Essential grammar

重要基礎文法 01 (2011)

By Peiling Hsia

Contents:

8 parts of speech Relative pronouns Tense Active and passive voice

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/730/01/

English – 8 parts of speech八大詞類

1. Noun2. Pronoun3. Adjective / Article4. Adverb5. Verb6. Preposition7. Conjunction8. Interjection

1. Noun 名詞

A noun is a word that denotes a person, place, or thing. In a sentence, nouns answer the questions who and what.

Proper noun

Common noun :

Collective noun

Countable noun – singular / plural Noncountable (mass noun)

Nouns with Adjectives

可數

普通名詞( 有單數 複數 )a/an, the, no

this / thateach / every

many, severala number ofone of thea couple of

few

集合名詞(family, people, team)

不可數

專有名詞(Wall Street, July)

( 無單數複數差別 )

the, this, that, nomuch

A great deal oflittle

物質名詞(water, air, furniture)

抽象名詞(beauty, health, anger)

someany a lot oflots ofplenty ofnonone of themostmoreallenough

Examples: Count Singular:

I ate an apple.I rode the bus.Does she live in this house? No, she lives in that house over there.

Count Plural:I like to feed the birds.Do you want these books? No, I want those books up there.Cats are interesting pets.

Noncount:The water is cold.This milk is going sour.Music helps me relax.

Noun and Article

a, an the this

that these those

no article

Count singular

Count

plural

Noncount

Count and Noncount Nouns with AdjectivesMost of the time, this doesn't matter with adjectives. For

example, you can say, "The cat was gray" or "The air was gray." However, the difference between a countable and uncountable noun does matter with certain adjectives, such as "some/any," "much/many," and "little/few.“

Some/Any - countable and uncountable nouns.

There is some water on the floor. There are some Mexicans here. Do you have any food? Do you have any apples?

Much/Many: Much - modifies only uncountable nouns. Many - modifies only countable nouns.

We don't have much time to get this done. Many Americans travel to Europe.

Little/Few: Little - modifies only uncountable nouns. (a little/very little) Few - modifies only countable nouns. He had little food in the house. The doctor had little time to think in the emergency room. There are few doctors in town. Few students like exams.

Other basic rules:

A lot of/lots of: A lot of/lots of are informal substitutes for much and many. They are used with uncountable nouns when they mean much and with countable nouns when they mean many.

They have lots of (much) money in the bank. A lot of (many) Americans travel to Europe. We got lots of (many) mosquitoes last summer. We got lots of (much) rain last summer.

A little bit of: A little bit of is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.

There is a little bit of pepper in the soup. There is a little bit of snow on the ground.

Enough: Enough modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There is enough money to buy a car. I have enough books to read.

Plenty of: Plenty of modifies both countable and uncountable nouns. (means “enough” “more”). It is used before singular uncountable and plural nouns.

They have plenty of money in the bank. There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland.

No: No modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

There is no time to finish now. There are no squirrels in the park.

A number of: several of a particular type of thing .

I decided not to go, for a number of reasons. There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland.

Numbers: a number of a particular description.

Small numbers of children are educated at home. Large numbers of invitations were sent. Newspapers are produced in vast numbers.

Number: an amount or total.

The number of people killed in road accidents fell last month. There has been an increasing number of cases of the disease. A small number of children are educated at home.

amount vs. number There are subtle differences between 'amount of', 'quantity of' and 'number of'.

Examples:

'amount of' - singular things you cannot measure.'quantity of‘ - singular or plural things you can measure.'number of‘ - plural things you can measure. (life)

She had a certain amount of respect for the sales team, but she always dissented when they spoke at meetings.

I took control of a large quantity of money.

The disease affected a large number of camels in the town.

This is one of the most common problems in the language; a very large NUMBER of people can't tell the difference, which causes a large AMOUNT of trouble.

(This sentence is an easy way to remember the difference.)

http://www.grammar-monster.com/

http://www.perfectyourenglish.com/usage/a-lot-of.htm

It's just that number refers to nouns that can be counted - so anything that you can have two, three, four etc of, you can also have a number of. So I could have a number of apples, friends, problems etc.

Amount is used with nouns that can't be counted - ie, you can't have 2, 3 or 4 sun, money or happiness, you also can't talk about a "number of money" etc. You would talk about a "large amount of money (or sun, or happiness) instead.

