EssentialOils:Extraction,Bioactivities ... · PDF...
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R:Co
ncise
Revie
wsin
Food
Scien
ceEssential Oils: Extraction, Bioactivities, and TheirUses for Food PreservationPhakawat Tongnuanchan and Soottawat Benjakul
Abstract: Essential oils are concentrated liquids of complex mixtures of volatile compounds and can be extracted fromseveral plant organs. Essential oils are a good source of several bioactive compounds, which possess antioxidative andantimicrobial properties. In addition, some essential oils have been used as medicine. Furthermore, the uses of essential oilshave received increasing attention as the natural additives for the shelf-life extension of food products, due to the risk inusing synthetic preservatives. Essential oils can be incorporated into packaging, in which they can provide multifunctionstermed “active or smart packaging.” Those essential oils are able to modify the matrix of packaging materials, therebyrendering the improved properties. This review covers up-to-date literatures on essential oils including sources, chemicalcomposition, extraction methods, bioactivities, and their applications, particularly with the emphasis on preservation andthe shelf-life extension of food products.
Keywords: antimicrobial, antioxidant, biodegradable film, essential oil, food product, volatile compound
IntroductionEssential oils, also called volatile odoriferous oil, are aromatic
oily liquids extracted from different parts of plants, for example,leaves, peels, barks, flowers, buds, seeds, and so on. They can beextracted from plant materials by several methods, steam distil-lation, expression, and so on. Among all methods, for example,steam distillation method has been widely used, especially forcommercial scale production (Cassel and Vargas 2006; Di Leo Liraand others 2009). Essential oils have been widely used as foodflavors (Burt 2004). Essential oils found in many different plants,especially the aromatic plants, vary in odor and flavor, which aregoverned by the types and amount of constituents present in oils.Additionally, the amount of essential oil from different plants isdifferent and this determines the price of essential oil. Apart fromaromatic compounds, indigenous pigments contribute to varyingcolors of essential oil. This can affect the applications as the in-gredient in some particular foods. Essential oils have been knownto possess antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, thereby servingas natural additives in foods and food products. It can be used asactive compounds in packaging materials, in which the proper-ties of those materials, particularly water vapor barrier propertyassociated with hydrophobicity in nature of essential oils, can beimproved. Almost any part of a plant may be the source of the oil,which could be extracted and fully exploited for food applicationsor others. Modern technologies have been continuously devel-oped to conquer the limitation of conventional methods, and toenhance the extraction efficacy. Due to the increasing attentionin natural additives, essential oils from several plants have beenused more widely, especially in conjunction with other preserva-tions under concept of “hurdle technology.” Thus, essential oilscan serve as the alternative additives or processing aid as greentechnology.
MS 20131520 Submitted 10/23/2013, Accepted 4/9/2014. Authors are withDept. of Food Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla Univ., 15Kanchanawanish Road, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand. Direct inquiries toauthor Benjakul (E-mail: [email protected]).
Sources and Chemical CompositionSeveral plants contain essential oils, however, parts of plants,
which serve as the major source of essential oil can be different(Table 1). Those include roots, peels, leaves, seeds, fruits, barks, andso on. Plant essential oils are usually the complex mixture of nat-ural compounds, both polar and nonpolar compounds (Masango2005). Dominant compounds in various essential oils are pre-sented in Table 2. In general, the constituents in essential oils areterpenes (monoterpenes and sesquerpenes), aromatic compounds(aldehyde, alcohol, phenol, methoxy derivative, and so on), andterpenoids (isoprenoids) (Bakkali and others 2008; Mohamed andothers 2010). Compounds and aroma of essential oils can be di-vided into 2 major groups: terpene hydrocarbons and oxygenatedcompounds.
Terpene hydrocarbonsThe hydrocarbons are the molecule, constituting of H and C
atoms arranged in chains. These hydrocarbons may be acyclic, al-icyclic (monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic), or aromatic. Terpenesare the most common class of chemical compounds found in essen-tial oils. Terpenes are made from isoprene units (several 5 carbonbase units, C5), which are the combinations of 2 isoprene units,called a “terpene unit.” Essential oils consist of mainly monoter-penes (C10) and sesquiterpenes (C15), which are hydrocarbonswith the general formula (C5H8)n. The diterpenes (C20), triter-penes (C30), and tetraterpenes (C40) exist in essential oils at lowconcentration (Mohamed and others 2010). Terpenoids (a terpenecontaining oxygen) is also found in essential oils (Burt 2004).
Essential oils mostly contain monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes,which are C10H16(MW 136 amu) and C15H24 (MW 204 amu), re-spectively. Although sesquiterpenes are larger in molecules, struc-ture and functional properties of sesquiterpenes are similar tothe monoterpenes (Ruberto and Baratta 2000). For diterpenes,triterpenes, and tetraterpenes, they have the larger molecule thanmonoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, but they are present at very lowconcentration in essential oils (Bakkali and others 2008).
Oxygenated compoundsThese compounds are the combination of C, H, and O,
and there are a variety of compounds found in essential oils.
C© 2014 Institute of Food Technologists R©doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.12492 Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 � Journal of Food Science R1231Further reproduction without permission is prohibited
R:ConciseReviewsinFoodScience
Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
Table 1–Parts of plant material containing essential oils.
Parts Plants
Leaves Basil, bay leaf, cinnamon, common sage, eucalyptus, lemon grass, citronella, melaleuca, mint, oregano, patchouli, peppermint, pine,rosemary, spearmint, tea tree, thyme, wintergreen, kaffir lime, laurel, savory, tarragon, cajuput, lantana, lemon myrtle, lemonteatree, niaouli, may chang, petitgrain, laurel, cypress
Seeds Almond, anise, cardamom, caraway, carrot celery, coriander, cumin, nutmeg, parsley, fennelWood Amyris, atlas cedarwood, himalayan cedarwood, camphor, rosewood, sandalwood, myrtle, guaiac woodBark Cassia, cinnamon, sassafras, katrafayBerries Allspice, juniperResin Frankincense, myrrhFlowers Blue tansy, chamomile, clary sage, clove, cumin, geranium, helichrysum hyssop, jasmine, lavender, manuka, marjoram, orange, rose,
baccharises, palmarosa, patchouli, rhododendron anthopogon, rosalina, ajowan, ylang-ylang, marjoram sylvestris, tarragon,immortelle, neroli
Peel Bergamot, grapefruit, kaffir lime, lemon, lime, orange, tangerine, mandarinRoot Ginger, plai, turmeric, valerian, vetiver, spikenard, angelicaFruits Xanthoxylum, nutmeg, black pepper
Oxygenated compounds can be derived from the terpenes, inwhich they are termed “terpenoids.” Some oxygenated com-pounds prevalent in plant essential oils are shown as follows:
- Phenols: thymol, eugenol, carvacrol, chavicol, thymol, and so on.- Alcohols:
Monoterpene alcohol: borneol, isopulegol, lavanduol, α-terpineol, and so on.
Sesquiterpenes alcohol: elemol, nerolidol, santalol, α-santalol, andso on.
- Aldehydes: citral, myrtenal, cuminaldehyde, citronellal, cin-namaldehyde, benzaldehyde, and so on.
- Ketones: carvone, menthone, pulegone, fenchone, camphor, thu-jone, verbenone, and so on.
- Esters: bomyl acetate, linalyl acetate, citronellyl acetate, geranylacetate, and so on.
- Oxides: 1,8-cineole, bisabolone oxide, linalool oxide, sclareoloxide, and so on.
- Lactones: bergaptene, nepetalactone, psoralen, aesculatine, cit-roptene, and so on.
- Ethers: 1,8-cineole, anethole, elemicin, myristicin, and so on.
Different constituents in essential oils exhibit varying smell orflavor (Burt 2004). Also, the perception of individual volatile com-pounds depends on their threshold.
Extraction of Essential OilsEssential oils can be extracted from several plants with differ-
ent parts by various extraction methods. The manufacturing ofessential oils, and the method used for essential oil extraction arenormally dependent on botanical material used. State and formof material is another factor used for consideration. Extractionmethod is one of prime factors that determine the quality ofessential oil. Inappropriate extraction procedure can lead to thedamage or alter action of chemical signature of essential oil. Thisresults in the loss in bioactivity and natural characteristics. For se-vere case, discoloration, off-odor/flavor as well as physical changesuch as the increased viscosity can occur. Those changes in ex-tracted essential oil must be avoided. Extraction of essential oilscan be carried out by various means, as shown in Table 3.
DistillationSteam distillation. Steam distillation is the most widely used
method for plant essential oil extraction (Reverchon and Senatore
1992). The proportion of essential oils extracted by steam distilla-tion is 93% and the remaining 7% can be further extracted by othermethods (Masango 2005). Basically, the plant sample is placed inboiling water or heated by steam (Figure 1). The heat applied isthe main cause of burst and break down of cell structure of plantmaterial. As a consequence, the aromatic compounds or essentialoils from plant material are released (Perineau and others 1992;Babu and Kaul 2005). The temperature of heating must be enoughto break down the plant material and release aromatic compoundor essential oil. A new process design and operation for steamdistillation of essential oils to increase oil yield and reduce theloss of polar compounds in wastewater was developed by Masango(2005). The system consists of a packed bed of the plant materi-als, which sits above the steam source. Only steam passes throughit and the boiling water is not mixed with plant material. Thus,the process requires the minimum amount of steam in the processand the amount of water in the distillate is reduced. Also, water-soluble compounds are dissolved into the aqueous fraction of thecondensate at a lower extent (Masango 2005). Yildirim and others(2004) reported that the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH)radical scavenging activities of essential oils from steam distillationprocess were markedly higher than those of oils extracted usinghydrodistillation (HD).
