ETRUSCAN MONARCHYEtruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy, residing between the Apennines and the River TiberThe historical Etruscans had achieved a state system of society, with remnants of the chiefdom and tribal forms. In this they were ahead of the surrounding Italics, who still had chiefs and tribes. Rome was in a sense the first Italic state, but it began as an Etruscan one. It is believed that the Etruscan government style changed from total monarchy to oligarchic democracy (as the Roman Republic) in the 6th century, while it is important to note this did not happen to all the city states.

STRUGGLE OF THE ORDERSA political struggle between the Plebeians (commoners) and Patricians (aristocrats) of the ancient Roman Republic, in which the Plebeians sought political equality with the Patricians. It began in 494 BC, when, while Rome was at war with two neighboring tribes, the Plebeians all left the city (the first Plebeian Secession). The result of this first secession was the creation of the office of Plebeian Tribune, and with it the first acquisition of real power by the Plebeians. At first only Patricians were allowed to stand for election to political office, but over time these laws were revoked, and eventually all offices were opened to the Plebeians.

TWELVE TABLES

PUNIC WARS / CARTHAGEThe Punic Wars are a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 to 146 BC.[1] At the time, they were probably the largest wars that had ever taken place.[2] The term Punic comes from the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning "Carthaginian", with reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry. The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman Republic. The Romans were initially interested in expansion via Sicily, part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of the first Punic War, Carthage was the dominant power of the Western Mediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power in Italy, but lacked the naval power of Carthage. By the end of the third war, after more than a hundred years and the deaths of

many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both sides, Rome had conquered Carthage's empire and razed the city, becoming the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean.

HANNIBALa Carthaginian military commander and tactician who is popularly credited as one of the most talented commanders in history. One of his most famous achievements was at the outbreak of the Second Punic War, when he marched an army, which included war elephants, from Iberia over the Pyrenees and the Alps into northern Italy. In his first few years in Italy, he won three dramatic victories Trebia, Trasimene and Cannae and won over several Roman allies. Hannibal occupied much of Italy for 15 years, however a Roman counter-invasion of North Africa forced Hannibal to return to Carthage, where he was decisively defeated by Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama. Scipio studied Hannibal's tactics and brilliantly devised some of his own, and finally defeated Rome's nemesis at Zama having previously driven Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, out of Spain.After the war Hannibal successfully ran for the office of suffete. He enacted political and financial reforms to enable the payment of the war indemnity imposed by Rome. However, Hannibal's reforms were unpopular with members of the Carthaginian aristocracy and Rome, and he fled into voluntary exile.

SCIPIO AFRICANUSwas a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. He was best known for defeating Hannibal at the final battle of the Second Punic War at Zama, a feat that earned him the agnomen Africanus, the nickname "the Roman Hannibal", as well as recognition as one of the finest commanders in military history

BATTLE OF CANNAEThe Battle of Cannae was a major battle of the Second Punic War, taking place on August 2, 216 BC near the town of Cannae in Apulia in southeast Italy. The army of Carthage under Hannibal decisively defeated a numerically superior army of the Roman Republic under command of the consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro. It is regarded as one of the greatest tactical feats in military history and, in terms of the numbers killed, the second greatest defeat of Rome

BATTLE OF ZAMAThe Battle of Zama, fought around October 19, 202 BC, marked the final and decisive end of the Second Punic War. A Roman army led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus defeated a Carthaginian force led by the legendary commander Hannibal. Soon after this defeat on their home ground, the Carthaginian senate sued for peace, which was given to them by Roman Republic on rather humiliating terms ending the 17-year war.

GRACCHI BROTHERSThe Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, were a pair of young men known as tribunes in 2nd century BC who attempted to pass land reform legislation in Ancient Rome that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. For this legislation and their membership in the Populares party they are deemed the founding fathers of both socialism and populism (other populists prefer Spartacus or the latter Populares such as Julius Caesar as their predecessors by members of both ideologies trying to find immemorial roots to their movements). Both were assassinated for their efforts.

