Essential Physical Anthropology

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Essentials of Physical Anthropology,Eighth Edition

Robert Jurmain, Lynn Kilgore, and

Wenda Trevanthan

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Focus Questions

What do physical

anthropologists do?

Why is physical anthropology a

scientific discipline, and what isits importance to the general

public?

2

Dr. Russell Mittermeier, president

of Conservation International, holding

an indri (the largest of the living

lemurs) at a wildlife reserve in

Madagascar.

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s)




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One day, perhaps during the rainy season some 3.7 million years ago,two or three animals walked across a grassland savanna(see next page

for definitions) in what is now northern Tanzania, in East Africa. These

individuals were early hominins, members of the evolutionary lineage

that includes ourselves, modernHomo sapiens.Fortunately for us, a

1

Introduction

to PhysicalAnthropology

record of their passage on that long-forgotten day remains in the form of foot-prints, preserved in hardened volcanic deposits. As chance would have it, shortlyafter heels and toes were pressed into damp soil, a nearby volcano erupted. Theensuing ashfal l blanketed everything on the ground, including the hominin foot-prints. In time, the ash layer hardened into a deposit that preserved the tracks for

nearly 4 mill ion years (Fig. 1-1).These now famous prints indicate that two individuals, one smaller than the

other, may have walked side by side, leaving parallel sets of tracks. But becausethe larger individuals prints are obscured, possibly by those of a third, its unclearhow many actually made that journey so long ago. But what is clear is that theprints were made by an animal that habitually walked bipedally(on two feet), andthat fact tells us that those ancient travelers were hominins.

In addition to the footprints, scientists working at this site (called Laetoli) andat other locations have discovered many fossilized parts of skeletons of an animalwe callAustralopithecus afarensis. After analyzing these remains, we know thatthese hominins were anatomically similar to ourselves, although their brainswere only about one-third the size of ours. And even though they may have used

stones and sticks as simple tools, theres no evidence to suggest that they actuallymadestone tools. In fact, they were very much at the mercy of natures whims.They certainly couldnt outrun most predators, and since their canine teeth werefairly small, they were pretty much defenseless.

Weve asked hundreds of questions about the Laetoli hominins, but wellnever be able to answer them all. They walked down a path into what becametheir future, and their immediate journey has long since ended. So it remains forus to learn as much as we can about them and their species; and as we continue todo so, their greater journey continues.Cri

stinaG

.Mittermeier





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4 CHAPTER 1Introduction toPhysical Anthropology

On July 20, 1969, a television audience numbering in the hundreds of millionswatched as two human beings stepped out of a spacecraft onto the surface of themoon. To anyone born after that date, this event may be more or less taken forgranted. But the significance of that first moonwalk cant be overstated, because itrepresents humankinds presumed mastery over the natural forces that governour presence on earth. For the first time ever, people had actually walked uponthe surface of a celestial body that, as far as we know, has never given birth to bio-logical life.

As the astronauts gathered geological specimens and frolicked in near

weightlessness, they left traces of their f leeting presence in the form of footprintsin the lunar dust (Fig. 1-2). On the surface of the moon, where no rain falls and nowind blows, the footprints remain undisturbed to this day. They survive as mutetestimony to a brief visit by a medium-sized, big-brained creature who presumedto challenge the very forces that created it.

You may be wondering why anyone would care about early hominin foot-prints and how they can possibly be relevant to your life. You may also wonderwhy a physical anthropology textbook would begin by discussing two such seem-ingly unrelated events as hominins walking across a savanna and a moonwalk.But the fact is, these two events are closely related.

Physical, or biological, anthropology is a scientific discipline concerned withthe biological and behavioral characteristics of human beings; our closest rela-

tives, the nonhuman primates(apes, monkeys, tarsiers, lemurs and lorises); andtheir ancestors. This kind of research helps us explain what it means to behuman. This is an ambitious goal, and it probably isnt fully attainable, but itscertainly worth pursuing. Af ter all, were the only species to ponder our own exis-tence and question how we fit into the spectrum of life on earth. Most peopleview humanity as separate from the rest of the animal kingdom. But at the sametime, some are curious about the similarities we share with other species. Maybe,as a child, you looked at your dog and tried to figure out how her front legs mightcorrespond to your arms. Perhaps, during a visit to the zoo, you noticed thesimilarities between a chimpanzees hands or facial expressions andyour own. Maybe you wondered if they also shared your thoughtsand feelings. If youve ever had thoughts and questions likethese, then youve indeed been curious about humankindsplace in nature.

We humans, who can barely comprehend a cen-tury, cant begin to grasp the enormity of nearly4 mill ion years. But we still want to know moreabout those creatures who walked across thesavanna that day. We want to know howan insignif icant but clever bipedal pri-mate such asAustralopithecus afa-rensis, or perhaps a close relative,gave rise to a species that wouldeventually walk on the surfaceof the moon, some 230,000miles from earth.

How didHomo sapiens ,a result of the same evolu-

PeterJones

CLICK

FIGURE 1-1

Early hominin footprints at Laetoli, Tanzania. The tracks to the left were

made by one individual, while those to the right appear to have been

formed by two individuals, the second stepping in the tracks of the first.

savanna (also spelled savannah) A

large flat grassland with scattered trees

and shrubs. Savannas are found in many

regions of the world with dry and warm-

to-hot climates.

hominins Colloquial term for members

of the evolutionary group that includes

modern humans and extinct bipedal

relatives.

bipedally On two feet; habitually

walking on two legs.

species A group of organisms that can

interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

Members of one species are reproduc-

tively isolated from members of all other

species (that is, they cannot mate with

them to produce fertile offspring).

primates Members of the order of

mammals Primates (pronounced pry-

may -tees), which includes lemurs,

lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and

humans.

Go to the following media resources for

interactive activities, more information,

and study materials on topics covered in

this chapter:n Anthropology Resource Centern Student Companion Website

for Essentials of Physical

Anthropology,Eighth Editionn Online Virtual Laboratories for

Physical Anthropology, Fourth Edition





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Introduction

tionary forces that produced all otherlife on this planet, gain the power tocontrol the flow of rivers and evenalter the climate on a global scale? Astropical animals, how were we able toleave the tropics and eventually occupymost of the earths land surfaces? Howdid we adjust to different environmen-tal conditions as we dispersed? How

could our species, which numberedfewer than 1 billion until the mid-nineteenth century, come to numberalmost 7 billion worldwide today and,as we now do, add another billion peo-ple every 11 years?

These are some of the many ques-tions that physical anthropologistsattempt to answer through the studyof human evolution, variation, andadaptation. These issues, and manyothers, are the topics covered directly or indirectly in this textbook, because

physical anthropology is, in large part, human biology seen from an evolutionaryperspective.As biological organisms, humans are subjected to the same evolutionary

forces as all other species are. On hearing the term evolution, most people thinkof the appearance of new species. Certainly, the development of new species isone important consequence of evolution; but it isnt the only one, because evolu-tion is an ongoing biological process with more than one outcome. Simplystated, evolution is a change in the geneticmakeup of a population from onegeneration to the next, and it can be defined and studied at two levels. Overtime, some genetic changes in populations do result in the appearance of a newspecies orspeciation, especial ly when those populations are isolated from oneanother. Change at this level is cal led macroevolution. At the other level, there

are genetic alterations withinpopulations; and while this type of change may notlead to speciation, it often causes populations of a species to differ from oneanother regarding the frequency of certain traits. Evolution at this level isreferred to as microevolution. Evolution as it occurs at both these levels wil l beaddressed in this book.