Hydrodistillation. HD has become the standard method ofessential oil extraction from plant material such as wood or flower,which is often used to isolate nonwater-soluble natural productswith high boiling point. The process involves the complete immer-sion of plant materials in water, followed by boiling. This methodprotects the oils extracted to a certain degree since the surround-ing water acts as a barrier to prevent it from overheating. Thesteam and essential oil vapor are condensed to an aqueous fraction(Figure 2). The advantage of this technique is that the requiredmaterial can be distilled at a temperature below 100 °C. Okohand others (2010) studied the different extraction processes onyield and properties of essential oil from rosemary (Rosmarinus of-ficinalis L.) by HD and solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME).The total yields of the volatile fractions obtained through HDand SFME were 0.31% and 0.39%, respectively. HD oil containedmore monoterpene hydrocarbons (32.95%) than SFME-extractedoil (25.77%), while higher amounts of oxygenated monoterpenes(28.6%) were present in the oil extracted by SFME in compar-ison with HD (26.98%). Golmakani and Rezaei (2008) studiedthe microwave-assisted HD (MAHD), which is an advanced HDtechnique utilizing a microwave oven in the extraction process.MAHD was superior in terms of saving energy and extraction time
R1232 Journal of Food Science � Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014
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ceBioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
Tab
le2–
Maj
or
com
pounds
indif
fere
nt
pla
nt
esse
nti
aloils.
Monote
rpen
eO
xyge
nat
edSes
quiter
pen
eO
xyge
nat
edEss
ential
oils
hydro
carb
ons
monote
rpen
eshy
dro
carb
ons
sesq
uiter
pen
esEst
ers
Oth
ers
Ref
eren
ces
Bas
ilβ
-Pin
ene,
β-L
imon
ene,
γ-T
erpi
nene
endo
-5,5
,6-T
rim
ethy
l-2-
norb
orna
none
β-E
lem
ene,
2,6-
Dim
ethy
l-6-
(4-m
ethy
l-3-
pent
enyl
)-bi
cycl
o[3.
1.1]
hept
-2-e
ne,
γ-C
adin
ene,
γ-M
uuro
lene
Met
hyle
ugen
ol–
Met
hylc
havi
col,3
-M
etho
xyci
nnam
alde
hyde
Teix
eira
and
othe
rs(2
013)
Citr
onel
laS-
3-C
aren
e,M
enth
a-1,
4,8-
trie
ne,
�2-C
aren
e,cis
-2,6
-D
imet
hyl-
2,6o
ctad
iene
,γ
-Ter
pine
ne
(−)-
Isop
uleg
ol,β
-Citr
onel
lal,
β-
Citr
onel
lol
β-E
lem
ene,
β-S
elin
ene,
α-S
elin
ene,
α-M
uuro
lene
,(+
)-δ-C
adin
ene,
Ere
mop
hile
ne,γ
-Sel
inen
e,(+
)-δ-S
elin
ene,
(−)-
α-A
mor
phen
e
(−)-
Ced
rean
olm
-(T
rim
ethy
lsilo
xy)
-cin
nam
icac
idm
ethy
lest
er
-Te
ixei
raan
dot
hers
(201
3)
Clo
ve–
–tra
ns-C
aryo
phyl
lene
,α
-Hum
ulen
eM
ethy
leug
enol
Ace
teug
enol
p-E
ugen
olTe
ixei
raan
dot
hers
(201
3)
Gar
lic1(
7),5
,8-o
-Men
that
rien
etr
ans-
Lim
one
oxid
e,en
do-5
,5,6
-Tri
met
hyl-
2-no
rbor
nano
ne,
––
–di
-2-P
rope
nyld
isulfi
de,
Dim
ethy
ltet
rasu
lphi
de,d
i-2-
Prop
enyl
tetr
asul
fide,
3,3′
-T
hiob
is-1-
prop
ene,
Sulfu
r
Teix
eira
and
othe
rs(2
013)
Lem
onα
-Pin
ene,
β-P
inen
e,C
ymen
e,α
-Lim
onen
e,α
-Fel
land
rene
–tra
ns-C
aryo
phyl
lene
––
1,2,
3,5-
Tetr
amet
hyl-
benz
ene,
1-(1
,5-
Dim
ethy
lhex
yl)-
4-m
ethy
lben
zene
Teix
eira
and
othe
rs(2
013)
Lem
onα
-Pin
ene,
α-F
ench
ene,
Lim
onen
e,C
amph
ene
Citr
onel
lal,
cis-C
arve
ol,
α-C
itral
,Car
vaco
l,Te
rpni
ol,
Thy
mol
,Car
vacr
ol,C
itral
––
–C
yclo
hexa
ne,H
epta
nal,
Dih
ydro
iso-p
imar
ic,
Dih
ydro
-abi
tec
Moh
amed
and
othe
rs(2
010)
Lem
ongr
ass
α-P
inen
e,3-
Car
ene,
Cam
phen
eβ
-Citr
al,α
-Citr
al,
α-C
yclo
citr
al,
Terp
ineo
l,2,3
-Deh
ydro
-1,
8-ci
neol
e
β-C
aryo
phyl
lene
––
m-E
ugen
ol,G
eran
ylN
-but
yrat
e,Is
oger
anio
lLe
iman
nan
dot
hers
(200
9)
Man
dari
nα
-Pin
ene,
di-L
imon
ene,
Allo
-Oci
men
e,C
amph
ene,
Sabi
nene
Neo
-Dih
ydro
cave
ol,
cis-L
imon
ene
oxid
e,Li
nalo
ol,B
orne
ol,
Lim
onen
egly
col,
Car
vone
Farn
esen
e,α
-Far
nese
ne–
–Li
naly
lace
tate
,Und
ecan
oic
acid
,Met
hly-
anth
rani
late
,B
enza
ldeh
yde
Moh
amed
and
othe
rs(2
010)
Min
t(Sa
ture
jacu
neifo
lia)
α-P
inen
e,M
yrce
ne,
Lim
onen
e,cis
β-O
cim
ene,
p-C
ymen
e,al
lo-O
cim
ene
Thy
mol
,Car
vacr
ol,
Cam
phor
,Lin
aloo
l,Te
rpin
en-4
-ol,
Ner
al,
α-T
erpi
neol
,Bor
neol
,G
eran
ial,
Ger
anio
l
β-B
ourb
onen
e,β
-Car
yoph
ylle
ne,
Aro
mad
endr
ene,
β-C
ubeb
ene,
δ-C
adin
ene,
Car
yoph
ylle
neox
ide,
aSpa
thul
enol
,Vir
idifl
orol
,–
–B
ezi c
and
othe
rs(2
005)
Min
tb(S
atur
eja
mon
tana
)α
-Thu
jene
,α-P
inen
e,M
yrce
ne,α
-Ter
pine
ne,
γ-T
erpi
nene
,p-C
ymen
e
Lina
lool
,α-T
erpi
neol
,B
orne
ol,
Thy
mol
,Car
vacr
ol
β-C
ubeb
ene,
δ-C
adin
ene
Car
yoph
ylle
neox
ide,
Spat
hule
nol
–1-
Oct
en-3
-ol,
Thy
mol
met
hyle
ther
,Car
vacr
olm
ethy
leth
er,T
hym
ylac
etat
e
Bez
ican
dot
hers
(200
5)
Ora
nge
Myr
cene
,β-P
hella
ndre
ne,
α-T
erpi
nole
ne,
Men
that
rien
e
cis-L
imon
eneo
xide
,Dec
anal
,Li
nalo
ol,
Verb
enol
,Car
vone
,Pe
rilla
dehy
de,c
is-C
arve
ol,
Citr
onel
lol
Farn
esen
e–
–N
onyl
-ald
ehyd
e,C
apry
licac
id,C
inna
mic
-ald
ehyd
e,H
epta
deca
nol
Moh
amed
and
othe
rs(2
010)
(Con
tinue
d)
Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 � Journal of Food Science R1233
R:ConciseReviewsinFoodScience
Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
Tab
le2–
Conti
nued
.
