ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1-N°1-3.pdf · Technology (LRTA) Faculty of Engineer...
Transcript of ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 1-N°1-3.pdf · Technology (LRTA) Faculty of Engineer...
Volume 1, Numero 1, Avril 2015
www.aljest.webs.com
ISSN: 2437-1114 EISSN :
An International Research Journal Of Environmental Science And Technology
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
University of Boumerdes Faculty of engineering
Research Laboratory of Food Technology
Table Of Contents
- Etude du potentiel d’utilisation des déchets agroalimentaires, les grignons d’olives et les noyaux de date pour récupération et adsorption des métaux lourds N. Babakhoya, S. Boughrara, F. Abed, N. Abai, S. Midoune ………………………………..
pp 04/10
- Biodegradation of diclofenac by activated sludge and membrane bioreactor-A review D. Cherik, K. Louhab ………………………………………………………………………
pp 11/17
- Contribution of Anhydrous Milk Fat to environmental impacts generated by the dairy processing F. Younsi . …………………………………………………………………………………..
pp 18/22
- Toxic effect of surfactants on marine species Mediterranean mussel: Mytilus gallprovinciallis and evaluation of their aquatic toxicology impact by LCA methodology M. Belkhir. S. Boughrara. H. Boutiche ……………………………………………………
pp 23/29
- Reaction in water under microwave: rapid and convenient synthesis of N-hydroxymethylimides and N-hydroxymethyl lactams M. Hachemi ………………………………………………………………………………...
pp 30/32
- Study of dispersion of brine water into coastal seawater by using a pilot L. habet, K. benrachedi …………………………………………………………………….
pp 33/39
Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Volume 01, Numéro 01, (2015), ISSN: 2437-1114
Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
Avril edition. Vol.1. No1. (2015) ISSN : 2437-1114 www.aljest.webs.com
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Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
Avril edition. Vol.1. No1. (2015) ISSN : 2437-1114 www.aljest.webs.com
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Pr. AFFOUNE A.M. (Univ. Guelma, Algeria)
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Pr. TOUAIBIA M. (Univ. Moncton, Canada)
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Avril edition. Vol.1. No1. (2015) ISSN : 2437-1114 www.aljest.webs.com
ALJEST
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Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Avril edition. Vol.1. N
o1. (2015)
ISSN : 2437-1114
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Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Etude du potentiel d’utilisation des déchets agroalimentaires, les grignons d’olives et les noyaux de date pour récupération
et adsorption des métaux lourds
N. Babakhouya(1,2), S. Boughrara(1), F. Abed(1), N. Abai(1), S. Midoune(2)
1) Laboratoire de Recherche en Technologie Alimentaire Faculté des Sciences de l’Ingénieur Université de Boumerdes 35000-Boumerdes, Algérie
2) Centre de recherche scientifique et technique en analyses physico-chimiques
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT/RESUME
Article History:
Received : 11/01/2015
Accepted : 15/03/2015
La présente étude porte sur l’application d’un adsorbant naturel
préparé à base de grignon d’olives et de noyaux de dattes à différents
pourcentages dans le domaine de traitement des effluents liquides
industriels. Dans notre travail nous nous sommes intéressés à son
application pour le cadmium (métal lourd). L’effet de plusieurs
paramètres tel que le temps de contact, la concentration initiale en
ions de cadmium, et le pH de la solution a été étudié en système en
batch. Une modélisation des isothermes d’adsorption a été effectuée à
l’aide des models d’isothermes de Langmuir, Freundlich et Temkin et
leur coefficient de corrélation obtenus, indiquent que le model de
Langmuir est favorable pour la plupart des proportions d’adsorbants.
Key Words:
valorisation,
grignon d’olive,
noyau de dattes,
adsorption,
modélisation
I. Introduction
Les métaux lourds d’origine naturelle ou bien
provenant des rejets industriels sont toxiques pour
les êtres humains et autres organismes vivants à des
concentrations élevées [1].
L’élimination des ions de cadmium des eaux usées
industrielles est l’un des problèmes importants qui
doivent être résolues car il est considéré comme
l’un des métaux toxiques s’accumulant lentement
dans les organismes vivants provenant de la chaîne
alimentaire [2] et qui a plusieurs effets nocifs sur la
santé humaine tel que : les lésions rénales,
l’hypertension, la proteinure…etc.
