Etching

Etching

The Soldier and his Wife. Etching byDaniel Hopfer, who is believed to havebeen the first to apply the technique toprintmaking

Portrait of Luca Giordano, 18thcentury

Rembrandt, The Virgin and Child

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses of etch or etching, see Etching (disambiguation). For the history of the method, see old master prints.

Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into theunprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio (relief) in themetal.[1] In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types ofmaterial. As a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving, the most importanttechnique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today.

Contents [hide] 1 Basic method2 History

2.1 Origin2.2 Callot's innovations: choppe, hard ground, stopping-out

3 Variants4 Modern technique in detail

4.1 Nontoxic etching4.2 Photo-etching

5 Types of metal plates6 Industrial uses7 Controlling the acid's effects

7.1 Hard grounds7.2 Aquatint7.3 Sugar lift7.4 Spit bite

8 Printing9 Faults10 "Etchings" euphemism11 See also12 References13 External links

Basic method [edit]In pure etching, a metal (usually copper, zinc or steel) plate is covered with a waxyground which is resistant to acid.[2] The artist then scratches off the ground with apointed etching needle[3] where he or she wants a line to appear in the finished piece,so exposing the bare metal. The choppe, a tool with a slanted oval section, is alsoused for "swelling" lines.[4] The plate is then dipped in a bath of acid, technically calledthe mordant (French for "biting") or etchant, or has acid washed over it.[5] The acid"bites" into the metal (it dissolves part of the metal) where it is exposed, leavingbehind lines sunk into the plate. The remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate.The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface, leaving only the inkin the etched lines.

The plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet ofpaper (often moistened to soften it).[6] The paper picks up the ink from the etchedlines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times; typically severalhundred impressions (copies) could be printed before the plate shows much sign ofwear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process;this creates an etching which exists in more than one state.

Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving(e.g., Rembrandt) or aquatint (e.g., Goya).

History [edit]Main article: Old master print

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with a Cat, 1654. Original copperetching plate above, example of theprint below, with composition reversed.

Christ Preaching, known as TheHundred Guilder Print; etching c1648by Rembrandt.

Selection of early etched printingplates from the British Museum

Etching by Jacques Bellange,Gardener with basket c. 1612

Origin [edit]Etching by goldsmiths and other metal-workers in order to decorate metal items suchas guns, armour, cups and plates has been known in Europe since the Middle Ages atleast, and may go back to antiquity. The elaborate decoration of armour, in Germanyat least, was an art probably imported from Italy around the end of the 15th centurylittle earlier than the birth of etching as a printmaking technique.

The process as applied to printmaking isbelieved to have been invented by DanielHopfer (circa 14701536) of Augsburg,Germany. Hopfer was a craftsman who

decorated armour in this way, and applied the method to printmaking, using ironplates (many of which still exist). Apart from his prints, there are two proven examplesof his work on armour: a shield from 1536 now in the Real Armeria of Madrid and asword in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum of Nuremberg. An Augsburg horsearmour in the German Historical Museum, Berlin, dating to between 1512 and 1515, isdecorated with motifs from Hopfer's etchings and woodcuts, but this is no evidencethat Hopfer himself worked on it, as his decorative prints were largely produced aspatterns for other craftsmen in various media.

The switch to copper plates was probably made in Italy, and thereafter etching soon came to challenge engraving as the mostpopular medium for artists in printmaking. Its great advantage was that, unlike engraving which requires special skill inmetalworking, etching is relatively easy to learn for an artist trained in drawing.

Prior to 1100 AD, the New World Hohokam independently utilized the technique of acid etching in marine shell designs.[7]

Callot's innovations: choppe, hard ground, stopping-out [edit]Jacques Callot (15921635) from Nancy in Lorraine (now part of France) made important technical advances in etchingtechnique. He developed the choppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchersto create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do.