Monote
rpen
eO
xyge
nat
edSes
quiter
pen
eO
xyge
nat
edEss
ential
oils
hydro
carb
ons
monote
rpen
eshy
dro
carb
ons
sesq
uiter
pen
esEst
ers
Oth
ers
Ref
eren
ces
Ore
gano
α-T
erpi
nene
,Li
mon
ene,
γ-T
erpi
nene
1,8-
Cin
eole
,Ter
pine
n-4
-ol,
α-T
erpi
neol
,Thy
mol
,C
arva
crol
,
β-C
aryo
phyl
lene
,cis-
Hyd
rate
sabi
nene
,tra
ns-H
ydra
tesa
bine
ne
––
–A
guir
rean
dot
hers
(201
3)
Plai
-Dam
(Zin
gibe
rot
tens
ii)α
-Pin
ene,
β-P
inen
e,Sa
bine
ne,M
yrce
ne,
α-T
erpi
nene
,Lim
onen
e,E
-β-O
cim
ene,
p-C
ymen
e,Te
rpin
olen
e,γ
-Ter
pine
ne
1,8-
Cin
eole
,Lin
aloo
l,Te
rpin
en-4
-ol,
cis-M
enth
-2-e
n-1-
ol,
Bor
neol
,tra
ns-P
iper
itol
β-E
lem
ene,
β-C
aryo
phyl
lene
,H
umul
ene
Car
yoph
ylle
neox
ide,
Hum
ulen
eox
ide,
α-E
udes
imol
,β
-Eud
esim
ol,Z
erum
bone
–B
orny
lace
tate
,Sab
inen
ehy
drat
e,4-
phen
ylbu
tan-
2-on
e
Thu
bthi
mth
edan
dot
hers
(200
5)
Ros
emar
yα
-Pin
ene,
Cam
phen
e,β
-Pin
ene,
Cym
ene,
α-F
ella
ndre
ne,S
-3-C
aren
e,m
-Cym
ene,
Men
tha-
1,4,
8-tr
iene
Euc
alyp
tol,
(E)-
2,3-
Epo
xyca
rane
,(−)-
Cam
phor
,end
o-B
orne
ol,
endo
-5,5
,6-T
rim
ethy
l-2-
norb
orna
none
trans
-Car
yoph
ylle
ne–
(−)-
Bor
nyla
ceta
te–
Teix
eira
and
othe
rs(2
013)
Sage
α-P
inen
e,C
amph
ene,
β-P
inen
e,C
ymen
e,α
-Fel
land
rene
,m-C
ymen
e,M
enth
a-1,
4,8-
trie
ne,
�2-C
aren
e,1,
3,8-
p-M
enth
atri
ene,
α-T
erpi
nole
ne
Euc
alyp
tol,
(E)-
2,3-
Epo
xyca
rane
,(−)-
Cam
phor
,end
o-B
orne
ol,
endo
-5,5
,6-T
rim
ethy
l-2-
norb
orna
none
trans
-Car
yoph
ylle
ne,
β-S
elin
ene,
β-B
isabo
lene
–(−
)-B
orny
lace
tate
–Te
ixei
raan
dot
hers
(201
3)
Tan
geri
neα
-Pin
ene,
Lim
onen
e,α
-Ter
pine
ne,t
rans
-M
enth
adie
ne,
trans
-Oci
men
e,tra
ns-D
ecal
one
Citr
onel
lal,
Lina
lool
,cis
-Lim
onen
eox
ide,
trans
-Car
veol
,Lim
onen
edi
oxid
e,Pe
rilly
lalc
ohol
–Le
dol,
Glo
bulo
l–
Alo
xipr
in,H
epta
dien
e,M
ethy
l-he
ptad
iene
,C
yclo
octa
none
,Ben
zyl-
dica
rbox
ylic
Moh
amed
and
othe
rs(2
010)
Thy
me
Cam
phen
e,β
-Pin
ene,
Cym
ene,
α-F
ella
ndre
ne,
m-C
ymen
e
Euc
alyp
tol,
(E)-
2,3-
Epo
xyca
rane
,en
do-5
,5,6
-Tri
met
hyl-
m-
Thy
mol
,C
arva
crol
trans
-Car
yoph
ylle
ne–
–(3
E,5
E,8
E)-
3,7,
11-T
rim
ethy
l-1,
3,5,
8,10
-dod
ecap
enta
ene
Teix
eira
and
othe
rs(2
013)
Thy
mus
long
icaul
issu
bsp.
long
icaul
isva
r.lo
ngica
ulis
α-T
huje
ne,α
-Pin
ene,
Myr
cene
,Cam
phen
e,β
-Pin
ene,
α-P
hella
ndre
ne,
α-T
erpi
nene
,p-C
ymen
e,(E
)-β
-Oci
men
e,γ
-Ter
pine
ne,c
is-Sa
bine
nehy
drat
e,Te
rpin
olen
e
Cam
phor
,Bor
neol
,Te
rpin
en-4
-ol,
α-T
erpi
neol
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Table 3–Extraction of essential oils from various sources using several methods.
Extraction methods Plants References
Solvent extraction – Solvent sage (Salvia officinalis), apiaceae (Ptychotis verticillata), chasteberry(Vitexagnuscastus L.), lemon (Citrus x limon)
Durling and others (2007); Matsingou and others (2003);El Ouariachi and others (2011); Sarikurkcu and others(2009); Koshima and others (2012)
– Supercritical CO2 rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), anise(Pimpinella anisum), cumin seed (Cuminum cyminum), sage(Salvia officinalis), lemon (Citrus x limon), carrot fruit (Daucuscarrota L.), marjoram (Majorana hortensis Moench), catnip(Nepeta cataria L.), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), lavender(Lavandula angustifolia Mill), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.),hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.), anise hyssop (Lophantus anisatusBenth), patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), cumin (Cuminumcyminum), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), coriander (Coriandrumsativum L.), chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), baccharises(Baccharis uncinella, Baccharis anomala, and Baccharis dentata)
Pereira and Meireles (2007); Reverchon and Senatore(1992); Eikani and others (1999); Djarmati and others(1991); Gironi and Maschietti (2008); Glisic andothers (2007); Dapkevicius and others (1998);Donelian and others (2009); Li and others (2009);Guan and others (2007); Mhemdi and others (2011);Araus and others (2009); Xavier and others (2011)
– Subcritical water fructus amomi, marjoram (Origanum majorana), olive (Oleaeuropaea), coriander seeds (Coriandrum sativum L.)
Deng and others (2005); Jimenez-Carmona and others(1999); Amarni and Kadi (2010); Eikani and others(2007)
Distillation - Steam rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium sp.), thyme (Thymuskotschyanus), germander (Teucrium orientale), rosemary(Rosmarinus officinalis), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), anise(Pimpinella anisum), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora), basil(Ocimum basilicum L.), lavender (Lavandula dentata L.),patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata),orange (Citrus sinensis)
Babu and Kaul (2005); Sefidkon and others (1999);Yildirim and others (2004); Pereira and Meireles(2007); Rajeswara Rao and others (2003); Cassel andothers (2009); Donelian and others (2009); Guan andothers (2007); Farhat and others (2011)
– Hydrodistillation rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium sp.), germander (Teucriumorientale), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), lemon (Citrus xlimon), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), marjoram (Majoranahortensis Moench), catnip (Nepeta cataria L), lavender(Lavandula angustifolia Mill), hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.),anise hyssop (Lophantus anisatus Benth), sage (Salvia officinalisL), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata),caraway (Carum carvi), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), basil(Ocimum basilicum L.), garden mint (Mentha crispa L.)
Babu and Kaul (2005); Yildirim and others (2004);Reverchon and Senatore (1992); Ferhat and others(2007); Bayramoglu and others (2008); Dapkeviciusand others (1998); Li and others (2009); Guan andothers (2007); Farhat and others (2010); Gavahian andothers (2012)
– Hydrodiffusion orange (Citrus sinensis), rosemary leaves (Rosmarinus officinalis) Farhat and others (2011); Bousbia and others (2009)Solvent-free microwave oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), fragrant fern (Dryopteris fragrans),
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), caraway (Carum carvi), 5flavor berry (Schisandra chinensis), cumin (Cuminum cyminumL.), cardamom (Elletaria cardamomum L.), basil (Ocimumbasilicum L.), garden mint (Mentha crispa L.), thyme (Thymusvulgaris L.), sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.),spearmint (Mentha spicata L.), pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.)
Bayramoglu and others (2008); Li and others (2012);Okoh and others (2010); Farhat and others (2010); Maand others (2012); Wang and others (2006); Lucchesiand others (2007); Lucchesi and others (2004); Micheland others (2011); Vian and others (2008)
Combination methods -Solvent + Steam
cumin (Cuminum cyminum), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Li and others (2009), Zhang and others (2012)
(75 min, compared to 4 h in HD). Ohmic-assisted HD (OAHD)is another advanced HD technique (Gavahian and others 2012).OAHD method had the extraction time of 24.75 min, while HDtook 1 h for extraction of essential oil from thyme. No changesin the compounds of the essential oils obtained by OAHD werefound in comparison with HD.
Hydrodiffusion. Hydrodiffusion extraction is a type of steamdistillation, which is only different in the inlet way of steam intothe container of still. This method is used when the plant materialhas been dried and is not damaged at boiling temperature (Vianand others 2008). For hydrodiffusion, steam is applied from thetop of plant material, whereas steam is entered from the bottomfor steam distillation method. The process can also be operatedunder low pressure or vacuum and reduces the steam temperatureto below 100 °C. Hydrodiffusion method is superior to steamdistillation because of a shorter processing time and a higher oilyield with less steam used. Bousbia and others (2009) compared theHD and innovative microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG)methods for their effectiveness in the isolation of essential oil fromrosemary leaves (R. officinalis). The MHG method exhibits theexcellent advantages over traditional alternatives including shorterisolation times (15 min against 3 h for HD), environmental impact
(energy cost is fairly higher to perform HD than that required forrapid MHG isolation), cleaner features (no residue generation andno water or solvent used), increased antimicrobial and antioxidantactivities. Farhat and others (2011) studied the microwave steamdiffusion (MSDf), which is an advanced steam diffusion (SDf)technique utilizing microwave heating process for extraction ofessential oils from by-products of orange peel. The essential oilsextracted by MSDf for 12 min had similar yield and aromaticprofile to those obtained by SDf for 40 min.
Solvent extractionSolvent. Conventional solvent extraction has been imple-
mented for fragile or delicate flower materials, which are nottolerant to the heat of steam distillation. Different solvents in-cluding acetone, hexane, petroleum ether, methanol, or ethanolcan be used for extraction (Areias and others 2000; Pizzale andothers 2002; Kosar and others 2005). For general practice, thesolvent is mixed with the plant material and then heated to ex-tract the essential oil, followed by filtration. Subsequently, thefiltrate is concentrated by solvent evaporation. The concentrate isresin (resinoid), or concrete (a combination of wax, fragrance, and
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essential oil). From the concentrate, it is then mixed with purealcohol to extract the oil and distilled at low temperatures. Thealcohol absorbs the fragrance and when the alcohol is evaporated,the aromatic absolute oil is remained. However, this method is arelatively time-consuming process, thus making the oils more ex-pensive than other methods (Li and others 2009). Essential oil withantioxidant activity from Ptychotisverticillata was extracted usingsolvent extraction method by El Ouariachi and others (2011).The oil was dominated by phenolic compounds (48.0%) with car-vacrol (44.6%) and thymol (3.4%) as the main compounds. Ozenand others (2011) studied the chemical composition and antioxi-
dant activity of separated essential oils from Thymus praecox subsp.skorpilii var. skorpilii (TPS) extracted using different solvents. TPSessential oil was found to contain thymol (40.31%) and o-cymene(13.66%) as the major components. The ethanol, methanol, andwater extracts exerted significant free-radical scavenging activity.The water extract has the highest total phenolics (6.211 mg gal-lic acid/g dry weight) and flavonoids (0.809 mg quercetin/g dryweight). Moreover, Sarikurkcu and others (2009) reported thatthe water extract exhibited higher antioxidant activity than otherextracts (hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol).However, solvent residue could be retained in the final product
Figure 1–Diagrammatic illustration of steam distillation method.
