in industrial enterprise

“Putting Out” and “Cottage Industry”

Cost of transporting goods overland still expensive in the early 18th



Age of Industry begins slowly in 1780s

Western Europe advances faster as Britain leads the way

Industrial process a bit slow till 1850s due to continuing old methods of labor and population increase

1815 in continental Europe and 1850 in Britain

By 1830th Britain’s industrialization twice the level of France and by 1860th triple

Industrialization of rest of Europe slowed by political & social turmoil and constant warfare



Limits due to lack of transportation, reluctance to let go of traditional business practices and lack of technology

Stephenson’s rocket

Population increases rapidly across Europe

Steam engine invented & improved: mechanization of industry

In 1815 Europe’s industrial pace progresses



Large skilled labor force

Strong governments

Britain: leader to follow during the industrialization

Europe’s Gov’ts building infrastructure of railroads and canals

Zollverein: customs-free union between German states

Gov’ts play role in banking: banks allowed to become corporations



1851: Britain – the workshop of the world

2/3 of world’s coal supply and ½ of its iron

Belgium, France and Germany industrial centers of Europe

Pessimistic views towards the industrialization due to poor crowded city conditions and impoverished workers

Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo’s predictions of “great hunger” (massive food shortage) and “low wages”



Poor urban living conditions with no sanitation

Urban and Industrial growth beyond state’s control

Public drunkenness

Short life expectancy, Disease: rampant

New social classes emerge

Decreasing life standard, low wage, high prices

Horrible working conditions and employment of children



British working class responses to industrialization

The Luddites opposed to effects of mechanization, esp. textiles

Large scale spinning and weaving machines harm the traditional cottage industry

1811 attacks on Factories machinery and owners

Swing Rioters opposed to mechanization of agriculture in 1830s



The Luddites: part of reactive movement against the modernization of the methods of production

An alternative or more proactive movement was the Trade Unions movement

Collective bargaining and threat of strikes

Breaking of contract considered a criminal offense, striking workers charged for conspiracy and breach of public order

Legal Recognition of Unions achieved



Chartism: first large-scale working class political movement

London Working Men’s Association charter:

1. Universal male suffrage

2. Annual Election of the House of Commons

3. Secret Ballots

4. Equal electoral districts

5. Abolition of property requirements for the House of Commons

6. Salaries of Members of the House of Commons



Capitalism: “Capital” – medium of exchange for property or services of value and “laissez-faire” principle of minimal gov’t intervention

Republicanism: Liberty, fraternity, equality, constitutions, parliament, democracies. Opposes monarchy, aristocracy & church.

Liberalism: free trade, laissez-faire, constitutions, parliaments and non-violence. Constitutional monarchy rather than democracy.

New Ideologies of the 1800s


Conservatism: a reactive ideology against the liberal ideas spread with violence, terror and social disorder. Order of the Society and State based on faith and tradition. Opposes the Enlightenment, anti-revolution, anti-democracy and anti-nationalism. Advocates of tradition, gradual reform and Old Regime

Socialism: System of social organization in which the means of production and distribution of goods are owned by a central authority. Opposes liberalism. Protect the workers not the capitalists. Henri de Saint Simon, Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, Karl Marx.



Utilitarianism: the Best Form of Government does the most good for the greatest number of people

Nationalism: pride on language, tradition, culture and religion. Folktales, Poems, songs, grammar, dictionaries as sources of the traditional culture of a nation. Germany, Italy, Ireland, Poland and Hungary.



Corn Laws: taxes placed on imported goods

More expensive, lower quality British grain

Keep British money in Britain rather in France

Corn Laws passed by the Tories.

Whigs: working class, merchants, factory owners. Opposed to the Laws.

Peterloo Massacre in 1819: 80,000 people gather in Manchester.

Anti-Corn League established and in 1846 Corn Laws repealed.

British Corn Laws


Till 1848: idealism and reason prevail

As of 1848: Realpolitik and action arises.

Rejects the high-minded ideologies for actions and ends the Enlightenment

Right wing: Otto von Bismarck in Germany. Alters the “Ems Telegram” to spur war with France. Napoleon III widens the streets of Paris. Italy’s Cavour gets Napoleon III to attack Austria.

Left wing: Marx advocates violent revolution of the proletariat to install a communist system.

The Era of Realpolitik


1870 to 1914: Europe considerably more stable than previous decades

Formation of new states in Germany and Italy

Political Reformations in older states such as Britain and Austria

Internal stability coupled with technological advances promotes political power and will pursued outside Europe

Imperialism not a new concept

Spain, Portugal and Netherlands: large overseas empires result of the age of exploration

European Imperialism and Nationalism


New technologies of the 19th Century encouraged imperial growth

Quinine: contest of inland Africa

Telegraph: monitoring imperial possessions.