But biological anthropologists dont just study physiological and biologicalsystems. When these topics are considered within the broader context of humanevolution, another factor must be considered, and that factor is culture. Culture isan extremely important concept, not only as it relates to modern human beingsbut also because of its critical role in human evolution. Quite simply, and in avery broad sense, culture can be said to be the strategy by which people adapt tothe natural environment. In fact, culture has so altered and so dominated ourworld that its become the environment in which we live. Culture includes technol-ogies ranging from stone tools to computers; subsistence patterns, from huntingand gathering to global agribusiness; housing types, from thatched huts to sky-scrapers; and clothing, from animal skins to high-tech synthetic fibers (Fig. 1-3).Technology, religion, values, social organization, language, kinship, marriage rules,dietary preferences, gender roles, inheritance of property, and so on, are all aspectsof culture. And each culture shapes peoples perceptions of the external environ-ment, or theirworldview,in particular ways that distinguish one culture fromall others.

Introduction

NASA

FIGURE 1-2

Human footprints left on the lunar

surface during theApollomission.

evolution A change in the genetic

structure of a population. The term is

also sometimes used to refer to the

appearance of a new species.

adaptation An anatomical, physiolo

ical, or behavioral response of organismor populations to the environment.

Adaptations result from evolutionary

change (specifically, as a result of natur

selection).

genetic Pertaining to genetics, thestudy of gene structure and action and

the patterns of transmission of traits

from parent to offspring. Genetic mech

nisms are the foundation for evolution

ary change.

culture Behavioral aspects of huma

adaptation, including technology, tradtions, language, religion, marriage pat-

terns, and social roles. Culture is a set o

learned behaviors transmitted from on

generation to the next by nonbiologica

(that is, nongenetic) means.

worldview General cultural orienta-

tion or perspective shared by members

a society.





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6 CHAPTER 1

Introduction toPhysical Anthropology

N

ASA/SpaceTelescopeScienceInstitute

LynnKilgore

a

f

LynnKilgore

R

aviTahilramani/iStockphoto

b

FIGURE 1-3

Traditional and recent technology. (a) An

early stone tool from East Africa. This

artifact represents one of the oldest

types of stone tools found anywhere.

(b) The Hubble Space telescope, a late

twentieth-century tool, orbits the earth

every 96 minutes at an altitude of 360

miles. Because it is above the earths

atmosphere, it provides distortion-free

images of objects in deep space.

(c) Cuneiform, the earliest form of writ-

ing, involved pressing symbols into clay

tablets. It originated in southern Iraq

some 5,000 years ago. (d) Text messag-

ing, the most recent innovation in satel-

lite communication, has generated a new

language of sor ts. Currently more than

500 billion text messages are sent every

day worldwide. (e) A Samburu woman inEast Africa building a traditional but

complicated dwelling of stems, small

branches, mud, and cow dung. (f) These

Hong Kong skyscrapers are typical of cit-

ies in industrialized countries today.

e

JustinHorocks/iStockphoto

MuseumofPrimitiveArtan

dCulture,

PeaceDale,

RI.

d

c





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Introduction

One basic point to remember is that culture isnt genetically passed from onegeneration to the next. Culture is learned, and the process of learning ones culturebegins, quite literally, at birth. All humans are products of the culture theyreraised in, and since most of human behavioris learned, it follows that most behav-iors, perceptions, and reactions are shaped by culture. At the same time, however,its important to emphasize that even though culture isnt genetically determined,the humanpredispositionto assimilate culture and function within it is pro-foundly influenced by biological factors. Most nonhuman animals, including birdsand especially primates, rely to varying degrees on learned behavior. This is espe-

cially true of the great apes (gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and orangutans),which, as you will learn later, exhibit numerous aspects of culture.

We cant overemphasize that the predisposition for culture is perhaps themost critical component of human evolutionary history, and it was inheritedfrom early hominin or prehominin ancestors. In fact, the common ancestor weshare with chimpanzees may have had this predisposition. But during the courseof human evolution, the role of culture became increasingly important. Overtime, culture influenced many aspects of our biological makeup; and in turn,aspects of biology influenced cultural practices. For this reason, humans are theresult of long-term interactions between biology and culture, and we call theseinteractions biocultural evolution.

Biocultural interactions have resulted in many anatomical, biological, and

behavioral changes during the course of human evolution: the shape of the pelvisand hip, increased brain size, reorganization of neurological structures, decreasedtooth size, and the development of language, to name a few. Whats more, biocul-tural interactions are as important today as they were in the past, especially withregard to human health and disease. Air pollution and exposure to dangerouschemicals have increased the prevalence of respiratory disease and cancer. Andwhile air travel has made it possible for people to travel thousands of miles in justa few hours, we arent the only species that can do this. Disease-causing organ-isms travel with their human hosts, making it possible for infectious diseases l ikeflu to spread, literally within hours, across the globe.

Human activities have changed the patterns of infectious diseases such astuberculosis and malaria. After the domestication of nonhuman animals, close

contact with chickens, pigs, and catt le greatly increased human exposure to someof the diseases these animals carry. Through this contact weve also changed thegenetic makeup of disease-causing microorganisms. For example, the swine f luvirus that caused the 2009 pandemic actually contains genetic material derivedfrom bacteria that infect three different species: humans, birds, and pigs. Also, byconsuming meat and milk from infected animals, humans can acquire tuberculo-sis from cattle. And because weve overused antibiotics, weve made some strainsof tuberculosis resistant to treatment and even deadly. As you can see, the inter-actions between humans, domesticated animals, and disease-carrying organismsare complex, and were a long way from understanding how these interactionsimpact the pattern and spread of human infectious disease. While its clear thatwe humans have influenced the development and spread of infectious disease, westill dont know the many ways that changes in infectious disease patterns areaffecting human biology and behavior. Anthropological research in this one areaalone is enormously important to biomedical studies, and there are many othercritical topics that biological anthropologists explore.

So how does biological anthropology differ from human biology? In manyways it doesnt, because human biologists also study human physiology, genetics,and adaptation. But human biology, as a discipline, doesnt include studies of non-human primates or human evolution. So when biological research includes thesetopics as well as the role of culture in shaping our species, its placed within thediscipline of anthropology.

behavior Anything organisms do thinvolves action in response to internal

external stimuli. The response of an in

vidual, group, or species to its environ-

ment. Such responses may or may not

deliberate, and they arent necessarily

the results of conscious decision makin

(for example, the behavior of one-celle

organisms and insects).

biocultural evolution The mutual

interactive evolution of human biology

and culture; the concept that biology

makes culture possible and that develo

ing culture further influences the direc-tion of biological evolution; a basic

concept in understanding the unique

components of human evolution.

anthropology The field of inquiry

that studies human culture and evolu-

tionary aspects of human biology;

includes cultural anthropology, archae

ogy, linguistics, and physical, or biolog

cal, anthropology.





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What Is Anthropology?

Many anthropology majors are forced to contemplate this question whentheir friends or parents ask, What are you studying? The answer is oftenfollowed by a blank stare or a comment relating to Indiana Jones or dino-saurs. So, what is anthropology, and how is it different from several relateddisciplines?

In the United States, anthropology is divided into four main subfields: cul-tural, or social, anthropology; linguistic anthropology; archaeology; and physical,

or biological, anthropology. Each of these is divided into several special ized areasof interest. This four-field approach concerns all aspects of humanity acrossspace and time. Each of the subdisciplines emphasizes different facets of human-ity, but together, the four fields offer a means of explaining variation in humanadaptations. In addition, each of these subfields has practical applications, andmany anthropologists pursue careers outside the university environment. Thiskind of anthropology is called applied anthropology, and its extremely impor-tant today.

