The Great Sundering

The Story of the Protestant

Reformation

Part One: Preludes to the Reformation

1. Church Corruption

- By 16th Century, Church prestige damaged by

Great Schism & criticisms of Humanists.

- Critics concentrated attacks on 4 problems

in church:

1. Clerical Immorality: Restrictions on celibacy

often ignored, especially in rural areas.

2. Clerical Ignorance: Standards for ordination

shockingly low. Many priests barely literate.

3. Clerical Pluralism: The practice of holding

multiple church offices at once.

4. Clerical Extravagance: Top church officials

lived in lavish luxury.

5. Simony: The sale of Church offices.

- Situation made worse by series of questionable Popes:

1. Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia)

- Spaniard who lived with mistress & illegitimate children.

- Appointed sons Cardinals, forced Duke of Pesaro to marry

his daughter Lucretia Borgia.

- Funded son Cesare Borgia’s in wars of conquest.

- Poisoned series of Cardinals in order to inherit their wealth.

- Worst. Pope. Ever.

2. Julius II (Guiliano della Rovere)

- Nicknamed Il Papa Terribile, known for aggressive foreign

policy & military style.

- Donned armor & fought personally in battle.

3. Leo X (Giovanni de Medici)

- Son of Lorenzo the Magnificent & not actually a Priest.

- Appointed Cardinal at age 16 with help of Dad’s money.

- Never attended Seminary or formally ordained.

- Spent lavishly as Pope, running through Papal treasury

in just two years.

- Began selling church offices to raise funds.

2. The Lollards

- 14th Century religious reform movement in England

led by John Wycliffe. Beliefs:

1. Papal claims of temporal power had basis in

Scriptures.

2. Scriptures alone should be the standard of Christian

belief and practice.

3. Abolish practices such as the veneration of Saints,

pilgrimages, pluralism, and absenteeism.

4. The Church should be stripped of its property.

5. Christians should read Bible and decide its meaning

for themselves.

- Struck at the roots of medieval religious practice.

- A precursor to the Reformation in following century.

- Wycliffe protected by Edward III’s son John of Gaunt

- Many in England resented money going to a French pope

helping France finance war against England.

- Lollard means "mumbler of prayers and psalms."

- Lollards produce first English Bible.

- Lollard ideas go from England to Bohemia through

German wife of the King Richard II.

3. Jan Hus

- Bohemian Priest in Prague & Professor at

University of Prague.

- Influenced by Wycliffe, begins preaching his ideas.

- 1415: Brought before Council of Constance, refuses

to recant his heresies and burned to death.

- News of Huss’ execution reaches Bohemia, Czechs

declare rebellion against Church.

- 1420: Pope declares a Crusade against Bohemian

rebels, Emperor Sigismund leads troops against.

- Hussites led by 60 year-old one-eyed knight

Jan Zizka, who defeats Germans repeatedly.

- Nobles originally supported rebellion in order to

get hands on Church property.

- Once this is achieved nobles lose enthusiasm &

Church re-establishes control.

- Rest of revolution over by 1436.

- A remnant in Eastern Bohemia holds out (exists

to this day as the Moravian Brotherhood).

4. Philosophers

Marsiglio de Padua

- Rector of University of Paris

- 1324: Publishes Defensor Pacis (Defender of the Peace)

- Said the state was the great unifying power in society.

- The Church should thus be subordinate to the State &

should own no property of its own.

- Said that authority in the Church rests with a council of

both laymen & priests superior to the Pope.

- In direct contradiction to medieval notion of a society

governed by Church & State with Church supreme.

- Marsiglio excommunicated for his ideas.

William of Ockham

- English Friar who pioneered skeptical way of thinking.

- Ockham’s Razor: “A plurality of causes is not to be

assumed without necessity”.

- “The simplest explaination is usually correct.”

- Applied skepticism to dogmas of Church, his “razor”

“shaving” off many beliefs.

- Reduced much of theology to un-provable guesses.