Every: used when referring to all the members of a group of three or more .

The police want to interview every employee about the theft. The show will be broadcast every weekday morning between 9

and 10. We're open every day except Sunday.

Each : every thing, person, etc. in a group of two or more, considered separately .

When you run, each foot leaves the ground before the other comes down.

Each of the companies supports a local charity. We each (= Every one of us) wanted the bedroom with the

balcony, so we tossed a coin to decide.

Special notes – “each” “every” 「每個 ~ 」

“each” “every” + 單數的名詞 + 動詞也是用單數的語態。

each + of 可加複數名詞，但後面的動詞是用單數的語態。 Ex: Each of us has a wonderful time.

every 後接日期有可能接複數名詞。 (X): My mother has to visit the hospital every five week.

(O): My mother has to visit the hospital every five weeks.

Each child was given a nice present. ( 每個小朋友都得到了各自獨特的禮物 )

Every child was given a nice present. ( 強調每一個小朋友都得到了很不錯的禮物 )

Special notes – “a little” “little” / – “a few” “few”

Without the article, the words have a limiting or negative meaning.

Example: I need a little money. - I need some money. I need little money. - I need hardly any money.

A few friends visited me. - Some friends visited me. Few friends visited me. - Hardly any friends visited me.

a little = somea few = some

little = hardly anyfew = hardly any

countableuncountable

Without the article, little / few sound rather formal. That's why we don't use them very often in everyday English.

A negative sentence with much / many is more common.

Example: I need little money. = I do not need much money. Few friends visited me. = Not many friends visited me.

little = not muchfew = not many

Practice – “little” “a little” “few” “a few”

1. Please stay ______longer. = Please stay a small amount of time longer. 

2. I understand English and German, but only _____French.

3. It seems the patient is not recovering; she still shows ______ interest in food.

4. I doubt I could do that job very well; I have ______ experience doing that sort of thing.

a little

a little

little

little

5. I have _______experience. = I have some experience. = I have a small amount of experience. 

6. Do you understand English?

-- Yes, I understand _____. = I understand a small amount of English. 

-- Yes, but very _____. = I understand some English, but I do not understand very much English.

a little

a little

little

An Exception to the Rule

For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have both a noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract and general and the count meaning concrete and specific.

(Count)• I've had some difficulties finding a job. • The talks will take place in the Albert building. • The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds.

(Noncount)• She succeeded in school with little difficulty. • I dislike idle talk. • Light travels faster than sound.

• How about having some coffee? Two coffees, please.

Both Countable and uncountable “Be specific” or “general idea”

1. war

2. coffee

3. time

4. love

5. lunch

Did you have a good lunch?

Did you have lunch?

There is a war in Iraq. War is dangerous

Can I have a large coffee. I don’t drink coffee.

I had a good time yesterday.

Time is more important than money,

When I was a boy, I had two loves.

Love is hard.

可數 不可數She had many experiences. Does she have enough

experience?

The lights were bright. Light hurts my eyes.

There's a hair in my soup! Hair is important on a cold day.

Give me three coffees. I'd love some coffee.

We study sugars in organic chemistry. Put sugar in my coffee.

The papers were stacked on the table. We wrote on paper.

http://www.cybertranslator.idv.tw/grammar/nouns.htm

Collective noun

It’s one word for many. It “usually” describes a group of things or

people as a unit. -singular

http://www.ojohaven.com/collectives/

Collective nouns are used to define a group of two or more objects.

A flock of seagulls A bunch of grapes An army of soldiers An army of about 2000 men A crowd of people A school of fish A swarm of bees A pride of lions A colony of bats A litter of kittens

A team of oxen A litter of piglets A crew of sailors A range of mountains An atlas of maps A class of students A troop of boy scouts A herd of sheep A pack of wolves.

Collective noun:

Examples:

The committee grants its permission for the artists to place her sculpture in the park. (people as an unit)

The committee put their signatures on the document. (all the members in the group need to sign the document “individually”)

整體時被看作單數名詞 ; 指整體的構成分子時被看作複數名詞。

family (1) a group of people who are related to each other, such as a

mother, a father, and their children. I come from a large family. He hasn't any family.

(2) the children of a family Women shouldn't have to choose between career and family (=

having children). Paul and Alison are hoping to start a family (= have children)

soon. My dad died when we were small so my mum raised the family

on her own.