Callot also appears to have been responsible for an improved, harder, recipe for theetching ground, using lute-makers' varnish rather than a wax-based formula. Thisenabled lines to be more deeply bitten, prolonging the life of the plate in printing, andalso greatly reducing the risk of "foul-biting", where acid gets through the ground tothe plate where it is not intended to, producing spots or blotches on the image.Previously the risk of foul-biting had always been at the back of an etcher's mind,preventing too much time on a single plate that risked being ruined in the bitingprocess. Now etchers could do the highly detailed work that was previously themonopoly of engravers, and Callot made full use of the new possibilities.

Callot also made more extensive and sophisticated use of multiple "stoppings-out"than previous etchers had done. This is the technique of letting the acid bite lightlyover the whole plate, then stopping-out those parts of the work which the artist wishesto keep light in tone by covering them with ground before bathing the plate in acidagain. He achieved unprecedented subtlety in effects of distance and light and shadeby careful control of this process. Most of his prints were relatively smallup to aboutsix inches or 15 cm on their longest dimension, but packed with detail.

One of his followers, the Parisian Abraham Bosse, spread Callot's innovations all overEurope with the first published manual of etching, which was translated into Italian,Dutch, German and English.

The 17th century was the great age of etching, with Rembrandt, Giovanni BenedettoCastiglione and many other masters. In the 18th century, Piranesi, Tiepolo and Daniel Chodowiecki were the best of a smallernumber of fine etchers. In the 19th and early 20th century, the Etching revival produced a host of lesser artists, but no reallymajor figures. Etching is still widely practiced today.

Variants [edit]Aquatint uses acid-resistant resin to achieve tonal effects.

Soft-ground etching uses a special softer ground. The artist places a piece of paper (or cloth etc. in modern uses) over theground and draws on it. The print resembles a drawing.

Further information: William Blake Relief etching

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Relief etching by William Blake,frontispiece to America a Prophecy(Copy A, printed 1795)

Landscape under Trees, etching byPaula Modersohn-Becker, c. 1902

Example of etching

Relief etching was invented by William Blake in about 1788, and he has been almost the only artist to use it in its originalform.[8] However from 18801950 a photo-mechanical ("line-block") variant was thedominant form of commercial printing for images. A similar process to etching, butprinted as a relief print, so it is the "white" background areas which are exposed to theacid, and the areas to print "black" which are covered with ground. Blake's exacttechnique remains controversial. He used the technique to print texts and imagestogether, writing the text and drawing lines with an acid-resistant medium.

Modern technique in detail [edit]A waxy acid-resist, known as a ground, is applied to a metal plate, most often copperor zinc but steel plate is another medium with different qualities. There are twocommon types of ground: hard ground and soft ground.

Hard ground can be applied in two ways. Solid hard ground comes in a hard waxyblock. To apply hard ground of this variety, the plate to be etched is placed upon ahot-plate (set at 70 degrees C), a kind of metal worktop that is heated up. The plateheats up and the ground is applied by hand, melting onto the plate as it is applied.The ground is spread over the plate as evenly as possible using a roller. Onceapplied the etching plate is removed from the hot-plate and allowed to cool which hardens the ground.

After the ground has hardened the artist "smokes" the plate, classically with 3 beeswax tapers, applying the flame to the plateto darken the ground and make it easier to see what parts of the plate are exposed. Smoking not only darkens the plate butadds a small amount of wax. Afterwards the artist uses a sharp tool to scratch into the ground, exposing the metal.

The second way to apply hard ground is by liquid hard ground. This comes in a canand is applied with a brush upon the plate to be etched. Exposed to air the hardground will harden. Some printmakers use oil/tar based asphaltum[9] or bitumen ashard ground, although often bitumen is used to protect steel plates from rust andcopper plates from aging.

Soft ground also comes in liquid form and is allowed to dry but it does not dry hardlike hard ground and is impressionable. After the soft ground has dried the printmakermay apply materials such as leaves, objects, hand prints and so on which willpenetrate the soft ground and expose the plate underneath.

The ground can also be applied in a fine mist, using powdered rosin or spraypaint.This process is called aquatint, and allows for the creation of tones, shadows, andsolid areas of color.

