EPS GT Base Principles

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The information contained in this document is proprietary to European Power Systems Ltd and is confidential

EPSEUROPEAN POWER SYSTES LT!

THEORY OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES

THEORY OF JET PROPULSION

The principle of jet propulsion can be illustrated by a toy balloon. Wheninated and the stem is sealed, the pressure is exerted equally on all internalsurfaces. Since the force of this internal pressure is balanced, there will be notendency for the balloon to move.

If the stem is released, the balloon will move in a direction away from theescapin jet of air. !lthouh the iht of the balloon may appear erratic, it isat all times movin in a direction away from the open stem.

The balloon moves because of an unbalanced condition existin within it.When the stem area of the balloon is released, a converent no""le is created.!s the air ows throuh this area, velocity is increased accompanied by adecrease in air pressure. In addition, an area of s#in aainst which the

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internal forces had been pushin is removed. $n the opposite internal surfaceof the balloon, an equal area of s#in still remains. The hiher internalpressure actin on this area moves the balloon in a direction away from theopen stem. The iht of the balloon will be of short duration thouh, becausethe air in the balloon is soon one. If a source of pressuri"ed air were

provided, it would be possible to sustain the iht of the balloon.

THEORY OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES

If the balloon were converted into a lenth of pipe, and at the forward end anair compressor desined with blades somewhat li#e a fan were installed, thiscould provide a means to replenish the air supply within the balloon.

! source of power is now required to turn the compressor. To extend thevolume of air, fuel and inition are introduced and combustion ta#es place.This reatly expands the volume of as available.

In the path of the now rapidly expandin ases, another fan or turbine can beplaced. !s the ases pass throuh the blades of the turbine, they cause it torotate at hih speed. %y connectin the turbine to the compressor, we have amechanical means to rotate the compressor to replenish the air supply. The





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ases still possessin enery are dischared to the atmosphere throuh ano""le that accelerates the as stream. The reaction is thrust or movement ofthe tube away from the escapin as stream. We now have a simple turbojetenine.

The turbojet enine is a hih&speed, hih&altitude power plant. The simpleturbojet enine has primarily one rotatin unit' the compressor(turbineassembly. The turbine extracts from the as stream the enery necessary torotate the compressor. This furnishes the pressuri"ed air to maintain theenine cycle. %urnin the fuel&air mixture provides the stream of hot

expandin as from which approximately )* percent of the enery isextracted to maintain the enine cycle. $f the total enery development,approximately +* percent is available to develop useful thrust directly.

If we had ten car enines, that would equal the total shaft horsepower of aturbine enine, it would ta#e six of these enines to turn the compressor andthe other four would supply the thrust. The amount of enery required torotate the compressor may at rst seem too lare' however, it should beremembered that the compressor is acceleratin a heavy mass -weiht of airtowards the rear of the enine. In order to produce the as stream, it isnecessary to deliver compressed air by a mechanical means to a burner "one.

With a requirement for an enine that delivers rotational shaft power, the nextstep is to harness the remainin as stream enery with another turbine -freeturbine. %y connectin the turbine to a shaft, rotational power can bedelivered to drive to an aircraft propeller, or an electrical enerator, orwhatever driver is needed. The power shaft can extend from the front, bac#,or from an external earbox.





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The basic portion of the turbine enine, the as producer, extractsapproximately )* percent of the as stream enery -temperature(pressure tosustain the enine cycle. To develop rotational shaft power, the remainin asstream enery must drive another turbine' this is called the power turbine. Inthe case of the /0)*** at 1napton the /2 compressor shaft is connected tothe main reduction earbox. ! turboex couplin connects the front of the /2compressor to the input shaft of the earbox, this is called cold end drive.$nce synchronised the /2 shaft speed e3ectively becomes xed to match therid frequency.

In operation, the as producer system automatically varies its speed, therebycontrollin the intensity of the as stream in relation to the load applied tothe power turbine shaft -/2. This is accomplished by a fuel meterin systemthat senses enine requirements.

4eciprocatin enines operate on the four&stro#e, ve&event principle. 5ourstro#es of the piston, two up and two down, are required to provide onepower impulse to the cran#shaft. 5ive events ta#e place durin these fourstro#es6 the inta#e, compression, inition, power, and exhaust events. Theseevents must ta#e place in the cylinder in the sequence iven for the enine tooperate.