Cultural Anthropology

Cultural, or social, anthropology is the study of the global patterns of beliefand behaviorfound in modern and historical cultures.The origins of cul-tural anthropology can be traced to the nineteenth century, when travel andexploration increasingly brought Europeans into contact (and sometimesconflict) with various cu ltures in Africa, par ts of Asia, and the South Pacificislands . Also, in the New World, there was considerable interest in NativeAmericans.

This interest in traditional societies led early anthropologists to study andrecord lifeways that are now mostly extinct. These studies produced manydescriptive ethnographiesthat covered a range of topics, including religion, rit-ual, myth, use of symbols, diet, technology, gender roles, and child-rearing prac-tices. Ethnographic accounts, in turn, formed the basis for comparative studies of

numerous cultures. By examining the similarities and differences among cul-tures, cultural anthropologists have been able to formulate many hypothesesregarding fundamental aspects of human behavior.

The focus of cultural anthropology shifted over the course of the twentiethcentury. Cultural anthropologists still work in remote areas, but increasinglytheyve turned their gaze inward, toward their own countries and the peoplearound them. Many contemporary cultural anthropologists are concerned withthe welfare of refugees and study their resettlement and cultural integration (orlack thereof) in the United States, Canada, and many European countries.Increasingly, ethnographic techniques have been applied to the study of diversesubcultures and their interactions with one another in contemporary metropoli-tan areas (urban anthropology).

Medical anthropologyis an applied subfield of cultural anthropology thatexplores the relationship between various cultural attributes and health and dis-ease. One area of interest is how different groups view disease processes andhow these views affect treatment or the willingness to accept treatment. When amedical anthropologist focuses on the social dimensions of disease, physiciansand physical anthropologists may also collaborate. In fact, many medicalanthropologists have received much of their training in public health or physicalanthropology.

applied anthropology The practical

application of anthropological and

archaeological theories and techniques.For example, many biological anthropol-

ogists work in the public health sector.

ethnographies Detailed descriptive

studies of human societies. In cultural

anthropology, an ethnography is tradi-

tionally the study of a non-Western

society.





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Physical Anthropology

artifacts Objects or materials made

modified for use by modern humans an

their ancestors. The earliest artifacts

tend to be tools made of stone or, occa

sionally, bone.

Archaeology

Archaeology is the study of earlier cultures and l ifeways by anthropologists whospecialize in the scientific recovery, analysis, and interpretation of the materialremains of past societies. Although archaeology often concerns cultures thatexisted before the invention of writing (the period known asprehistory), historicarchaeologists study the evidence of later, more complex societies that producedwritten records.

Archaeologists are concerned with culture, but instead of studying living peo-

ple, they obtain information from artifactsand structures left behind by earliercultures. The remains of earlier societies, in the form of tools, structures, art, eatingimplements, fragments of writing, and so on, provide a great deal of informationabout many important aspects of a society, such as religion and social structure.

Unlike in the past, sites arent excavated simply for the artifacts or treasuresthey may contain. Rather, theyre excavated to gain information about humanbehavior. For example, patterns of behavior are reflected in the dispersal ofhuman settlements across a landscape and in the distribution of cultural remainswithin them. Archaeological research may focus on specific localities or peoplesand attempt to identify, for example, various aspects of social organization or fac-tors that led to the collapse of a civi lization. Alternatively, inquiry may ref lect aninterest in broader issues relating to human culture in general, such as the devel-

opment of agriculture or the rise of cities.In the United States, the greatest expansion in archaeology since the 1960s

has been in the area of cultural resource management. This is an appliedapproach that arose from environmental legislation requiring archaeologicalevaluations and sometimes excavation of sites that may be threatened by develop-ment. (Canada and many European countries have similar legislation.) Many con-tract archaeologists (so called because their services are contracted out todevelopers or contractors) are affil iated with private consulting f irms, state orfederal agencies, or educational institutions. In fact, an estimated 40 percent of allarchaeologists in the United States now fi ll such positions.

Linguistic AnthropologyLinguistic anthropology is the study of human speech and language, includingthe origins of language in general as well as specif ic languages. By examining sim-ilarities between contemporary languages, linguists have been able to trace his-torical ties between specific languages and groups of languages, thus facilitatingthe identification of language families and perhaps past relationships betweenhuman populations.

Because the spontaneous acquisition and use of language is a uniquelyhuman characteristic, its an important topic for linguistic anthropologists, who,along with specialists in other fields, study the process of language acquisition ininfants. Since insights into the process may well have implications for the devel-

opment of language skil ls in human evolution, as well as in growing children, itsalso an important subject to physical anthropologists.


As weve already said,physical anthropologyis the study of human biology withinthe framework of evolution and with an emphasis on the interaction between





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biology and culture. This subdiscipline is also referred to as biological anthropol-ogy, and youll find the terms used interchangeably.Physical anthropologyis theoriginal term, and it reflects the initial interests anthropologists had in describinghuman physical variation. The American Association of Physical Anthropologists,its journal, as well as many college courses and numerous publications, retain thisterm. The designation biological anthropologyreflects the shift in emphasis tomore biologically oriented topics, such as genetics, evolutionary biology, nutrition,physiological adaptation, and growth and development. This shift occurred largelybecause of advances in the field of genetics and molecular biology since the late

1950s. Although weve continued to use the traditional term in the title of thistextbook, youll find that all of the major topics pertain to biological issues.

The origins of physical anthropology can be found in two principal areas ofinterest among nineteenth-century European and American scholars. Many sci-entists (at the time called natural historians ornaturalists) became increasinglycurious about the origins of modern species. They were beginning to doubt theliteral interpretation of the biblical account of creation at a time when scientificexplanations emphasizing natural processes rather than supernatural phenomenawere becoming more popular. Eventually, these sparks of interest in biologicalchange over time were fueled into flames by the publication of Charles DarwinsOn the Origin of Species in 1859.

Today, paleoanthropology, or the study of human evolution, as evidenced in

the fossil record, is a major subfield of physical anthropology (Fig. 1-4). Thousandsof specimens of human ancestors (mostly fragmentary) are now kept in researchcollections. Taken together, these fossils span about 7 million years of human pre-history; and although most of these fossils are incomplete, they provide us with asignificant wealth of knowledge that increases each year. Its the ultimate goal ofpaleoanthropological research to identify the various early human and human-likespecies, establish a chronological sequence of relationships among them, and gaininsights into their adaptation and behavior. Only then wil l we have a clear pictureof how and when humankind came into being.

Human variation was the other major area of interest for early biologicalanthropologists. They were especially concerned with observable physical differ-ences, skin color being the most obvious. Enormous effort was aimed at describ-

ing and explaining the biological differences between various humanpopulations. Although some attempts were misguided and even racist, they gavebirth to many body measurements that are sometimes still used. Physical anthro-pologists also use many of the techniques of anthropometry to study skeletalremains from archaeological sites (Fig. 1-5). Moreover, anthropometric tech-niques have had considerable application in the design of everything from wheel-chairs to off ice furniture. Undoubtedly, theyve also been used to determine theabsolute minimum amount of leg room a person must have in order to complete a3-hour f light on a commercial airliner and remain sane.