The design is then drawn (in reverse) with an etching-needle or choppe. An "echoppe" point can be made from an ordinarytempered steel etching needle, by grinding the point back on a carborundum stone, at a 4560 degree angle. The "echoppe"works on the same principle that makes a fountain pen's line more attractive than a ballpoint's: The slight swelling variationcaused by the natural movement of the hand "warms up" the line, and although hardly noticeable in any individual line, has avery attractive overall effect on the finished plate. It can be drawn with in the same way as an ordinary needle.

The plate is then completely submerged in an acid that eats away at the exposed metal. Ferric chloride may be used foretching copper or zinc plates, whereas nitric acid may be used for etching zinc or steel plates. Typical solutions are 2 partsFeCl3 to 2 parts water and 1 part nitric to 3 parts water. The strength of the acid determines the speed of the etchingprocess.

The etching process is known as biting (see also spit-biting below).The waxy resist prevents the acid from biting the parts of the plate which have been covered.The longer the plate remains in the acid the deeper the "bites" become.

During the etching process the printmaker uses a bird feather or similar item to waveaway bubbles and detritus produced by the dissolving process, from the surface ofthe plate, or the plate may be periodically lifted from the acid bath. If a bubble isallowed to remain on the plate then it will stop the acid biting into the plate where thebubble touches it. Zinc produces more bubbles much more rapidly than copper andsteel and some artists use this to produce interesting round bubble-like circles withintheir prints for a Milky Way effect.

The detritus is powdery dissolved metal that fills the etched grooves and can alsoblock the acid from biting evenly into the exposed plate surfaces. Another way to

remove detritus from a plate is to place the plate to be etched face down within the acid upon plasticine balls or marbles,although the drawback of this technique is the exposure to bubbles and the inability to remove them readily.

For aquatinting a printmaker will often use a test strip of metal about a centimetre to three centimetres wide. The strip will be


Pornocrates by Flicien Rops.Etching and aquatint

Part of a series on theHistory of printing

Woodblock printing 200Movable type 1040Printing press c. 1440Etching c. 1515Mezzotint 1642Aquatint 1772Lithography 1796Chromolithography 1837Rotary press 1843Hectograph 1869Offset printing 1875Hot metal typesetting 1884Mimeograph 1886Photostat and Rectigraph 1907Screen printing 1910Spirit duplicator 1923Xerography 1938Phototypesetting 1949Inkjet printing 1951Dye-sublimation 1957Dot matrix printing 1968Laser printing 1969Thermal printing c. 19723D printing 1984Digital press 1993

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dipped into the acid for a specific number of minutes or seconds. The metal strip will then be removed and the acid washedoff with water. Part of the strip will be covered in ground and then the strip is redipped into the acid and the process repeated.The ground will then be removed from the strip and the strip inked up and printed. This will show the printmaker the differentdegrees or depths of the etch, and therefore the strength of the ink color, based upon how long the plate is left in the acid.

The plate is removed from the acid and washed over with water to remove the acid. The ground is removed with a solventsuch as turpentine. Turpentine is often removed from the plate using methylated spirits since turpentine is greasy and canaffect the application of ink and the printing of the plate.

Spit-biting is a process whereby the printmaker will apply acid to a plate with a brush in certain areas of the plate. The platemay be aquatinted for this purpose or exposed directly to the acid. The process is known as "spit"-biting due to the use ofsaliva once used as a medium to dilute the acid, although gum arabic or water are now commonly used.

A piece of matte board, a plastic "card", or a wad of cloth is often used to push the inkinto the incised lines. The surface is wiped clean with a piece of stiff fabric known astarlatan and then wiped with newsprint paper; some printmakers prefer to use theblade part of their hand or palm at the base of their thumb. The wiping leaves ink inthe incisions. You may also use a folded piece of organza silk to do the final wipe. Ifcopper or zinc plates are used, then the plate surface is left very clean and thereforewhite in the print. If steel plate is used, then the plate's natural tooth gives the print agrey background similar to the effects of aquatinting. As a result steel plates do notneed aquatinting as gradual exposure of the plate via successive dips into acid willproduce the same result.