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7omparison between wor#in cycle of turbo jet enine and piston enine.

!lthouh the as turbine enine di3ers radically in construction from theconventional four&stro#e, ve&event cycle reciprocatin enine, both involvethe same basic principle of operation. In the piston -reciprocatin enine, thefunctions of inta#e, compression, inition, combustion, and exhaust all ta#eplace in the same cylinder and, therefore, each must completely occupy thechamber durin its respective part of the combustion cycle. In the as turbineenine, a separate section is devoted to each function, and all functions areperformed at the same time without interruption.

SUMMARY

The theory of as turbine enine operation is based on the laws or principlesof physics. The principle of jet propulsion can be illustrated by a toy balloon.When the balloon is inated and the stem is unsealed the balloon will move ina direction away from the escapin jet of air. If the balloon is converted into alenth of pipe, and at the forward end an air compressor is installed to supplyair for combustion, and to expand the volume of air, fuel and inition areintroduced and combustion ta#es place. Then, in the path of the expandinases a turbine rotor is installed. !s the ases pass throuh the turbine





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blades, the turbine rotor is rotated at hih speed. This turbine rotor isconnected to the compressor shaft, and we now have a means to rotate thecompressor to replenish the air supply. The remainin ases are dischared tothe atmosphere. The reaction of these ases is thrust, or movement of thetube away from the escapin ases. This is a simple turbojet enine.

In the turbojet enine, approximately )* percent of the enery is extracted torotate the compressor, while the remainin +* percent is used to developthrust. In the turboshaft enine, the remainin enery is used to drive aturbine rotor attached to a transmission. $ne turbine drives the 82compressor and the other turbine drives the /2 compressor which is directlyconnected to the main reduction earbox and alternator assemblies.

The as turbine enine di3ers radically in construction from the reciprocatinenine in that the turbine enine has a separate section for each function,while in the reciprocatin enine all functions are performed in the same

cylinder.

Summary of 9as Turbine /ayout and Temperature 9radients





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PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

GENERAL

This section covers the principles of turbine enine operation. The two

classications of turbine enines are turbojet and turboshaft -shown below.The term :turbo: means :turbine.: Therefore, a turboshaft enine is onewhich delivers power throuh a shaft. ;urin this course we shall concentrateon the Turboshaft enine as this is the desin installed at 1napton.

Tur'o4et Tur'oshaft

OTTO AND BRAYTON CYCLES

There is an element of similarity to both the reciprocatin and jet enines, butthe thermodynamic cycle of each is di3erent from the other. The reciprocatinenine operates on the $tto cycle, a constant volume cycle, consistin of four

distinct operations. These operations are performed intermittently by a pistonreciprocatin in an enclosed cylinder. It is important to remember that thepiston in a reciprocatin enine delivers power only durin one of its fourstro#es.

The turbine enine operates on the %rayton cycle, a constant pressure cyclecontainin the same four basic operations as the $tto cycle, butaccomplishin them simultaneously and continuously so that an uninterruptedow of power from the enine results.

BRAYTON CYCLE OF OPERATION

!mbient air is drawn into the inlet section by the rotatin compressor. Thecompressor forces this incomin air rearward and delivers it to thecombustion chamber at a hiher pressure than the air had at the inlet. Thecompressed air is then mixed with fuel that is sprayed into the combustionchamber by the fuel no""les. The fuel and air mixture is then inited byelectrical initer plus similar to spar# plus. This inition system is only inoperation durin the startin sequence, and once started, combustion iscontinuous and self&sustainin as lon as the enine is supplied with theproper air&fuel ratio. $nly about


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The turbine enine at 1napton has additional rotor and stator staes added tothe /2 turbine rotor to extract the maximum power from the as stream. Theenine uses nearly two&thirds of the enery produced by combustion to drivethe compressor rotors to sustain combustion. The additional power turbinestaes extract the remainin enery and converts it to shaft horsepower

-shp, which is used to drive the output shaft of the enine. The as then exitsthe enine throuh the exhaust section and then onto atmosphere.