Des processus physiques et chimiques ont été
largement étudiés pour éliminer les métaux lourds,
polluants des eaux usées à des concentrations
élevées.
Certains de ces processus sont : la coagulation, la
flottation, la précipitation chimique et l’adsorption.
Cette dernière peut être considérée comme une
méthode efficace et économique pour l’élimination
des métaux lourds à de faibles concentrations.
Au cours des dernières années, diverses études ont
démontré le potentiel de divers adsorbants naturels
pour la récupération des métaux lourds en solution
[3, 4].
Ainsi des travaux de recherche ont, entre autres,
porté sur la capacité de fixation des métaux sur des
écailles d’arachides [5], des écailles de cacao [6],
des noix de coco [7], des grignons d’olives et des
noyaux de dattes [8,9]
Les déchets de grignon d’olives et de noyaux de
dattes ont été largement utilisés comme charbon
actif [10, 11]. Bien que le charbon actif obtenu a été
signalé comme étant adsorbant, le coût du
traitement pour l’obtenir est élevé, ce qui le rend
non concurrentiel du point de vue économique.
Aussi, l’utilisation des grignons d’olives et des
noyaux de dattes dans leur forme native n’a pas
donné des résultats satisfaisants [12, 13]
En s’inspirant de l’idée d’alliage des métaux on a
procédé donc au mélange entre les deux matériaux.
Notre travail est essentiellement axé sur l’étude des
isothermes d’adsorption par des models
d’isothermes de Langmuir, Freundlich et Temkin
tout en étudiant l’effet de certains paramètres tel
que : le temps de contact, la concentration initiale
en ions de cadmium, le pH de la solution et la
température, à fin de valoriser la solution solide
4
N. Babakhouya et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
préparée à base de grignons d’olive et de noyaux de
dattes.
II. Matériel et méthodes
II.1. Préparation de la matière première
Les grignons d’olives utilisés dans cette étude ont
été prélevés au niveau de la région de Beni Amrane
– Boumerdès – Algérie, durant la période oléicole
2006-2007. L’échantillon prélevé est constitué de
pulpes et de fragments de noyaux. Il a été
conditionné dans des sacs en plastique. Pour les
noyaux de dattes, ceux utilisés dans notre étude ont
été prélevés au niveau de la région de Ouêrgla –
Algérie.
Les grignons d’olive ainsi que les noyaux de dattes
sont d’abord lavés plusieurs fois à l’eau courante
afin d’éliminer toute sorte de poussières ou
d’impuretés adhérentes, puis à l’eau distillée. Ils
sont ensuite épuisés par de l’hexane pour éliminer
l’huile résiduel. La matière première ainsi lavée et
séchée subit un broyage grossier avec un broyeur
électrique
Une fois broyé, chacun des deux matériaux subit un
tamisage grâce à une pile de tamis de laboratoire de
différentes ouvertures de maille (200 µ à1000 µ)
Le choix de la granulométrie désirée est compris
entre 500µ et 1000µ. On procède à la préparation
des différents échantillons avant de passer à l’étape
de traitement chimique. Pour cela on mélange les
deux matériaux à des pourcentages variant comme
indiqué dans le tableau 1
On fait subir à chacun de ces mélanges une
activation chimique au moyen d’une solution
aqueuse d’acides phosphorique (3N) à un rapport
massique égal à 2g d’acide/g de matériaux, pendant
3 heures. La température de la solution est
maintenue à environ 100°C avec un reflux total des
vapeurs. Après traitement, le solide est séparé par
filtration simple, lavé plusieurs fois avec de l’eau
distillée à chaud pour éliminer les phosphates
résiduels jusqu’à stabilisation du pH de la solution
d’épuisement à une valeur neutre et enfin séché à
105C° jusqu’à poids constant.