Figure 2–Diagrammatic illustration ofhydrodistillation method.
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due to incomplete removal. This may cause allergies, toxicity, andaffect the immune system (Ferhat and others 2007a).
Supercritical carbon dioxide. Conventional methods in-cluding solvent extraction and steam distillation have some short-comings such as long preparation time and large amount of or-ganic solvents (Deng and others 2005). Moreover, the losses ofsome volatile compounds, low extraction efficiency, degradationof unsaturated compounds, and toxic solvent residue in the extractmay be encountered (Jimenez-Carmona and others 1999; Glisicaand others 2007; Gironi and Maschietti 2008). Therefore, super-critical fluids have been considered as an alternative medium foressential oil extraction. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most com-monly used supercritical fluid because of its modest critical condi-tions (Hawthorne and others 1993; Jimenez-Carmona and others1999; Senorans and others 2000). Under high-pressure condition,CO2 turns into liquid, which can be used as a very inert andsafe medium to extract the aromatic molecules from raw material.No solvent residue remains in the final finished product since theliquid CO2 simply reverts to a gas and evaporates under normalatmospheric pressure and temperature. Despite high solubilities ofessential oil components in supercritical CO2, the extraction rateswere relatively slow with pure CO2 (ca. 80% recovery after 90min) (Hawthorne and others 1993). However, the combinationmethods by a 15-min static extraction with methylene chlorideas a modifier followed by a 15-min dynamic extraction with pureCO2 yielded high recoveries. The extraction efficacy was equiva-lent to HD, which was performed for 4 h. The volatile compoundssuch as monoterpenes can be collected from the supercritical fluidextraction (SFE) effluent by >90%. SFE was able to recover someorganic compounds that were not extracted by HD (Hawthorneand others 1993). Pereira and Meireles (2007) showed that thesupercritical fluid extraction is economically viable than steam dis-tillation. This is mainly caused by the lower yield and the higherenergy consumption of the latter.
Subcritical water. The subcritical water or pressurized hotwater has been introduced as an extractant under dynamic condi-tions (pressure high enough to maintain water under liquid stateand temperature in the range of 100 to 374 °C). Jimenez-Carmonaand others (1999) reported that the efficiency (in terms of volumeof essential oil/1 g of plant) of continuous subcritical water ex-traction was 5.1 times higher than HD method. This method isquicker (15 min compared with 3 h), provides a more valuableessential oil (with higher amounts of oxygenated compounds andno significant presence of terpenes), and allows substantial savingsof costs, in terms of both energy and plant material. Kubatovaand others (2001) studied the subcritical water extraction of lac-tones from a kava (Piper methysticum) root, compared to a Soxhletextraction with water. The extraction of ground samples with sub-critical water at 100 °C took 2 h, but the shorter time (20 min)was required when extraction was carried out at 175 °C. Boilingfor 2 h and extraction with Soxhlet apparatus for 6 h showed thelower yields by 40% to 60%, compared with that obtained usingsubcritical water.
Solvent-free microwaveThe disadvantages of conventional methods such as solvent or
hydrodiffusion extraction are the losses of some volatile com-pounds, low extraction efficiency, long extraction time, degra-dation of unsaturated or ester compounds through thermal orhydrolytic effects, and toxic solvent residue in the extract (Pollienand others 1998; Luque de Castro and others 1999). These dis-advantages have led to the consideration of the use of SFME.
It is a rapid extraction of essential oils from aromatic herbs,spices, and dry seeds. SFME has several advantages, involv-ing higher yield and selectivity, shorter time, and environmen-tal friendly (Lopez-Avila and others 1994; Tomaniova and oth-ers 1998). SFME is a combination of microwave heating anddry distillation, performed at atmospheric pressure without anysolvent or water. Isolation and concentration of volatile com-pounds are performed by a single stage (Lucchesi and others 2004;Bayramoglu and others 2008). Using oregano as a raw material,SFME offered significantly higher essential oil yields (0.054 mL/g),compared to HD (0.048 mL/g) (Bayramoglu and others 2008).When microwave power at 662 W was used in SFME, process timewas reduced by 80%, compared with conventional process. Ferhatand others (2007b) reported that microwave method offers the im-portant advantages over traditional alternatives, such as shorter ex-traction times (30 min compared with 3 h for HD and 1 h for coldpressing [CP]); better yields (0.24% compared with 0.21% for HDand 0.05% for CP); environmental impact (energy cost is appre-ciably higher for performing HD and for mechanical motors (CP)than that required for rapid microwave extraction); cleaner features(as no residue generation and no water or solvent used); and highantimicrobial activities. Farhat and others (2010) reported that es-sential oils of caraway seeds isolated by microwave dry-diffusionand gravity (MDG) exhibited the similar yield and aromatic profileto those obtained by HD, but MDG was better than HD in termsof shorter process time (45 min compared with 300 min), energysaving, and cleanliness. The present apparatus permits fast andefficient extraction, reduces waste, avoids water and solvent con-sumption, and allows substantial energy savings (Farhat and others2010).
Role of Essential Oils as Food AdditivesEssential oils from plants have been known to act as natural
additives, for example, antimicrobial agents, antioxidant, and so on.Their activities vary with source of plants, chemical composition,extraction methods, and so on. Due to the unique smell associatedwith the volatiles, this may limit the use of essential oil in somefoods since it may alter the typical smell/flavor of foods.
Antimicrobial activityThe ability of plant essential oils to protect foods against
pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms has been reported(Lis-Balchin and others 1998; Friedman 2006; Rojas-Grau andothers 2007). Among chemical components in several essentialoils, carvacrol has been shown to exert a distinct antimicrobialaction (Veldhuizen and others 2006). Carvacrol is the major com-ponent of essential oil from oregano (60% to 74% carvacrol) andthyme (45% carvacrol) (Lagouri and others 1993; Arrebola andothers 1994). It has a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activityagainst most gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Friedmanand others 2002). Carvacrol disintegrates the outer membrane ofgram-negative bacteria, releasing lipopolysaccharides and increas-ing the permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane to ATP (Burt2004). For gram-positive bacteria, it is able to interact with themembranes of bacteria and alter the permeability for cations likeH+ and K+ (Veldhuizen and others 2006). In general, the higherantimicrobial activity of essential oils is observed on gram-positivebacteria than gram-negative bacteria (Kokoska and others 2002;Okoh and others 2010). Lipophilic ends of lipoteichoic acids incell membrane of gram positive bacteria may facilitate the pen-etration of hydrophobic compounds of essential oils (Cox andothers 2000). On the other hand, the resistance of gram-negative
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bacteria to essential oils is associated with the protecting role of ex-trinsic membrane proteins or cell wall lipopolysaccharides, whichlimits the diffusion rate of hydrophobic compounds through thelipopolysaccharide layer (Burt 2004). The dissipation of ion gra-dients leads to impairment of essential processes in the cell andfinally to cell death (Ultee and others 1999). The cytoplasmicmembrane of bacteria generally has 2 principal functions: (i) bar-rier function and energy transduction, which allow the membraneto form ion gradients that can be used to drive various processes,and (ii) formation of a matrix for membrane-embedded proteins(such as the membrane-integrated F0 complex of ATP synthase)(Sikkema and others 1995; Hensel and others 1996). Antimicro-bial mechanism of essential oil is proposed as shown in Figure 3.The activity of the essential oils is related to composition, func-tional groups, and synergistic interactions between components(Dorman and Deans 2000). The removal of the aliphatic ring sub-stituent of carvacrol slightly decreased the antimicrobial activity.2-Amino-ρ-cymene has similar structure to cavacrol, except hy-droxyl group (Figure 4). The lower activity by 3-fold of 2-amino-ρ-cymene, as compared to carvacrol, indicates the essential role ofhydroxyl group in antimicrobial activity of carvacrol (Veldhuizenand others 2006). The hydroxyl group present in the structure ofphenolic compounds confers antimicrobial activity and its relativeposition is very crucial for the effectiveness of these natural com-ponents; this can explain the superior antimicrobial activity of car-vacrol, compared to other plant phenolics (Veldhuizen and others2006).
Plant essential oils have been known as antimicrobial agents. Es-sential oil of rosemary (R. officinalis) exhibited both gram-positive(Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) and gram-negative (Es-cherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae) bacteria (Okoh and others2010). The major components of rosemary oil are monoterpenessuch as α-pinene, β-pinene, myrcene 1,8-cineole, borneol, cam-phor, and verbinone (Santoyo and others 2005; Okoh and others
2010), which possess strong antimicrobial activity by the disrup-tion of bacteria membrane integrity (Knobloch and others 1989).Aguirre and others (2013); Burt (2004); and Pelissari and oth-ers (2009) also reported that oregano essential oil had higherantimicrobial activity against the gram-positive bacteria (S. au-reus) than gram-negative (E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Themain constituents of oregano essential oil are thymol, carvacrol,γ -therpinene, and ρ-cymene (Lambert and others 2001; Burt2004; Aguirre and others 2013). However, Pseudomonas putida wasresistant to carrot seed and parsley essential oils (Teixeira and oth-ers 2013). E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium were also tolerant tocarrot seed, grapefruit, lemon, onion, and parsley essential oils.The greater resistance of gram-negative bacteria toward essentialoils may be attributed to the complexity of their double-layer cellmembrane, compared with the single-layer membrane of gram-positive bacteria (Hogg 2005).