BATTLE OF ACTIUMThe Battle of Actium was the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the Roman colony of Actium in Greece. Octavian's fleet was commanded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, while Antony's fleet was supported by the ships of his beloved, Cleopatra VII, Queen of Ptolemaic Egypt. Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions. To that end, he adopted the title of Princeps ("first citizen") and as a result of the victory was awarded the title of Augustus by the Roman Senate. As Augustus, he would retain the trappings of a restored Republican leader; however, historians generally view this consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire

MARK ANTONYwas a Roman politician and General. He was an important supporter and the loyal friend of Gaius Julius Caesar as a military commander and administrator, being Caesar's second cousin, once removed, by his mother Julia Antonia. After Caesar's assassination, Antony formed an official political alliance with Octavian (Augustus) and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, known to historians today as the Second Triumvirate. The triumvirate broke up in 33 BC. Disagreement between Octavian and Antony erupted into civil war, the Final War of the Roman Republic, in 31 BC. Antony was defeated by Octavian at the naval Battle of Actium, and in a brief land battle at Alexandria. He and his lover Cleopatra committed suicide shortly thereafter.

PRINCEPS- official title of a Roman Emperor

JULIUS CAESAR ---------- & ---------------- OCTAVIAN (AUGUSTUS)

REIGN OF FIVE GOOD EMERPERORSThe Nervan-Antonian dynasty is a dynasty of seven consecutive Roman Emperors, who ruled over the Roman Empire from 96 to 192. These Emperors are Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus. Since the first five rulers - from Nerva to Marcus Aurelius - are seen as representing a line of virtuous and just rule, they also have been dubbed the Five Good Emperors.

CALIGULAwas the third Roman Emperor, reigning from 16 March 37 until his assassination on 24 January 41. Caligula was a member of the house of rulers conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Caligula's father, Germanicus, the nephew and adopted son of emperor Tiberius, was a very successful general and one of Rome's most beloved public figures. The young Gaius earned his nickname Caligula (the diminutive form of caliga) meaning "little [soldier's] boot", while accompanying his father on military campaigns in Germania. When Germanicus died in Antioch in AD 19, his mother Agrippina the Elder returned to Rome with her six children, where she became entangled in an increasingly bitter feud with Tiberius. This conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. Unscathed by the deadly intrigues, and seemingly unmoved by the

fate of his closest relatives, Caligula accepted the invitation to join the emperor on the island of Capri in AD 31, where Tiberius himself had withdrawn in AD 26. At the death of Tiberius, on 16 March AD 37, Caligula succeeded his great-uncle and adoptive grandfather. There are few surviving sources on Caligula's reign, and although he is described as a noble and moderate ruler during the first two years of his rule, after this the sources focus upon his cruelty, extravagance, sexual perversity, and presenting him as an insane tyrant. While the reliability of these sources has been difficult to assess, what is known is that during his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the authority of the princeps, possibly contemplating the introduction of an authoritarian system of an eastern type. He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects, notoriously luxurious dwellings for himself, but also two new aqueducts for the city of Rome

PAX ROMANA

DIOCLETIAN

Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and re-organized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire.

CONSTANTINE Roman emperor from 306, and the sole holder of that office from 324 until his death in 337. Best known for being the first Christian Roman emperor, Constantine reversed the persecutions of his predecessor, Diocletian, and issued (with his co-emperor Licinius) the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious toleration throughout the empire. Constantine also transformed the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium into a new imperial residence, Constantinople, which would remain the capital of the Byzantine Empire for over one thousand years.

TETRARCHY any system of government where power is divided among four individuals, but usually refers to the tetrarchy instituted by Roman Emperor Diocletian in 293, marking the end of the Crisis of the Third Century (was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression.) and the recovery of the Roman Empire. This Tetrarchy lasted until c.313, when internecine conflict eliminated most of the claimants to power, leaving Constantine in the West and Licinius in the East.

ODOACER was a Germanic general and the first non-Roman ruler of Italy after AD 476.

COMMODUS was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with his father, Marcus Aurelius, from 177 until 180). Commodus was the first emperor "born to the purple"; i.e., born during his father's reign. (THINK GLADIATOR!!!)

PONTIUS PILATE Typically referenced as the fifth Procurator of Judea, he is best known as the judge at Jesus' trial and the man who authorized his crucifixion. Pilate appears in all four canonical Christian Gospels. Mark, depicting Jesus as innocent of plotting against Rome, portrays Pilate as extremely reluctant to execute Jesus, blaming the Jewish hierarchy for his death. In Matthew, Pilate washes his hands of Jesus and reluctantly sends him to his death. In Luke, Pilate not only agrees that Jesus did not conspire against

Rome, but Herod Antipas, the tetrarch, also finds nothing treasonous in Jesus' actions. In John, Jesus' claim to be the Son of Man or the Messiah to Pilate or to the Sanhedrin is not portrayed. Pilate's biographical details before and after his appointment to Judaea are unknown, but have been supplied by tradition.

