Ideologies of Change: Europe 1815-1914 Unification of Italy & Germany.
Europe in 1914 19 th Century Politics Political Changes between 1815 and 1914 Prussia & other states...
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Europe in 1914
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19th Century PoliticsPolitical Changes between 1815 and 1914
• Prussia & other states = Germany • Italy is united• New nations in the Ottoman Empire
Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria (BALKAN PENINSULA)
• New nations: Belgium, Norway
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The Causes of WW1
•Militarism•Alliances•Imperialism•Nationalism•Significant individuals
By A. Finemesswww.SchoolHistory.co.uk
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MAIN Causes of the War
Imperialism– Definition: policy in which a strong
nation seeks to dominate other countries politically, economically, and/or socially
– European countries competed for colonies in Africa and Asia
– Dominated by Great Britain and France (Italy and Germany were late to take colonies)
– Compete for influence in the Balkans
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Imperialism
• All the great powers were competing for colonies / territory.
• The British feared Germany in Africa.
• The Austrians feared Serbia / Russia in the Balkans
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Eu
ropean
Imp
erialism in
Africa
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European Imperialism in Asia
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Nationalism
–Deep Devotion to One’s Nation–Competition and Rivalry
developed between European nations for territory and markets• (Example France and Germany- Alsace-Lorraine)
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Crisis and Wars in Europe in late 1800’s and early 1900’s
• Austria-Hungary lost a war to France in 1848
• Austria-Hungary lost a war to Prussia in 1866
• Germany defeats France in the Franco-Prussian War(1870-1871) -Germany receives Alsace-Lorraine from France
• United States defeats Spain in the Spanish-American War(1898)
• Japan defeats Russia in the Russo-Japanese War(1904-05)
• France and Germany almost go to war over Morocco(1905& 1911)
• The Pig War between Austria-Hungary and Serbia - a economic war not military
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• Italy defeats Turkey in the Tripolitanian War(1911)
• The Balkan League(Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria & Greece) defeated the Ottoman Empire(Turkey) in the First Balkan War(1912)
• Serbia and Greece defeat Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War(1913)
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Otto Van Bismarck
•Chancellor of Germany from March 1871 – March 1890•Bismarck resigned at Wilhelm II's insistence in 1890
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Kaiser Wilhelm II Rein: 15 June 1888 – 9 November 1918
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Militarism 1.
• Germany was competing with the UK to build battleships.
• The British feared an attack on their Empire
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Militarism 2.
• Germany was competing with Russia and France to expand their armies
18801914
• Germany 1.3m 5.0m• France 0.73m 4.0m• Russia 0.40m 1.2m
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Arms Race and the First World War:
Increase in Spending
There was a four-fold increase in defence spending of the great powers, 1870-1914.
Defence Spending, 1870-1914
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
£m 94 130 154 268 289 398
1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1914
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Arms Race and the First World War:
Armies - 3
As well as their STANDING ARMIES, the nations introduced CONSCRIPTION, so they also had large numbers of trained RESERVES. All the nations except Britain had HUGE armies.
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Arms Race and the First World War:
Navies - 2
Both BRITAIN and GERMANY started building Dreadnoughts – the most advanced class of warship in the world. The Dreadnought essentially reduced everybody else’s number of warships to zero.
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Arms Race and the First World War:
Navies - 3
There was a race between Germany and Britain to build the most Dreadnoughts. The graph shows the number built each year.
Building Dreadnoughts, 1906-1914
0
2
4
6
8
Germany 0 0 4 3 1 3 2 3 1
Great Britain 1 3 2 2 3 5 3 7 3
1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914
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Arms Race and the First World War:
Navies - 5
In the end, Britain’s built many more Dreadnoughts than Germany.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Total Dreadnoughts
Germany 0 0 4 7 8 11 13 16 17
Britain 1 4 6 8 11 16 19 26 29
1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914
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Alliances and the First World War:
Essential Background - Fact 1
World War I was all about the place of Germany in Europe
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Alliances and the First World War:
Essential Background - Fact 2
France and Germany hated each other! When Germany became united country in 1870-1, France went to war to try to stop it … but got WHOPPED!