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SUMMARY OF ADVANTAGES OF TURBINE ENGINES

2ower&to&weiht ratio. Turbine enines have a hiher power&to&weihtratio than reciprocatin enines. !n example of this is the /0>)**. Itweihs approximately ?,


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SUMMARY OF DISADVANTAGES OF TURBINE ENGINES

Bust li#e everythin else, alon with the advantaes or the ood, we have tota#e the disadvantaes or the bad. This also holds true with the turbineenine. The disadvantaes of the turbine enine are discussed in the

followin subpararaphs.

5orein $bject ;amae. $ne of the major problems faced by the turbineenine is 5orein $bject ;amae -5$;. ! turbine enine requirestremendous quantities of air. This air is suc#ed into the enine atextremely hih velocities, and it will draw up anythin that comes nearthe inlet area. The turbine enines used in power eneration are ttedwith lters in the enine inlet ductwor# to prevent forein objects fromenterin the enine and damain the compressor vanes. 8owever,even with this precaution, 5$; is still a menace to turbine enineoperation, as shown below6

5iure >.?. 7ompressor 5orein $bject ;amae.

8ih temperatures. In the combustion chamber, the temperature israised to about @, =**C 5. in the hottest part of the ame. %ecause thistemperature is above the meltin point of most metals, proper coolinand ame dilution must be employed at all times to insure that theenine is not damaed, how this is achieved is discussed later in thecombustion system description.

Slow acceleration. The acceleration rate of a turbine enine is very slowin comparison with that of a reciprocatin enine. The pilot must beaware of the time la in the turbine enine acceleration between theinstant when power is requested and when power is available.





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8ih fuel consumption. Turbine enines are very uneconomical when itcomes to the amount of fuel they consume. The /ycomin T=@ turbineenine, for instance, uses approximately >.= allons per minute of fuel.7ompare it to a reciprocatin enine of approximately the samehorsepower which has a fuel consumption rate of > allon per minute.

%ost/ The initial cost of a tur'ine en$ine is 5ery hi$h when compared to the cost of a

reciprocatin$ en$ine/

ENGINE CONSTRUCTION

GENERAL

%ecause of the many types of turbine enines, it is not possible to list all themajor components and have the list apply to all enines. Several componentsare common to most turbine enines, and a #nowlede of these will be helpfulin developin a further understandin of the aero derivative aviation as

turbine enines. This section discusses the major enine sections individually.

TERMINOLOGY

Dnine terminoloy must be explained at this point to enable you tounderstand the terms used in discussin as&turbine&enine operatin theory.;irectional references are shown in drawin below6

;irectional 4eferences.





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;irectional references. 5ront or forward && cold end of enine. 4ear oraft && hot end of enine. 4iht and left && determined by viewin theenine from the rear. %ottom && determined by the location of thecombustor drain valve. Top && directly opposite, or >?* derees from thecombustor drain valve. These directional references hold true for most

as turbine enines.

AIR INLET SECTION

The amount of air required by a as turbine enine is approximately ten timesthat of a reciprocatin enine. The air inlet is enerally a lare, smoothaluminum or manesium duct which must be desined to conduct the air intothe compressor with minimum turbulence and restriction. The air inlet section





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may have a variety of names accordin to the desire of the manufacturer. Itmay be called the front frame and accessory section, the air inlet assembly,the front bearin support and shroud assembly, or any other term descriptiveof its function. Esually, the outer shell of the front frame is joined to thecenter portion by braces that are often called struts.





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COMPRESSOR SECTION AXIAL FLOW

! Typical !xial 5low 4otatin 7ompressor 0odule

The compressor is the section of the enine that produces an increase in airpressure. It is made up of rotatin and stationary vane assemblies. The rststae compressor rotor blades accelerate the air rearward into the rst staevane assemblies. The rst stae vane assemblies slow the air down and directit into the second stae compressor rotor blades. The second staecompressor rotor blades accelerate the air rearward into the second stae

vane assemblies, and so on throuh the compressor rotor blades and vanesuntil air enters the di3user section. The hihest total air velocity is at the inletof the di3user. !s the air passes rearward throuh the di3user, the velocity ofthe air decreases and the static pressure increases. The hihest staticpressure is at the di3user outlet, commonly called compressor discharepressure or 7;2.





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! Typical Static 7ompressor Stator 7asin

The compressor rotor may be thouht of as an air pump. The volume of airpumped by the compressor rotor is basically proportional to the rotor rpm.