Part Two: The Reformation Begins 1. Martin Luther

- German monk of Peasant background.

- Trained for a time to be a Lawyer.

- A priest & later Doctor of Theology teaching at

University of Wittenberg in Saxony.

- Devote follower of ritual, but plagued by doubts.

- Comes to believe that salvation comes from

simple faith in Christ (not external rites).

- Humbly going about life, until…

2. Archbishop Albert

- Wittenberg within Archdiocese of Magdeburg.

- Albert, Archbishop of Magdeburg wants to also be

Archbishop of Mainz.

- To hold both offices required special permission

from Pope Leo X.

- Leo demands huge “fee” for granting permission

(short on funds for new St. Peter’s Basilica).

- Albert borrows from Fugger banking family of

Augsburg to pay Leo’s fee.

- How can Albert raise money to pay back the loan?

3. The Indulgence Controversy

- Leo authorizes Albert to sell indulgences in order to pay back Fuggers.

- St. Peter’s to be funded, in part, through this indirect sale of indulgences.

- An indulgence, in Catholic theology, is a special forgiveness for a sin.

- Belief was that Saints in heaven had a “surplus of merits” which they could

share with sinners.

- Sale of indulgences = buying forgiveness for yourself or a deceased relative.

- Viewed at time as a ticket to heaven…for a price.

- Dominican Friar John Tetzel put in charge of sales drive, even draws up

price chart & sells indulgences for future sins.

- Preys on ill-educated peasants, declaring “As soon as coin in coffer pings,

the soul from Purgatory springs!”

- Goes from town to town in Saxony, selling indulgences, when word reaches

Luther of the practice…

4. The Ninety-Five Theses

- 1517: Luther writes down his objections to

the sale of indulgences.

- Posts “Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of

Indulgences” on cathedral doors (maybe).

- His 95 points of argument quickly published

& countless copies spread throughout Germany.

- Luther living in a post-Gutenberg world a key

factor in his success.

- Luther’s position in the 95 Theses:

1. Indulgences undermined the seriousness of

the sacrament of penance

2. Indulgences competed with preaching of Gospel

3. No biblical basis for practice of indulgences

(fundamental idea of ML's argument)

- Luther’s critics charge that denial of indulgences

equal denial of the Pope who authorized them.

- 1519: Luther denies authority of the Pope in a

public debate.

- Pope gives Luther 2 years to recant or be excommunicated.

- Luther publicly burns the warning letter…

5. Charles V (r. 1519-1556)

- “Others wage war; you, Austria, marry.”

- Hapsburgs renowned for gaining new lands by

marrying female heirs & inheriting their domains.

- Principle best embodied in Emperor Charles V.

- Maternal grandparents were Ferdinand & Isabella,

from whom he inherited Spain & New World colonies.

- Father was ruler of Austria, Burgundy, Flanders,

Bohemia, Naples, and HRE.

-1519: Inherits these vast domains at 19, seeing himself

as destined to unite Europe under one emperor (him).

- Two obstacles: France & the 300+ Princes of the HRE.

- If Charles could forge HRE into real country, his dream

could be achieved.

- German Nobility resists him, many seeing Luther’s new

movement as a chance to undermine Charles.

- As King of Spain, he must support Church and cannot

compromise with Luther.

- Quickly embroiled in wars with France, also.

- Seeks to deal with Luther quickly.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Habsburg_Map_1547b.jpg

6. The Diet of Worms

- 1521: Charles summons Diet of Worms to resolve the controversy over Luther.

- Promises his uncle (& Luther’s prince) Frederick of Saxony that Luther will

not be harmed.

- Luther can trust promise to Frederick, knows he will be safe.

- Luther questioned before Princes of HRE & Charles, asked to recant.

- Asks for day to consider & word his answer properly, spends night praying.

- Next day, refuses to recant & denies authority of the Pope.

- Ends with (in German) “Here I stand; I can do no other. God help me. Amen.”

- Luther leaves Worms, Charles issues Edict of Worms declaring him an outlaw.