Tableau 1 : différents pourcentage de grignon d’olive et de noyau de dattes mélangés
N0 d’échantillon quantité de grignon d’olive quantité de noyau de dattes
Mélangé en % Mélangé en %
1 0 100
2 10 90
3 90 10
4 100 0
On fait subir à chacun de ces mélanges une
activation chimique au moyen d’une solution
aqueuse d’acides phosphorique (3N) à un rapport
massique égal à 2g d’acide/g de matériaux,
pendant 3 heures. La température de la solution
est maintenue à environ 100°C avec un reflux
total des vapeurs. Après traitement, le solide est
séparé par filtration simple, lavé plusieurs fois
avec de l’eau distillée à chaud pour éliminer les
phosphates résiduels jusqu’à stabilisation du pH
de la solution d’épuisement à une valeur neutre et
enfin séché à 105C° jusqu’à poids constant
II.2. Caractérisation des adsorbants à
différentes proportions préparés
II.2.1. Analyse structurale par spectroscopie
FTIR
La spectroscopie IR est l’une des méthodes
spectrales. Elle permet l’identification des
groupements fonctionnels.
Les analyses de spectroscopie I.R ont été effectuées
au niveau de laboratoire de la faculté des sciences,
université de Boumerdès à l’aide d’un spectromètre
à transformée de Fourrier de type ‘’Nicolet 560
FTIR’’couplé à un calculateur digital permettant le
tracé des spectres entre [4000 et 400 cm -1
].
II.2.2. Essais d’adsorption du cadmium
II.2.2.1. Influence du temps de contact sur la
capacité d’adsorption du Cadmium:
Les essais sont réalisés en batch à température
ambiante dans des béchers, par agitation (au moyen
d’un agitateur magnétique) d’une masse fixe de
0.2g d’adsorbant dans un volume de 15 ml de la
solution de métal à 350 tr/min jusqu’à que
l’équilibre est atteint. La concentration de la
solution synthétique du cadmium était d’environ 17
mg/l et le pH initial est de 5.6. Les échantillons sont
prélevés à des intervalles de temps prédéterminés et
sont séparés du solide par filtration sur un papier
filtre en cellulose de 0.45 µm de diamètre pour
l’analyse de la concentration du métal qui est
effectuée par spectroscopie d’absorption atomique
(SAA).
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o1. (2015)
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La quantité du métal adsorbé par le poids sec
d’adsorbant est calculée comme suit :
Qt = (Ci – Ct) × V / M
Où :
V : est le volume de la solution en (L).
Ci et Ct : sont respectivement, la concentration du
métal à « t » initial et à l’instant « t » en (mg/ l).
M : est le poids sec d’adsorbant en (g).
II.2.2.2. Influence de la concentration initiale en
métal L’effet de la concentration initiale en métal a été
étudié par la même procédure que précédemment en
variant la concentration initiale entre 17 mg//l et
81.85 mg/l et en fixant le temps de contact à
120mn. Le pH initial est de l’ordre de 5.6
II.2.2.3. Modélisation des isothermes
d’adsorption
Nous avons étudié les isothermes d’adsorption du
Cadmium sur les différents adsorbants à l’aide des
models simples à savoir le model de Langmuir et le
model de Freundlich ainsi que le model de Temkin.
II.2.2.4. Influence du pH
Les essais sont réalisés en batch à température
ambiante dans des béchers, par agitation (au moyen
d’un agitateur magnétique) à 350 tr/min d’une
masse fixe de 0.2g d’adsorbant dans un volume de
15 ml de la solution synthétique du cadmium à une
concentration de 17mg/l jusqu’à que l’équilibre est
atteint après un temps prédéterminé de 120mn. Le
pH initial est ajusté au moyen des solutions de
NaOH (1N) et HCl (0.1N), pour les différentes
valeurs de pH étudiées (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 et 9).
III. RÉSULTAT ET DISCUSSION
III.1. Caractérisation des adsorbants à
différentes proportions préparés
Après avoir obtenu les adsorbants à différentes
proportions, on procède à leur caractérisation par
Analyse structurale par spectroscopie FT I R. Les
spectres d’analyse par IR obtenus sur les différents
adsorbants montre la présence de différentes
bandes de vibrations correspondant aux
groupements hydroxyles C-N, C=O, C-H,
-COOH, N-H… (Tableau 3).
Ces résultats nous permettent de conclure que les
ions métalliques vont se lier aux adsorbants par des
interactions avec les groupements actifs OH et -
COOH
Figure 1 : spectre IR de 100% NDN (1) et 100%
NDI (2)
Figure 2 : spectre IR de 100% GON (1) et 100%
GOI (2)
Figure 3 : spectre IR de 50% GON (1) et 50%
GOI (2)
III.2. Influence du temps de contact sur la
capacité d’adsorption du Cadmium
6
N. Babakhouya et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Le temps de contact choisis était entre 10 et
420min à une température ambiante de 20°C. Le
pH initial mesuré était de 5.6 et il a été maintenu
constant durant tout l’essai. La concentration
d’adsorbant était de 17mg/l.