The Sadducees (or Tzedukim) were a group of Jews opposed to the Pharisees

The Pharisees were, depending on the time, a political party, a social movement, and a school of thought among Jews that flourished during the Second Temple Era (536 BCE–70 CE). After the destruction of the Second Temple, the Pharisaic sect was re-established as Rabbinic Judaism — which ultimately produced normative, traditional Judaism, the basis for all contemporary forms of Judaism

The Essenes were a Jewish religious group that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE that some scholars claim seceded from the Zadokite priests. Being much fewer in number than the Pharisees and the Sadducees (the other two major sects at the time) the Essenes lived in various cities but congregated in communal life dedicated to asceticism, voluntary poverty, and abstinence from worldly pleasures, including marriage and daily baptisms.

Zealots were followers of a political movement in first century Judaism which sought to incite the people of Iudaea Province to rebel against the Roman Empire and expel it from the holy land by force of arms, most notably during the Great Jewish Revolt (AD 66-70). Zealotry was described as one of the "four sects" at this time.

ST. PAUL OF TARSUS a JewISH MAN who called himself the "Apostle to the Gentiles" and was, together with Saint Peter and James the Just, the most notable of early Christian missionaries.

EDICT OF MILAN religious toleration in the Roman Empire. The letter was issued in 313 AD, shortly after the conclusion of the Diocletianic Persecution.

ST. BENEDICT was a saint from Italy, the founder of Western Christian monasticism, and a rule-giver for cenobitic monks. His purpose may be gleaned from his Rule, namely that "Christ ... may bring us all together to life eternal."

philosopher and theologian

ST AUGUSTINE- Augustine, a Latin church father, is one of the most important figures in the development of Western Christianity. Augustine was heavily influenced by the Neo-Platonism of Plotinus. He framed the concepts of original sin and just war. When the Roman Empire in the West was starting to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God (in a book of the same name) distinct from the material City of Man. His thought profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. Augustine's City of God was closely identified with the church, and was the community which worshipped God.

ST. JEROME He is best known for his new translation of the Bible into Latin, which has since come to be called the Vulgate and his list of writings are extensive.

ARIUS -- REJECTED IDEA THAT Jesus could be equal with God

Council of Nicaea – condemned ideas of Arius

BYZANTINE--Eastern Roman Empire

Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but ultimately failed "restoration of the empire". This ambition was expressed in the partial recovery of the territories of the Western Roman Empire, including the city of Rome itself. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia, which was to be the center of Eastern Orthodox Christianity for many centuries.

Like her husband, THEODORA is a saint in the Orthodox Church, commemorated on 14 November. Theodora was perhaps the most influential and powerful woman in the Byzantine Empire's history. "superior in intelligence to any man” Justinian clearly recognized this as well, allowing her to share his throne and take active part in decision making. As Justinian writes, he consulted Theodora when he promulgated a constitution that included reforms meant to end corruption by public officials. The imperial status of Theodora also proved profitable for her relatives. Her sister Comito became the wife of a rising young officer, Sittas, though he was to die young while campaigning in Armenia. Her niece Sophia married the nephew of Justinian, Justin II, who succeeded his uncle in 565.

Hagia Sophia - a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and to have "changed the history of architecture.

Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking", is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious icons and other symbols or monuments, usually for religious or political motives. It is a frequent component of major domestic political or religious changes. It is thus generally distinguished from the destruction by one culture of the images of another

Greek fire was an incendiary weapon used by the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines typically used it in naval battles to great effect as it could continue burning even on water. It provided a technological advantage, and was responsible for many key Byzantine military victories, most notably the salvation of Constantinople from two Arab sieges, thus securing the Empire's survival.

MOHAMMED

FIVE PILLARS OF FAITH

HEGIRA

KORAN

HADITH are narrations originating from the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Hadith are regarded by traditional schools of jurisprudence as important tools for understanding the Quran

missi dominici, "envoy of the lord [ruler]" -- was an official commissioned by the Frankish king or emperor to supervise the administration, mainly of justice, in parts of his dominions. He performed important intermediary functions between royal and local administrations. (TOOK PLACE DURING Charlemagne’s EMPIRE)

The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival occurring in the late eighth and ninth centuries, with the peak of the activities occurring during the reigns of the Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. During this period there was an increase of literature, writing, the arts, architecture, and jurisprudence (is the theory and philosophy of law), liturgical and scriptural studies.