- Frederick has men kidnap Luther on road home, hides him in Wartburg Castle.

- Luther, now in hiding, begins German translation of Bible.

7. The Peasant’s War

-1524: Uprising of German peasants & poor town

dwellers, mostly in southern & western Germany.

- Demands mostly political & economic, but revolt

sparked by Luther’s revolt.

- Mostly demanded lower taxes, impartial courts, &

abolishing of serfdom.

- Luther condemns revolt, contributing to its demise.

-1525: Peasant army crushed by Swabian League,

revolt lingers in Austria to 1526.

- About 100,000 peasants killed in the fighting overall.

- Largest popular uprising in Europe until 1789.

8. Thomas Müntzer

- Radical preacher, originally a follower of Luther.

- Soon adopted radical ideas, demanding overthrow of

existing social order.

-1524: Made leader of town of Muehlhausen where he

sets up a communist theocracy.

- 1525: Captured in battle & beheaded.

- A Communist/Socialist icon in Germany.

9. The Confession of Augsburg

-1521-1530: Luther works out basic ideas that

become basis of Protestant Christianity.

- Many German princes & town governments

adopt his ideas.

-1530: Charles V calls Diet of Augsburg, asks

for written statement of Protestant beliefs.

- Presented by Protestant Princes in 28 articles.

- Confession of Augsburg formalized Lutheran

beliefs; Three broad, basic concepts:

1. Predestination/Salvation by Faith

- Catholics believe people get to heaven by

faith & performance of good works & rites.

- Catholics say people have free will to sin or

not to sin, then God judges you.

- Luther says salvation is by faith alone.

- God arbitrarily picks who to save without

regard to good works or sacraments.

- Luther rejects free will based on God’s

omnipotence.

- Notion of free will vs. fate still a debated topic.

2. Scriptural Authority

- Catholics hold that the Bible & teachings/traditions of the Church are the

sources of religious authority.

- Luther says only the Word of God, as revealed by Scripture, is valid along with

individual conscience.

- Thus: No mass, no celibate clergy, no monasteries, no pilgrimages, etc.

3. The Priesthood of All Believers

- Catholics say the Church is the Priests.

- Luther says the Church is made up of all believers.

- Everyone theoretically equal in Protestantism, and a priest not technically

needed to get to heaven.

Part Three: The Reformation Spreads

1. Switzerland (Zwingli)

- 1519: A parallel Reformation begins in Switzerland

influenced by Luther & led by Ulrich Zwingli.

- Elected “People’s Priest” in Zurich, declares he will

only follow Scripture.

- Cities in Switzerland begin converting to Protestant,

established new religion in large areas of the country.

- 1524: Catholic-loyal region form League of the Five

Cantons to combat Protestantism.

- 1529: Zwingli meets with Luther at Marburg Colloquy,

establish agreement on 14 points.

- Split over issue of Eucharist (Zwingli sees as merely

symbolic).

- 1531: Zwingli killed in battle fighting the Five Cantons.

2. Switzerland (Calvin)

-1533: Parisian lawyer John Calvin becomes Protestant.

- Heavily influenced by legal training (God = Lawgiver &

Supreme Judge, His law His greatest gift).

- 1536: Publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion:

1. Absolute sovereignty of God, absolute weakness of

man (cornerstone of Calvinism)

2. Free will does not exist.

3. God decided at beginning of time who will be saved

(Predestination); cannot work to influence Him.

- Critics ever since call Calvinism pessimistic & fatalistic.

- Seemed a return to Old Testament in many way,

eliminating all music & art of Catholic ceremonies.

- The Calvinist, however, believed that he was one of the

saved & took comfort in that.

- 1541: Calvin invited by citizens of Geneva, Switzerland

to help reform the city to Protestantism.

- In Geneva, Calvin leads a movement to create a

model Christian society.

- To be ruled “by God”… through civil magistrates.

- 1541: Publishes Genevan Catechism, series of

questions & answers for people to memorize.

- Also forms civil government, Genevan Consistory.