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Alliances and the First World War:
Essential Background Fact 2 (cont.)
France also lost Alsace-Lorraine in 1870-1.The French never forgave the Germans. They wanted REVENGE.
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Alliances and the First World War:
Germany in the Middle
Germany’s BIG problem was that it was IN THE MIDDLE.
That made it VULNERABLE if it came to a war.
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Alliances and the First World War:
Three Emperors’ League, 1881
In the 19th century, Germany’s brilliant Chancellor, Bismarck, solved this problem by keeping friends with RUSSIA and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY (the Dreikaiserbund).
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Alliances and the First World War:
Triple Alliance, 1882
Then Bismarck allied with Italy and Austria-Hungary (the TRIPLE ALLIANCE, 1882). Together with his friendship with Russia, this kept Germany safe.
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Alliances and the First World War:
Germany encircled
But when Kaiser Wilhelm became Emperor, he dumped the Russian alliance. He kept the Triple Alliance, but this did NOT solve the problem of Germany’s encirclement.
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Alliances and the First World War:
Franco-Russian Alliance, 1892
Instead, in 1892, Russia made an alliance with FRANCE.Although it was only a DEFENSIVE alliance, it was Germany’s worst nightmare!
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Alliances and the First World War:
Entente Cordiale, 1904
… which allowed Britain to make the Entente Cordiale (‘friendly relationship’) with France in 1904.
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Alliances and the First World War:
Triple Entente, 1907
In 1907 Russia joined Britain and France to make the Triple Entente. So by 1914 Europe had divided into two massive superpower blocs.
People thought this BALANCE OF POWER would keep the peace.
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Alliances and the First World War:
The Balkans
But Russia was also allied to Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria. When trouble erupted in the Balkans in 1914, the nations found their alliances dragged them into war…
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Alliances and the First World War:
How the Alliances caused war
… like mountain climbers tied to the same rope.(i.e. it is arguable that THE SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES CAUSED WORLD WAR ONE.)
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Alliances
• By 1914 all the major powers were linked by a system of alliances.
• The alliances made it more likely that a war would start.
• Once started, the alliances made it more likely to spread.
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Pan-Slavism in the Balkans
1914
“Powder Keg” of Europe
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The Balkans: The Restless Region
- Ottoman Empire declining- Nationalism = powerful force in the
Balkans- Austria-Hungary takes over
struggling nations and vows to crush any efforts to undermine authority
- Serbia – supported by Russia; wants to break free from Austria-Hungary
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Significant Individuals 1.
• Kaiser Wilhelm II • Built up German army
and navy• Aggressive foreign
policy• Determined to make
Germany a top nation.• Distrusted by other
powers
“Germany must have its place in the sun”“The world belongs to the strong.”
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Significant Individuals 2
• Count Berchtold• Austrian Prime
Minister.• During the July
Crisis, decided on a very tough ultimatum for Serbia “Were the Serbs to
agree to all the demands, this would not be to my liking”
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Significant Individuals 3
• Bethmann Hollweg• German Prime
Minister• Gave very strong
support to Austria during the July crisis while Kaiser was cruising on his yacht
“The Austrian demands are moderate. Any interference by Britain, France and Russia would be followed by incalculable consequences”
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The Crisis 1.
28 June 1914Heir to Austrian
throne Franz Ferdinand visits Sarajevo.
Capital of Bosnia, recently grabbed by Austria.
Hotbed of Slav nationalism Seal of the
Black Hand group
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The Crisis 2.
“Black Hand” terrorists attack the Arch Duke
Bomb attempt fails in morning
Gavrilo Princip shoots Archduke and wife in the afternoon.
Austrians blame Serbia for supporting terrorists.
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The Crisis 3.
Austrians, supported by Germany, send Serbia a tough ultimatum.
Serbia agrees to all but two terms of the ultimatum.
Russia mobilises her troops to support Serbia
Germany demands that Russia stands her armies down.
