Epistemology

Professor Christopher Ullman Christian Life College

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Everyone has a concept of what is true/false.Each person decides how important truth is to him. Each of you know of ways to test a statement to see if it is true.

These underlying presuppositions govern our thoughts, words, choices, and actions.

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 Consider these questions asked by thinking people

What is truth? Can we even define truth? Can we know truth? Can we know truth with certainty? Is truth merely opinion controlled by the

dominant forces of our society? How is it that so many people have so many

different views of truth? Is truth relative? How can we say something is false if we have

no way of determining what is true?

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Some truth tests Pragmatism: truth is that which works. If

something works, then it must be true.

Coherence: there is an essential internal harmony of ideas. If something does not harmonize with the ideas that already cohere, it may not be true.

Correspondence: truth corresponds to reality, identifies things as they actually are.

 

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Poststructuralism is an intellectual movement that

1. completely rejects “binary oppositions” such as

true/false right/wrong good/evil, and 2. formulates views consistent with that

rejection. These dualistic concepts are believed to be

rooted not in reality, but in modernistic philosophy that has “scripted” Western thought and culture. 

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 Postmodernism rejects the belief in

universal absolute truth that transcends culture, time, and space by redefining it to say that truth is that which is

CreatedDefinedArticulated by local (sub) communities. Young people today are choosing a

postmodern worldview over and against all other worldviews.

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5 Ways to Know Something

Empirical: through sensed perceptions Rational: through reason apart from the

senses Mystical: immediately, apart from the

senses and reason Pragmatical: by finding out what works Authority: through a trusted source

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Consider these questions asked by thinking people

Can we trust our senses? What are the proper roles of reason and

sense experience in knowledge? Are our intuitions more dependable than our

perceptions? What is the relationship between faith and

reason? Is knowledge about God possible? If so,

how? Should we appeal to “mystical downloads” for

spiritual knowledge?

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Sources of Knowledge

1. Reason alone (excluding faith)2. Faith alone (excluding reason)3. Faith + Reason (God created people to

think rationally)4. Intuition5. Sensed perceptions6. Authority

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A Tale of Two SystemsContinental philosophers taught that human

knowledge comes not originally or even primarily from sense experience, but from reason. This is rationalism.

• Rene Descartes: I think, therefore I am• Baruch Spinoza: the essence of each and

every thing is a way that God causes himself to exist

• Gottfried Leibniz: we have innate ideas, but all ideas that come from the senses are confused

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A Tale of Two SystemsSome problems arose for the rationalists• The Theory of Ideas

• “What you know when you perceive a brown table is the idea of a brown table.”• The key word here is know.

• The Problem of the External World• How do we know there’s a world out there?

• The Problem of Other Minds• How do I know that you have a mind?

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A Tale of Two SystemsThe Rise and Fall of EmpiricismRejecting rationalism and innate ideas, three

British philosophers come rushing into the room:

1. John Locke: “The mind is a blank slate”Sensed experience begins to fill itReflection arranges it

2. George Berkeley: “The objects of human knowledge are ideas, not things”You cannot know the carrot, but you can know the idea “carrot”

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A Tale of Two Systems3. David Hume: all that is real consists of

sensations, and these are unconnected to one anotherWhat about things we do not personally experience? We cannot prove they are causally connected to anything elseSo we accept out of custom or habit that one idea is caused by anotherKnowledge boils down to non-rational operations of the soul“We can stop our philosophical researches”

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Ontological The study of the nature of existence,

or what it means “to be”: Is basic reality found in matter or physical

energy (the world we can sense), or spirit/spiritual energy?

Is reality lawful and orderly or chaotic? Is reality fixed and stable or ever-

changeable? Is reality friendly, unfriendly, or neutral in

regard to humanity?

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Basic Question In Epistemology…

Is there truth independent of human experience?

A Priori knowledge A Posteriori knowledge

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A Priori Knowledge: Is independent of human awareness Is true whether humans know/accept it or

not Exists prior to human experience Traditional science has upheld the

superiority of a priori knowledge as it represents the fixed and permanent world that is ‘uncontaminated’ by human knowers

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A Posteriori Knowledge:

Requires human experience for verification of truth/knowledge

Modern philosophers claim a posteriori knowledge is superior, and that a priori knowledge does not even exist!

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3 Basic Positions on the Objectivity of Knowledge:

Humans are recipients in the knowledge process.

Humans are participants in the knowledge process.

