ETHNOGRAPHY

◦ A. Ethnography--the study of specific persons or groups in their own societies & how they interact. 1. External

a. Examines environmental, contextual, and/or cultural forces that influence our behaviors.

b. Looks at observable phenomenon & infers patterns from the data (usually through field observations).

2. Internal a. Understand how subjects think about their

actions. b. Usually means interacting with individuals

through intensive interviews.

B. Ethnomethodology◦ 1. An empirical study of how individuals give

sense to their daily actions.◦ 2. Focuses on communicating, making

decisions & reasoning. ◦ 3. May involve participant-observation

techniques, as well as intensive interviews. C. Focus groups:

◦ 1. Group interviewing to understand attitudes & behaviors related to a specific topic.

◦ 2. 6-12 persons interviewed simultaneously, with a moderator leading the respondents in a semi-structured discussion about the topic.

◦ 3. Distinguishing characteristic--use of controlled group discussion.

◦ 4. Intended to collect qualitative information, although the data may be treated qualitatively or quantitatively

D. Case studies: ◦ 1. A type of empirical inquiry using multiple sources of

evidence (or cases) to investigate a real-life phenomenon in its real-life context.

◦ 2. Often used in medical or legal research, as well as historical or critical analyses.

◦ 3. Includes both single cases & multiple cases (which may be used comparatively)

◦ 4. Multiple procedures are used (no precise methodology).

A. ETHNOGRAPHY & ETHNOMETHODOLOGY◦1. Ethnography--1st used in anthropology

to describe different cultures; now means studying how specific groups interact in their own societies.

◦2. Ethnomethodology comes from sociology; it involves a study of people’s “common sense” knowledge of society & themselves, as revealed in communication & behavior (see Berger, p. 146)

3. Although not identical, both attempt to understand things otherwise foreign to us.

4. Both assume that what people do is influenced by their interpretations of themselves, others & situations.

5. Both argue that human behaviors are complex, multiple, & dependent on context.

6. Both use “subjective” methodologies; but can also combine qualitative & quantitative methods.

B. GOALS & APPROACHES◦ 1. Focus on wide range of patterns--social

roles, ethnic groups, family systems, message systems, etc.

◦ 2. Emphasizes studying an issue or topic from the participant’s frame of reference as well as the researcher’s.

◦ 3. Involves spending a considerable amount of time in the field (or natural, real-life settings).

◦ 4. Uses variety of research techniques--observations, interviewing, diary keeping, analysis of existing documents, photography, audio & videotaping, etc.

◦ 5. Two basic approaches (which can be combined): a. External--

1) Examines environmental, contextual, and/or cultural forces influencing behaviors.

2) Looks at observable phenomenon & infers patterns from data (usually through field or participant observations).

3) Can be a “grounded theory” approach by systematically and repeatedly gathering data.

4) May be applied to texts as well as people (e.g. social movement studies; some media genres, etc.).

◦ b. Internal-- 1) Seeks to learn how subjects think about

their actions. 2) Usually means intensive interviewing of

individuals. C. Other current approaches:

◦ 1. Qualitative conversational analysis & case study analysis (see below).

◦ 2. Critical ethnography--serves the purposes of social justice, emancipation & empowerment (borrows theories & methods from critical analysis).

3. Autoethnography--the researcher examines his/her own life experiences as someone doing fieldwork, recognizing his/her subjectivity.

4. Performance ethnography◦a. Looks at how people perform (or

enact) culture .◦b. Focus not just on what people say,

but also what they do, such as various ritual behaviors, etc., and how they understand those rituals.

◦c. Can also look at texts or other artifacts.

D. GUIDELINES FOR ETHNOGRAPHY◦1. First, define a problem & develop

RQs. ◦2. From a review of literature (or other

archival data), develop a theoretical model. a. Typicality of behavior b. Expected behavior & routines

◦3. Decide if will do observations, conduct interviews, or both.

◦4. Select either a group to observe or a sample to interview or analyze (or both).

5. Determine population & sample:◦a. Purposive sampling can be used to

find interview subjects; can also call for volunteers, or use network sampling.

◦b. Test eligibility of sample through short interviews and/or screener questionnaires.

◦c. Initial respondents called key informants.

◦d. Total number chosen depends on your goals--done when hit “pay dirt” (the interviews are beginning to repeat information, etc.).

6. Determine setting for observations & interviews.◦a. On site at respondent’s job or home.◦b. A neutral spot away from the field of

action.◦c. On-site preferred, but sometimes

need a neutral spot to ensure honesty & confidentiality.

7. Conduct observations and/or interviews; collect data, make fieldnotes (from scratch or head notes)

8. Develop an empirical model (for assessing & comparing data).

9. Analyze data, depending on if doing an observation or an interview.◦a. Usually use qualitative discourse

analysis (DA) and/or critical approaches. 1) Descriptive 2) Comparative

◦b. Can also use quantitative content or discourse analysis

c. Organize data to make sense of it.◦ 1) Each piece of information is coded, with the

source identified.◦ 2) Data sorted into a preliminary category

system, suggested by the data and/or prior research or theory.