Today, anthropologists are concerned with human variation because of itspossible adaptive significance and because they want to identify the genetic andother evolutionary factors that have produced variation. In other words, sometraits that typify certain populations evolved as biological adaptations, or adjust-ments, to local environmental conditions such as sunlight, altitude, or infectiousdisease. Other traits may simply be the results of geographical isolation or thedescent of populations from small founding groups. Examining biological varia-tion between populations of any species provides valuable information as to themechanisms of genetic change in groups over time, and this is really what theevolutionary process is all about.

Modern population studies also examine other important aspects of humanvariation, including how different groups respond physiologically to different

paleoanthropology The interdisci-plinary approach to the study of earlierhomininstheir chronology, physical

structure, archaeological remains, habi-

tats, and so on.

anthropometry Measurement

of human body parts. When osteolo-

gists measure skeletal elements, the

term osteometryis often used.





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LynnKilgore

FIGURE 1-4

(a) Paleoanthropologists excavating

at the Drimolen site, South Africa.

(b)Primate paleontologist Russ Cioch

and Le Trang Kha, a vertebrate paleont

ogist, examine the fossil remains ofGigantopithecusfrom a 450,000-year-

old site in Vietnam. Gigantopithecusis

the name given to the largest apes that

ever lived. In the background is a recon

struction of this enormous animal.

K

ennethGarrett/NGSImageColle

ction

a

b

FIGURE 1-5

Anthropology student using spreading

calipers to measure cranial length.





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kinds of environmentally inducedstress (Fig. 1-6). Such stressesmay include high altitude, cold,or heat. Many biological anthro-pologists conduct nutritionalstudies, investigating the rela-tionships between variousdietary components, culturalpractices, physiology, and certain

aspects of health and disease(Fig. 1-7). Investigations ofhuman fertility, growth, anddevelopment also are closelyrelated to the topic of nutrition.These fields of inquiry, which arefundamental to studies of adapta-tion in modern human popula-tions, can provide insights intohominin evolution, too.

It would be impossible to study evolutionary processes without someknowledge of how traits are inherited. For this reason and others, genetics is a

crucial field for physical anthropologists. Modern physical anthropologywouldnt exist as an evolutionary science i f it werent for advances in the under-standing of genetic mechanisms.

In this exciting time of rapid advances in genetic research, molecular anthro-pologistsuse cutting-edge technologies to investigate evolutionary relationshipsbetween human populations as well as between humans and nonhuman primates.To do this, they examine similarities and differences in DNAsequences between

FIGURE 1-7

Dr. Kathleen Galvin measures upper arm

circumference in a young Maasai boy in

Tanzania. Data derived from various

body measurements, including height

and weight, were used in a health and

nutrition study of groups of Maasai cat-

tle herders. KathleenGalvin

FIGURE 1-6

This researcher is using a treadmill test

to assess a subjects heart rate, blood

pressure, and oxygen consumption. JudithRegensteiner

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) The

double-stranded molecule that contains

the genetic code. DNA is a main compo-

nent of chromosomes.





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individuals, populations, and species. Whats more, by extracting DNA from cer-tain fossils, these researchers have contributed to our understanding of relation-ships between extinct and living species. As genetic technologies continue to be

developed, molecular anthropologists will play a key role in explaining humanevolution, adaptation, and our biological relationships with other species (Fig. 1-8).However, before genetic and molecular techniques became widespread,

osteology, the study of the skeleton, was the only way that anthropologists couldstudy our immediate ancestors. In fact , a thorough knowledge of skeletal struc-ture and function is stil l critical to the interpretation of fossil material today. Forthis reason, osteology has long been viewed as central to physical anthropology.In fact, its so important that when many people think of biological anthropol-ogy, the first thing that comes to mind is bones!

Bone biology and physiology are of major importance to many other aspectsof physical anthropology besides human evolution. Many osteologists specializein the measurement of skeletal elements, essential for identifying stature andgrowth patterns in archaeological populations. In the last 30 years or so, thestudy of human skeletal remains from archaeological sites has been cal ledbioarchaeology.

In turn, paleopathology, the study of disease and trauma in archaeologi-cally derived skeletons, is a major component of bioarchaeology. Paleopathologyis a prominent subfield that investigates the prevalence of trauma, certaininfectious diseases (for instance, syphilis or tuberculosis), nutritional deficien-cies, and numerous other conditions that may leave evidence in bone (Fig. 1-9).This research tells us a great deal about the lives of individuals and populations

FIGURE 1-8

(a) Cloning and sequencing methods are fre-

quently used to identify genes in humans and

nonhuman primates. This graduate studentidentifies a genetically modified bacterial clone.

(b) Molecular anthropologist Nelson Ting collect-

ing red colobus fecal samples for a study of genetic

variation in small groups of monkeys isolated from

one another by agricultural clearing.

RobertJurmain

NelsonTing

a b

osteology The study of skeletal mat

rial. Human osteology focuses on the

interpretation of the skeletal remains

from archaeological sites, skeletal anat

omy, bone physiology, and growth and

development. Some of the same tech-

niques are used in paleoanthropology t

study early hominins.

bioarchaeology The study of skele

remains from archaeological sites.

paleopathology The study of disea

and injury in human skeletal (or, occa-

sionally, mummified) remains from

archaeological sites.






15/25


from the past. Paleopathology also yields information regarding the history ofcertain disease processes, and for this reason its of interest to scientists in bio-medical fields.

Forensic anthropologyis directly related to osteology and paleopathologyand has become of increasing interest to the public because of TV shows likeBones. Technically, this approach is the application of anthropological (usuallyosteological and sometimes archaeological) techniques to legal issues (Fig. 1-10).Forensic anthropologists help identify skeletal remains in mass disasters or othersituations where a human body has been found. Theyve been involved in numer-ous cases having important legal, historical, and human consequences. They werealso instrumental in identifying the skeletons of most of the Russian imperial fam-ily, executed in 1918. And many participated in the overwhelming task of trying toidentify the remains of victims of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in theUnited States.

Anatomyis yet another important area of interest for physical anthropolo-

gists. In living organisms, bones and teeth are intimately linked to the soft tissues

R

euters/Corbis

FIGURE 1-10

Forensic anthropologists Vuzumusi

Madasco (from Zimbabwe) and Patricia

Bernardi (from Argentina) excavating the

skeletal remains and clothing of a victim

of a civil war massacre in El Salvador.

This burial is part of a mass grave, which

was being excavated in order to try to

identify vict ims and provide other infor-

mation relative to the massacre.

FIGURE1-9

Two examples of pathological conditions

in human skeletal remains from the

Nubian site of Kulubnarti in Sudan.

These remains are approximately 1,000

years old. (a) A partially healed fractureof a childs left femur (thigh bone). The

estimated age at death is 6 years, and the

cause of death was probably an infection

resulting from this injury. (b) Very severe

congenital scoliosis in an adult male from

Nubia. The curves are due to develop-

mental defects in individual vertebrae.

(This is not the most common form of

scoliosis.)

LynnKilgore

LynnKilgore

forensic anthropology An appliedanthropological approach dealing with

legal matters. Forensic anthropologists

work with coroners and others in identi-

fying and analyzing human remains.

a b





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FIGURE 1-11

Dr. Linda Levitch teaching a human

anatomy class at the University of Nor

Carolina School of Medicine.LindaLevitch

that surround and act on them. Consequently, a thorough knowledge of soft tis-sue anatomy is essential to the understanding of biomechanical relationshipsinvolved in movement. Such relationships are important in accurately assessingthe structure and function of limbs and other components of fossilized remains.For these reasons and others, many physical anthropologists specialize in ana-tomical studies. In fact, several physical anthropologists hold professorships inanatomy departments at universities and medical schools (Fig. 1-11).