The Treaty of Verdun was a treaty by the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious, son and successor of Charlemagne, which divided the territories of the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms.

PEACE OF GOD - a medieval European movement of the Catholic Church that applied spiritual sanctions in order to limit the violence of private war in feudal society. The movement constituted the first organized attempt to control civil society in medieval Europe through non-violent means. It began with very limited provisions in 989 and survived in some form to the thirteenth century. The Peace and Truce of God movement was one of the ways that the Church attempted to Christianize and pacify the feudal structures of society through non-violent means. After the collapse of the Carolingian empire in the ninth century, France had degenerated into many small counties and lordships, in which local lords and knights frequently fought each other for control. At the same time there were often attacks from the Vikings, who settled in northern France as the Normans but continued to raid territory further inland. In times such as this, when a region was suffering from disorder due to local conflicts, the local clergy, such as abbots, heads of monasteries, and bishops, would hold a town council. Invitations would be issued to nearby nobles demanding that they attend.

The Five Good Emperors of Ancient Rome

The low point struck with Domitian, last of the "twelve Caesars", was followed by a particularly auspicious period during which five "good" emperors followed in succession. These emperors are generally regarded as having done all they could for the good of the empire and its citizens and it is not surprising that monumental testimony of this period is to be found throughout Rome. For example Trajan's column and the fabulous statue of Marcus Aurelius on horseback.

the ancient Roman imperial succession of Nerva (reigned ad 96–98), Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138), Antoninus Pius (138–161), and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), who presided over the most majestic days of the Roman Empire. It was not a bloodline; Nerva was raised to the principate by the assassins of Domitian, and the others were successively adopted heirs, each only distantly related to his predecessor if at all. The last two—Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius—are often called the Antonines, though the term Antonine is sometimes extended also to the coemperors Lucius Verus (adopted heir of Antoninus Pius) and Commodus (son of Marcus Aurelius).

The period witnessed considerable expansion of the empire, from northern Britain to Dacia and to Arabia and Mesopotamia. The empire was consolidated, its defenses were perfected, and a tolerably uniform provincial system covered the whole area of the empire. The client states had one by one been reconstituted as provinces, and even the government of Italy had been in many respects assimilated to the provincial type.

All this was preceded and accompanied by the Romanizing of the peoples of the empire in language and civilization. Yet, in spite of the internal tranquillity and the good government that have made the age of the Five Good Emperors famous, one can detect signs of weakness. It was in this period that the centralization of authority in the hands of the emperor was completed; the “dual control” established by Augustus, which had been unreal enough in the 1st century, was now, though not formally abolished, systematically ignored in practice. The Senate thus ceased to be an instrument of government and became an imperial peerage, largely composed of men who were not qualified by election to the quaestorship but rather were directly ennobled by the emperor.

Emperor Nerva

Nerva (96-98AD) was an aristocrat chosen by the senate

lessened the heavy taxes which

recalled all those who had been exiled

put a stop to the practice of using informers to eradicate those who might be regarded as being subversive or against the emperor

viewed as giving the citizens of Rome excessive freedom and liberty

Emperor Trajan

Emperor Trajan (98-117AD)

expanded the empire further, he conquered the lands south-east of the Black sea and also succeeded in quelling the rebellious Dacians to whom Domitian had been paying a shameful ransom

a great builder. He had a fabulous marble column erected in memory of the great and successful wars against the Dacians. The column is known as "Trajan's column" and is still standing in Rome

built a magnificent basilica, a triumphal arch and numerous statues adorned his forum

new public buildings built such as theatres and baths

Bridges, roads and aqueducts were amplified and maintained

"Optimus" - a man of intellect as well as one of action

ensured poor children were reared

assisted poor landowners to improve their properties through loans made at preferential rates

Emperor Hadrian

concerned with consolidating the empire after Trajan expanded it

great wall he built along the northern borders of conquered Britain

a good writer

travelled at length across the empire and brought back much learning

many architectural features which he had marveled at during his travels

Emperor Antoninus Pius

Antoninus was called Pius by his citizens for the respect he paid to Hadrian's memory

had a temple to the Divine Hadrian built in Rome of which a section can still be seen in Piazza di Pietra

ruled for 23 years, many of which together with the young Marcus Aurelius

Power didn't corrupt him and he ruled in the interest of the good of his subjects.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius

lasted 19 years

a learner and philosopher

forced to spend much of his time at the head of his army against the barbarians who were pressing against the borders as yet more barbarians pressed towards them