(3) a pair of adult animals and their babies We've got a family of squirrels living in our garden.

people “ 人” , ” 人們” , ” 家人” in general

當 people 指 “人 persons” 或著泛指 “人們” , 或者指特定合

的人以及家裡人時 , 它是個無標記的複數名詞 .

There are ten people present. The streets were crowded with people. People will laugh at you. All my people are in India. Who are these people? My wife’s people are staying with us now.

people ” 民族”

people 作”民族”“種族”時 , 就變成了規則的可數名詞 (peoplepeoples)

The Chinese are a hard-working people. ( 中華民族是個勤勞的民族 ) Ireland was inhabited by two peoples. A people is all the men, women, and children of a

particular country or race.( 一個民族是指一個國家或種族的所有的男人 , 女人和兒童 .)

the people- the large number of ordinary men and women who

do not have positions of power in society

the people 指一個國家的人民或全世界的人民 , 它在形式上仍是單數 , 但是它的動詞 , 根據概念一致原則 ,要使用複數 .

She claims to be the voice of the people. The President has lost the support of the people. He lived for the people and died for the people. The French nobles oppressed the people.

Obama’s Victory Speech at Chicago’s Grant Park

The road ahead will be long. Our climb will be steep. We may not get there in one year or even in one term. But, America, I have never been more hopeful than I am tonight that we will get there. I promise you, we as a people will get there.

http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=96624326

Nov-05 2008

Question: Sixty people means a huge party.

主詞 sixty people 為複數 , 其動詞為何是用單數 ?

Answer: Sixty people 從形式上看是複數 , 但概念上卻是單數 .

它表達的是六十個人這個數目 . Fifteen years represents a long period of his life.

十五年代表了他一生中的一個很長的時期 One hundred miles was covered in a single night.

一夜間就走了一百英里 .

percent 用作名詞時 , 無複數形式 , 不加 “ s”.

Examples: 45 per cent of Americans were against it. Prices have risen 6 percent in the past year. You got 20 percent of the answers right.

Percent = per cent

Percent = per cent

當單個詞 percent 或 percent of 名詞充當主詞時 , 動詞採用單數還是採用複數 , 完全取決於有關名詞的單複數形式 .

Ten percent of the pupils are absent today.Thirty percent of the farmland has been

planted to oil crops.Over ninety percent of the islanders here are

illiterate

__1. I practice every day.

__2. Cats are interesting pets.

__3. I like to feed the birds.

__4. Can I have some chips?

__5. She has a lot of strength.

__6. I have no courage to do that.

__7. The water is cold.

__8. This milk is going sour.

Practice – “true” or “false”O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

Practice – “true” or “false”

__9. Music helps me relax.

__10. I'm meeting a group of friends for dinner.

__11.People like to be made to feel important.

__12.The teacher asked us to answer each questions on the book.

__13.My mother has to visit the hospital every two day.

__14. Each of us have a wonderful time.

O

O

O

X

X

x

Practice – “is” or “are”1. A dozen ___ probably not enough. (talk about eggs)

2. A dozen ___ coming over this afternoon. (talk about people)

3. Her family ___ very poor.

4. My family ___ all here.

5. My family ___ very large.

6. My family ___ all thin.

7. Five percent of the samples ___ substandard.

8. The Chinese ____a great people.

is

are

is

is

are

are

are

are

2. Pronoun 代名詞

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence.

Examples: She decided to go to a movie. She planned to ask him for an interview.

Relative pronouns General Usage in Defining Clauses

Relative pronouns are that, who, whom, whose, which,where, when, and why. They are used to join clauses to make a complex sentence.

Relative pronouns are used at the beginning of the subordinate clause which gives some specific informationabout the main clause.

This is the house that Jack built. I don't know the day when Jane marries him. The professor, whom I respect, was tenured.

In English, the choice of the relative pronoun depends on the type of clause it is used in.

There are two types of clauses distinguished: defining (restrictive) relative clauses and non-defining (non-restrictive) relative

clauses.

Defining relative clauses = restrictive relative clausesprovide some essential information that explains the main clause.

The information is crucial for understanding the sentence correctly and cannot be omitted. Defining clauses are opened by a relative pronoun and ARE NOT separated by a comma from the main clause.