Primatology, the study of the l iving nonhuman primates, has becomeincreasingly important since the late 1950s (Fig. 1-12). Behavioral studies,especially those conducted on groups in natural environments, haveimplications for many scientific disciplines. Because nonhumanprimates are our closest l iving relatives, identifying the underly-ing factors related to their social behavior, communication,infant care, reproductive behavior, and so on, helps usdevelop a better understanding of the natural forces thathave shaped so many aspects of modern humanbehavior.

Its also very important to study nonhuman pri-mates in their own right, regardless of what we maylearn about ourselves. This is particularly true todaybecause the majority of primate species are threat-ened or seriously endangered. Only through

research will scientists be able to recommendpolicies that can better ensure the survival ofmany nonhuman primates and thousands ofother species as well.


FIGURE 1-12

Primatologist Jill Pruetz follows a chimpanzee in Senegal,

in West Africa.

primatology The study of the bioloand behavior of nonhuman primates

(prosimians, monkeys, and apes).

JulieLesnik





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Applied Anthropology Applied approaches in biological anthropology arenumerous. And while applied anthropologyis aimed at the practical applicationof anthropological theories and methods outside the academic setting, appliedand academic anthropology arent mutually exclusive approaches. In fact, appliedanthropology relies on the research and theories of academic anthropologists andat the same time has much to contribute to theory and techniques. Within bio-logical anthropology, forensic anthropology is a good example of the appliedapproach. But the practical application of the techniques of physical anthropol-ogy isnt new. During World War II, for example, physical anthropologists were

extensively involved in designing gun turrets and airplane cockpits. Since then,many physical anthropologists have pursued careers in genetic and biomedicalresearch, public health, evolutionary medicine, medical anthropology, and con-servation of nonhuman primates, and many hold positions in museums and zoos.In fact, a background in physical anthropology is excellent preparation for almostany career in the medical and biological fields (Fig. 1-13).


FIGURE 1-13

(a) Dr. Soo Young Chin, Lead Partner of Practical Ethnographics at

Ascension Health, pointing to pilot locations for a study of a new health

care plan. (b) Nanette Barkey, a medical anthropologist involved in a repa-

triation project in Angola, photographed this little girl being vaccinated at a

refugee transit camp. Vaccinations were being administered to Angolan ref-

ugees returning home in 2004 from the Democratic Republic of Congo,

where they had fled to escape warfare in their own country.

NanetteBarkey

a

b

NanetteBarkey





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Physical Anthropologyand the Scientific Meth

continuum A set of relationships in

which all components fall along a singintegrated spectrum (for example, colo

All life reflects a single biological

continuum.

science A body of knowledge gained

through observation and experimenta-

tion; from the Latin scientia, meaning

knowledge.

empirical Relying on experiment or

observation; from the Latin empiricus,

meaning experienced.

hypotheses (sing., hypothesis) A pr

visional explanation of a phenomenonHypotheses require verification or falsi

cation through testing.

scientific method An approach to

research whereby a problem is identifie

a hypothesis (or provisional explanatio

is stated, and that hypothesis is tested

by collecting and analyzing data.

data (sing., datum) Facts from which

conclusions can be drawn; scientific

information.

quantitatively Pertaining to mea-

surements of quantity and includingsuch propert ies as size, number, and

capacity. When data are quantified,

theyre expressed numerically and can

be tested statistically.

theory A broad statement of scientifi

relationships or underlying principles

that has been substantially verified

through the testing of hypotheses.

From this brief overview, you can see that physical anthropology is the sub-discipline of anthropology that focuses on many aspects of human biology andevolution. Humans are a product of the same forces that produced all life onearth. As such, were just one contemporary component of a vast biologicalcontinuumat one point in time; and in this regard, we arent particularly unique.Stating that humans are part of a continuum doesnt imply that were at the peakof development on that continuum. Depending on the criteria used, humans canbe seen to exist at one end of the spectrum or the other, or somewhere inbetween, but we dont necessarily occupy a position of inherent superiority over

other species.However, human beings are truly unique in one dimension, and that is intel-

lect. After all, humans are the only species, born of earth, to stir the lunar dust.Were the only species to develop language and complex culture as a means ofbuffering natures challenges; and by so doing, we have gained the power to shapethe planets very destiny.

Physical Anthropology andthe Scientific Method

Scienceis an empiricalapproach to gaining information. It involves observingphenomena; developing hypothesesor possible explanations for them; and thendevising a research design or series of experiments to test those hypotheses.Because biological anthropologists are scientists, they adhere to the principles ofthe scientific methodby identifying a research problem and then gatheringinformation to solve it.

Once a question has been asked, the first step usually is to explore the exist-ing literature (books and journals) to determine what other people have done toresolve the issue. Based on this preliminary research and other observations, oneor even several tentative explanations (hypotheses) are then proposed. The nextstep is to develop a research design or methodology aimed at testing the hypothe-sis. These methods involve collecting information or datathat can then be stud-

ied and analyzed. Data can be analyzed in many ways, most of them involvingvarious statist ical tests. During the data collection and analysis phase, its impor-tant for scientists to use a rigorously controlled approach so they can preciselydescribe their techniques and results. This precision is critical because it enablesothers to repeat the experiments and allows scientists to make comparisonsbetween their study and the work of others.

For example, when scientists collect data on tooth size in hominin fossils,they must specify which teeth are being measured, how theyre measured, and theresults of the measurements (expressed numerically, or quantitatively). Then, byanalyzing the data, the investigators try to draw conclusions about the meaningand significance of their measurements. This body of information then becomesthe basis of future studies, perhaps by other researchers, who can compare theirown results with those already obtained.

Hypothesis testing is the very core of the scientific method, and although itmay seem contradictory at first, its based on the potential tofalsifythe hypothe-sis. Falsification doesnt mean that the entire hypothesis is untrue, but it doesindicate that there may be exceptions to it. Thus, the hypothesis may need to berefined and subjected to further testing.

Eventually, if a hypothesis stands up to repeated testing, it may become partof a theory, or perhaps a theory itself. Theres a popular misconception that atheory is mere conjecture, or a hunch. But in science, theories are proposed





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explanations of relationships between natural phenomena. Theories usually con-cern a broader, more universal view than hypotheses, which have a narrowerfocus and deal with more specific relationships between phenomena. But likehypotheses, theories arent facts. Theyre tested explanations of facts.For exam-ple, its a fact that when you drop an object, it falls to the ground. The explanationfor this fact is the theory of gravity. Also, theories can be altered over time withfurther experimentation or observations as well as newly developed technologies.The theory of gravity has been tested many times and qualified by experimentsshowing how the mass of objects affects how theyre attracted to one another. So

far, the theory has held up.Scientific testingof hypotheses may take several years (or longer) and may

involve researchers who werent involved with the original work. Whats more,new methods may permit different kinds of testing that werent previously pos-sible, and this is a strength of scientific research. For example, since the 1970s,primatologists have reported that male nonhuman primates (as well as malesof many other species) sometimes kill infants. One hypothesis has been thatthese males were killing infants fathered by other males. Many scientists haveobjected to this hypothesis, and theyve proposed several alternatives. For onething, there was no way to know for certain that the males werent killing theirown offspring; and if they were, this would argue against the hypothesis.However, in a fa irly recent study, scientists collected DNA samples from dead

infants and the males who killed them and showed that most of the time, themales werent related to their victims. This result doesnt prove that the originalhypothesis is accurate, but it does strengthen it. This study is described in moredetail in Chapter 7, but we mention it here to emphasize that science is an ongo-ing process that builds on previous work and benefits from newly developedtechniques (in this case, DNA testing) in ways that constantly expand ourknowledge.