A damp piece of paper is placed over the plate and it is run through the press.

Nontoxic etching [edit]Growing concerns about the health effects of acids and solvents[10][11] led to thedevelopment of less toxic etching methods[12] in the late 20th century. An earlyinnovation was the use of floor wax as a hard ground for coating the plate. Others,such as printmakers Mark Zaffron and Keith Howard, developed systems using acrylicpolymers as a ground and ferric chloride for etching. The polymers are removed withsodium carbonate (washing soda) solution, rather than solvents. When used foretching, ferric chloride does not produce a corrosive gas, as acids do, thus eliminatinganother danger of traditional etching.

The traditional aquatint, which uses either powdered rosin or enamel spray paint, isreplaced with an airbrush application of the acrylic polymer hard ground. Again, no solventsare needed beyond the soda ash solution, though a ventilation hood is needed due toacrylic particulates from the air brush spray.

The traditional soft ground, requiring solvents for removal from the plate, is replaced withwater-based relief printing ink. The ink receives impressions like traditional soft ground,resists the ferric chloride etchant, yet can be cleaned up with warm water and either sodaash solution or ammonia.

Anodic etching has been used in industrial processes for over a century. The etching poweris a source of direct current. The item to be etched (anode) is connected to its positive pole.A receiver plate (cathode) is connected to its negative pole. Both, spaced slightly apart, areimmersed in a suitable aqueous solution of a suitable electrolyte. The current pushes themetal out from the anode into solution and deposits it as metal on the cathode. Shortlybefore 1990, two groups working independently[13][14] developed different ways of applying itto creating intaglio printing plates.

In the patented[15][16] Electroetch system, invented by Marion and Omri Behr, in contrast tocertain nontoxic etching methods, an etched plate can be reworked as often as the artistdesires[17][18][19][20] The system uses voltages below 2 volts which exposes the uneven metalcrystals in the etched areas resulting in superior ink retention and printed imageappearance of quality equivalent to traditional acid methods. With polarity reversed the lowvoltage provides a simpler method of making mezzotint plates as well as the "steel facing"[21]

copper plates.

Some of the earliest printmaking workshops experimenting with, developing and promotingnontoxic techniques include Grafisk Eksperimentarium, in Copenhagen, Denmark, Edinburgh Printmakers, in Scotland, andNew Grounds Print Workshop, in Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Photo-etching [edit]Main article: Photochemical machining


Monserrate Palace, etching byNathaniel Nguyen 1975present

Young Girl in cafe with street-view,etching by Lesser Ury, 1924

Example of sugar lift and spit biteeffect

Light sensitive polymer plates allow for photorealistic etchings. A photo-sensitivecoating is applied to the plate by either the plate supplier or the artist. Light isprojected onto the plate as a negative image to expose it. Photopolymer plates areeither washed in hot water or under other chemicals according to the platemanufacturers' instructions. Areas of the photo-etch image may be stopped-outbefore etching to exclude them from the final image on the plate, or removed orlightened by scraping and burnishing once the plate has been etched. Once thephoto-etching process is complete, the plate can be worked further as a normalintaglio plate, using drypoint, further etching, engraving, etc. The final result is anintaglio plate which is printed like any other.

Types of metal plates [edit]Copper is a traditional metal, and is still preferred, for etching, as it bites evenly, holdstexture well, and does not distort the colour of the ink when wiped. Zinc is cheaperthan copper, so preferable for beginners, but it does not bite as cleanly as copper,and it alters some colours of ink. Steel is growing in popularity as an etchingsubstrate. Prices of copper and zinc have steered steel to an acceptable alternative. The line quality of steel is less fine thancopper but finer than zinc. Steel has a natural and rich aquatint.

The type of metal used for the plate impacts the number of prints the plate will produce. The firm pressure of the printingpress slowly rubs out the finer details of the image with every pass through. With relatively soft copper, for example, theetching details will begin to wear very quickly, some copper plates show extreme wear after only ten prints. Steel, on the otherhand, is incredibly durable. This wearing out of the image over time is one of the reasons prints created early in a numberedseries tend to be valued more highly. The total number of prints an artist would like to produce are taken into account whenchoosing the metal.