- Body of laymen plus “Company of Pastors” with

Calvin at the head.

- Regulated & monitored personal conduct to an

unprecedented degree.

- Absence from church, dancing, card playing, &

even family quarrels could be punished.

- Men viewed as holy & moral, women sinful, & single

women dangerous.

-1542-46: 76 people banished & 58 executed for more

serious crimes (heresy, witchcraft, adultery, etc.)

- Spanish humanist Michael Servetus burned at stake

in Geneva for denying the Trinity.

- Geneva would nonetheless be an inspiration for

future Calvinist groups…

3. Scandinavia

- Denmark & Sweden are first Monarchies to convert

to Protestantism (Lutheranism).

- Swedish King Gustav Vasa already feuding with the

Pope, severs relations with Papacy in 1523.

-1527: Swedish Parliament adopts Lutheranism, gives

all church property to the King.

- Bloodless & without fuss (leave it to the Swedes).

- In Denmark, Frederick I tolerated Lutherans but did

not convert.

- Following Frederick’s death in 1533, brief civil war

between Catholics & Lutherans ensues.

-1536: Frederick’s Lutheran son Christian III becomes

King, establishes Lutheranism as official religion.

- Christian tolerant to Priests & Nuns, allowing them

to stay in Churches & Monasteries until their deaths.

- All Church property eventually to devolve back to

the Crown.

4. The Netherlands

- Luther had almost no impact among the Dutch, but

new forms of Protestantism did.

- Many Dutch begin practicing Anabaptism.

- Originated in Switzerland in 1521; Basic beliefs:

1. Baptism for believers only (adults).

2. No official clergy required, but all Christians

should read Bible & be guided conscience.

3 No taking of oaths or working as a magistrate.

4 Non-violence & Pacifism; no military service.

- Sometimes wore plain clothes, spoke & acted

differently, or lived communally.

- Often persecuted, & deeply unpopular.

- Modern descendents include Quakers, Amish, etc.

- In the 1560s, Calvinism begins to take root in the

Low Countries.

- Under domain of Spanish, who harshly persecute.

- 1568: Calvinist leader William the Silent begins long

rebellion against Spanish & to establish Calvinism.

- Becomes basis of Dutch Reformed Church.

5. Scotland

- Led by John Knox, a student of Calvin’s.

- Scottish switch to Protestant partly motivated by

desire to curb French influence.

- 1560: Scotland under regime of French Mary of Guise.

- Mary had been married to James V, who died in 1542.

- Ruled as regent for her daughter Mary Queen of Scots,

then also Queen of France.

- Many in Scotland fear they are about to become a

province of France.

- Nobles ally with growing Protestant movement amid armed

rebellion against French rule.

- 1560: Scottish Reformation Parliament meets.

- Passes Papal Jurisdiction Act, declaring that Pope has no

authority in Scotland.

- Parliament bans the Catholic Mass & approves a new

Confession of Faith drawn up by a council of ministers.

- Becomes basis of Presbyterian branch of Protestantism.

Part Four: The English Reformation

1. Enter the Tudors

-1485: Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, defeats

unpopular Richard III in Battle of Bosworth Field.

- Declares himself King Henry VII, marrying Richard’s

niece Elizabeth York to cement his claim.

- Ends long-running War of the Roses between York

& Lancaster families (Tudors part of Lancasters)

- Establishes new dynasty, the Tudors, which will rule

England until 1603.

2. The Next Generation

- Henry fathers 4 kids who survive childhood: Arthur

(the oldest), Henry, Mary (marries King of France), &

Margaret (marries James IV of Scotland).

- Arthur marries Catherine of Aragon, daughter of

Ferdinand & Isabella of Spain.

- Arthur dies 4 months later, leaving Henry the new heir.

- Prince Henry obtains permission from Pope Julius II to

marry his brother’s widow (which is given).

3. Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547)

- One of the most influential & controversial monarchs

in British history.

- His reign & its aftermath a time of upheaval & change.