D’après les figures 8et 9 on constate que
l’adsorption du Cd (II) par les différents adsorbants
était initialement faible et l’équilibre pour les
différentes concentrations était atteint après 60min.
Donc le temps de contact de 120min était considéré
comme un temps idéal pour la rétention du Cd(II)
sur les différents adsorbants.
La cinétique d’adsorption était initialement très
rapide, ce qui peut être expliqué par la disponibilité
des sites actifs sur la surface des différents
adsorbants. Ensuite elle est devenue plus lente
jusqu’à atteindre l’équilibre et cela peut être dû à la
diminution de la surface de contact après
occupation de la majorité des sites actifs par les
ions de Cd(II) et donc les ions restant en solution
deviennent concurrents entre eux mêmes.
En comparant entre les proportions d’adsorbants à
l’état natif et ceux traités chimiquement on constate
que les quantités maximale adsorbée était obtenu
dans le cas des proportion à l’état natif mais on ne
peut pas se baser sur ces résultats vue que les
adsorbants ont une forme hétérogène et des
caractéristiques instables dépendant de l’origine la
période de récolte et le temps de stockage de la
matière première alors que le traitement chimique
permet d’avoir une structure homogène et des
caractéristiques stables. Aussi on peut noter l’effet
du mélange sur l’amélioration de la capacité
d’adsorption qui est nettement remarqué dans le cas
des proportions d’adsorbants traités chimiquement.
Figure 4 : Capacité d’adsorption du cadmium en
fonction du temps de contact (adsorbant à l’état
natif) (Co=17mg/l, pH =5.5, T°=20°C, w = 350 tr/
mn).
Figure 5 : Capacité d’adsorption du cadmium en
fonction du temps de contact (adsorbant à l’état
imprégné) (Co=17mg/l, pH =5.5, T°=20°C, w =
350 tr/ mn).
III.3.Influence de la concentration initiale en
métal
Les résultats présentés par les figures 10 et 11
indiquent qu’avec l’augmentation de la
concentration initiale en Cd(II), le pourcentage de
réduction de cet ion métallique diminue alors que
sa quantité adsorbée par unité de masse d’adsorbant
(qe) augmente. L’augmentation de la capacité
d’adsorption avec l’augmentation de la
concentration initiale en ions de Cd (II) peut être
due à l’augmentation de la surface spécifique
d’adsorption. D’après les résultats obtenus dans le
cas d’adsorbant non traités chimiquement on
constate que le mélange des deux adsorbants
permet d’améliorer leur capacité adsorptive,
Figure 6 : Isothermes d’adsorption du cadmium
sur des adsorbants à l’état natif.(T° = 20°C, t =
120 mn, w = 350tr/mn, pH = 5.5).
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Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Avril edition. Vol.1. N
o1. (2015)
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Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Figure 7 : Isothermes d’adsorption du cadmium sur des adsorbants à l’état imprégné
(T° = 20°C, t = 120 mn, w = 350tr/mn, pH = 5.5)
III.4. Modélisation des isothermes d’adsorption
L’isotherme obtenue est du type L correspondant
à une adsorption d’une couche monomoléculaire,
d’où la possibilité d’appliquer aussi bien la loi de
Langmuir que celle de Freundlich. Les paramètres
d’isothermes de Langmuir, de Freundlich et de
Temkin sont calculés de la même manière que les
travaux de recherches cités dans la littérature
[15,16]. Les paramètres de Langmuir, Freundlich et
Temkin sont récapitulés dans le tableau 3
III.5. Influence du pH
Le pH joue un rôle important dans le processus
d’adsorption, en particulier sur la capacité
d’adsorption. Les figures 40 et 41 nous montre
l’effet du pH sur l’adsorption du cadmium. On
constate d’après ces deux figures que la capacité
d’adsorption pour les différents types d’adsorbants
augmente avec l’augmentation du pH de la
solution. Les résultats montrent que le pH acide est
défavorable pour l’adsorption des ions de
cadmium. Ces résultats corroborent les travaux
menés par Francesca Pagnanelli et al [8] qui ont
fait l’étude de la biosorption des métaux sur un
déchet d’agriculture, le grignon d’olive.