Industrial uses [edit]Main article: Chemical millingSee also: Etching (microfabrication)

Etching is also used in the manufacturing of printed circuit boards and semiconductor devices, and in the preparation ofmetallic specimens for microscopic observation.

Controlling the acid's effects [edit]Hard grounds [edit]There are many ways for the printmaker to control the acid's effects. Most typically,the surface of the plate is covered in a hard, waxy 'ground' that resists acid. Theprintmaker then scratches through the ground with a sharp point, exposing lines ofmetal that are attacked by the acid.

Aquatint [edit]Aquatint is a variation in which particulateresin is evenly distributed on the plate, thenheated to form a screen ground of uniform butless than perfect density. After etching, anyexposed surface will result in a roughened(i.e., darkened) surface. Areas that are to belight in the final print are protected byvarnishing between acid baths. Successiveturns of varnishing and placing the plate inacid create areas of tone difficult or

impossible to achieve by drawing through a wax ground.

Sugar lift [edit]Here designs in a syrupy solution of sugar or Camp Coffee are painted onto the metal surface prior to it being coated in aliquid etching ground or 'stop out' varnish. When later the plate is placed in hot water the sugar dissolves and lifts off leavingthe image. The plate can then be etched.

Spit bite [edit]A mixture of nitric acid and Gum Arabic (or almost never saliva) which can be dripped, spattered or painted onto a metal


Example of foul bite in acid etching

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Etchings.

surface giving interesting results. A mixture of nitric acid and rosin can also be used.

Printing [edit]Printing the plate is done by covering the surface with ink, then rubbing the ink off the surface with tarlatan cloth or newsprint,leaving ink in the roughened areas and lines. Damp paper is placed on the plate, and both are run through a printing press;the pressure forces the paper into contact with the ink, transferring the image (c.f., chine-coll). Unfortunately, the pressurealso subtly degrades the image in the plate, smoothing the roughened areas and closing the lines; a copper plate is good for,at most, a few hundred printings of a strongly etched imaged before the degradation is considered too great by the artist. Atthat point, the artist can manually restore the plate by re-etching it, essentially putting ground back on and retracing theirlines; alternatively, plates can be electro-plated before printing with a harder metal to preserve the surface. Zinc is also used,because as a softer metal, etching times are shorter; however, that softness also leads to faster degradation of the image inthe press.

Faults [edit]Foul-bite or "over-biting" is common in etching, and is the effect of minuscule amountsof acid leaking through the ground to create minor pitting and burning on the surface.This incidental roughening may be removed by smoothing and polishing the surface,but artists often leave faux-bite, or deliberately court it by handling the plate roughly,because it is viewed as a desirable mark of the process.

"Etchings" euphemism [edit]The phrase "Want to come up and see my etchings?" is a romantic euphemism bywhich a person entices someone to come back to their place with an offer to look atsomething artistic, but with ulterior motives. The phrase is a corruption of somephrases in a novel by Horatio Alger, Jr. called The Erie Train Boy, which was firstpublished in 1891. Alger was an immensely popular author in the 19th centuryespecially with young peopleand his books were widely quoted. In chapter XXII of the book, a woman writes to her boyfriend,"I have a new collection of etchings that I want to show you. Won't you name an evening when you will call, as I want to becertain to be at home when you really do come." The boyfriend then writes back "I shall no doubt find pleasure in examiningthe etchings which you hold out as an inducement to call."

This was referenced in a 1929 James Thurber cartoon in which a man tells a woman in a building lobby: "You wait here and I'llbring the etchings down".[22] It was also referenced in Dashiell Hammett's 1934 novel The Thin Man, in which the narratoranswers his wife asking him about a lady he had wandered off with by saying: "She just wanted to show me some Frenchetchings."[23]

The phrase was given new popularity in 1937: in a well publicized case, violinist David Rubinoff was accused of inviting ayoung woman to his hotel room to view some French etchings, but instead seducing her.