Germany declares war on Russia
“Demands must be put to Serbia that would be wholly impossible for them to accept …”
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Why did Britain get involved?
• Britain had Ententes with France and Russia.
• Only “friendly agreements” but French and Russians given impression Britain would fight.
• The Schlieffen Plan
Sir Edward GreyBritish Foreign Secretary … “There’s some devilry going on in Berlin”
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The Schlieffen Plan
Germany’s military plan to defeat France and Russia.
“Knock out blow” aimed at France first.
Avoid French defences by invasion of Belgium.
Germans thought Britain would not intervene.
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Britain’s Reaction1838- UK had signed a
Treaty to protect Belgium.Britain also scared of
Germany controlling Channel ports.
Did not want Germany to defeat France and dominate Europe. Britain next?
UK issued ultimatum to Germany to withdraw troops from Belgium. War declared August 4 1914
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The Great War 1914-1918
• Questions to ask:If war seemed “inconceivable”
why did it happen?
How was this a “world war”?
• The Textbook list of Primary Causes:
Imperialism (colonialism), Nationalism, Militarism and Alliances.
“A Place in the Sun”
“Splendid Isolation”
Naval Race
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Diplomacy 1900-1914
• Confusing Array of Alliances
• Distrust: Boer War, Russo-Japanese War, Africa, Chinese concessions, colonial disputes
• Moroccan Crisis (1905 & 1911)
• Bosnian Crisis (1908-09)
• Trouble in the Balkans (1912-1913)
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The Great War 1914-1918
• Setting the StageI. Crisis in the
BalkansII. The SparkA. Black Hand &
Assassination (6/28/1914)
Franz Ferdinand
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The Great War 1914-1918
• The Spark (continued)
Inquiry: How could an assassination set off a world war?
B. German “Blank Check”
C. Russian Mobilization
D. “Saber Rattling”
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The Great War 1914-1918
• The Players:
Central Powers = Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire
Allied Powers = Great Britain & Commonwealth, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia, Japan, Italy (1915), USA (1917)
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The Great War 1914-1918
III. The Armed StalematePeter Browning & The Changing
Nature of Warfare. Shift from Political Warfare to Position Warfare.
A. The Schlieffen Plan and its significance. 8/3/1914: Belgium’s neutrality is violated
B. The War on Land and the Western Front
War in the Trenches, Battle of Verdun, Battle of the Somme.
“The lamps are going out all over Europe;we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”Sir Edward Grey (Aug. 4, 1914)
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The Great War 1914-1918
B. The War at SeaNaval blockade, Submarine warfare, the
Lusitania
C. Diplomatic ManeuversItaly, Zimmermann Telegraph, Asia,
German Expansionism
D. Russia & Eastern FrontRussian Revolution, Provisional
Government, The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
E. U.S. Enters the WarW. Wilson: “Peace without victory.” and “To make the world safe for democracy” (?)
F. The World at War: Africa & Asia
G. Germany’s declineH. ArmisticeDid the Central Powers surrender?
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Questions Historians ask:
• Schlieffen Plan: Was the Schlieffen Plan of the German General Staff a sound war strategy?
• Yes. The various directives that made up the German war plan indicate a high level of flexibility and a willingness to respond to events. (Robert T. Foley)
• No. The Schlieffen Plan was predicated on an inexorable progression to an all-or-nothing victory. (Antulio Echevarria)
• No. The Schlieffen Plan seriously underestimated the capabilities of enemy forces and did not take into account their tenacity and rapid deployment. (John Wheatley)
• Belgian Neutrality: Was the violation of Belgian neutrality in 1914 the reason for Great Britain’s declaration of war on Germany?