8owever, air density, the weiht of a iven volume of air, also varies thisproportional relationship. The weiht per unit volume of air is a3ected bytemperature, compressor air inlet pressure, humidity, and compressorcleanliness. If compressor air inlet temperature is increased, air density isreduced. If compressor air inlet pressure is increased, air density isincreased. If humidity increases, air density is decreased. 8umidity, bycomparison with temperature, and pressure chanes, has a very small e3ecton density.

7ompressor e3iciency determines the power necessary to create the pressurerise of a iven airow, and it a3ects the temperature chane which ta#esplace in the combustion chamber. Therefore, the compressor is one of themost important components of the as turbine enine because its e3icientoperation is the #ey to overall enine performance. 7ompressor cleanliness istherefore vital to optimi"in the as turbineFs overall e3iciency, how thecompressor is #ept clean will be discussed later in the course.





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The axial ow compressor increases the pressure of the air radually over anumber of GstaesF, each stae comprisin of a row of Grotor bladesF followedby a row of Gstator bladesF. %oth the rotor and stator blades are of aerofoilsection and are attached in such a &manner so as to form diverent passaeways between adjacent blades of the same row as shown above.

!xial ow compressors have the advantae of bein capable of very hihcompression ratios with relatively hih e3iciencies. %ecause of the smallfrontal area created by this type of compressor, it is ideal for installation on

hih&speed aircraft. Enfortunately, the delicate bladin and close tolerances,especially toward the rear of the compressor where the blades are smallerand more numerous per stae, ma#e this compressor hihly susceptible toforein&object damae or 5$;. %ecause of the close ts required for e3icientair&pumpin and hiher compression ratios, this type of compressor is verycomplex and very expensive to manufacture. 5or these reasons the axial&owdesin nds its reatest application where required e3iciency and outputoverride the considerations of cost, simplicity, and exibility of operation.8owever, due to modern technoloy, the cost of the small axial&owcompressors is comin down.





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TWIN SPOOL GAS TURBINES

We now #now that the performance of the as turbine is directly related tothe exit pressure of the compressor assembly. !s a eneral rule the hiher thecompression ratio, the more powerful the enine is for its iven physicaldimensions.

!s the basic desin of the as turbine evolved more staes were proressivelyadded to the compressor assembly to achieve the hiher performance levels.These larer compressors required more power to drive, therefore morestaes were added to the turbine assembly. It was soon established that with

the larer compressor and turbine assemblies so the shaft weiht haddramatically increased. $ne of the disadvantaes of increased weiht isincreased inertia, this means that the shaft is slower to accelerate anddecelerate. This leads to problems associated with airows throuh theenine, rapid chanes in load requirements can then lead to problems such asstall and sure. %oth stall and sure are covered later in the course, at thispoint it should be noted that stall and sure are situations to be avoided in allturbine operations.

9as turbine manufacturers solved the problem of hiher compression ratios-reater than H6> by splittin the compressor into two independent shafts as

shown below6

Typical Twin Spool as Turbine





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The total numbers of staes of compression are divided between the twospools /ow 2ressure leadin to 8ih 2ressure, each spool bein driven byits own turbine assembly. This is necessary because each compressor needs tobe free to rotate at its most e3icient rpm and will require a di3erent amountof torque to drive each shaft. This eases the problem of compressor blade

matchin and results in a very powerful, e3icient and exible and mostimportantly reliable enine.

The advantaes of a Twin Spool 9as Turbine compared to a Sinle SpoolDnine can be summarised as follows6

> 8iher 7ompression ratios

assemblies of approximately @*6> at full load. This canbe seen on the control system by the parameter G827 Dxit 2ressureF.





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9as turbine enines are desined to avoid the pressure conditions that allowenine sure to develop, but the possibility of sure still exists in enines thatare not properly set up or adjusted, or have a technical problem. Dnine sureoccurs any time the combustion chamber pressure exceeds the compressordischare pressure 7;2. It is identied by a loud poppin sound which is

issued from the inlet. %ecause there is more than one cause for sure, theresultant sound can rane from a sinle carburetor bac#re pop to a machineun sound.

Dnine sure is caused by a stall on the airfoilsurfaces of the rotatin blades or stationaryvanes of the compressor. The stall can occur onindividual blades or vanes or, simultaneously, onroups of them. To understand how this caninduce enine sure, the causes and e3ects ofstall on any airfoil must be examined.