As early as 1895, Hjalmar Sderberg used the reference in his "decadent" dbut novel Delusions (swe: Frvillelser), when helets the dandy Johannes Hall lure the main character's younger sister Greta into his room under the pretence that theybrowse through his etchings and engravings (e.g., Die Snde by Franz Stuck).[24]

See also [edit]ElectroetchingOld master prints for the history of the methodAcid test (gold)PhotolithographyPrintmakingList of printmakersAquatintScrimshaw

References [edit]1. ^ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/etching2. ^ http://www.cairnsregionalgallery.com.au/ed-artiststudio.pdf3. ^ http://expositions.bnf.fr/bosse/grand/207.htm4. ^ http://expositions.bnf.fr/bosse/grand/209.htm5. ^ http://expositions.bnf.fr/bosse/grand/210.htm6. ^ http://expositions.bnf.fr/bosse/grand/204.htm7. ^ Peter Farb, Man's Rise to Civilization (1978) p.205, citing Emil Walter Haury, The Hohokam: Desert Farmers and Craftsmen

(1976)


(1976)8. ^ "Illuminated Printing" . William Blake Archive. 2003. Retrieved January 31, 2013.9. ^ http://www.magical-secrets.com/studio/glossary

10. ^ http://web.princeton.edu/sites/ehs/artsafety/sec13.htm11. ^ http://www.chicagoartistsresource.org/node/928712. ^ http://www.greenart.info/galvetch/etchtabl.htm13. ^ Behr, Marion; Behr, Omri (1991), "Environmentally safe Etching", Chem Tech 21 (#4): 21014. ^ Semenoff, Nick; C. Christos (1991), "Using Dry Copier Toners in Intaglio and Electro-Etching of metal Plates", Leonardo (The

MIT Press) 24 (#4): 389394, doi:10.2307/1575513 , JSTOR 157551315. ^ US The voltage should be adjustable to operate accurately within a rather narrow voltage range, such that the minimum voltage

shall be at least that of the ionization potential of the metal object in the electrolyte chosen and the maximum shall notsubstantially exceed the sum of the decomposition voltage of the aqueous electrolyte and the over-voltage of the cathodeselected. 5102520 , Behr, Marion & Omri Behr, "Electrolytic etching process and apparatus therefor", issued 04.07.1992

16. ^ US 5112453 , Behr, Omri & Marion Behr, "Method and apparatus for producing etched plates for graphic printing", issued 05-12-1992

17. ^ Behr, Marion; Behr, Omri (1993), "Etching and Tone Creation Using Low-Voltage Anodic Electrolysis", Leonardo 26 (#1): 53,doi:10.2307/1575781

18. ^ Behr, Marion (1993), "Electroetch, a safe etching system", Printmaking Today 3 (#1): 1819. ^ Behr, Marion (1995), "Electroetch II", Printmaking Today 4 (#4): 2420. ^ Behr, Marion; Behr, Omri (1998), "Setting the record straight", Printmaking Today 7 (4): 313221. ^ Behr, Omri (1997), "An improved method for steelfacing copper etching plates", Leonardo (The MIT Press) 30 (#1): 4748,

doi:10.2307/1576375 , JSTOR 157637522. ^ http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/cartoonists/2011/09/sexual-revolutions.html23. ^ Hammett, Dashiell, The Thin Man, (1934) in Five Complete Novels, New York: Avanel Books, 1980, p. 592.24. ^ Frvillelser, Lind & Co., 2012, p. 158163


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Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures , an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fullyavailable online as PDF), which contains material on etchingPhoto Etching process videoPhoto Etching process overviewThe Print Australia Reference Library CatalogueEtching from the MMA Timeline of Art HistoryMuseum of Modern Art information on printing techniques and examples of printsMini Print International of Cadaques. The longest running international print competition and exhibition. Catalogues onlinein archivePCB Etching using a laser printer and etchant also includes a video

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