- A strong personality able to bully Parliament into

giving him what he wanted.

- Early on, a staunch Catholic (“Defender of the Faith”).

- His personal life became a driver of events.

- 1516: Daughter Mary Tudor is born, the only child of

his first marriage to survive until adulthood.

- 1525: Wife now 40, unlikely to produce a male heir.

- Also, Henry having affair with young Anne Boleyn &

wants marriage to her.

- Applies to Pope Clement VII for an annulment of his

marriage to Catherine.

- Said Julius II should not have approved the marriage.

- Pope hesitant to grant annulment, not wanting to make

Julius look bad or to give Protestants ammunition.

- Also, under attack by HRE Charles V…Catherine’s aunt.

4. Out with Catherine....

- Henry’s wanting a new marriage not simply about

“wanting a boy.”

- Legitimately concerned about a new civil war if he does

not leave a male heir.

- Pope meanwhile drags out process, forbids Henry from

taking any action until decision is reached.

- Henry knows pope unlikely to grant annulment.

-1530: Henry’s Lord Chancellor Cardinal Thomas Wolsey

blamed & fired.

- Replaced with scholarly Sir Thomas More.

- More at first supports Henry but opposes him when he

later denies authority of the Pope.

- 1532: More resigns, replaced with Thomas Cromwell.

5. …In with Anne.

- 1533: Henry weds the pregnant Anne.

- Could no longer wait & risk the unborn child being born

a bastard (and thus ineligible for the throne).

- Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declares the

marriage valid.

6. The Final Break

- Henry moves swiftly to complete break with Rome.

- Act of Succession (1533) declares Mary a bastard &

says any child of Henry & Anne the heir.

- Parliament also forbids appeals to Rome, resulting in

Pope excommunicating Henry & Cranmer.

- Pope also declares Henry’s new marriage invalid.

- Parliament passes series of measures:

1. Act of Supremacy (1534): Said the King was the only

head of the Church of England.

2. Ecclesiastical Appointments Act (1534): Gave King

the right to nominate Bishops for clergy to elect.

3. Treasons Act (1534): Made it a capital crime to

question the Act of Supremacy.

- 1535: Thomas More executed under Treasons Act.

- Followed in 1536 by Dissolution of the Monasteries.

- Monasteries broken-up, the property to Henry.

- New Anglican Church keeps most Catholic theology,

Henry moves to suppress radical Protestant reform.

- 1539: Six Articles re-affirm Catholic ideas such as

transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, & confession.

- 1543: Reading of the Bible by common people banned.

6. The Honeymoon is Over...

- Meanwhile, the marriage of Henry & Anne soon

deteriorates.

- Sept 1533: Anne gives birth to a girl, Elizabeth,

disappointing Henry.

- Anne’s violent temper annoying Henry, as well.

- By 1534, Henry seeking way to get rid of Anne to

marry Jane Seymour.

- Two miscarriages of male children also upsets

Henry, who decides on harsh course of action.

- May 1536: Anne arrested on charges of adultery,

incest, & High Treason.

- Evidence pretty-thin, but Henry controls courts

& Anne found guilty and beheaded.

- Henry marries Jane ten days later.

7. Wives Three through Six…

- Parliament passes Act of Succession (1536) declaring

Jane’s kids the heir & both Mary & Elizabeth bastards.

- Oct 1537: Jane gives birth to a boy, Edward, but dies two

weeks later of infection.

-1540: Henry marries German Anne of Cleves, but finds her

unattractive, regrets marriage, & seeks annulment.

- Anne #2 smartly does not oppose & goes along with it.

- Given a title and a castle for her cooperation.

- Chancellor Cromwell executed for arranging the marriage.

- Henry at once marries Catherine Howard (Anne Boleyn’s

first cousin).

- Catherine #2 soon has an affair, resulting in execution in

1542 when Henry finds out.

- 1543: Henry marries wealthy widow Catherine Parr.

- Catherine #3 survives Henry, even convincing him to

reconcile with his daughters.