During this period there was a great plague, brought by the soldiers who had served in the east. The sickness weakened the empire and the roman treasury was low. Marcus Aurelius did his utmost to check the advance of the invading hordes and made use of his learning as a philosopher to rule his subjects well. One of his best books is called "meditations" and it was written whilst on military campaign near the Danube. Within it he writes much of what learned from his teachers such as Antoninus Pius and others.

The Domesday Book is the record of the great survey of England completed in 1086, executed for William I of England, or William the Conqueror, who sent men all over England to each shire to find out what or how much each landholder had in land and livestock, and what it was worth

Eleanor of Aquitaine was one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Western Europe during the High Middle Ages. As well as being Duchess of Aquitaine in her own right, she was queen consort of France 1137-1152 and queen consort of England 1154-1189.

Eleanor of Aquitaine took up the Second Crusade formally during a sermon preached by Bernard of Clairvaux. However she had been corresponding with her uncle Raymond, King and holder of family properties in Antioch where he was seeking further protection from the French crown. She recruited for the campaign, finally assembling some of her royal ladies-in-waiting as well as 300 non-noble vassals. She insisted on taking part in the Crusades as the feudal leader of the soldiers from her duchy

Loui IX-

Patron of the arts

Effective leadership

Crusades

Religion- “lieutenant of God on earth”

The Investiture Controversy was the most significant conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe. In the 11th and 12th centuries, a series of popes challenged the authority of European monarchies over control of appointments, or investitures, of church officials such as bishops and abbots. Although the principal conflict began in 1075 between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, a brief but significant struggle over investiture also occurred between Henry I of England and the papacy of Paschal II in the years 1103 to 1107, and the issue played a minor role in the struggles between church and state in France as well. The entire controversy was finally resolved by the Concordat of Worms in 1122.

Concordat of Worms -- It brought to an end the first phase of the power struggle between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Emperors and has been interpreted[1] as containing within itself the germ of nation-based sovereignty that would one day be confirmed in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648); in part this was an unforeseen result of strategic maneuvering between the Church and the European sovereigns over political control within their domains. The King was recognized as having the right to invest bishops with secular authority ("by the lance") in the territories they governed, but not with sacred authority ("by ring and staff"); the result was that bishops owed allegiance in worldly matters both to the pope and to the king, for they were obligated to affirm the right of the sovereign to call upon them for military support, under his oath of fealty. Previous Holy Roman Emperors had thought it their right, granted by God, to name the Pope, as well as other Church officials, such as bishops. One long-delayed result was an end to the belief in the divine right of kings. A more immediate result of the Investiture struggle identified a proprietary right that adhered to sovereign territory, recognizing the right of kings to income from the territory of a vacant diocese and a basis for justifiable taxation.

INQUISITION

an ecclesiastical (theological understanding of the church) tribunal

the institution of the Catholic Church for combating or suppressing heresy

a number of historical expurgation movements against heresy (orchestrated by some groups/individuals within the Catholic Church or within a Catholic state)

the trial of an individual accused of heresy.

4 th LATERAN COUNCIL

Purposes

Pope Innocent III had always planned to gather an ecumenical council because of the limited results of the Third Crusade and the bitter results of the Fourth Crusade, which had led to the capture of Constantinople and large parts of the Byzantine Empire. Innocent III wanted to reformulate papal involvement in the Crusades as outlined in his decree “To Free the Holy Land”, but only towards the end of his pontificate did he realise this project. The pope presented to the Council seventy one decrees; these were considered along with the organisation of the Fifth Crusade and with measures against heretics. Those gathered in Council engaged in very little discussion and did little more than give approval to the decrees presented to them by Innocent III.In secular matters, Raymond VI of Toulouse, his son (afterwards Raymond VII), and Raymond-Roger of Foix attended the Council to dispute the threatened confiscation of their territories; Bishop Foulques and Guy of Montfort (brother of Simon) argued in favour of the confiscationThe Council confirmed the elevation of Frederick II as Holy Roman Emperor. Pierre-Bermond of Sauve's claim to Toulouse was rejected, and Toulouse was awarded to Simon de Montfort; the lordship of Melgueil was separated from Toulouse and entrusted to the bishops of Maguelonne. The county of Provence, a possession of Raymond VI, was confiscated and kept in trust to be restored to his son if he proved worthy of it.