Function in the

sentence

Reference to

People Things / concepts Place Time Reason

Subject

Object

Possessive

who, that which, that

that, who, whom which, that where when why

whose whose, of which

Some special uses of relative pronouns in defining clauses that / who

Referring to people, both that and who can be used. That may be used to referring to someone in general:

He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down. I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to

Chicago.

However, when a particular person is being spoken about, who is preferred:

The old lady who lives next door is a teacher. The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody's attention at

the party.

that / which

There several cases when that is more appropriate thanwhich:

1. After the pronouns all, any(thing), every(thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing):

The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person.

Marrying a congressman is all (that) she wants.

2. After verbs that answer the question WHAT?

For example, say, suggest, state, declare, hope, think, write, etc. In this case, the whole relative clause functions as the object of the main clause:

Some people say (that) success is one percent of talent and ninety-nine percent of hard work.

The chairman stated at the meeting (that) his company is part of a big-time entertainment industry.

3. After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree:

This is the funniest story (that) I have ever read! - that used as the object

4. After ordinal numbers, e.g., first, second, etc.: The first draft (that) we submitted was really horrible. -

that used as the object

5. If the verb in the main clause is a form of BE: This is a claim that has absolutely no reason in it. - that

used as the subject

3. Adjective 形容詞

An adjective is a word that modifies, or describes,

a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may precede nouns,

or they may appear after be verbs (am, are, is)

Examples: We live in the red brick house. She is tall for her age.

形容詞的作用 :

1. 在名詞前 作修飾 , 限定

Ex. She is a tall girl. I have a small dog.

2. 在動詞後 作主詞補語 Ex. She is tall. I am beautiful.

3. 在受詞後 作受詞補語 Ex. She made me angry . He made me happy.

Article冠詞

Articles include a, an, and the. They precede a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence.

Examples: They wanted a house with a big porch. He bought the blue sweater on sale.

形容詞的順序 :限定詞 + 評斷 + 尺寸 / 形狀 + 年紀 / 新舊 + 顏色 + 起源 + 物質

非人稱形容詞 “非人稱形容詞”不能用人當主詞 通常以虛主詞 it 當主詞

necessary, important, convenient, possible, impossible, natural, difficult, hard…

Ex. It is important for us to study English.

It is impossible for me to finish homework today.

It is hard to understand this question.

it is convenient for you to live close to the bus station.

有 a 形式的形容詞 只能作“敘述使用”

Ex. The girl is afraid..

She is an afraid girl. X

The fish is still alive.

She is awake

alike ( 相似的 ) , alive ( 活著的 ), afraid ( 害怕的 ), alone ( 單獨的 ), asleep ( 睡著的 ), awake ( 醒的 ), aware ( 知道的 ), ashamed ( 羞愧的 ) …

Special notes:

1. 以現在分詞的形式 (+ ing)

A rolling stone gathers no moss.

2. 以過去分詞的形式 (+ ed 或不規則變化 )

I will accept a written apology.

•複合形容詞 •動詞可變成形容詞

Practice: find Verb form adjectives

1. Many kind carpenters offered to repair the broken porch. break

2. Never kiss a smiling crocodile.

3. My father prefers to drink filtered spring water.

4. This isn’t chocolate ice cream; it’s frozen chocolate milk!

5. The fallen leaves covered the new driveway.

6. She was happy to find the translated version of the book.

7. I’d rather eat at a recently inspected restaurant.

8. Are you just hoping it will happen or is it a done deal?

4. Adverb 副詞Just as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify, or further describe, verbs. Adverbs may also modify adjectives.(Many, though not all, adverbs end in -ly.)

Examples: He waved wildly to get her attention. (the adverb wildly modifies the verb waved) The shirt he wore to the party was extremely bright. (the adverb extremely modifies the adjective bright)

副詞的種類

1. 時間副詞2. 地方副詞 3. 頻率副詞4. 狀態副詞 5. 程度副詞

•before, early, now

•here, at the station

•always, never, often

•well, loudly, fast

•very, much, too

動詞 狀態 地方 頻率 時間 目的

Ben swims

enthusias-tically

in the poolevery morning

before dawn

to keep in shape.

Dad walks

habitually to townevery afternoon

before supper

to get a newspaper

.