- 1544: New Act of Succession puts Mary & Elizabeth back

in line for throne behind Edward.

- 1547: Henry, by then grossly obese, finally dies; women of

England breath gigantic sigh of relief.

8. Edward VI (r. 1547 – 1553)

• Henry followed by 10 year-old son via Jane Seymour.

• Uncle Edward Seymour runs country as regent.

• King trusted Archbishop Cranmer, supports his efforts to

further the Reformation in England.

• Images banned in Church, Clerical Celibacy ended, & the

traditional mass ended.

• Reforms unpopular with both traditionalists & Calvinist

types who want to go even farther (Puritans).

• 1553: King becomes ill, soon clear he will die.

• Edward’s Catholic sister Mary becoming Queen = bad

news for his Protestant advisors.

• Advisors convince Ed to name his Protestant cousin

Lady Jane Grey his successor.

• Contradicted Succession Act of 1543 & not approved by

Parliament, however.

• July 6: Edward dies, a succession crisis follows along

religious lines…

9. The “Nine Days Queen”

• 16 year-old Jane Grey the granddaughter of Henry VIII’s

sister Margaret Tudor.

• Pressured by father-in-law & husband to accept Edward’s

appointment.

• July 10: Takes up residence in Tower of London (typical

home of English monarchs awaiting coronation).

• Mary in Suffolk outside London, gathering supporters.

• July 19: Mary enters London, declared queen by Parliament.

• Jane arrested, later executed for High Treason.

10. Mary I (r. 1553 – 1558)

• Mary re-establishes Catholicism in England, appoints

Catholic Bishop Stephen Gardiner Lord Chancellor.

• Protestant laws of Edward & Henry repealed.

• 1554: Mary marries cousin Phillip II of Spain, leading to

revolts around the country.

• Duke of Suffolk leads revolt on behalf of his daughter

Jane Grey, leading to the execution of both.

• Revolts followed by the Marian Persecutions targeting

English Protestants.

• Approximately 800 wealthy Protestants flee country,

284 more executed for religious reasons.

• The source of her nickname “Bloody Mary”.

• 1557: Phillip persuades her to support Spain in his war

against France.

• An unpopular blunder, ending with England losing Calais,

its last continental possession.

• Mary suffers through two phantom pregnancies, soon

ill and dying.

• 1558:. Childless Mary dies, throne passing to half-sister

Elizabeth

11. Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603)

• The final Tudor monarch, and the most successful.

• England a second-rate power upon her accession, a

first-rank power by end of her reign.

• Smarter than her father and just as ruthless.

• Comes to power in precarious position, considered a

bastard by Catholic and Catholic powers.

• Catholics consider her cousin Mary Queen of Scots the

rightful heir.

• Builds power with Machiavellian subtly & skill.

• Elizabeth adopts motto Video et Taceo (“I see and am

silent”).

• Careful to keep enemies from knowing her thoughts and

views on anything (“never showed her hand”).

• Used status as a single woman to keep enemies at bay.

• Potential enemies in France & Spain hoped to marry her

& obtain England.

• Let them think she was open to idea.

• Gave her years to establish her reign, repair finances, &

build up her military.

12. The “Elizabethan Settlement”

• Elizabeth’s response to the religious divisions in England.

• Relied on advisors Sir William Cecil & Sir Nicholas Bacon.

• Set out in Settlement in two acts of Parliament:

1. Act of Supremacy of 1559

- Re-established Church of England’s independence.

- Declared Elizabeth the head of Church of England.

2. Act of Uniformity of 1559

- Forced people to attend Anglican services.

- Mandated the use of the Book of Common Prayer.

- Retained a good deal of Catholic doctrine & rite.

• Also avoided harsh measures against Catholics, ending

religious strife in England for a nearly a century.

• A group of strident Protestants think her reforms not

enough (Puritans).

• Puritans would eventually come into conflict with

Anglicanism, leading to English Civil War in 1640.

Part Five: The Counter-Reformation

• Catholics respond to Reformation with Counter-Reformation, also

called the Catholic Reformation.