Canons presented to the Council included:

Canon 1. Exposition of the faith; of the dogma of the Trinity, and of Transubstantiation

Canon 2. Condemned Joachim of Fiore and Amalric of Bennes for heresy and vindicated Peter Lombard's teaching on the Trinity.

Canons 3-4. Laid down procedures and penalties against heretics and their protectors

Canon 5. Proclaimed papal primacy as established by divine will, and laid out the order of precedence of the patriarchal churches: after Rome, then Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem[1]

Canon 13. The founding of new religious orders was forbidden

Canons 14-18. Rules on the conduct of the clergy including against such things as: non-celibate living, drunkenness, frequenting taverns, hunting, conducting trials by ordeal or combat

Canon 21 Reaffirmed the requirement that every Christian who had reached the age of reason (7–8 years) to confess their sins and receive Holy Communion at least once a year.

Canons 67-70 Regulated the Jewish-Christian relationship, and placed restrictions on the Jewish communities.

CATHARISM - Catharism was a name given to a Christian religious sect with dualistic and gnostic elements that appeared in the Languedoc region of France and other parts of Europe in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries.

DUALIST-They did not believe in one all-encompassing god, but in two, both equal and comparable in status.

This placed them at odds with the Catholic Church in regarding material creation, on behalf of which Jesus had died, as intrinsically evil and implying that God, whose word had created the world in the beginning, was a usurper. Furthermore, as the Cathars saw matter as intrinsically evil, they denied that Jesus could become incarnate and still be the son of God. Cathars vehemently repudiated the significance of the crucifixion and the cross.

Church viewed them as heretics!!!

JOAN OF ARC A Patron Saint of France—a national heroine of France and a Catholic saint. A peasant girl born in eastern France, she led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War, claiming divine guidance, and was indirectly responsible for the coronation of Charles VII. She was captured by the Burgundians, sold to the English, tried by an ecclesiastical court, and burned at the stake when she was nineteen years old. Twenty-four years later, on the initiative of Charles VII, who could not afford being seen as having been brought to power with the aid of a condemned heretic, Pope Callixtus III reviewed the decision of the ecclesiastical court, found her innocent, and declared her a martyr. She was beatified in 1909 and canonized in 1920.

On 18 November 1302, Pope Boniface VIII issued the Papal bull Unam sanctam which historians consider one of the most extreme statements of Papal spiritual supremacy ever made. The original document is lost but a version of the text can be found in the registers of Boniface VIII in the Vatican Archives.The Bull lays down dogmatic propositions on the unity of the Catholic Church, the necessity of belonging to it for eternal salvation, the position of the pope as supreme head of the Church, and the duty thence arising of submission to the pope in order to belong to the Church and thus to attain salvation. The pope further emphasizes the higher position of the spiritual in comparison with the secular order.The main propositions of the Bull are the following: First, the unity of the Church and its necessity for salvation are declared and established by various passages from the Bible and by reference to the one Ark of the Flood, and to the seamless garment of Christ. The pope then affirms that, as the unity of the body of the Church so is the unity of its head established in Saint Peter and his successors. Consequently, all who wish to belong to the fold of Christ are placed under the dominion of Peter and his successors.

BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY

Although the term Babylonian captivity, or Babylonian exile, typically refers to the deportation and exile of the Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar II in 586 BC, in fact the exile started with the first deportation in 597 BC. The captivity and subsequent return to Israel and rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple are pivotal events in the history of the Jews and Judaism, and had far-reaching impacts on the development of modern Jewish culture and practice.

According to biblical dating the Kingdom of Judah (also known as the "Southern Kingdom") came into existence in c. 930 BC on the breakup of the United Monarchy.[1] David was made king over the tribe of Judah as early as 1007 BC, and the Davidic line ruled over Judah for over 420 years, until the kingdom fell in 586 BC to the Babylonian Empire under Nebuzar-adan, captain of Nebuchadnezzar's body-guard.