Humans exist as ‘pure objects’ who become manufacturers of truth rather than recipients or participants

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Sources of Knowledge: Empirical Knowledge: composed of ideas

formed from observable data Sensory Knowledge: knowledge obtained

through the Senses Revelatory Knowledge: knowledge that is

revealed through a transcendent or supernatural reality that breaks into the natural order/reality

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Sources of Knowledge: Authoritative Knowledge: accepted as

truth because it comes from experts or is sanctioned over time by tradition

Rationalism/Reason: emphasizes the power of thought & what the mind contributes to knowledge, the senses are not enough

Intuition: knowledge that is not the result of conscious reasoning

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Validity of Knowledge

Corresponding Theory

Coherence Theory Pragmatic Theory

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Validity of Knowledge - Tests of Truths Correspondence Theory:

theory fits the data collected & analyzed through research

if the judgement corresponds with the facts it is true

method most often used by those working in the sciences

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Validity of Knowledge - Tests of Truths Coherence Theory:

places its trust in the consistency of harmony of all ones’ judgments

a judgment is true if it is consistent with other judgments that have previously been accepted as true

there is an agreement on the boundaries, logic & phenomenon of the theory

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Validity of Knowledge - Tests of Truths

Pragmatic Theory: there is NO such thing as static or

absolute truthpeople know only their own experiencesthe test of truth is in its utility, workability,

or satisfactory consequences

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Epistemology

What is Epistemology?

“The theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge.”

—Webster’s Dictionary“The branch of philosophy that is concerned with the theory of knowledge. It is an inquiry into the nature and source of knowledge, the bounds of knowledge, and the justification of claims to knowledge.”

—Feinberg

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“Today evangelical Christians stand at a greater distance from those with whom we communicate than we did just 20 years ago. At that time,

even those who rejected Christianity were prepared to discuss whether the evidence for Christianity’s truth was adequate. Today, this is much less frequently the case. Before we can broach the question of whether the Christian gospel is true, we have to establish that such a thing as truth

exists.”

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A Conversation Between Protagoras and Socrates (4th Century B.C.)Protagoras: Truth is relative. It is only

a matter of opinion. Socrates: You mean that truth is

mere subjective opinion? Protagoras: Exactly. What is true for

you is true for you, and what is true for me is true for me. Truth is subjective.

Socrates: Do you really mean that? That my opinion is true by virtue of its being my opinion?

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A Conversation Between Protagoras and Socrates (4th Century B.C.)Protagoras: Indeed I do. Socrates: My opinion is: Truth is

absolute, not opinion, and that you, Mr. Protagoras, are absolutely in error. Since this is my opinion, then you must grant that it is true according to your philosophy.

Protagoras: You are quite correct, Socrates.

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Epistemology

Self-defeating statements:“I cannot speak a word in English.”“My wife has never been married.”“We cannot know anything about God.”“There is no such thing as truth.”“Truth cannot be known.”

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Epistemology

A short history of western civilization:Three periods:

1. Premodern (400-1600 A.D.)2. Modern (1600-1900 A.D.)3. Postmodern (1960-present)

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Epistemology

Premodern Modern Postmodern

400 1600 1960

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PRE-MODERNISM: THE TIME AND WORLDVIEW WHEN TRUTH INCLUDES

HEAVEN GOD EARTH NATURE OTHERS SELF

THE TRUTH IS

UP THERE AND

OUT THERE

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PRE-MODERN WORLD Embraced the objectivity of truth

The preference was for a Platonist, or neo-Platonist notion of reality

There is an objective, or external realm that is transcendent

“Reality existed independently of any individual apprehension of it”

For the Christian pre-moderns, this independently existing realm of transcendence was the mind of God. Erickson, Evangelical Interpretation, 100.

There was a belief in the referential understanding of language; that is, “language referred to something beyond itself,” Erickson, EI, 100.

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PRE-MODERN WORLD There was belief in the “Correspondence

Theory of Truth” which asserted that “true ideas are those that accurately correspond to the state of affairs as it is.”

In terms of hermeneutics, the pre-modern period accepted that “the meaning of a text was . . . within that text in a rather literal or straightforward fashion. . . . Hermeneutics was in this approach virtually equivalent to exegesis.”

The premodern understanding of reality was teleological. There was believed to be a purpose or purposes in the universe.”