!ll airfoils are desined to provide lift byproducin a lower pressure on the convex-suction side of the airfoil than on the concave-pressure side. ! characteristic of any airfoil isthat lift increases with an increasin anle ofattac#, but only up to a critical anle. %eyond thiscritical anle of attac#, lift falls o3 rapidly. This isdue larely to the separation of the airow fromthe suction surface of the airfoil, as shown in thes#etch. This phenomenon is #nown as stall. !ll

pilots are familiar with this condition and itsconsequences as it applies to the win of anaircraft. The stall that ta#es place on the xed orrotatin blades of a compressor is the same asthe stallin phenomenon of an aircraft win.

In the event o !n" #t!$$% the t&'()ne #ho&$* not (e o+e'!te* (eo'e#ee,)n- #+e.)!$)#t !*v).e/

AIRFLOW CONTROL

Where hih pressures ratios are required it becomes necessary to introduceairow into the compressor desin. This may ta#e the form of variable inletuide vanes I9KFs, for the rst stae plus a number of staes incorporatinvariable stator vanes KSKFs for the succeedin staes as the shaft pressureratio is increased, see the diaram below.





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!s the compressor speed is reduced from full load the static vanes areproressively closed in order to maintain an acceptable anle of attac# for theairow onto the followin rotor blades.

!dditional air from the low pressure compressor /27 is also utilised forcontrollin enine core speed. Kariable bleed valves K%KFs, are normallylocated radially around the enine on the bleed manifold, which open andclose throuh the load rane. !t idle, the K%KFs are fully open, dumpin

excess /27 dischare air. !bove idle, the K%KFs trac# closed followin thecontrol system schedules, which control the airow passin throuh the coreof the enine. %y controllin I9K, KSK and K%K positions throuh the controlsystem loic, correct core enine shaft speed is maintained, eliminates eninestall and #eeps exhaust as temperature T+? within desin limits.

COMBUSTION SECTION

Today, three basic combustion chambers are in use. They are the annularcombustion chamber, the can type, and the combination of the two called the





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air& and that for coolin is secondary air. The secondary air is controlled anddirected by holes in the combustion chamber liner side walls.

7ross Section of Typical !nnular 7ombustor

Initer plus function only durin startin, bein cut out of the circuit as soonas combustion is self&sustainin. !ll combustion chambers contain the samebasic elements6 a casin or outer shell, a perforated inner liner or ame tube,fuel no""les, and some means of initial inition. The combustion chambermust be of liht construction and is desined to burn fuel completely in a hihvelocity airstream. The combustion chamber liner is an extremely criticalenine part because of the hih temperatures of the ame. The liner is usually

constructed of welded hih&nic#el steel or mnemonic ally and is normallycoated with a protective ceramic material.

The annular combustion chamber permits buildin an enine of a small andcompact desin. Instead of individual combustion chambers, the primarycompressed air is introduced into an annular space formed by a chamber lineraround the turbine assembly, see the diaram below. ! space is left betweenthe outer liner wall and the combustion chamber housin to permit the ow ofsecondary coolin air from the compressor. 2rimary air is mixed with the fuelfor combustion. Secondary -coolin air reduces the temperature of the hotases enterin the turbine section to the proper level by formin a blan#et of

cool air around these hot ases thus preventin them touch the side walls ofthe combustor. Where airows are incorrect throuh erosion or bloc#ae thecombustor can be quic#ly damaed by the hih ame temperature which canexceed the meltin point of the combustors base material.





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Typical %om'ustor Airflows 6lows

TURBINE SECTION

! portion of the #inetic enery of the expandin ases is extracted by theturbine section, and this enery is transformed into shaft horsepower which isused to drive both the low and hih pressure compressor assemblies and theenine mounted accessories.

Typical !xial&ow Turbine 4otor

The axial&ow turbine consists of two main elements, a set of stationary vanesfollowed by a turbine rotor. ! stae consists of two main components6 aturbine no""le and a turbine rotor or wheel, as shown above. Turbine bladesare of two basic types, the impulse and the reaction. 0odern aircraft asturbines use blades that have both impulse and reaction sections, as shownbelow.





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Impulse&4eaction Turbine %lade.