Another current scientific debate focuses on how to interpret the remark-able small hominins found in Indonesia, popularly referred to in the media ashobbits. One hypothesis suggests that these smal l-bodied, small-brained hom-inins were members of a species other thanHomo sapiens. A second hypothesissuggests that the remains are those of modern humans with a pathological

growth defect. As new methods and more intense analyses of the remains con-tinue, these hypotheses are being tested, and well discuss the latest results inChapter 11.

Theres one more important fact about hypotheses and theories:Any proposi-tion thats stated as absolute and/or doesnt allow the possibility of falsification is

not a scientific hypothesis, and it should never be considered as such.Weveemphasized that a crucial aspect of scientific statements is that there must beway to evaluate their validity. Statements such as Heaven exists may well be true(that is, they may describe some actual state), but theres no rational, empiricalmeans (based on experience or experiment) of testing them. Therefore, accep-tance of such a view is based on faith rather than on scientific verification. Thepurpose of scientific research isnt to establish absolute truths; rather, its to gen-erate ever more accurate and consistent explanations of phenomena in our uni-verse based on observation and testing. At its very heart, scientific methodologyis an exercise in rational thought and critical thinking.

The development of critical thinking skills is an important and lasting bene-fit of a college education. Such skills enable people to evaluate, compare, analyze,critique, and synthesize information so they wont accept everything they hear atface value. Perhaps the most glaring need for critical thinking is in how we evalu-ate advertising claims. For example, people spend billions of dollars every year on

scientific testing The precise repeti-

tion of an experiment or expansion of

observed data to provide verification; the

procedure by which hypotheses and the-

ories are verified, modified, or discarded.





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The Anthropological Perspective

natural dietary supplements based on marketing claims that may not have beentested. So when a salesperson tells you that, for example, echinacea helps preventcolds, you should ask if that statement has been scientifical ly tested, how it wastested, when, by whom, and where the results were published. Similarly, whenpoliticians make claims in 30-second sound bytes, check those claims before youaccept them as truth. Be skeptical, and if you do check the validity of advertisingand political statements, youll find that frequently theyre either misleading orjust plain wrong.

The Anthropological Perspective

Perhaps the most important benefit youll receive from this textbook, and thiscourse, is a wider appreciation of the human experience. To understand humanbeings and how our species came to be, we must broaden our viewpoint, throughboth time and space. All branches of anthropology fundamentally seek to do thisin what we call the anthropological perspective.

Physical anthropologists, for example, are interested in how humans differfrom and are similar to other animals, especially nonhuman primates. Forexample, weve defined homininsas bipedal primates, but what are the majoranatomical components of bipedal locomotion, and how do they differ from, say,

those in a quadrupedal ape? To answer these questions, we would need to studythe anatomical structures involved in human locomotion (muscles, hips, legs,and feet) and compare them with the same structures in various nonhumanprimates.

From a perspective that is broad in space and time, we can begin to grasp thediversity of the human experience within the context of biological and behavioralcontinuity with other species. In this way, we may better understand the l imitsand potentials of humankind. Furthermore, by extending our knowledge toinclude cultures other than our own, we may hope to avoid the ethnocentricpit-falls inherent in a more limited view of humanity.

This relativisticview of culture is perhaps more important now than everbefore, because in our increasingly interdependent global community, it allows us

to understand other peoples concerns and to view our own culture from abroader perspective. Likewise, by examining our species as part of a wide spec-trum of li fe, we realize that we cant judge other species using human criteria.Each species is unique, with needs and a behavioral repertoire not exactly l ikethat of any other. By recognizing that we share many similarities (both biologicaland behavioral) with other animals, perhaps we may come to recognize that theyhave a place in nature just as surely as we ourselves do.

In addition to broadening perspectives over space (that is, encompassingmany cultures and ecological circumstances as well as nonhuman species), ananthropological perspective also extends our horizons through time. For exam-ple, in Chapter 17 well discuss human nutrition. The vast majority of the foodspeople eat today (coming from domesticated plants and animals) were unavail-able until around 10,000 years ago. Human physiological mechanisms forchewing and digesting foods nevertheless were already well established longbefore that date. These adaptive complexes go back millions of years. Besides theobviously different diets prior to the development of agriculture, earlier homininsmight well have differed from humans today in average body size, metabolism,and activity patterns. How, then, does the basic evolutionary equipment (that is,physiology) inherited from our hominin forebears accommodate our moderndiets? Clearly, the way to understand such processes is not just by looking at

ethnocentric Viewing other culture

from the inherently biased perspective

ones own culture. Ethnocentrism ofte

results in other cultures being seen as

inferior to ones own.

relativistic Viewing entities as they

relate to something else. Cultural relati

ism is the view that cultures have meri

within their own historical and environ

mental contexts.metabolism The chemical processe

within cells that break down nutrients

and release energy for the body to use.

When nutrients are broken down into

their component parts, such as amino

acids, energy is released and made ava

able for use by the cell.





21/25


contemporary human responses, but by placing them in the perspective of evolu-tionary development through time.

We hope that after reading the following pages, youll have an increased under-standing not only of the similarities we share with other biological organisms butalso of the processes that have shaped the traits that make us unique. We live inwhat may well be our planets most crucial period in the past 65 mill ion years.We are members of the one species that, through the very agency of culture, haswrought such devastating changes in ecological systems that we must now alterour technologies or face potentially unspeakable consequences. In such a time, its

vital that we attempt to gain the best possible understanding of what it means tobe human. We believe that the study of physical anthropology is one endeavor thataids in this attempt, and that is indeed the goal of this textbook.

Why It Matters

Today, the trend in advanced

education is toward greater andgreater specialization, with the

result that very few people or profes-

sions have the broad overview neces-

sary to implement policy and make

effective changes that could lead to

improved standards of living, a safer

geopolitical world, and better plane-

tary health. This is acutely felt in med-

icine, where specialists focusing on

one part of the body sometimes

ignore other parts, often to the detri-

ment of overall health (especially

mental and emotional) of the patient. An-

thropology is one of the few disciplinesthat encourages a broad view of the human

condition.

An example is seen in AIDS prevention

research. The wealth of knowledge that

biologists and medical researchers have pro-

vided on the characteristics and behavior of

HIV (the virus that causes AIDS) is useless

for preventing its transmission unless we

also have an understanding of human

behavior at both the individual and the

sociocultural levels. Behavioral scientists,

including anthropologists, are prepared to

examine the range of social, religious, eco-

nomic, political, and historical contexts sur-rounding sexuality to devise AIDS

prevention strategies that will vary from

population to population and even from

subculture to subculture. Whether or not

you choose a career in anthropology, the

perspectives that you gain from studying

this discipline will enable you to participate

in research and policy decisions on future

challenges to human and planetary health

and well-being.





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Critical Thinking Questions

Summary

In this chapter, weve introduced you to

the field of physical, or biological, anthro-

pology, placing it within the overall con-

text of anthropological studies. As a major

academic discipline within the social sci-

ences, anthropology also includes cultural

anthropology, archaeology, and linguistic

anthropology as major subfields.

Physical anthropology is the study of

many aspects of human biology, including

genetics, genetic variation, adaptations to

environmental factors, nutrition, and anat-

omy. These topics are discussed within an

evolutionary framework because all human

characteristics are either directly or indi-

rectly the results of biological evolution,

which in turn is driven by genetic change.