Antimicrobial activity of Callistemon comboynensis essential oilwas observed against gram-positive (B. subtilis and S. aureus), gram-negative (Proteus vulgaris and P. aeruginosa), and a pathogenic fungusCandida albicans. This might be associated with the high contentof oxygenated constituents (Abdelhady and Aly 2012). Essentialoil of C. comboynensis leave consisted of 1,8-cineole (53.03%),eugenol (12.1%), methyl eugenol (8.3%), α-terpineol (4.3%), andcarveol (3.4%) (Abdelhady and Aly 2012). Teixeira and others(2013) found that the highest reduction (8.0 log CFU/mL) wasobtained when coriander, origanum, and rosemary essential oilsat a level of 20 μL were used to inhibit Listeria innocua. Thymeessential oil (20 μL) was able to inhibit both L. innocua and Lis-teria monocytogenes. However, rosemary essential oil exhibited thehighest MIC (90.8 mg/mL) against Brochothrix thermosphacta andS. typhimurium. Thus, essential oils from the selected plants can beused as antimicrobial agents for food applications as well as otherpurposes; however, their activity depends on types of essential oilused.
Figure 3–Schematic illustration for the effect of essential oils on bacteria cell.
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Antioxidant activitySeveral compounds in essential oils have the structure mim-
icking the well-known plant phenols with antioxidant activity.Among the major compounds available in the oil, thymol andcarvacrol were reported to possess the highest antioxidant activity(Dapkevicius and others 1998). Essential oils have several modesof actions as antioxidant, such as prevention of chain initiation,free radical scavengers, reducing agents, termination of peroxides,prevention of continued hydrogen abstraction as well as quenchersof singlet oxygen formation and binding of transition metal ioncatalysts (Yildirim and others 2000; Mao and others 2006). Withthose functions, essential oils can serve as the potential natural an-tioxidants, which can be used to prevent lipid oxidation in foodsystems. Phenolics are organic compounds consisting of hydroxylgroup (-OH) attached directly to a carbon atom that is a partof aromatic ring. The hydrogen atom of hydroxyl group can bedonated to free radicals, thereby preventing other compounds tobe oxidized (Nguyen and others 2003). Teixeira and others (2013)reported that the highest scavenging activity of DPPH radical wasobserved for clove and origanum essential oils with the EC50 val-ues of 35.7 ± 1.2 and 46.8 ± 0.4 μg/mL, respectively. Clove andoriganum essential oils also showed the high ferric reducing power(Teixeira and others 2013). The antioxidant capability of phenoliccompounds is mainly due to their redox properties, which permitthem to act as hydrogen donors, reducing agents, singlet oxygenquenchers as well as metal chelators (Kumar and others 2005).The antioxidant activity is generally related with the major ac-tive compounds in essential oils such as eugenol in clove (Weiand Shibamoto 2010), carvacrol in origanum (Bounatirou and
others 2007), m-thymol in thyme (Bozin and others 2006), andβ-citronellol or β-citronellal in citronella (Ruberto and Baratta2000). However, the other antioxidant compounds in essentialoils such as terpinene, (−)-camphor, (−)-bornylacetate, eucalyp-tol, and methylchavicol have been reported to exhibit antioxidantactivity, but their amounts were probably too low to exhibit an-tioxidant activity (Ruberto and Baratta 2000; Mitic-Culafic andothers 2009; Teixeira and others 2013). Antioxidant activity varieswith source of essential oils. Tongnuanchan and others (2013a)reported that among essential oils from roots, plai essential oilshowed the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity, followedby turmeric and ginger essential oil, respectively. The highest2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS)radical scavenging activity was observed in turmeric essential oil,followed by plai and ginger essential oils. The differences in an-tioxidative activity of different essential oils were mostly due tothe differences in types and amounts of antioxidative componentspresent in essential oils (Burt 2004; Kordali and others 2005).
Antioxidative activity of essential oil is also affected by extractionmethod or solvents used. Sarikurkcu and others (2010) reportedthat free radical scavenging activity (DPPH assay) and reducingpower of essential oil from Thymus longicaulis subsp. Longicaulisvar. longicaulis extracted using HD method was lower than thoseextracted using methanol or water. Methanol extract of Salviatomentosa exhibited superior radical scavenging activity to otherextracts (IC50 = 18.7l μg/mL) (Tepe and others 2005). Nonpolarextracts showed less effective activities than polar extracts. There-fore, antioxidative activity of essential oil is strictly related withthe polarities of their phytochemicals. The antioxidant activity of
Figure 4–Structure of carvacrol andcarvacrol-related compoundsSource: Veldhuizen and others (2006).
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essential oil from T. longicaulis subsp. longicaulis var. longicaulis ex-tracted by HD method at 2.0 mg/mL showed similar antioxidativeactivity to synthetic antioxidants butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) when tested by β-carotene–linoleic acid model system and was higher than those extractedwith other solvents (Sarikurkcu and others 2010). In contrast, theinhibition of linoleic acid oxidation of model system by essentialoil of S. tomentosa (Miller) was lower than those extracted usingsolvents with different polarities and BHT (Tepe and others 2005).Abdelhady and Aly (2012) reported that C. comboynensis essentialoil exhibited the antioxidant activity at a concentration of 1000μg/mL (91.1 ± 0.3% inhibition), comparable to 100 μg/mL gallicacid (95.7 ± 2% inhibition). It has been reported that nonphe-nolic antioxidants of plant extracts might also contribute to theantioxidant activity (Newman and others 2002; Hassimotto andothers 2005).
Additionally, the harvesting period of plant also determines theconcentration of the major oil components such as phenolic com-pounds, which directly related with the antioxidant activity ofessential oils (Malatova and others 2011; Zheljazkov and others2012; Wu and others 2013).
Active Packaging Containing Essential Oilsand Applications
Development of active packagingNowadays, smart packaging has gained increasing attention, for
example, antimicrobial packaging, which can be applied to ex-tend the shelf life of food and products (Appendini and Hotchkiss2002; Quintavalla and Vicini 2002). To enhance the property ofthose packaging, antimicrobial compounds or extracts with the se-lected bioactivity are incorporated. Thus, several approaches havebeen introduced, not only for increasing bioactivity but also mod-ifying the property of biomaterials used for packaging. Amongbiomaterials, proteins have gained attention, due to their vari-ety in compositions, properties, as well as nutritive value. How-ever, protein-based material for packaging is still encountering thepoor property, especially poor barrier property toward water va-por. Chemical and enzyme treatment can be applied to modifypolymer network through the cross-linking of the polymer chainsto improve the properties of protein film (Mahmoud and Savello1993; Yildirim and Hettiarachchy 1997; De Carvalho and Grosso2004). Hydrophobic plasticizer can be used to improve water va-por barrier property of films. However, it may yield films withdifferent properties. The incorporation of hydrophobic substancessuch as lipid, fatty acid, wax, and so on, has been implemented toimprove water vapor barrier property (Prodpran and others 2007;Limpisophon and others 2010; Soazo and others 2011). Hy-drophobic materials such as essential oils have been incorporatedto improve water vapor barrier property of protein-based films,for example, film from fish muscle protein, film from fish gelatin,and so on (Atares and others 2010a; Tongnuanchan and others2012, 2013a). Tongnuanchan and others (2012) reported that wa-ter vapor permeability (WVP) of fish skin gelatin film decreasedmarkedly from 3.11 to 1.88, 1.89, and 2.45 × 10−11 gm−1s−1Pa−1
(P < 0.05), when films were incorporated with ginger, turmeric,and plai essential oils, respectively, at a level of 100% based on pro-tein. The incorporation of ginger, turmeric, and plai essential oilsat the highest level (100% based on protein) reduced WVP of filmby 39.54%, 39.22%, and 21.22%, respectively. The result suggesteddifferent hydrophobicity of compounds present in different essen-tial oils used. Monoterpenes are highly hydrophobic substancesfound in essential oils, in which the content varied with types of
essential oils (Turina and others 2006). Hydrophobic essential oilcould increase the hydrophobicity of films, thereby reducing thewater vapor migration through the film. Essential oils with lowdensity are separated and localized at the upper surface of film,thereby forming the bilayer microstructure. In general, there wasno oil exudates on the film incorporated with low concentration(25%) of essential oil; however, at high concentration of essen-tial oil (100%), some oil exudates were found at the surface ofthe films. The bilayer-morphological microstructure might con-tribute to lower WVP of essential-oil-incorporated gelatin films(Figure 5), compared with the control film. Atares and others(2010a) studied the mechanical properties of soy protein isolateincorporated with cinnamon and ginger essential oil at differ-ent concentrations (protein to oil mass ratios: 1 : 0.025, 1 : 0.050,1 : 0.075, and 1 : 0.100). A slight decreasing trend of elastic mod-ulus (EM) was observed as the oil content increased. The WVPwas slightly reduced by both essential oils. The oil type signifi-cantly affected both tensile strength (resistance to elongation) andEM (capacity for stretching) (Atares and others 2010a). Essen-tial oils may cause some degree of rearrangement in the proteinnetwork, thus strengthening and increasing the film resistance toelongation. Moreover, Pires and others (2011) studied the effectof thyme essential oil incorporated in hake protein film. The ad-dition of thyme oil significantly reduced the WVP. Nevertheless,the addition of essential oil had impact on the transparency of film,depending on type and concentration of essential oils. The addi-tion of thyme oil decreased the transparency value of hake proteinsfilms (Pires and others 2011). Table 4 presents the properties ofprotein-based films containing various essential oils.
