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Transcript of Essentials of Biology Sylvia S. Mader Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission...
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Essentials of BiologySylvia S. Mader
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
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1.1 The Characteristics of Life
1. Living things are organized.
Cell – smallest, most basic unit of life
Tissues – Organ – Organ systems –
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Figure 1.1 Levels of biological organization
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
SmallMolecules
LargeMolecules
cardiac (heart) tissue
plant cell
animal cell
Cells Tissues Organs OrganSystems
ComplexOrganisms
leaf tissues leaf
cardiovascular system
leaves
stems
roots
heart
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2. Living things acquire materials and energy.
Life cannot be maintained without them.
Food – building blocks and energy source• Energy – • Metabolism –
Ultimate source of energy for Earth is the sun.• Photosynthesis transforms solar energy into chemical energy
of food.
Remaining homeostatic• Homeostasis – • May be behavior –
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a: © age fotostock/SuperStock; b: © Ed Young/Corbis
a.
b.
Figure 1.2 Acquiring nutrient material and energy
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3. Living things respond.
Find energy and/or nutrients by interacting with
the environment.
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4. Living things reproduce and develop.
Every living thing can make another organism like itself or reproduce.
In all organisms, genes are made of DNA.• DNA is the blueprint.
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Figure 1.3 A Human Family
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
DNA
(family): © Vol. 113/Getty RF; (helix): © David Mack/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
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5. Living things have adaptations.
Modifications that make organisms suited to their way of life
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1.2 Evolution: The Core Concept of Biology
• Evolution – process by which species have changed and diversified since life arose Explains the unity and diversity of life
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Figure 1.4 Evolutionary tree
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
AnimalsFungiPlantsProtistsArchaeaBacteria0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5Bill
ion
s o
f Y
ears
Ag
o (
BY
A)
BACTERIA
ARCHAEAEUKARYA
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• Taxonomy – discipline of naming and classifying organisms according to certain rules According to presumed evolutionary relationship Categories of classification
• Domain• Kingdom• Phylum• Class• Order• Family• Genus• Species
Least inclusive
Most inclusive
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• Binomial name for each organism Pisum sativum, the garden pea First word is genus Second word is specific epithet Universally used by scientists to avoid
confusion of common names
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• 3 domains Domain Archaea
• Prokaryote – unicellular, lacks membrane-bound nucleus• May be representative of first cells on Earth
Domain Bacteria• Prokaryote – unicellular, lacks membrane-bound nucleus
Domain Eukarya• Eukaryote• Unicellular or multicellular• Membrane-bound nucleus
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Figure 1.5 Domain ArchaeaCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
20,000
64,000(main): © Ralph Robinson/Visuals Unlimited; (inset): © M. Rhode/GBF/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
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Figure 1.6 Domain BacteriaCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(main): © A.B. Dowsett/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (inset): © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.
6,600
65,000
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• Domain Eukarya is divided into four kingdoms Kingdom Protista Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Animalia
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Figure 1.7 Domain Eukarya, Kingdom Protista
150© John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
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Figure 1.8 Domain Eukarya, Kingdom FungiCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Corbis RF
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Figure 1.9 Domain Eukarya, Kingdom PlantaeCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF
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Figure 1.10 Domain Eukarya, Kingdom AnimaliaCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Photodisc/PunchStock RF
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• Natural selection Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace
both independently came to the conclusion that evolution occurs by natural selection.
Charles Darwin wrote On the Origin of Species presenting substantiating data.
Evolution is a core concept of biology – explains so many different types of observations in every field of biology.
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1.3 How the Biosphere Is Organized
• Biosphere – zone of air, land, and water at the surface of the Earth where living organisms are found
• Population – all members of a species in a particular area
• Community – populations interact among themselves
• Ecosystem – community and the physical environment (soil, atmosphere, etc.)
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• North American grassland ecosystem• Ecosystems characterized by
Chemical cycling – chemicals move through food chain
Energy flow – from sun to plants to members of the food chain
• Energy does not cycle – ecosystems could not stay in existence without solar energy or photosynthesizers.
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Figure 1.12 A grassland, a terrestrial ecosystem
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Heat
Heat
Heat
Ch
emic
als
Ch
emic
als
Decomposers
Consumers
Producers
Solarenergy
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• Biosphere Climate largely determines where different
ecosystems are found in the biosphere.• Desert in areas of minimal rain• Forests require more rain.
Two most biologically diverse ecosystems occur where solar energy is most abundant.
• Tropical rain forests• Coral reefs
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1.4 Science: A Way of
Knowing
• Biology is the scientific study of life.
Figure 1.13 BiologistsCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a. Botanist
c. Ecologists
b. Biochemist
a: © Kathy Sloane/Photo Researchers, Inc.; b: © Edgar Bernstein/Peter Arnold; c: © Luiz C. Marigo/Peter Arnold
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• Scientific method begins with observations. May take advantage of
knowledge and experiences of other scientists
• Scientist uses inductive reasoning – uses creative thinking to combine isolated facts into a cohesive whole. Hypothesis – possible
explanation for an event• Consider only those that
can be tested.
Figure 1.14 Flow diagram for the scientific method
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Observations
New observations are madeand past data are studied.
Hypothesis
A testable statementis formulated.
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• Experiments further observations and test hypothesis. Good experimental design,
all conditions constant except experimental variable
• Test group versus control group
Data may suggest correlation.
• Does not necessarily mean causation
• Scientists are skeptics
• Conclusion – is the hypothesis supported or not? Experiments and
observations must be repeatable.
Figure 1.14 continued
Experiment/Observations
The hypothesis is testedby experiment or furtherobservations.
Conclusion
The results are analyzed.
The hypothesisis supported.Continue work.
The hypothesisis rejected.Start again.
Many experiments andobservations supporta theory.
Scientific Theory
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• Scientific theory Ultimate goal of science is to understand the
natural world in accepted explanations for how the world works.
Cell theory, gene theory Theory of evolution is considered a unifying
concept in biology. Some biologists refer to the principle or law of
evolution due to over 100 years of support by so many observations and experiments.
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Controlled study• Hypothesis : Antibiotic B is better than
Antibiotic A in current use for the treatment of ulcers.
• 3 experimental groups Reduce possible variances by randomly dividing
large group. Control group receives placebo.
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Figure 1.15 A controlled laboratory experiment to test the
effectiveness of a medication in
humans
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
State Hypothesis:Antibiotic B is a better treatment for
ulcers than antibiotic A
Perform Experiment:Groups were treated the same
except as noted
Control group:receivedplacebo
Test group 1:received
antibiotic A
Test group 2:received
antibiotic B
© image100 Ltd
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• Results determined by endoscopy Double-blind study – Technician doesn’t know
which group patient is in.
• Conclusion – investigators conclude their hypothesis is supported.
• Scientific studies published in a scientific journal Review process General public usually relies on secondary sources
which may be inaccurate. Be especially careful of information on the Internet.
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Figure 1.15 continuedCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Collect Data:Each subject was examinedfor the presence of ulcers
100
80
60
40
20
0
10
ControlGroup
60
TestGroup 1
80
TestGroup 2
Eff
ec
tive
ne
ss
of
Tre
atm
en
t (%
)