A pH acide, la charge positive domine la surface de
l’adsorbant. Ainsi, une répulsion électrostatique
sensiblement élevée existe entre les charges
positives de la surface de l’adsorbant causées par
les protons H+ et les charges positives du cadmium
[12,14]. Entre pH 5 et 7 on remarque une
augmentation en capacité d’adsorption des ions
métalliques ce qui peut être expliqué par la
dissociation des sites actif sur la surface de
l’adsorbant et qui deviennent chargés négativement
ce qui cause l’attraction des métaux chargés
positivement présents dans la solution. Au delà du
pH 7 on constate une diminution de capacité de
rétention du cadmium due à la précipitation des
ions de cadmium sous forme de Cd (OH)2. Aussi
on constate que le mélange des deux adsorbants
permet l’amélioration de leur capacité adsorptive.
IV. Conclusion
Notre travail a montré que Le mélange entre les
deux matériaux au moyen d’un traitement chimique
par l’acide phosphorique (H3PO4) a permis de créer
une nouvelle solution solide homogène avec des
caractéristiques adsorptives plus performantes.
L’étude de l’adsorption en système batch, nous a
permis de constater que l’élimination du Cadmium
par les différents proportions d’adsorbants, est
meilleure aux pH compris entre 5 et 7, la capacité
maximale d’adsorption est notée dans le cas du
mélange d’une petite fraction de grignon d’olive
avec les noyaux de dattes (90% de noyau de dattes
et 10% de grignon d’olive). L’isotherme de
Langmuir ainsi que l’isotherme de Freundlich sont
favorable pour l’adsorption du Cadmium sur les
différentes proportions d’adsorbants alors que
l’isotherme de Temkin n’a pas donné des résultats
fiables que pour les échantillons à l’état naturel
8
N. Babakhouya et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Figure 8 : Effet du pH sur l’adsorption du
Cadmium sur des adsorbants à l’état natif
(Co=17mg/l, t = 120 mn, w = 350tr/mn, T°=20°C)
Figure 9 : Effet du pH sur l’adsorption du
Cadmium sur des adsorbants à l’état imprégné
(Co=17mg/l, t = 120 mn, w = 350tr/mn, T°=20°C)
Tableau 3 : Paramètres de Langmuir, Freundlich et Temkin pour les différents types d’adsorbants utilisés
V. Références bibliographiques
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Bayramoglu, G., 2005. Utilisation of native, heat and acid-
treated microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
preparations for biosorption of Cr(VI) ions. Process. Biochem. 40. 2351-2358
2. Srivastava, V. C., Mall, I. D., Mishra, I. M., 2006.
Characterisation of mesoporous rice hus ash (RHA) and adsorption kinetics of metal ions from aqueous solution
onto RHA. J. Hazard. Mater. 134 (1-3). 257-267. 3. Bailey, S. E., Olin, T. J., Bricka, R. M., et Adrian, D. D.
1999. A Review of potentially low-cost sorbent for heavy
metals. Water Res. 33 : 2469-2479. 4. Fiset,J. F., Ben Cheikh, R., et Tyagi, R. D. 2000. Revue sur
l’enlevement des métaux des effluent par adsorption sur les
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347.
6. Randall, J. M., et Hautala,E. 1975. Removal of heavy metal ions from waste solutions y contact with agricultural by
products. Proc. Ind. Waste conf. 30 : 412-422.
7. Fiset, J. F., Tyagi, R. D., et Blais, J. F. 2002. Cocoa shells as adsorents for metal recovery from acid effluent. Water
Pollut. Res. J. Can. 37(2) : 379-388.
8. Bosinco, S., Roussy, J, Guibal, E., et Lecloirec, P. 1996. Interaction mecanisms etween hexavalent chromium and
cornocob. Environ. Technol. 17 : 55-62.