◦ 3) Many ways to sort—from making multiple copies & cutting them apart for physical sorting, to using software to organize qualitative data.

◦ 4) Can refine categories with multiple passes through the data

◦ We’ll be coming back to these concepts later

9. Final reports less formal & objective than scientific reports (see chp. 9).◦a. Use narrative logic to create realistic

stories.◦b. Provide vivid portraits & detailed

descriptions, using metaphors & analogies to help express patterns.

◦c. An ethnographer may use a “confessional” style, esp. if using authoethnography.

E. Basic characteristics of observations:◦1. Observations study real people in

action◦2. Observations should move from

general to specific: a. Descriptive or impressionistic

observations b. More specific, selected observations

F. Participant Observation◦ 1. Value is that researchers have “been there &

done that”◦ 2. Success requires several conditions:

a. tolerance for marginality (occupy liminal space)

b. Ability for embodiment of self in scene c. Spontaneous decision-making d. Being an ethical person e. Understanding difference

3. Must determine role of the researcher: a. Will researcher be an outside observer or a

participant observer, whether full or part-time? b. Outside observers have more “objectivity” in

recording data, but potential insights are limited◦ c. Participant observers involved as completely

as possible, recording notes unobtrusively. ◦ d. Outside observers (or passive participant

observers) don’t interact with the observed (may employ one-way mirrors or other covert methods like eavesdropping).

4. Gold’s four “master roles”◦ a. Complete participants

1) Recognized members of a scene 2) Not seen as researchers (undercover)--

operate under pretense & deception 3) May be the only way to gain access to

certain scenes or groups 4) Raises practical & ethical concerns, as well

as danger of “going native” Examples: The Cocktail Waitress; Nickel and

Dimed

b. Participant-as-observer◦ 1) Openly acknowledgement of role◦ 2) Status with others shapes participation◦ 3) Informed reciprocity occurs◦ 4) Similar to Adler & Adler’s Active-member &

Complete-members (focused on social functions) c. Observer-as-participant

◦ 1) Mostly observes, but still interacts casually and/or indirectly

◦ 2) Balances familiarity with detachment◦ 3) Tend to favor interviewing◦ 4) similar to Adler & Adler’s Peripheral-member

◦d. Complete-observers 1) Remotely observe scene 2) Risks become solipsistic 3) Fare best in free-access settings

encouraging anonymity (e.g. crowds, websites)

5. Two basic types of observations:◦a. Must decide if overt or covert.◦b. Overt observations raise issues of bias

& error, whereas covert observations often raise ethical questions.

6. Researcher immerses him/herself into the context.◦a. Depends on a bracketing process. 1) “Bracket out” preconceptions, etc. 2) “Bracket out” data as get it 3) Can also approach topic with “informed

innocence.”◦b. However, if doing ethnomethodology,

may engage in deliberate upsetting of established routines to reveal rules used to organize experiences.

c. Some Basic Steps◦ 1) Tactical observing◦ 2) Who are the actors? Names, statuses,

interactions, etc.?◦ 3) Where & when do actors interact?

a) Markers—interactional behaviors that signify relationships (e.g. lovers holding hands)

b) Tie signs—material artifacts & symbols indicating relationships (e.g. rings, strollers, etc.)

◦ 4) Noting significant events

7. Data collection is important:◦ a. Must take careful field notes:

1) Scratch & “head” notes 2) Immediate records—recorded as soon as

can, as factually & objectively as possible a) Basic rule—10 double spaced pages for

every hour of observation b) Create chronological record that

preserves “situated character of observed communication” (L & T, p. 158)

c) Need to note the who, what, where, when & how—can wait on the why

3) Reflective log observations—more subjective interpretations after time has passed (a journal and/or diary)

◦b. Can have participants also keep logs or diaries to add to notes

◦c. Can use recorders or cameras (with permission) to help with memory

◦d. Need to consider how these things also construct the events that are recorded

G. Advantages of ethnography◦ 1. Studies people in “real life” settings, doing

ordinary tasks, etc. (so has a type of ecological validity).

◦ 2. Provides data rich in detail & subtlety (“thick descriptions”).

◦ 3. Provides access to groups otherwise difficult to observe or examine.

◦ 4. Relatively inexpensive method, although expenses mount if use several observers, use specialized equipment (e.g. cameras), and/or travel

5. Can be used to define basic background information necessary to frame a hypothesis.

H. Disadvantages◦1. Problem with issues of external or

ecological validity; can work in teams to enhance ecological/external validity

◦2. Researcher bias may favor certain interpretations over others.

◦3. May suffer from reactivity--the very process of being observed may influence the behavior under study.

◦4. Very time-consuming to do well.