The Babylonian Captivity and the subsequent return to Israel were seen as one of the pivotal events in the biblical drama between Yahweh and "his people" of Israel. Just as they had been predestined for, and saved from, slavery in Egypt, in the logic of the Bible the Israelites were predestined to be punished by their god through the Babylonians, and then saved once more. The Babylonian Captivity had a number of serious effects on Judaism and the Jewish culture. For example, the current Hebrew script was adopted during this period, replacing the traditional Israelite script.

This period saw the last high-point of Biblical prophecy in the person of Ezekiel, followed by the emergence of the central role of the Torah in Jewish life; according to many historical-critical scholars, it was edited and redacted during this time, and saw the beginning of the canonization of the Bible, which provided a central text for Jews.

This process coincided with the emergence of scribes and sages as Jewish leaders (see Ezra). Prior to exile, the people of Israel had been organized according to tribe; afterwards, they were organized by clans, only the tribe of Levi continuing in its 'special role'. After this time, there were always sizable numbers of Jews living outside Eretz Israel; thus, it also marks the beginning of the "Jewish diaspora", unless this is considered to have begun with the Assyrian Captivity of Israel.

In Rabbinic literature, Babylon was one of a number of metaphors for the Jewish diaspora. Most frequently the term "Babylon" meant the diaspora prior to the destruction of the Second Temple. The post-destruction term for the Jewish Diaspora was "Rome," or "Edom."

Conciliar Movement - a reform movement in the 14th and 15th century Roman Catholic Church which held that final authority in spiritual matters resided with the Roman Church as corporation of Christians, embodied by a general church council, not with the pope.

John wycliffe- He was one of the earliest opponents of papal authority influencing secular power.

ENGLISH PEASANT REBELLION

1381 was one of a number of popular revolts in late medieval Europe and is a major event in the history of England. Tyler's Rebellion was not only the most extreme and widespread insurrection in English history but also the best-documented popular rebellion ever to have occurred during medieval times. The names of some of its leaders, John Ball, Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, are still familiar even though very little is actually known about these individuals.

The rising is significant because it marked the beginning of the end of serfdom in medieval England though the revolt itself was a marked failure. It led to calls for the reform of feudalism in England and an increase in rights for the serf class.

RENAISSANCE

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Niccolo Machiavelli

Leonardo da Vinci

Johann Gutenberg

To understand the importance of the printing press, it is necessary to understand that before the printing press virtually every book and every document was a manuscript. Written by hand, the production of even a single page was an arduous and time-consuming task. Books were expensive and only very popular texts of universal appeal were likely to be copied. Wood-cut printing had been in use in Europe since the twelfth century but, because a new block had to be carved in reverse for each page, few works justified the intensity of labor required for publication by this method and experienced scribes could often complete a text more quickly and at a lower cost. Large volumes of religious pictures and playing cards were the most common items produced by wood-cut printing.

By 1300, papermaking and printing technology had reached Europe from China. The invention of movable type in the 1400s led to Johann Gutenberg’s printing of the Bible in 1456. The printing press was important for the Renaissance and later intellectual development.

(Francesco Petrarca) Petrarch - Italian scholar, poet and one of the earliest Renaissance humanists

"Father of Humanism"

Peace of Lodi was a peace agreement between Milan, Naples, and Florence signed on April 9, 1454 at Lodi in Lombardy, on the banks of the Adda. It put an end to the long struggles between expansive Milan, under Filippo Maria Visconti, and Venice in the terraferma, which had produced a single decisive Venetian victory, at the battle of Maclodio in 1427, in which the Venetian ally was Florence, but had resulted in no lasting peace. The treaty also…

- established permanent boundaries between Milanese and Venetian territories in Northern Italy- Francesco Sforza was confirmed as the rightful duke of Milan (his lifelong policy was to create a balance of power in Italy)- balance of power in Northern Italy was established, one that excluded ambitions of smaller states- The Kingdom of Naples and the smaller cities, even the Papal States, soon joined the Italic League.- brought Milan and Naples into a definitive peace alliance with Florence (status quo established)

The Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("Index of Prohibited Books") was a list of publications prohibited by the Roman Catholic Church. It was abolished on 14 June 1966 by Pope Paul VI

marked the "turning-point in the freedom of enquiry" in the Catholic world

aim of the list was to protect the faith and morals of the faithful by preventing the reading of immoral books or works containing theological errors, although it also contained scientific works. The various editions also contained the rules of the Church relating to the reading, selling and censorship of books.