Hence, biological anthropologists also

study our closest relatives, the nonhuman

primates, primate evolution, and the genetic

and fossil evidence for human evolution.

Because biological anthropology is a

scientific discipline, we also discussed the

role of the scientific method in research.

We presented the importance of objectiv-

ity, observation, data collection, and anal-

ysis; and we described the formation and

testing of hypotheses to explain natural

phenomena. We also emphasized that this

approach is an empirical one that doesnt

rely on supernatural explanations.

Because evolution is the core of phys-

ical anthropology, in the next chapter we

present a brief historical overview of

changes in Western scientific thought

that led to the discovery of the basic prin-

ciples of biological evolut ion. As youre

probably aware, evolution is a highly con-

troversial subject in the United States and

increasingly in many Islamic countries.

However, its not part icularly controversial

in Europe. In the next chapter, well

address some of the reasons for this con-

troversy and explain the evidence for evo-

lution as the single thread uniting all the

biological sciences.

Critical ThinkingQuestions

1. Given that youve only just been

introduced to the field of physica

anthropology, why do you think

subjects such as anatomy, genetic

nonhuman primate behavior, and

human evolution are integrated in

a discussion of what it means to

be human?

2. Is it important to you, personally,

to know about human evolution?

Why or why not?

3. Do you see a connection between

hominin footprints that are almos

4 million years old and human foo

prints left on the moon in 1969? I

so, do you think this relationship

important? What does the fact th

there are human footprints on the

moon say about human adaptatio

(You may wish to refer to both bio

logical and cultural adaptation.)





23/25

22

Making a Difference:Forensic Anthropologists inthe Contemporary World

Due to wide media coverage, especially several popular televisionshows, forensic anthropology has captured the imagination of many

people. In addition to their well-known participation in assisting law

enforcement officials investigating crime scenes, forensic anthropologists

also work in a variety of other interesting situations. They are often called

to join recovery teams at scenes of mass disasters such as the World Trade

Center, plane crashes, or in areas devastated by an earthquake or tsunami.

Additionally, theyre involved in excavating mass graves where victims of

political atrocities have been secretly buried. These sites of such enormous

human tragedy sadly are found in many parts of the world, from Iraq to

Bosnia, to Argentina, to Rwanda, Forensic anthropologists also help searchfor and identify soldiers missing in action from prior wars. In al l these dif-

ficult circumstances, wherever possible, the goal is to determine the iden-

tity of missing people and to return their remains to family members.

Scene of a Korean Airlines crash in

1996 in the U.S. terr itory of Guam, that

killed 228 people. The U.S. government

immediately sent numerous DMORT

(Disaster Mortuary Operation Response)

teams, each of which usually has at least

one forensic anthropologist.

All human remains were evaluated inthe field laboratory where Tom Holland

(Director of the Central Identification

Laboratory in Hawaii) is shown identifying

fragmentary skeletal elements, many of

which were heavily burned (as were many of

the bodies). Nevertheless, all the passengers

and crew were accounted for.

D

ianeFrance

D

ianeFrance

J

amieVanBuskirk/iStockphoto





24/25

U.S.

ArmyCorpsofEngineers,

andtheRegimeCrimeLiaisonOffice

Forensic anthropologists working in a lab near Baghdad cata-

logued the injuries suffered by every individual from the mass

grave shown above. Some of this evidence was used in the trial

of Saddam Hussein and helped lead to his conviction. After

the trail, the human remains were turned over to Kurdish officials

for reburial

Upper Right: A forensic anthropologist works in Vietnamin 2006 as part of a military team, with assistance from local

villagers, searching for remains of pilots shot down during the

Vietnam War.

Lower Right: Heather Thew, who was trained as an anthropol-

ogist, is shown working at the Armed Forces DNA Laboratory

where remains of missing soldiers are identified.

Forensic anthropologists, including both physical anthropolo

gists and archaeologists, recovered 114 Kurdish victims of geno-

cide from this site in southern Iraq.





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Credits

This constitutes an extension of the copyright page. We have made every ef fort to trace theownership of all copyrighted material and to secure permission from copyright holders. In

the event of any question arising as to the use of any material, we will be pleased to make thenecessary corrections in future printings. Thanks are due to the following authors, publish-ers, and agents for permission to use the material indicated.

2, Cristina G. Mittermeier; 4, Courtesy, Peter Jones; 5, NASA; 6, (a) Lynn Kilgore, (b) NASA/Space Telescope Science Institute, (c) Museum of Primitive Art and Culture, Peace Dale, RI,(e) Lynn Kilgore, (f) Justin Horocks/iStockphoto; 11, top, Kenneth Garrett/NGS ImageCollection; center, Russell L. Ciochon, University of Iowa; bottom, Lynn Kilgore; 12, top,Courtesy, Judith Regensteiner; bottom, Courtesy, Kathleen Galvin; 13, top left, RobertJurmain; top right, Courtesy, Nelson Ting; 14, top left and right, Lynn Kilgore; bottom, Reuters/Corbis; 15, top, Courtesy, Linda Levitch; bottom, Courtesy, Julie Lesnik; 16,Nanette Barkey; 22, background, Jamie VanBuskirk/istockphoto; bottom, Diane France;23, top and center left, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Regime Crime Liaison Office;center right, U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Derrick C. Goode; bottom, Craig King,Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory; 24, Rolbos/iStockphoto; 27, Wikipedia;28, J. van ( Johannes) Loon/Wikimedia Commons; 30, American Museum of NaturalHistory; 31, Wikipedia; 32, top, With permission from the Master of Haileybury; bottom, National Portrait Gallery, London; 33, top left and right, Lynn Kilgore; bottom, TheNatural History Museum, London; 34, Bettmann/Corbis; 35, Gordon Chancellor;36, bottom, Lynn Kilgore; 37, wolf: John Giustina/Getty Images; Dogs surrounding wolf:

Lynn Kilgore and Lin Marshall;38

, National Portrait Gallery, London;39

, Russell L.Ciochon, University of Iowa; 40, (a) Michael Tweedie/Photo Researchers; (b) Breck P. Kent/Animals Animals; 45, Bettmann/Corbis; 48, Adrian T. Sumner/Photo Researchers, Inc.;50, Courtesy, Dr. Michael S. Donnenberg; 51, top, Professors P. Motta and T. Naguro/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; bottom, A. Barrington Brown/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 58, LynnKilgore; 59, Biophoto Associates/Science Source/Photo Researchers; 67, CellmarkDiagnostics, Abingdon, UK; 70, Medi-Mation Ltd/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 72, (a) and (b)Wikipedia; 72, left, Raychel Ciemma and Precision Graphics; 79, Courtesy, Ray Carson,University of Florida News and Public Affairs; 80, (af) Lynn Kilgore; (g) Robert Jurmain;86, Lynn Kilgore; 87, (a) and (b) Dr. Stanley Flegler/Visuals Unlimited;92, Louie Psihoyos/Corbis; 105, (a) John Cancalosi/Alamy; (b) Phil Degginger/Alamy; (c) Elwyn Simons;(d) Marvin Dembinsky Photo Associates/Alamy; (e) Shoshannah White/Aurora; 106, KazuoUnno/Minden Pictures; 107, left, Zhoukoudian Museum, China and Russell L. Ciochon;right, Russell L. Ciochon; 111, bottom left, J. C. Stevenson/Animals Animals; bottom right,Tom McHugh, Photo Researchers, Inc.; 113, Corbis. All Rights Reserved; 116, DmitryRukhlenko/iStockphoto;119, (ae), Lynn Kilgore; 121, Lynn Kilgore; 122, Steve Geer/iStockphoto;124, Howler species: Raymond Mendez/Animals Animals; Spider monkey:Robert L. Lubeck/Animals Animals; Prince Bernhards titi: Marc van Roosmalen; Tamarin: Zoological Society of San Diego, photo by Ron Garrison; Muriqui: Andrew Young; White-faced capuchins: Jay Dickman/Corbis; Squirrel monkey: Kevin Schafer/Corbis; Uakari:

R. A. Mittermeier/Conservation International;125, Baboon: Courtesy, Bonnie Pedersen/Arlene Kruse; Macaque: Courtesy, Jean De Rousseau; Gibbon: Lynn Kilgore; Tarsier:Courtesy, David Haring, Duke University Primate Zoo; Orangutan: Tom McHugh/PhotoResearchers, Inc.; Langur: Joe MacDonald/Animals Animals; Lemur: Courtesy, Fred Jacobs;Loris: Courtesy, San Francisco Zoo; Cercopithecus: Robert Jurmain; Colobus: RobertJurmain; Galagos: Courtesy, Bonnie Pedersen/Arlene Kruse; Chimpanzee: Courtesy, ArleneKruse/Bonnie Pedersen; Mountain gorilla: Lynn Kilgore; 126, Russell L. Ciochon,University of Iowa; 127, Redrawn by Stephen Nash from original art in John G. Fleagle,Primate Adaptation and Evolution, 2nd ed., 1999. Reprinted by permission of publisher andStephen Nash.; 128, Lynn Kilgore; 131, top left and right, Lynn Kilgore; center, ViktorDeak, after John G. Fleagle; 132, top left and right, Courtesy, Fred Jacobs; bottom left,Courtesy, San Francisco Zoo; bottom right, Courtesy, Bonnie Pedersen/Arlene Kruse;133, David Haring, Duke University Primate Zoo; 134, top left, Andrew Young; top right, Kevin Schafer/Corbis; center right, Marc van Roosmalen; bottom right, R. A. Mittermeier/Conservation International; bottom left, Jay Dickman/Corbis; 135, top left, ZoologicalSociety of San Diego, photo by Ron Garrison; top right, Raymond Mendez/Animals Animals;bottom, Robert L. Lubeck/Animals Animals; 136, Robert Jurmain; 137, top left and right,Courtesy, Bonnie Pedersen/Arlene Kruse; bottom, Courtesy, Nelson Ting; 139, top, LynnKilgore; bottom left, Noel Rowe; bottom right, Lynn Kilgore; 140, bottom left, right, LynnKilgore; 141, (a) and (b), Lynn Kilgore; 142, (a) and (b), Lynn Kilgore; 144, Courtesy, EllenIngmanson; 145, Lynn Kilgore; 147, John Oates; 148, Karl Ammann; 149, WildlifeDirect.org;152, Doug Berry/iStockphoto; 155, Courtesy, Jean De Rousseau; 156, top, RussMittermeir; bottom, Lynn Kilgore; 158, Time Life Pictures/Getty Images; 160, top and bot-tom, Lynn Kilgore; 162, Curt Busse; 163, top and bottom, Lynn Kilgore; 165, top left andbottom right, Courtesy, Arlene Kruse/Bonnie Pedersen; top right, Courtesy, Meredith Small;bottom left, Robert Jurmain; 166, Ireven De Vore/Anthro-Photo; 167, whozoo.org; 168, JoeMacDonald/Animals Animals; 169, Peter Henzi; 170, top left, Courtesy, David Haring,Duke University Primate Center; top right, Courtesy, Arlene Kruse/Bonnie Pedersen; centerleft, Robert Jurmain; center right, Robert Jurmain; bottom, Tom McHugh/PhotoResearchers, Inc.; 171, top, Harlow Primate L aboratory, University of Wisconsin; bottom,Lynn Kilgore; 172, left, Lynn Kilgore; right, Manoj Shah/The Image Bank; 173, ThomasBreuerWCS; 174, Courtesy, Tetsuro Matsuzawa; 175, top, Barth Wright/EthoCebusProject; bottom, Noemi Spagnoletti/EthoCebus Project; 176, Lynn Kilgore; 178, Rose A.Sevcik, Language Research Center, Georgia State University; photo by Elizabeth Pugh;179, (a) Lynn Kilgore; (b) Allposters.com;182, Robert Jurmain; 185, top, Wikipedia; bottom,

Russell L. Ciochon; 188, top, Natural History Museum, London; bottom, David Pilbeam;194, Russell L. Ciochon; 198, top, Barry Lewis; bottom, John Reader/Photo Researchers, I202, Toros-Menalla: Mission Paloanthropologique Franco-Tchadienne; W T 17000:Reproduced with permission of the National Museums of Kenya, copyright reserved,courtesy Alan Walker; Lucy: Institute of Human Origins; SK 48: Russell L. Ciochon,University of Iowa; Sts 5: Russell L . Ciochon, University of Iowa; Taung Child: CourtesyP. V. Tobias, photo by Alun Hughes; Zinj: Jeffrey Schwartz, University of Pittsburg; 20John Hodgkiss; 204, Mission Paloanthropologique Franco-Tchadienne; 205, David LBrill/Atlanta; 207, Lynn Kilgore; 208, Courtesy, Peter Jones; 209, top, Institute of HumanOrigins; bottom left, Russell L. Ciochon, University of Iowa; bottom right, Carol Ward,University of Missouri; 210, Zeresenay Alemseged, Max Planck Institute for EvolutionaAnthropology, Leipzig; 212, ER 406: Reproduced with permission of the National Museumof Kenya, copyright reserved; WT 17000: Reproduced with permission of the NationalMuseums of Kenya, copyright reserved, courtesy Alan Walker; SK 48: Russell L. CiochoUniversity of Iowa; ER 729: Reproduced with permission of the National Museums of Ken

copyright reserved; ER 732: Reproduced with permission of the National Museums of Kencopyright reserved; OH 5 Zinj: Jeffrey Schwartz, University of Pittsburg; 213, RusseCiochon, University of Iowa; bottom left and right, Alun Hughes, reproduced by permissioof Professor P. V. Tobias; 214, Russell L. Ciochon, University of Iowa; 216, left and rightReproduced with permission of the National Museums of Kenya, copyright reserved; 217ER 1813, ER 1470: Reproduced with permission of the National Museums of Kenya, copy-right reserved; AL 666-1: William H. Kimbel, Institute Human Origins; Stw 53: CourtesP. V. Tobias (reconstruction by Ronald J. Clarke); OH 7: Russell L. Ciochon, University oIowa; 222, Russell L. Ciochon, University of Iowa; 223, top, Institute of Human Originsphoto by Nanci Kahn; top middle, bottom middle, and bottom, and right, Institute of HumOrigins, photo by Don Johanson; 222223, background, Britta Kasholm-Tengve/iStockphoto; 224, David Lordkipanidze; 226, Ceprano: Giorgio Manzi, Universit di Roma;Dmanisi: Courtesy, David Lordkipanidze; East Turkana, Olduvai: Jeffrey Schwartz,University of Pittsburg; West Turkana: Reproduced with permission of the NationalMuseums of Kenya, copyright reserved; 227, Zhoukoudian: Russell L. Ciochon, Universof Iowa; Lantian, Hexian, Ngandong: Courtesy, Milford Wolp

Essential Physical Anthropology

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