• Yes. The international treaty of 1839 had formally acknowledged that Belgian neutrality was an important element in European stability and British strategic interests. (Paul Du Quenoy)
• No. The British had already determined to declare war once Germany had mobilized its military forces. (John Wheatley)
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Historiography of WWI
• The Fisher ThesisGerman documents prove expansionist aims. War used to
contain domestic unrest.• Barbara Tuchman: The Guns of August (1962)Historical narrative of August, 1914• G. Lowes Dickinson: International Anarchy (1926)Alliance system blamed for the war• Sidney Fey: The Origins of the World War (1928)Blames Russia & A-H• Vladimir LeninInevitable outcome of capitalism is war• Nye Committee (1934-6) for U.S. involvement
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Peace of Paris 1919
• Five Treaties:Austria = Treaty of St. Germaine
Hungary = Treaty of Trianon
Bulgaria = Treaty of Neuilly
Turkey = Treaty of Sevres
Germany = Treaty of Versailles
• Big FourFrance (Clemenceau), G.B. (George),
U.S. (Wilson), Italy (Orlando).
32 countries total with only 8 meetings
Germany & Russia not invited!
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Treaty of Versailles 1919
• Wilson’s Fourteen Points- Germany’s armistice hinged on
the provisions of the Fourteen Points. New democratic Germany hoped to be treated as an equal.
- End to secret treaties and secret diplomacy; freedom of the seas; removal of barriers in international trade; evacuation of occupied territories; self-determination of nationalities; redraw the map of Europe; League of Nations.
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Wilson’s 14 Points
- Wilson hoped to revive the idealism of 19th century Europe with American Democracy = a new era
- Controversy: France demanded reparations, UK vetoed “freedom of the seas”. League of Nations covenant debated: U.S. & religious freedom, Japan & racial discrimination.
- U.S. senate never ratifies the League due to Article 10 (protection of territorial independence of all members). Senate = Republican Party, election year (1920)
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Treaty of Versailles 1919
• France:Number one concern = security from
Germany aggression
Revenge for Franco-Prussian War?
1. Anglo-French-American Guarantee Treaty (protection against Germany).
2. Alsace-Lorraine returned to France (lost in F-P War).
3. German military banned from Rhineland + Allied occupation. France controls Saar coal mines in Rhineland for 15 years.
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France: Punish Germany
4. Disarm Germany. How and in what way?
5. War Reparations. Due in part to emotions, reparations paid to Germany for F-P War, and debt owed to U.S.
Great Britain: wanted a peaceful united Germany to stop Bolshevism and to become a strong market for British goods.
Treaty was a compromise between the two nations
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Treaty of Versailles 1919
• Germany and Disarmament
1. Rhineland demilitarized2. Military demobilized. No
air force allowed.3. Limited to 7 divisions of
infantry, 3 of cavalry: total can’t exceed 100,000 men & 4,000 officers
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Treaty of Versailles 1919
4. No Navy. Germans scuttled fleet at Scapa Flow. No submarines allowed. Merchant Marine allowed providing it does not compete with allied interests.
5. Germany assumes “War Guilt Clause”
6. “Diktat” = Germany not consulted on matter
Was this done in the spirit of idealism to end armed conflict?
How would Germany defend itself from any aggression?
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Treaty of Versailles 1919
• The Map of Europe1. Danzig Corridor – created a passage to the sea for Poland.
Danzig a free city, mainly German in ethnicity. East Prussia separated from Germany.
2. Russia loses Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Each become “new” nations. Cordon Sanitaire created to contain Bolshevism.
3. Austria-Hungary carved up. Creation of Yugoslavia & Czechoslovakia. Empire in decline, separated from Germany.
4. Italy makes small gains from Treaty of London.
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Treaty of Versailles 1919
• The World Map1. Germany lost all colonies. The League gave mandates to powers
for administration. 2. African Colonies: mainly to France, GB. Belgian Congo enlarged,
S. Africa gains land.3. Japan gained German Pacific Islands, concessions in China. 4. Australia & New Zealand gain Pacific islands.5. China sought to abolish special concessions and extraterritorial
rights of Europeans. They lost, walked out of the conference.6. Italy gains nothing from colonies.7. New nation of Turkey emerges from Ottoman Empire. Land
restricted, area carved up into new nations 1920 & 1923.
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The Mandates
Colonies and territories not yet able to “stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world” are governed by (mainly) GB and France
Middle East, Pacific, Africa- Considered paternalistic and
condescending- Nations had to submit yearly
reports to the League. Unrest meant a League committee.