Jason sings

loudly in his roomevery morning

before lunch.

to prepare for acontest.

5. Verb 動詞

1. 依句型分類

2. 依功能分類

3. 依詞型變化分類Regular 規則動詞

Irregular 不規則動詞

Transitive 及物動詞

Intransitive 不及物動詞

Main verb 實義動詞

Auxiliary Verb 助動詞

A verb is a word that denotes action, or a state of

being, in a sentence.Examples: Tom rides the bus every day. Paul was a good leader.

There may be multiple verbs one a sentence, or there may be a verb phrase consisting of a verb plus a helping verb. She turned the key and opened the door. Jackson was studying when I saw him last.

6. Preposition 介係詞

Prepositions work in combination with a noun or pronoun to create phrases that modify verbs, nouns/pronouns, or adjectives. Prepositional phrases convey a spatial, temporal, or directional meaning.

1. Prepositions of Place and location 2. Prepositions of Time 3. Prepositions of Direction / Movement 4. Prepositions of Manner 5. Prepositions of Purpose 6. Prepositions of Materials 7. Prepositions of Similarity 8. Prepositions of Agent / Source 9. Prepositions of Comparison 10. Prepositions of Measurement

(1) Prepositions of Place and location地方或位置的介詞 In On Over Under underneath Above Below By Beside Next to

In front of Around Between Among At Near Behind before

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DUNYx8LxkL0&feature=related (prep song)

at

small location a specific place.

number (for a building,house or apartment.)

He is waiting at the bus stop.He lives at a small village.He lives at No. 200, First

Avenue.She works at that restaurant.

onroad / street / highway

direction island / mountain

He lives on First Avenue.He lives on the north of

Taiwan.

in

city / state / country / region / state / continent

book / newspaper / magazine

The information is in the lower / upper corner of the page.

She’s in the middle of something.

He lives in Taipei.He lives in Canada.

at / on / in ( 地方 )

(2) Prepositions of Time

Specific time – between, by, from – to, till, within, at, on, in, before, after

General time – at, by, in, on

Length of time – at, during, since, through, for

at / on / in ( 時間 )

at Time

At 5 pm / At 11:40At midnight At lunchtimeAt sunset

on

Specific day DaysDate Holiday

On FridayOn my birthdayOn October 6th

On Christmas Day

inMonthYearCentury

In OctoberIn 2009In the 18th centuryIn the pastIn the 1980sIn the Middle Ages

(3) Prepositions of Direction / Movement

To From Up Down Along Into Out of through

Across Away from Towards Off Onto around

onto / on to / on

examples:Ann climbed onto the roof. He jumped onto the horse.The burglar climbed on to the roof.

on 既可表示位置 , 也可以表示方向Let’s sit on the grass.She fell on the floor.He jumped on the horse.

ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a surface

into / in to / in

With verbs of motion, "into" and "in" are interchangeable except when the preposition is the last word or occurs directly before an adverbial of time, manner, or frequency.

The patient went into the doctor's office. The patient went in. Our new neighbors moved into the house next door yesterday. Our new neighbors moved in yesterday. Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into? Now what sort of trouble is she in?

IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward the interior of a volume

(4) Prepositions of Manner With – please carry this box with care. In – the man shouted at the driver in anger. By – you have to learn your multiplication tables by heart.

(5) Prepositions of Purpose for – The box is used for a project. On – They went to New York on business.

So that - They work hard so that the project would be ready in time.In order to - In order to become a champion, you have to word hard.For the purpose of - He got a cat for the purpose of catching the mice.

(6) Prepositions of Materials Of – The desk is make of wood. From – Wine is made from grapes. In – Can you answer it in English?

(7) Prepositions of Similarity As – We use the water jug as a vase to put the flower in. Like – Your hands are cold like ice.

(8) Prepositions of Agent / Source By –The concert was organized by Tom. From – They got the answer from the encyclopedia.

(9) Prepositions of Comparison To – We won the game by 5 to 3.

I prefer oranges to apples. With – He compared his camera with mine. By – He is taller than I by 2 inches.

(10) Prepositions of Measurement Of – Can I have a glass of milk, please?

7. Conjunction 連接詞A conjunction is a word that joins two independent clauses, or sentences, together.

Coordinating conjunctions ( 對等 ) Subordinate conjunctions ( 附屬 ) Correlative conjunctions ( 相關 ) Conjunctive adverbs ( 連接詞副詞 )

Coordinating conjunctions 對等連接詞

• A coordinate conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, and independent clauses.