States of Europe take control of large territories in Africa and Asia thus heralding the new Era of Imperialism



After France’s defeat in Franco-Prussian War, Bismark requires elections to negotiate peace

Provisional Gov’t elections: Monarchists elected.

Paris forms own government, 40 member council’s “commune”

Commune establishes equality for all citizens, promotion of women’s rights and communal workshops

French provisional governemtn sends troops to Paris

Commune’s members kill the Archbishop, 20000 Parisians killed

1871-1940: the 3rd Republic of France: ceremonial president and a two-chamber Parliament with universal male suffrage



The idea of German State existed since the early middle ages.

The Kingdom of Germany succeeded by the Holy Roman Empire

Power of the central states declines till its abolition in 1806

1815 German territory divides into 40 small states

Popular Nationalism sparked by Napoleonic invasion in 1806

People wish to escape influence of foreign autocrats (France and Austria Emperors) and build their own state



Unification of Germany not solely due to nationalism

German rulers understand that there is strength in working together

Inter-state cooperation across the German Heartland: Zollverein

Nationalistic and economic factors exploited by the conservative king of Prussia and his chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck.

Vision of unified German state that excludes Austrian influence in particular



Italy: a patchwork of small states throughout the middle ages and early modern period

Urbanization and geographical location meant political importance

Dominate by foreign powers for much of this period, esp. the Bourbon Dynasty that placed Kings for France and Spain

This dominance brought to end by Napoleonic wars

Monarchies of France and Spain weakened by the prolonged war



Napoleon attempted to conglomerate Italy into single state

Process that encouraged sense in Italians to belong to a nation

National Flag: the green, white and red tricolore

Although the Treaty of Vienna restored many Italian states, nationalistic feeling remained

Nationalistic and revolutionary groups against the autocrats of the ruing Italian states

Frequent insurrections, however, small and easily dealt with by rulers in Italy



Italian Unification led by Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (ideology) and Guiseppe Garibaldi (the action)

Cavour builds a strong army, healthy economy and political freedoms in Piedmont-Sardinia

Garibaldi leads the Red Shirts or guerilla fighters in southern Italy

Cavour sends troops to stop Garibaldi from invading Rome

Become allies in Naples

1861 the Kingdom of Italy declared, however, unification completes only in 1871 (with the end of Franco-Prussian war)



Russia, late 1800s, strives to increase power and westernize

Militarily the state was weaker than other nations

Autocratic Czar and serfdom

Small middle class and no industrialization

Nicholas I rules using police action and use of army

Alexander II, using the defeat in Crimea (1853-1856), follows the European model to become more powerful



In 1861, serfs were given freedom

Nevertheless, serfs were still bound to their formal feudal dues and had to pay a redemption fee to their former lords

Alexander II ended Nicholas I’s secret police and created public trials and juries

Zemstvos: local provincials councils elected by people that dealt with local governmental issues



Despite this, unrest persisted. Peasant Revolutionaries resented the redemption fees

Nihilists: believe in science, reject traditional society and culture

Anarchists: set to destroy any government

“People’s Will” assassinates Alexander II



International Relations and Imperialism

Herbert Spencer’s social Darwinism

Europeans “most fit” due to technological advancements, education, governmental systems etc.

The concept of “white man’s burden” arises

Ideas and Institutions imposed forcefully



European Industrialization leads to increased need for resources

High level of Nationalism fosters desire for more troops

Colonies needed to provide troops, naval bases and refueling points

Late 1800s, number of European countries possessed new colonies

Belgium: Congo in central Africa

France: Algeria

Italy: Somalia



“The sun never sets on the British Empire”

Britain expanded to include Egypt, Kenya, and South Africa

British, Dutch and French established colonies in Asia



Crimean War

Roots in the so-called “Eastern Question”

Crimean war initiated by Nicholas I pressure on the Ottoman Empire and Russia’s claim for the protection of the Orthodox Christians under the Ottoman rule

Britan and France get involved to prevent Russia from expanding, taking control over the Turkish Straits & Eastern Mediterranean, and upsetting the European balance of power



The first “modern” war

1st time railroads were used to transport troops and goods

1st time steam powered ships were used

New weapons and techniques, artillery and deployment of trenches

Telegraph allowed for the 1st Live war to be broadcast



Conflict marked the end of the Concert of Europe

Russia was defeated looked week

Alexander II enacts internal reforms

Industrialization and modernization

Ottoman Empire kept intact till WWI



Thank you for your attention



European History: Part II

Education

Transcript of European History: Part II