The stationary part of the turbine assembly consists of a row of contouredvanes set at a predetermined anle to form a series of small no""les whichdirect the ases onto the blades of the turbine rotor. 5or this reason, thestationary vane assembly is usually called the turbine no""le, and the vanesare called no""le uide vanes.

Sin$le7rotor tur'ine/ Some $as tur'ine en$ines use a sin$le7rotor tur'ine& with the power de5eloped

'y one rotor/ This arran$ement is used on en$ines where low wei$ht and compactness are

necessary/ A sin$le7rotor& sin$le7sta$e tur'ine en$ine is shown 'elow/

Sinle&rotor, Sinle&stae Turbine.

!nd a multiple&rotor, multiple&stae turbine enine is shown below.





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0ultiple&rotor, 0ultiple&stae Turbine.

0ultiple&rotor turbine. In the multiple&rotor turbine the power is developed bytwo or more rotors. !s a eneral rule, multiple&rotor turbines increase thetotal power enerated in a unit of small diameter.

0ulti&rotor L 0ulti&stae Turbine.

POWER TURBINE

The alternator assembly at 1napton is driven directly by the /ow 2ressurerotor shaft. The /2 turbine rotor has been extended at 1napton to = individualstaes. The purpose of the power turbine assembly is to extract as much#inetic enery from the remainin as ow to drive the alternator.





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SUMMARY

The /0)*** enine at 1napton has the followin basic construction6

= Stae /ow 2ressure 7ompressor

>+ Stae 8ih 2ressure 7ompressor

!nnular 7ombustion 7hamber

< Stae 8ih 2ressure Turbine

= Stae /ow 2ressure Turbine

TURBINE CONSTRUCTION

The turbine rotor is one of the most hihly stressed parts in the enine. Itoperates at a temperature of approximately >,A**C 5. %ecause of the hihrotational speeds, over >*,=** rpm for the enine at 1napton, the turbinerotor is under severe centrifual loads. 7onsequently, the turbine dis# is made

of specially alloyed steel, usually containin lare percentaes of chromium,nic#el, and cobalt. The turbine rotor assembly is made of two main parts, thedis# and blades.

Mo""le vanes may be either cast or fored. Some vanes are made hollow toallow coolin air to ow throuh them. !ll no""le assemblies are made of veryhih&strenth steel that withstands the direct impact of the hot ases owinfrom the combustion chamber.

The turbine blades are attached to the dis# by usin the :r tree: desin,shown below, to allow for expansion between the dis# and the blade while

holdin the blade rmly to the dis# aainst centrifual loads. The blade is#ept from movin axially either by rivets or special loc#in plate devices.Turbine rotors are of the open&tip type as shown below left, or the shroud typeas shown below riht.





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5iure >..


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Dxhaust ;i3user Section.

In the industrial power eneration sector it is common to use the remaininhot ases that pass throuh the power turbine assembly to heat water toproduce hot water, hih temperature hot water or steam. These can be usedto drive other steam turbines or plant processes. The term used to describethis multiple production is called 7ombined 8eat and 2ower or 782. This is anarea for future development at 1napton, the addition of a boiler, steamturbine and associated alternator would increase power eneration for asimilar fuel consumption to the enine in its current conuration. Theaddition of the steam turbine and alternator could increase the power outputof the plant by up to =*N, thus reatly increasin the e3iciency of the plant.

SUMMARY

The as turbine enine has ve major sections6 inlet, compressor, combustion,turbine, and exhaust. Dnine terminoloy includes directional references,enine stations, and model desinations.





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The table below shows some of the enine abbreviations commonly used at1napton6

/2 /ow 2ressure

82 8ih 2ressure

M Spool speed

2 & 2ressure

T & Temperature

I9K Inlet 9uide Kane

KSK Kariable Stator Kane

K%K Kariable %leed Kalve

T+? /2 Turbine Dxit Temperature

2T% Thrust %alance

$!T $utside !ir Temperature

7;2 7ompressor ;ischare 2ressure

IS! International Standard !tmosphere ->= derees 7 L >*>@ millibars

Dnine station notation. The enine is divided into stations to desinate

temperature -T or pressure -2 measurin locations. /abelin the eninestations with a number placed after the letter T or 2 denotes a speciclocation in the enine.





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LM0111 C'o## Se.t)on





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EPS GT Base Principles

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