• Use a comma when you connect two main clauses with a coordinating conjunction.

and, but, or, for, so, yet, nor

(a complete sentence can stand alone.)

NOR = neither-nor. It is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as

the other conjunctions.

He is neither same nor brilliant. That is neither what I said nor what I meant. That is not what I meant to say, nor should you

interpret my statement as an admission of guilt. (for negative expression)

Yet = but, nevertheless. It is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as

the other conjunctions.

John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.

The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.

For= because, since. Its function is to introduce the reason for the

preceding clause:

(Some people regard the conjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary, and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text.)

John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board of trustees.

Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on the train.

True or False:

1. ____ Enrichment may be particularly important when the number of organisms is small, for detection of asymptomatic carriers, or when specimens are delayed in transit.

O

X

2. ____ Enrichment may be particularly important when the number of organisms is small, for detection of asymptomatic carriers, or for specimens delayed in transit.

Which one is correct ?

1. These mice became dehydrated, lost weight, and four mice died.2. These mice became dehydrated and lost weight, and four mice died.

3. The mixture was heated, shaken, centrifuged, and the supernatant fluid frozen.4. The mixture was heated, shaken, and centrifuged, and the supernatant fluid was frozen.

O

O

Subordinate conjunctions附屬連接詞 ( 有時稱為從屬字 )

Common subordinate conjunctionsafteralthoughasas ifas long asas thoughbecausebeforeeven ifeven though

ifif onlyin order thatnow thatoncerather thansinceso thatthanthat

thoughtillunlessuntilwhenwheneverwherewhereaswhereverwhile

注意：在下表中，若干附屬連接詞 -- after, before, since -- 也是介系詞，但做連接詞時，它們被用來引導一個子句，並使其後的子句附屬於句子中的獨立元素。

A subordinate conjunction is a word used to introduce a dependant clause and show the relationship between the independent clause and the dependent clause.

When a dependent clause precedes an independent clause, there is a comma between the two. However, when the independent clause comes first, there is no need to separate the two clauses with a comma.

Example:

Although he was ill, he worked hard. He worked hard although he was ill.

Correlative conjunctions 相關連接詞

Correlative conjunctions join words, phases, or clauses of equal rank. The correlative conjunctions are always in pairs.

both-and, either-or, neither-nor,

not only-but, not only-also,

whether-or, as-as

Which one is correct ?

1. Increased turnover has been shown both in monkeys and humans.2. Increased turnover has been shown in both monkeys and humans.3. Increased turnover has been shown both in monkeys and in humans.

4. The 110S structures were relatively labile either after centrifugation or various detergent treatments.5. The 110S structures were relatively labile after either centrifugation or various detergent treatments.6. The 110S structures were relatively labile either after centrifugation or after various detergent treatments.

O

O

O

O

whether (conj) = if (expressing doubts)

whether…or = (used to introduce two or more possibilities) 不管是 ...( 或是 )

Ask him whether he can come or not. I was only questioning whether we have the money to

fund such a project. I'm wondering whether to have the fish or the beef. It all depends on whether or not she's got the time.

Let's face it - you're going to be late whether you go by bus or train.

I’m going, whether she likes it or not.

__1. I work not only at this restaurant, but also that pet store.

__2. I work at not only this restaurant, but also that pet store.

__3. Not only did he turn up late, but he also forgot his books.

__4. Not only can she speak English fluently, but she can also

speak French well.

__5. She not only can speak English fluently but also can speak French well.

Practice – “true” or “false”

X

O

O

O

O

Not only 是屬於否定副詞開頭的句子 , 所以一定要用倒裝句 .

__ 6. She can not only speak English fluently but also speak French well.

__7. I not only wrote interesting novels but wrote wonderful essays.

__8. I want not only to participate in the contest but also to win the first prize.

__9. The controversy not only damages sales but also shareholder confidence.

__10. Bob not only wrote stories but transformed them.

O

O

O

X

O

The controversy not only damages sales but also damages shareholder confidence.

Doing without but or also tends to reduce formality, or to reduce stiffness in formal prose, and can benefit short and straightforward constructions.