• A comprehensive movement consisting of 3 main elements:

1. Doctrine & Reform

• 1545: Pope Paul III calls Council of Trent.

• Commission of Cardinals tasked with institutional reform.

• Would need to address multiple issues of corruption in the Church.

• Also sought to reconcile with Protestants, who are invited.

• Charles V wanted Protestants there, but efforts blocked by France which

wanted to keep his realm divided & weak.

• The Tridentine Decrees reaffirm Catholic theology & practice, re-stating basic

tenants of Catholicism & rejecting compromise with Protestants.

• Official Roman Catechism written, still considered authoritative by Catholics.

• Corrected worst abuses and corruption within Church:

- Ended practices of Pluralism, Absenteeism, & Simony.

- Clerical ignorance in rural parishes addressed through establishment of

seminaries in every diocese.

- New generation of seminary-trained priests tended to live more in-line with

Church teachings, including celibacy.

2. New Religious Orders

• Many religious orders exist within Catholic Church.

• Sub-groups of clergy with different rules & goals.

• New orders established to reinvigorate the Church &

combat Protestants.

• Would strengthen rural parishes, combat Church

corruption, & serve as good examples.

• Major ones:

A. The Capuchins

- An offshoot of the Franciscans.

- Focused on life of austerity & care for the poor.

- Wore brown robes the color of a certain popular

and streamed milk beverage...

B. The Ursulines

- An order of Nuns.

- Concentrated on the education of girls & the care of

the sick and needy.

C. The Society of Jesus (the Jesuits)

- The most important of the new religious orders.

- The “front-line soldiers” of the Counter-Reformation.

- 1534: Founded by Basque former-soldier Ignatius Loyola.

- Loyola wounded in leg, during recovery decides to

pursue spiritual life.

- Attends University of Paris & gains core of followers.

- 1540: Given Papal approval, establishing their Order.

- Order organized around military lines, led by a Superior

General (Loyola the first)

- Answerable only to Pope, saw themselves as Spiritual

soldiers against heresy and Protestantism.

- Entrants undergo 4-week period of silent meditation based on

Loyola’s book Spiritual Exercises.

- Set high standards of Academic preparation for entry, also.

- Jesuits took fight to Protestants in number of ways:

A. Education

- Jesuits establish 74 schools throughout Europe by 1556.

- Teach Catholic theology but also Classical Studies.

- Languages, art, sciences, & rhetoric/law all taught.

- Meant to spread Catholic perspective to educated class.

- Instrumental in winning back Poland, Lithuania, &

Hungary to Catholicism.

- Jesuits colleges now in over 100 nations.

- Examples: Loyola, Georgetown, Boston College, etc.

B. Missions Abroad

- Jesuits seek new converts outside Europe.

- Travel to China, Goa, & Japan (varying levels of success).

- Jesuits in S. America combat abuses by Spanish rulers.

C. Political Activities

- Jesuits serve as personal priests (confessors) to Catholic

rulers in Europe.

- Able to advance Catholic agenda, taught to go very easy

on royal sins to keep them happily Catholic.

3. Decrees on Art & Music

- Council of Trent affirms role of art & music in religion.

- Important elements which attract common man.

- Art & music to be supported, used to wow commoners.

- Exaggerated styles of Mannerism & later Baroque in

painting, sculpture, & architecture develop.

- Art also more regulated, however.

- Excessive nudity & paganism discouraged.

- 1565: Underwear ordered painted into Michelangelo’s

Last Judgment.

4. Doctrinal Discipline

-1542: Congregation of the Holy Office established.

- Had jurisdiction over Roman Inquisition.

- A committee of 6 cardinals with power to punish heretics.

- Established Index of Prohibited Books (list of books

Catholics forbidden to read).

• Catholic Reformation largely successful.

• Limits losses mostly to N. Germany, Netherlands, Scandinavia, & Britain.

• Most Church corruption ended, Catholicism strengthened in the areas

it holds onto.