9. Pagnanelli, F., Mainelli, S., Veglio, F., Toro, L., 2003. « Heavy metal removal by olive pomace: biosorbent
types d'adsorbants
Paramètres de Langmuir Paramètres de Freundlich paramètres de Temkin
qm (mg/g)
b R2 RLx 10
4 KF 1/n R
2 aT bT R2
100% NDN 0,589 6,089 0,9731 20,025 0,876 0.368 0,9945 2,148 3544,229 0,9544
100% GON 3,199 0.996 0,9464 121,179 1,708 0.187 0,9561 90,377 6372,199 0,9824
90% GON 2,361 1,309 0,7587 92,471 1,684 0.107 0,3761 101,19 7312,83 0,937
10% GON 2,072 1,598 0,9196 75,875 1,518 0.222 0,9744 37,713 5768,914 0,9925
100%NDI 0,486 9,633 0,9021 12,667 0,957 0.378 0,7847 3,221 3578,573 0,7274
100%GOI 0,575 6,769 0,9783 18,017 0,961 0.352 0,9194 3,117 3769,512 0,8791
90%GOI 1,41 2,47 0,9763 49,226 1,539 0.217 0,8207 17,601 4801,746 0,8363
10%GOI 1.266 2,578 0,986 47,158 1,32 0.250 0,9953 8,281 4465,677 0,9928
9
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o1. (2015)
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Please cite this Article as: Babakhouya, N., Boughrara, S., Abed, F., Abai, N., Midoune, S., Etude du potentiel d’utilisation des déchets agroalimentaires, les grignons d’olives et les noyaux de date pour
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01
Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Avril edition. Vol.1. N
o1. (2015)
ISSN : 2437-1114
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Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Biodegradation of diclofenac by activated sludge and membrane bioreactor-A review
D. Cherik, K. Louhab
Laboratory of Alimentary Technology, Faculty of Engineering Sciences,
University of Boumerdes, Boumerdes 35000, Algeria
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article History:
Received : 01/01/2015
Accepted : 25/04/2015
Diclofenac (DCF) is a pharmaceutical residue of therapeutic class of
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory which is often detected in the
wastewater treatment plants (influent and effluent) and surface waters.
This review focuses its elimination by biodegradation with activated
sludge (CAS) or bioreactor membrane (MBR) in which
microorganisms plays a key role in the elimination of diclofenac and in
which a lot of factors can affect the efficiency of the removal as
physicochemical properties of diclofenac, sludge retention time (SRT),
temperature, pH, redox conditions and sludge characteristics.The
objective of this study was to describe a review of the literature by
recent publications on the biodegradation of diclofenac. We inspect the
performance of biodegradation using biological process technology by
activated sludge and membrane bioreactor in the elimination of
diclofenac.
Key Words:
Biodegradation,
Membrane bioreactor,
Conventional activated
sludge,
Bacterial community
I. Introduction
Diclofenac (DCF), a polycyclic non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drug [1- 3] is one of the most
extensively studied pharmaceuticals, for his
potential toxic effects on no-target organisms [4].
Diclofenac was detected in wastewater [5, 6] in a
number of countries such as China [7, 8], Serbia
[9], Spain [10, 11, and 12], Greece [13, 14],
Portugal [15, 16], Brazil [17], USA [18] and South
Africa [19]. According to published documents, the
concentrations of this drug varied in a range from
0.01 to 8.5μg/l [20, 21] and the rate of his
elimination in sewage treatment plants is low (up to
40%) [22, 23]. Table 1 presents physicochemical
properties and molecular structure of Diclofenac. It
was considered very toxic anti-inflammatory due to
the death of birds recorded shortly after scanning
the infected farm in India and Pakistan [24, 25]; he
centre de recherche scientifique et technique en analyses physico-chimiques showed potential influence of
endocrine disruption by delaying and reducing the
success of fish eggs and hatching low
concentrations damage the digestive organs [25].
Sewage treatment plays an important part in
removing contaminants from reclaimed water but
it’s known that conventional wastewater treatment
plants (WWTP) do not remove all the pollutants
[26], especially the persistent polar pollutants due
to their physicochemical properties such as
diclofenac [27, 28, 29]. Most treatment methods of
pharmaceuticals wastewater are biological
processes [30, 14 and 31] in which microorganisms
such as ammonia-oxidizing bacteria for the removal
of ammonium [32], Escherichia coli [33] and
nitrite-oxidizing bacteria [34] are applied for
removal of organic contaminants [35, 25, and 36].