- Self-determination was established for a future date of independence.
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Mandates in Africa and Asia
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Outcomes of the Peace of Paris
• Germany refused to sign. Threat of hostilities to commence by allies. Germany signs with a delegation of two people. Germany humiliated.
• New nations affirmed by “self-determination”. Actually, they declared themselves before Paris. Trouble with minority groups caught in borders.
• Many of the terms were too harsh or too lenient. They were later amended after emotions and rationality returned.
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Outcomes of the Peace of Paris
• United States gets out of European affairs. Isolation.
• “Ancient institutions of monarchy and aristocratic feudalism” are gone (Palmer-Colton, 731)
• League of Nations emerges as new step toward democracy.
• Great Britain and France emerge as the status quo.
• Margaret McMillian (Peace of Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World): The peacemakers worked with the best solutions given the time. Enforcement was left for a new generation (who failed).
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Outcome of the other Treaties
• Treaty of St. Germaine: Austria made into a small state of 8 million. New states made: Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. No alliances allowed with Germany.
• Treaty of Trianon: Hungary lost 2/3 of land to Czechoslovakia, Romania & Yugoslavia.
• Treaty of Nevilly: Bulgaria lost land to Greece and Serbia.
• Treaty of Sevres: The harshest treaty; Turkey loses to the MANDATES; ethnic groups pulled out; GB and France control the Middle East.
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Questions for Versailles
• ‘The Versailles Treaty was criticized by both winners and losers.’ How justified was this criticism?
• How would you evaluate the success of the Paris Peace treaties in resolving armed conflict as a means to settle disputes and in restoring peace and normality?
• What problems do you believe will emerge in Europe from the outcomes of the Paris Peace Treaties for both the victorious and defeated nations?
• How far do you agree with the view that Versailles was a brave attempt to deal with difficult, perhaps impossible problems?
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Impact of the Great War
• Acceleration of Government Intervention
Nationalism & Propaganda bound together
Economic Control (due to war mobilization) Laissez Faire Capitalism changes
U.S. and Japan begin to control world trade
New political structures = Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia (ethnic enclaves), Soviet Union (economic coalition)
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Self-Determination? The German Question
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Impact of the Great War
• Disruption of Rationality & Liberalism
Enter the “Age of Uncertainty”:
Sciences = Quantum Physics Art & Music = Cubism,
Surrealism, Expressionism, Dadaism
• Human Cost“The Lost Generation”
Miro’s Birth of the World (1925)
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Impact of the Great War
• EconomicAmerica assumes banking roleInflation ravages Germany; Middle
Class declinesPopular speculation in markets
• Societal NormsWomen’s Suffrage MovementBacklash: Church, family, childrenU.S.: Temperance & Prohibition
• New Mass CultureFilm, Radio, NewspapersAdvertisement IndustryLeisure Time
Max Ernst: Celebes (1921)
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Intellectual Thought to War
• The Short War IllusionMain reason for intellectual acceptance
of the the war. Minority against war labeled as “pacifists”
• Meliorist MythNations can no longer remain neutral
• Irrational ThoughtFreud and Nietzsche gain acceptance
unlike pre-war era.
• Versus HabitPolarization of conflict increases:
“Us against Them”Freud, Nietzsche, Kafka, Hesse, Heidegger
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Intellectual Thought to War
• Humanism & Positivism Destroyed
War challenged the belief of progress to ambiguity & uncertainty
Literary examples:
• Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West (1918-22)
• Franz Kafka, The Trial (1925)
• Aldous Huxley, Brave New World (1932)
• Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its Discontents
Rodchenko, Composition with Circles(1920)
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Intellectual Thought to War
• Moods of the time: angst & cultural despair
End of the Modern Period? Beginning of the Postmodern Period?
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Art from the Great War
Marcel DuchampNude Descending Staircase
Salvador Dali The Persistence of Memory
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Marc ChagallThe Woman and the Roses
Joan MiroChiffres et Constellation
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Wassily KandinskyComposition VII
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Gustav KlimtDeath and Life[1916]