ERASMUS- Renaissance humanist and a Catholic theologian. His scholarly name Desiderius Erasmus - "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists."- Using humanist techniques for working on texts, he prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament. These raised questions that would be influential in the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation.- criticized some contemporary popular Christian beliefs.- In relation to clerical abuses in the Church, Erasmus remained committed to reforming the Church from within. He also held to Catholic doctrines such as that of free will, which some Protestant Reformers rejected in favor of the doctrine of predestination.

Sir Thomas More, also known as Saint Thomas More, was an English lawyer, scholar, author, and statesman. - leading Renaissance humanist- an opponent of the Reformation of Martin Luther- a government official- important counsellor to Henry VIII of England- imprisoned and executed by beheading in 1535 after he had fallen out of favor with the king over his refusal to sign the Act of Supremacy 1534, which declared the King the Supreme Head of the Church of England, effecting a final split with the Catholic Church in Rome.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION

Jan Hus - a Czech Catholic priest, philosopher, reformer

He is famed for having been burned at the stake by civil authorities for what the Catholic Church considered to be his heretical views on ecclesiology, as the civil authorities saw heresy as a criminal offense. Hus was a key predecessor to the Protestant movement of the 16th century, and his teachings had a strong influence on the states of Europe, most immediately in the approval for the existence of a reformist Bohemian religious denomination, and, more than a century later, on Martin Luther himself.

Johann Tetzel (1465 – 11 August 1519) was a German Dominican preacher accused for selling indulgences and for a couplet attributed to him, "As soon as a coin in the coffer rings / the soul from purgatory springs." In 1517, Tetzel was trying to raise money for the ongoing reconstruction of St. Peter's Basilica and it is believed that Martin Luther was inspired to write his Ninety-Five Theses, in part, due to Tetzel's actions during this period of time.

Transubstantiation - the change of the substance of bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist, while all that is accessible to the senses remains as before.

Ignatius Loyola - Spanish knight, who became a hermit and priest, founding the Society of Jesus and becoming its first Superior General. Ignatius and the Jesuits became major figures in the Counter-Reformation, where the Catholic Church worked to reform itself from within and countered the theology of Protestantism.

Jesuits – Male religious orderSociety of JesusResponse to ProtestantismBegan as part of the Protestant Reformation

The Council of Trent issued condemnations on what it defined as Protestant heresies and defined Church teachings in the areas of Scripture and Tradition, Original Sin, Justification, Sacraments, the Eucharist in Holy Mass and the veneration of saints. It issued numerous reform decrees. By specifying Catholic doctrine on salvation, the sacraments, and the Biblical canon, the Council was answering Protestant disputes.

The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty that officially ended the religious struggle between the monarch of the Holy Roman Empire and local prince rule and made the legal division of Christendom permanent within the Holy Roman Empire. The Peace allowed German princes to select either Lutheranism or Catholicism within the domains they controlled, ultimately reaffirming the independence they had over their states. Subjects, citizens, or residents who did not wish to conform to the prince's choice were given a period in which they were free to migrate to different regions in which their desired religion had been accepted.

The Edict of Nantes was issued on April 13, 1598[1] by Henry IV of France to grant the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic. The main concern was civil unity, and the Edict separated civil from religious unity, treated some Protestants for the first time as more than mere schismatics and heretics, and opened a path for secularism and tolerance. In offering general freedom of conscience to individuals, the edict offered many specific concessions to the Protestants, such as amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field or for the State and to bring grievances directly to the king. It marks the end of the religious wars that tore apart the population of France during the second half of the 16th century.

The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Roman Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants), during the French Wars of Religion. The massacre also marked a turning point in the French Wars of Religion. The Huguenot political movement was crippled by the loss of many of its prominent aristocratic leaders, as well as many re-conversions by the rank and file, and those who remained were increasingly radicalized. Though by no means unique, it "was the worst of the century's religious massacres." Throughout Europe, it "printed on Protestant minds the indelible conviction that Catholicism was a bloody and treacherous religion".

HENRY VIII – King of England

Henry needed a son to continue the Tudor Monarchy.

Henry needed a divorce; it was not permitted in the Catholic Church.

Henry needed money for his use and the betterment of England.

Protestant ideas are spreading across Europe.

RESULT - separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church

Henry's struggles with Rome ultimately led to the separation of the Church of England from papal authority, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and created the ACT OF SUPREMACY - establishing himself as the Supreme Head of the Church of England and the legal sovereignty of the civil laws over the laws of the Church in England.