The ability of plant essential oils to protect foods againstpathogenic and spoilage microorganisms has been reported byseveral researchers (Lis-Balchin and others 1998; Friedman 2006;Rojas-Grau and others 2007). Film or packaging incorporatedwith essential oils can be employed as active packaging due to theirantimicrobial or antioxidant activities. Seydim and Sarikus (2006)evaluated antimicrobial activity of whey-protein isolate-based edi-ble films incorporated with oregano essential oil. Oregano essentialoil added films exhibited the larger inhibitory zone on S. aureuswith increasing levels of essential oil added. Table 5 presents the an-timicrobial activities of biopolymer films containing various typesof essential oils.
Films added with essential oils are shown to possess antioxi-dant activities, which can vary with type and amount of essen-tial oil incorporated. Gomez-Estaca and others (2009) reportedthat bovine-hide and tuna skin gelatin films supplemented withoregano and rosemary extracts exhibited the reducing ability andfree-radical scavenging capacity. Antioxidant power was gener-ally being proportional to the amount of added extract. Gelatinfilms incorporated with different essential oils containing 30%glycerol mostly had the higher antioxidant activity than thosewith 20% glycerol (P < 0.05) (Tongnuanchan and others 2012).More loosen structure of film network found in film contain-ing 30% glycerol favored the release of essential oils with antiox-idative activity (Tongnuanchan and others 2012). Antioxidativeactivities of gelatin films incorporated with essential oils werelower than those of pure essential oil, regardless of type of essen-tial oil used. The interaction between gelatin and antioxidativecompounds in essential oil thus lowers the release of those com-pounds (Tongnuanchan and others 2013a). Antioxidant activitiesof protein-based films containing various essential oils are shown inTable 6.
However, film or packaging may have the smell of essentialoils due to its volatilization. The smell intensity of essential oil in
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Tab
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Pro
per
ties
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ical
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stic
izer
,Ess
ential
oils,
WV
P(×
10−1
0Tra
nsp
aren
cyco
nce
ntr
atio
nco
nce
ntr
atio
nco
nce
ntr
atio
nT
hic
knes
s(m
m)
TS
(MPa)
EA
B(%
)g/
ms
Pa)
(%)
Ref
eren
ces
Hak
em
uscl
epr
otei
n,1.
5%(w
/w)
ofFF
S
Gly
cero
l,59
%(w
/w)
ofpr
otei
nT
hym
e(T
hym
usvu
lgar
isL.
),0.
025,
0.05
,0.
1,an
d0.
25m
Loi
l/g
prot
ein
0.02
2to
0.02
54.
13to
6.67
,3.3
0to
8.49
N(B
reak
ing
forc
e)
111.
2to
129.
8,87
.87
to11
5.41
(Pun
ctur
ede
form
atio
n)
0.35
to0.
431.
8to
6.5
Pire
san
dot
hers
(201
1)
Soy
prot
ein
isola
te,
8%(w
/w)
ofFF
SG
lyce
rol,
30%
(w/w
)of
prot
ein
Cin
nam
on(C
inna
mom
umve
rum
),0.
025,
0.05
,0.0
75,a
nd0.
1m
Loi
l/g
prot
ein
–11
.0to
17.6
3.4
to7.
50.
46to
0.64
a–
Ata
res
and
othe
rs(2
010a
)G
inge
r(Z
ingi
bero
fficin
ale)
,0.0
25,0
.05,
0.07
5,an
d0.
1m
Loi
l/g
prot
ein
–4
to8
1.7
to3
0.56
to0.
68a
–
Sodi
umca
sein
ate,
8%(w
/w)
ofFF
SG
lyce
rol,
30%
(w/w
)of
prot
ein
Cin
nam
on(C
inna
mom
umve
rum
),0.
025
and
0.07
5m
Loi
l/g
prot
ein
–22
and
24b
10.2
and
11.4
c13
and
22b
67an
d76
c0.
64an
d0.
57d
2.14
and
1.7e
–A
tare
san
dot
hers
(201
0b)
Gin
ger(
Zin
gibe
roffi
cinal
e),0
.025
and
0.07
5m
Loi
l/g
prot
ein
–22
and
22b
10an
d11
.6c
18an
d16
b
57an
d72
c0.
57an
d0.
52d
2.1
and
1.8e
–
Sunfl
ower
prot
ein
conc
entr
ate,
5%(w
/v)
ofFF
S
Gly
cero
l,1.
5%(w
/v)
ofFF
SC
love
(Syz
ygiu
mar
omat
icum
)0.
080
±0.
012.
5±
0.2
24.9
±1.
71.
16±
0.09
aa–
Salg
ado
and
othe
rs(2
013)
Fish
gela
tin(t
ilapi
a),3
.5%
(w/w
)of
FFS
Gly
cero
l,20%
and
30%
(w/w
)of
prot
ein
Ber
gam
ot(C
itru
sbe
rgam
ia),
50%
(w/w
)of
prot
ein
0.04
7an
d0.
048
42.4
2an
d36
.52
15.2
9an
d19
.19
3.15
and
3.22
aaa
4.28
and
4.45
Tong
nuan
chan
and
othe
rs(2
012)
Kaf
firLi
me
Peel
(Citr
ushy
strix
DC
)0.
048
and
0.04
736
.87
and
34.2
231
.43
and
30.9
32.
95an
d3.
385.
48an
d5.
56Le
mon
,(C
itrus
limon
)0.
048
and
0.04
832
.82
and
31.0
639
.06
and
52.6
62.
81an
d2.
855.
46an
d5.
31Li
me,
(Citr
usau
rant
ifolia
)0.
049
and
0.04
727
.32
and
25.8
752
.21
and
69.7
92.
91an
d3.
375.
66an
d5.
46Fi
shge
latin
(tila
pia)
,3.5
%(w
/w)
ofFF
S
Gly
cero
l,30
%(w
/w)
ofpr
otei
nG
inge
r(Z
ingi
bero
fficin
ale)
,25%
,50%
,and
100%
(w/w
)of
prot
ein
0.04
1to
0.05
718
.58
to35
.73
41.7
0to
72.0
31.
88to
2.61
aaa
1.60
to3.
02To
ngnu
anch
anan
dot
hers
(201
3a)
Tum
eric
(Cur
cum
alo
nga)
0.04
1to
0.05
323
.34
to34
.04
42.9
6to
72.8
01.
89to
2.48
1.45
to1.
63Pl
ai(Z
ingi
berc
assu
mun
arro
xb)
0.04
1to
0.05
517
.20
to32
.06
44.9
6to
74.6
82.
45to
2.91
1.49
–2.
17Fi
shge
latin
(tila
pia)
,3.5
%(w
/w)
ofFF
S
Gly
cero
l,30
%(w
/w)
ofpr
otei
nLe
mon
gras
s,(C
ymbo
pogo
ncit
ratu
s)0.
056
to0.
073
18.4
2to
25.1
352
.81
to77
.25
1.41
to1.
79†
2.48
to3.
24To
ngnu
anch
anan
dot
hers
(201
3b)
Bas
il,(O
cimum
sanc
tum
)0.
054
to0.
084
18.7
0to
21.3
746
.53
to85
.06
1.20
to2.
112.
18to
3.26
Citr
onel
la,(
Cym
bopo
gon
nard
us)
0.06
8to
0.08
017
.39
to21
.85
44.6
3to
97.2
91.
07to
1.42
3.67
to4.
41K
affir
Lim
eLe
af,(
Citr
ushy
strix
DC
)0.
066
to0.
081
25.0
7to
26.2
143
.95
to95
.08
1.03
to1.
594.
25to
6.08
∗ FFS
=Fi
lmfo
rmin
gso
lutio
n;W
VP
=w
ater
vapo
rpe
rmea
bilit
y;a
WV
Pun
it(g
mm
/m2
hkP
a);aa
WV
Pun
it(1
010g
H2O
/Pa
ms)
;†W
VP
unit
(1010
gH
2O
/Pa
ms)
;b,c
Fina
lmoi
stur
eco
nten
tin
the
film
:5an
d10
gw
ater
/100
gfil
m,
resp
ectiv
ely;
d,e
WV
Pof
film
ste
sted
at25°C
and
2ra
nge
ofre
lativ
ehu
mid
ity(R
H)
(33%
to53
%an
d53
to75
,res
pect
ivel
y).
Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 � Journal of Food Science R1241
R:ConciseReviewsinFoodScience
Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
Tab
le5–
Anti
mic
robia
lef
fect
of
bio
poly
mer
film
sco
nta
inin
gva
rious
types
of
esse
nti
aloils.
Film
form
ing
Pla
stic
izer
,Ess
ential
oils,
mat
eria
ls,co
nce
ntr
atio
nco
nce
ntr
atio
nco
nce
ntr
atio
nTes
ted
org
anis
ms
Inhib
itio
nef
fect
Ref
eren
ces
Soy
prot
ein
isola
te,5
%G
lyce
rol,
Ore
gano
(Ore
ganu
mhe
racle
oticu
mL.
),St
aphy
loco
ccus
aure
us27
.50
to49
.50a
Em
irogl
uan
dot
hers
(201
0)(w
/v)
ofFF
S3.
5%(w
/v)
ofFF
S1%
,2%
,3%
,4%
,and
5%(v
/v)
ofFF
SE
sche
richi
aco
li32
.00
to45
.50
Esc
heric
hia
coli
O15
7:H
735
.50
to50
.50
Pseu
dom
anas
aeru
gino
sa27
.00
to39
.50
Lac
toba
cillu
spl
anta
rum
22.5
0to
37.0
0T
hym
e(T
hym
usvu
lgar
isL.