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MODERNISM: THE TIME AND WORLDVIEW WHEN TRUTH INCLUDES

EARTH INDIVIDUAL

EXPERIENCE REASON ONLY

THE TRUTH IS

OUT THERE

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Transition

1900-1960

Epistemology

Modern

Postmodern

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POST-MODERNISM: THE TIME AND WORLDVIEW WHEN

TRUTH INCLUDES INDIVIDUALS

GROUPED IN COMMUNITIES

THE TRUTH IS

ONLY IN HERE

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POST-MODERNISM: Impact Ideas have legs! It is impossible to

understand postmodernism without noting its impact on our culture

What begins in the ethereal realm of the academy eventually will show up in popular cultureThe ArtsArchitectureLiterature

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Truth and Tolerance“In Postmodernism, there is

no objective, universal truth; there is only the perspective of the group. . . . In postmodernism, all viewpoints, all lifestyles, all beliefs and behaviors are regarded as equally valid. . . . Tolerance has become so important that no exception is tolerated.”

–Charles Colson,

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Modernist Objections to Christianity

1. What about all the contradictions? 2. God is just a crutch. Religion was invented by

man. 3. Jesus was just a man. 4. The Bible we have today is not the same as

when it was written two thousand years ago. 5. I don’t believe in what I can’t see.6. Evolution has proven Christianity to be wrong.

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Modernist Objections to Christianity

7. The Bible is a myth full of fairy tales.8. How did Noah get all of the animals on

the Ark?9. There are no such thing as miracles.10. Do you really believe in the story of

Adam and Eve?

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Postmodernist Objections to Christianity

1. If God exists why is there evil?2. The inquisition and the Crusades show that

Christianity is oppressive. 3. Christianity is a way to God but not the only way. 4. Christianity is arrogant and exclusive. 5. How do you know that your Bible is better than

other religious writings? 6. Why does God allow bad things to happen to

good people?

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Postmodernist Objections to Christianity

7. What about those who have never heard?

8. The church is full of hypocrites. 9. Why would God send anyone to Hell?10. The God of the OT is cruel, partial, and

unjust.

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Modernism vs. Postmodernism: Objections to Christianity

Modernist PostmodernistFacts

RationalityEvidence

FairnessRelationships

Emotion`

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Modern View of Truth

Correspondence view of truth: (1) Truth is an objective reality that exists whether someone believes it or not, (2) and (to the modernist) that objective reality has no definite basis.

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Modern View of Truth

True statements are that which correspond to that objective reality.

False statements are those that do not correspond to that objective reality.

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Modern View of Truth

Law of non-contradiction does apply A ≠ -A at the same time and in the same

relationship.

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Modern View of Truth

What is an example?

Key Motto: Man can and will know all truth.

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Postmodern View of Truth

Relativism: what is right/wrong, true/false is determined by some group.

Subjectivism: what is right/wrong, true/false is determined by each individual.

Pragmatism: what is right/wrong, true/false is determined by what works.

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Postmodern View of Truth

What is an example?

Law of non-contradiction does not applyA = -A at the same time and in the same relationship.

No objective truth

Key Motto: The truth cannot be known.

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Postmodern View of Truth

Religious Spin on Postmodern Epistemology Universalism: All will make it to Heaven. Pluralism: Many ways to God that are equally

valid. Syncretism: Assimilation of differing beliefs and

practices. Inclusivism: Salvation is only through Christ, but

Christ may be revealed in other religions.

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ENGAGING THOSE WITH POSTMODERN WORLDVIEWS1. Acknowledge your culture-encoded

version of Christianity2. Affirm truth, love and compassion3. Magnify the importance of faith

perspectives4. Show respect5. Learn to listen to and tell postmodern

stories

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The Second Vatican Council: Roman Catholicism slides into universalism

1962-1965“But the plan of salvation also includes those who acknowledge the creator. In the first place among these there are the Moslems, whom professing to hold the faith of Abraham, along with us adore the one and merciful god, who on the last day will judge mankind. Those also can attain salvation who through no fault of their own do not know the gospel of Christ or his church, yet sincerely seek god and, moved by grace, strive by their deeds to do his will as it is known to them through the dictates of conscience.”

Q. Why support mission evangelism any longer?

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Christian View of Truth

What is the Christian view of truth?

Correspondence view of truth: (1) Truth is an objective reality that exists whether someone believes it or not, (2) and that objective reality has God alone as its objective basis.

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Christian View of Truth

The law of non-contradiction is a foundational necessity to all truth.

God cannot even violate this principle since it is a logical impossibility.