Conjunctive Adverbs 連接詞副詞

Conjunctive adverbs join two independent sentences, as transitional words.

Conjunctive adverbs are sometimes used as simple adverbs.

moreover, however

nevertheless, consequently

as a result

Tense 時態

　 顯示“時間的形式”

1. 發生的時間 ?

2. 動作到達某一點時間

已經完成 或還在進行 ? 或是將要執行

動詞的時式– “三時四式”

以時間分 : 以動作形式分 :

1. present

2. past

3. future

1. simple

2. progressive

3. perfect

4. perfect progressive

English Tenses – Graphic Comparison

http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/tenses-graphic

Moment in time•action that takes place once, never or several times. •actions that happen one after another .•actions that suddenly take place .

Period of time•action that started before a certain moment and lasts beyond that moment. •actions taking place at the same time.

Result•action taking place before a certain moment in time.•puts emphasis on the result.

Duration•action taking place before a certain moment in time. •puts emphasis on the duration.

中文與英文時式比較

中文 - 沒有動詞的變化 英文 - 動詞變化表示時間及口氣

我正在看電視

我每天看電視

我昨天看電視

我明天要看電視

I am watching TV.

I watch TV every day.

I watched TV yesterday.

I will watch TV tomorrow.

About perfect tense完成式的觀念

動作“何時”發生 ?

過去完成式

(had+ P.P.)

現在完成式

(have/has+ P.P.)

未來完成式

(will have+ P.P.)

Ex. We had finished the experiment before you got here.

Ex. We have just finished my experiment.

Ex. We will have finished the experiment by Jan 5th.

General Guidelines for Use of Perfect Tenses

In general the use of perfect tenses is determined

by their relationship to the tense of the primary

narration.

If the primary narration is in simple past, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described in past perfect.

If the primary narration is in simple present, then action initiated before the time frame of the primary narration is described in present perfect.

Time-orienting words and phrases like before, after, by the time, and others—when used to relate two or more actions in time—can be good indicators of the need for a perfect-tense verb in a sentence.

By the time the Senator finished (past) his speech, the audience had lost (past perfect) interest.

After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we offer (present: habitual action) our guests dessert.

After everyone has finished (present perfect) the main course, we will offer (future: specific one-time action) our guests dessert.

Long before the sun rose (past) , the birds had arrived (past

perfect) at the feeder.

Practice: By the time the Senator finishes (present: habitual action) his

speech, the audience _______ (present perfect) interest.

By the time the Senator finishes (present: suggesting future time) his speech, the audience ___________ (future perfect) interest.

After everyone had finished (past perfect) the main course, we ______ (past) our guests dessert.

Long before the sun rises (present: habitual action), the birds __________ (present perfect) at the feeder.

Long before the sun rises (present: suggesting future time), the birds ____________ (future perfect) at the feeder.

has lost

will have lost

offered

have arrived

will have arrived

Controlling Shifts in a Paragraph or Essay General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and use occasional shifts to other tenses to indicate changes in time frame.

Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer to an author or an author's ideas as historical entities (biographical information about a historical figure or narration of developments in an author's ideas over time).

Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual actions, and to discuss your own ideas or those expressed by an author in a particular work.

Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the use of will, shall, is going to, are about to, tomorrow and other adverbs of time, and a wide range of contextual cues.

　1. 引用已經發表的資料時，請用現在式（ present tense）

Example: This drug inhibits the growth of the tumor.

2. 目前自己的研究結果則採用過去式（ past tense）

Example:They found a malignant tumor in her breast.

在論文中常常擺盪於不同的時態，主要是在不同的論文欄位，例如摘要多採用過去式，同理材料與方法和結果皆採用過去式，緒論和討論則多採用現在式。

Active Versus Passive Voice主動與被動

Active voice is used for most non-scientific writing. Using active voice for the majority of your sentences makes your meaning clear for readers, and keeps the sentences from becoming too complicated or wordy.

However……………

Even in scientific writing, too much use of passive voice can cloud the meaning of your sentences.

Scientists or engineers are often encouraged to write inpassive voice to lend their writing a sense of objectivity--to take themselves and their actions and opinions out of the experimental results.

However….. passive voice = wordy

Examples:

•"We believe the mutation causes cancer.“ (active)

•It was found that....

•"The data suggests that the mutation causes cancer." (active)

•The authors found ..

To be continued ~