)St
aphy
loco
ccus
aure
us30
.00
to49
.50
Esc
heric
hia
coli
36.5
0to
49.0
0E
sche
richi
aco
liO
157:
H7
36.5
0to
49.5
0Ps
eudo
man
asae
rugi
nosa
32.5
0to
42.0
0L
acto
bacil
lus
plan
taru
m20
.50
to36
.50
Bov
ine-
hide
gela
tin,
Sorb
itola
ndgl
ycer
ol,0
.15
and
0.15
g/g
gela
tinC
love
(Syz
ygiu
mar
omat
icum
L.)
Pseu
dom
onas
fluor
esce
ns9.
07±
0.13
bG
omez
-Est
aca
and
othe
rs(2
010)
8%(w
/v)
ofFF
S0.
75m
l/g
biop
olym
erLa
ctob
acill
usac
idop
hilu
s12
.76
±2.
51L
ister
iain
nocu
a7.
46±
0.53
Esc
heric
hia
coli
10.6
4±
1.37
Gel
atin
-Chi
tosa
n,So
rbito
land
glyc
erol
,0.1
5an
d0.
15g/
gge
latin
Clo
ve(S
yzyg
ium
arom
aticu
mL.
)Ps
eudo
mon
asflu
ores
cens
9.51
±2.
03b
6%of
gela
tinpl
us2%
ofch
itosa
n(w
/v)
ofFF
S0.
75m
L/g
biop
olym
ers
Lact
obac
illus
acid
ophi
lus
12.6
0±
3.42
Gom
ez-E
stac
aan
dot
hers
(201
0)L
ister
iain
nocu
a6.
42±
0.41
Esc
heric
hia
coli
8.69
±0.
42W
hey
prot
ein
isola
te,
5%(w
/v)
ofFF
SG
lyce
rol,
5%(w
/v)o
fFFS
Ore
gano
(Orig
anum
min
utifl
orum
)1%
,2%
,3%
,an
d4%
(v/v
)of
FFS
Esc
heric
hia
coli
O15
7:H
7St
aphy
loco
ccus
aure
usSa
lmon
ella
ente
ritid
isL
ister
iam
onoc
ytog
enes
Lac
toba
cillu
spl
anta
rum
0to
37.0
9c 0to
43.0
70
to40
.59
0to
41.6
50to
13.4
5Se
ydim
and
Sari
kus(
2006
)
Ros
emar
y(R
osm
arin
usof
ficia
nalis
L.)
Esc
heric
hia
coli
O15
7:H
7St
aphy
loco
ccus
aure
usSa
lmon
ella
ente
ritid
isL
ister
iam
onoc
ytog
enes
Lac
toba
cillu
spl
anta
rum
0to
11.3
60
to13
.45
0to
10.4
80
to11
.96
0to
9.21
Gar
lic(A
llium
sativ
umL.
),E
sche
richi
aco
liO
157:
H7
Stap
hylo
coccu
sau
reus
Salm
onel
laen
terit
idis
List
eria
mon
ocyt
ogen
esL
acto
bacil
lus
plan
taru
mN
.D.N
.D.N
.D.N
.D.N
.D.
(Con
tinue
d)
R1242 Journal of Food Science � Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014
R:Co
ncise
Revie
wsin
Food
Scien
ceBioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
Tab
le5–
Conti
nued
.
Film
form
ing
Pla
stic
izer
,Ess
ential
oils,
mat
eria
ls,co
nce
ntr
atio
nco
nce
ntr
atio
nco
nce
ntr
atio
nTes
ted
org
anis
ms
Inhib
itio
nef
fect
Ref
eren
ces
Sunfl
ower
prot
ein
conc
entr
ate,
5%(w
/v)
ofFF
S
Gly
cero
l,1.
5%(w
/v)
ofFF
SC
love
(Syz
ygiu
mar
omat
icum
),0.
75m
L/g
biop
olym
erA
erom
onas
hydr
ophi
la,
Asp
ergi
llus
nige
r,B
acill
usce
reus
,B
acill
usco
agul
ans,
Bifi
doba
cteriu
man
imal
is-su
besp
ecie
lacti
s,
32.6
6±
17.5
9b38
.32
±11
.24
25.6
1±
5.22
37.2
1±
5.13
25.5
2±
9.85
Salg
ado
and
othe
rs(2
013)
Bifi
doba
cteriu
mbi
fidum
,B
roch
othr
ixth
erm
opha
cta,
Citr
obac
terf
reun
dii,
Clo
strid
ium
perfr
inge
ns,
Deb
aryo
myc
esha
nsen
ii,E
nter
ococ
cus
faec
ium
,E
sche
richi
aco
li,L
acto
bacil
lus
acid
ophi
lus,
Lac
toba
cillu
she
lvet
icus,
List
eria
inno
cua,
List
eria
mon
ocyt
ogen
es,
Peni
ciliu
mex
pans
um,
Phot
obac
teriu
mph
osph
oreu
m,
Pseu
dom
onas
aeru
gino
sa,
Pseu
dom
onas
fluor
esce
ns,
Salm
onel
lach
oler
asui
s,Sh
ewan
ella
putre
facie
ns,
Shig
ella
sonn
ei,
Stap
hylo
coccu
sau
reus
,V
ibrio
para
haem
olyt
icus
Yers
inia
ente
roco
lıtica
27.4
2±
14.0
440
.20
±0.
8724
.14
±5.
5421
.15
±0.
7160
.74
±9.
9022
.07
±1.
1425
.68
±1.
4322
.00
±1.
8124
.95
±5.
6431
.04
±0.
5123
.34
±4.
1350
.34
±2.
4838
.20
±6.
4327
.09
±2.
4727
.39
±8.
1326
.40
±3.
5124
.25
±4.
9922
.04
±2.
4629
.35
±3.
5230
.77
±9.
8022
.55
±4.
79C
assa
vast
arch
-Chi
tosa
n,77
%of
star
chpl
us5%
ofch
itosa
n
Gly
cero
l,18
%O
rega
no(O
rega
num
hera
cleot
icum
L.)0
.1%
,0.5
%,
and
1%of
FFS
Bac
illus
cere
usE
sche
richi
aco
liSa
lmon
ella
ente
ritid
isSt
aphy
loco
ccus
aure
us6.
28to
19.5
0a9.
99to
23.7
313
.26
to30
.81
13.9
8to
33.8
8
Pelis
sari
and
othe
rs(2
009)
Hak
epr
otei
n,1.
5%(w
/v)
ofFF
SG
lyce
rol,
59%
(w/w
)of
prot
ein
Citr
onel
la(P
elar
goni
umcit
rosu
m),0
.25
mL
oil/
gpr
otei
n
Bro
chot
hrix
ther
mos
phac
taE
sche
richi
aco
liL
ister
iain
nocu
aL
ister
iam
onoc
ytog
enes
Pseu
dom
onas
putid
aSa
lmon
ella
typh
imur
ium
Shew
anel
lapu
trefa
ciens
48.7
±0.
3dN
.D.4
0.6
±13
.7N
.D.7
1.6
±22
.9N
.D.
N.D
.C
oria
nder
(Cor
iand
rum
sativ
um)
Bro
chot
hrix
ther
mos
phac
taE
sche
richi
aco
liL
ister
iain
nocu
aL
ister
iam
onoc
ytog
enes
Pseu
dom
onas
putid
aSa
lmon
ella
typh
imur
ium
Shew
anel
lapu
trefa
ciens
N.D
.N.D
.32.
0±
16.5
N.D
.N
.D.N
.D.7
7.5
±12
.8Pi
res
and
othe
rs(2
013)
Tar
rago
n(A
rtem
isia
drac
uncu
lus)
Bro
chot
hrix
ther
mos
phac
taE
sche
richi
aco
liL
ister
iain
nocu
aL
ister
iam
onoc
ytog
enes
Pseu
dom
onas
putid
aSa
lmon
ella
typh
imur
ium
Shew
anel
lapu
trefa
ciens
79.8
±5.
7N
.D.1
4.1
±7.
6N
.D.N
.D.N
.D.8
0.5
±6.
9
Thy
me
(Thy
mus
vulg
aris)
Bro
chot
hrix
ther
mos
phac
taE
sche
richi
aco
liL
ister
iain
nocu
aL
ister
iam
onoc
ytog
enes
Pseu
dom
onas
putid
aSa
lmon
ella
typh
imur
ium
Shew
anel
lapu
trefa
ciens
51.0
±5.
3N
.D.3
5.2
±5.
3N
.D.N
.D.4
5.2
±18
.99
6.9
±1.
7T
ritic
ale
prot
ein,
7.5%
(w/v
)of
FFS
Gly
cero
l,20
%(w
/w)
ofpr
otei
nO
rega
no,1
%an
d2%
(w/v
)of
FFS
Esc
heric
hia
coli
Stap
hylo
coccu
sau
reus
Pseu
dom
onas
aeru
gino
sa10
.81
and
21.5
3a16
6.90
and
342.
360.
00an
d9.
70A
guir
rean
dot
hers
(201
3)
∗ FFS
=Fi
lmfo
rmin
gso
lutio
n;N
.D.=
inhi
bitio
nno
tde
tect
ed;a
Inhi
bitio
nun
it(in
hibi
tion
zone
diam
eter
s(m
m))
;bIn
hibi
tion
unit
(per
cent
age
ofin
hibi
tion
(%)
ofth
eto
talp
late
surf
ace)
;cIn
hibi
tion
unit
(inhi
bitio
nzo
ne(m
m2))
;dIn
hibi
tion
unit
(Mac
rodi
lutio
nm
etho
d(%
redu
ctio
n))
Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 � Journal of Food Science R1243
R:ConciseReviewsinFoodScience
Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
Tab
le6–
Anti
oxi
dat
ive
effe
ctof
pro
tein
-bas
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ting
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it(μ
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vale
nts/
gdr
ied
film
).
R1244 Journal of Food Science � Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014
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films increased with increasing essential oil levels. This might limitthe application of the film in food when it was incorporated atthe high amount. However, smaller amount (25%) of essential oiladded did not cause the detrimental effect on smell perception orunacceptability of the film (Tongnuanchan and others 2012).
Active film containing essential oil can be applied to extendthe shelf life and maintain the quality of foods, such as meat,fish, and their products. Films can serve as carriers for variousantimicrobial agent and antioxidant that can maintain fresh quality,extend product shelf life, and reduce the risk of pathogen growth.Table 7 presents the antimicrobial effect of active films containingvarious essential oils in food systems.
Use of packaging for meat and meat productsMicroorganisms are responsible for meat spoilage. Most essential
oils are classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS). However,their use as food preservatives is often limited due to flavoringconsiderations (Zinoviadou and others 2009). The effectivenessof bioactive films containing essential oils against the spoilage orpathogenic bacteria in food system has been studied. Zinoviadouand others (2009) studied the antibacterial effects of WPI filmcontaining oregano oil (0.5% and 1.5% w/w of Film formingsolution [FFS]) against total variable bacteria count, Pseudomonasspp. and lactic acid bacteria on beef cuts. The use of films con-taining the highest level of oregano oil (1.5% w/w of FFS) re-sulted in a significant reduction of total variable bacteria count
and Pseudomonas spp. population during 12 d of refrigeration stor-age (5 °C). The total variable bacteria population of the sampleswrapped with films containing the high essential oil level at day8 was 5.1 log CFU/cm2, while the control had population of 8.4log CFU/cm2. Since microbial loads higher than 107 CFU/cm2
are usually associated with off-odors (Ercolini and others 2006), itmay be suggested that the use of WPI films containing 1.5% (w/w)oregano oil could double the shelf life of fresh beef stored underrefrigerated condition. Oussalah and others (2004) reported theapplication of milk protein films incorporated with essential oils(oregano, pimento, and mixed) on meat surfaces containing 103
CFU/cm2 of E. coli O157:H7 and Pseudomonas spp. Film contain-ing oregano essential oil was the most effective in inhibition bothbacteria, whereas film with pimento oils seemed to be the least ef-fective against these 2 bacteria. The reduction of around 1 log unitof E. coli O157:H7 and Pseudomonas spp. was observed at the endof storage (day 7, at 4 °C) when film containing oregano essentialoil was used, compared to samples without film coated. Ouattaraand others (2000) reported that chitosan film incorporated withcinnamaldehyde reduced the growth of Lactobacillus sakei, Serratialiquefaciens, and Enterobacteriaceae, on the surface of meat products(bologna, cooked ham, and pastrami). However, the films had noeffect or little effect on the numbers of lactic acid bacteria onbologna or pastrami, after 21 d of storage at 4 or 10 °C. Zivanovicand others (2005) tested the impact of chitosan film containingoregano essential oil (1% and 2% of FFS) on microbial growth ofthe inoculated bologna samples and stored for 5 d at 10 °C. The
Figure 5–Simplified illustration for the formation of emulsified and bilayer films from fish skin gelatin incorporated with essential oil.Source: Adapted from Tongnuanchan and others (2013a).
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Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .
Table 7–Antimicrobial effect of active films containing various essential oils in food systems.
Film forming Essential oils,materials concentration samples Tested organisms References
Chitosan Cinnamaldehyde, 1% (w/w) of FFS Bologna, Regularcooked ham,Pastrami
Enterobacteriaceae, Lactobacillus sakei, Serratialiquefaciens, Lactic acid bacteria
Ouattara andothers (2000)
Milk protein Oregano (OR), Pimento (PI),Mixture (OR+PI, 1 : 1), 1% (w/v) ofFFS
Whole beefmuscle
Escherichia coli O157:H7, Pseudomonas spp. Oussalah andothers (2004)
Chitosan Oregano, 1% and 2% of FFS Bologna slices Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7 Zivanovic andothers (2005)
Pigskin gelatin Oregano, Rosemary, 1.25% and 20%of FFS, respectively
Cold-smokedsardine
Total viable bacteria, H2S-producing microorganisms Gomez-Estaca andothers (2007)
Whey protein isolate Oregano, 1.5% (w/w) of FFS Fresh beef Total viable bacteria, Pseudomonas ssp., Lactic acidbacteria
Zinoviadou andothers (2009)
Soy protein Oregano (OR), Thyme (TH),Mixture (OR+TH, 1 : 1), 5% (v/v)of FFS
Fresh ground beefpatties
Pseudomanas spp., Staphylococcus spp. Coliform Emiroglu andothers (2010)
Bovine-hidegelatin-Chitosan
Clove, 0.75 mL/g biopolymer Cod fillets Total viable bacteria, H2S-producingmicroorganisms, Lactic acid bacteria, Pseudomonasssp., Enterobacteriaceae
Gomez-Estaca andothers (2010)
Sunflower proteinconcentrate
Clove, 0.75 mL/g biopolymer Sardine patties Total viable bacteria, Total mesophiles,H2S-producing microorganisms, Luminescentcolonies, Lactic bacteria, Pseudomonas spp.Enterobacteriaceae
Salgado and others(2013)
higher activity was obtained in films with 1% and 2% oreganoessential oil, which decreased the numbers of L. monocytogenes by3.6 to 4 logs and E. coli O157:H7 by 3 logs, whereas the purechitosan films reduced L. monocytogenes by 2 logs.
Essential oils are able to extend shelf life of foods by lower-ing lipid oxidation (Oussalah and others 2004; Zivanovic andothers 2005). Therefore, the incorporation of essential oils into thebiodegradable films could provide antioxidant activity for resultingfilms. Oussalah and others (2004) reported that the incorporationof oregano essential oil into milk-protein-based film increased theability to stabilize lipid oxidation in beef muscle samples duringrefrigerated storage. Moradi and others (2011) studied the an-tioxidant effects of chitosan film containing Zatariamultiflora Boissessential oil (ZEO) wrapped on mortadella sausage during 21 d ofrefrigeration storage (4 °C). Lipid oxidation of samples decreasedmarkedly at first 6 d when compared to samples wrapped withcontrol film (without ZEO incorporated) and unwrapped samplesup to the end of storage. The most effectiveness was observedwhen samples packed with film containing 10 g/kg ZEO andcombination with 10 g/kg grape seed extract.
Use of packaging for fish and fish productsThe antimicrobial effects of plant extracts including plant es-
sential oils on a wide range of microorganisms have been de-scribed (Hammer and others 1999; Dorman and Deans 2000).As a consequence, plant extracts have been used to preserve meatand fish products due to their antimicrobial and antioxidant ef-fects. Gomez-Estaca and others (2010) reported that the complexgelatin–chitosan film incorporated with clove essential oil was ap-plied to fish during chilled storage and the growth was drasticallyreduced for gram-negative bacteria, especially enterobacteria, andcorresponded with the delay in total volatile base (TVB) produc-tion. Lactic acid bacteria remained practically constant during 11d of storage. H2S-producing bacteria were also inhibited sincetheir growth was interrupted with the application of the film.This microbial inhibition could be attributed to the hydrophobicnature of essential oil, which enable them and their componentsto partition in the lipids of the bacteria cell membrane and mi-tochondria while disturbing the structures and rendering it more
permeable (Sikkema and others 1995). The intrinsic properties ofthe food (fat, protein, pH, and so on), as well as the environmentin which the food is maintained (storage temperature, packag-ing, and so on), may influence the prevention effect of essentialoils (Tassou and others 1995; Burt 2004). Low pH and storagetemperature, decrease O2 concentrations, and high salt contentenhances the antimicrobial effect of essential oils, while high levelsof protein and fat and low water activity seem to protect bacte-ria from the inhibition by essential oils (Gomez-Estaca and others2010). However, soy protein film with oregano, thyme essentialoil, and mixture of those did not have significant effects on to-tal viable counts, lactic acid bacteria and Staphylococcus spp. whenapplied on ground beef patties. Nevertheless, the reduction in co-liform and Pseudomonas spp. counts was observed. Gomez-Estacaand others (2007) tested the antibacterial effects of gelatin-basedfilms added with an extract of oregano or rosemary against micro-bial spoilage in preserving cold-smoked sardine. Coating the fishwith films enriched with oregano or rosemary extract loweredthe microbial growth by 1.99 and 1.54 log cycles, respectively, onday 16.
Salgado and others (2013) tested the antioxidant activity of sun-flower protein films enriched with clove essential oil in preservingfish patties during 13 d of storage at 2°C. The rate of malonalde-hyde production was lower in patties wrapped with clove contain-ing films during the first 3 d of storage, indicating a noticeabledelay in hydroperoxide (primary lipid oxidation products) degra-dation exerted by the clove essential oil components. This allowedthiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) remaining at thelowest values during storage. Use of natural plant extracts to pre-vent lipid oxidation in fish has been reported (Gimenez and others2004; Serdaroglu and Felekoglu 2005). Gomez-Estaca and others(2007) developed gelatin-based film enriched with oregano orrosemary essential oils to prevent lipid oxidation in cold-smokedsardine during 20 d of storage at 5 °C. Coating the muscle withthe films enriched with both essential oils, particularly oreganooil, lowered the lipid oxidation rate (as measured by the peroxideand TBARS indices) of the muscle. Therefore, the edible filmswith the added plant extracts could lower lipid oxidation levels infood systems.
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ConclusionsIn summary, essential oils from different sources can be exploited
as the natural additives in foods. Essential oils with other bioac-tivities or functions from new sources should be further searched.New technology for lowering the unique and undesirable smellof essential oil, which can limit their use in foods, such as en-capsulation, and so on, must be implemented. As a consequence,essential oil can be widely used without any negative effect onsensory property of foods. The development of release system foressential oil from packaging or fuming system inside packagingshould be conducted to maximize the activity of active com-pounds in essential oils. Therefore, it can serve as the convenientpackaging, which effectively extends the shelf life of foods.
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