Most WWTPs used are activated sludge processes
[37, 38] and membrane bioreactors [39, 40, and
24]. Biodegradation by these two processes can be
influenced by various factors namely; the
physicochemical properties of diclofenac [41], the
biological operating conditions (sludge retention
time, temperature, pH and redox conditions) [42-
44, 45] and sludge characteristics [46, 47]. In this
context, this study is a literature review of recent
publications and studies to full and small scale on
biodegradation of diclofenac to study the
performance of activated sludge and membrane
bioreactor in the elimination of diclofenac.
11
D. Cherik et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Table 1: Main characteristics of diclofenac
Structure a Molecular weight (g/mol)a Log KOW a, b pKa a
296.14
0.7-4.51
4.15
a : [48], b: [49]
II. Biodegradation of diclofenac
Biodegradation is the process most usually used to
eliminate the pharmaceutical residues persistent as
the diclofenac [50, 51 and 52, 53]. This process
decomposes and mineralizes these pollutants by
bacteria or mushrooms in simpler compounds [47,
54]. Diclofenac is a polar pharmaceutical
compound mostly used as the sodium salt
diclofenac-Na in human and veterinary medicine to
reduce inflammation and pain [5, 17 and 55]. Many
studies have evaluated the biodegradation of
diclofenac by conventional activated sludge and
membrane bioreactors.
2.1 Conventional activated sludge
Microbial degradation of diclofenac by activated
sludge does not lead to its complete elimination but
produces other metabolites which are also
considered such as pollutants [56], these authors
investigated the repartition of diclofenac in
activated sludge, they detected 7 diclofenac
transformation products among them 1-(2,6-
dichlorophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-2H-indol-2-one and
2,3-dichloro-N-(phenyl)aniline. The fungus
Trametes versicolor can be utilized in activated
sludge for the elimination of diclofenac [57], in this
study the removal rate was 64% which leads to a
production of less toxic sludge, these authors
concluded that fungal process can be an effective
mean for biodegradation and diclofenac reduction
in polluted waters. Activated sludge is the most
used in the biological treatment and the rate of
elimination of diclofenac by this process was
insignificant and does not exceed 50 % [6, 43, 58,
59, 60, 61, 62 and 63]. Biodegradation of
diclofenac can be estimated on measuring COD
(Chemical Oxygen Demand) in polluted water and
treated water [64], [60] have illuminated this point
and studied the elimination of diclofenac by
activated sludge suspended in 2 reactors; ASR1 and
ASR2. The removal rate was 48±19% and the
concentrations of DCO decreased from 976±39
mg/l and 707±14 mg/l to 47±48 mg/l and 54±55
mg/l in ASR1 and ASR2, respectively. The
hydrophobicity property defines the compound
when the latter is insoluble in water [47], [65]
studied the effect of the molecular features of
diclofenac in activated sludge in lab-scale
experimental; they confirm that the functional
groups can influenced the biodegradability. Among
the biological process conditions; the sludge
retention time SRT which may have an effect on the
biodegradation and also affects microbial activity
[29], [51] evaluated the biodegradation of
diclofenac in activated sludge of two wastewater
treatment plants, Mamer and Boevange which
differed in size, layout and sludge retention time
(SRT). They observed that the biological
degradation of diclofenac was significantly better in
sludge from WWTP Mamer compared to sludge
from WWTP Boevange and the removal rate
decreases with increasing of SRT due to a lower
active biomass presence. [66] reported the influence
of SRT on diclofenac removal for more than seven
months in denitrifying semi-continuous reactors
operated at 10, 20, and 40 days by using two culture
series (diclofenac free-control and diclofenac-
acclimated); the results showed that the elimination
rate for diclofenac-acclimated culture was lower
than 15% a nitrate removal rate increased with
increasing SRT but for diclofenac free-control this
rate decreases with increasing SRT at 10, 20, 40
days with 48, 63, 79 mg NO-3-N/L day and 122, 55,
54 mg NO-3-N/L day, respectively. [67]
investigated the biodegradation of diclofenac by
nitrifying activated sludge and established the no
removal of diclofenac with this process, these
results are consistent with those of [68] who have
studied the removal of diclofenac by nitrifying
activated sludge in large scale (WWTP) and small
scale (laboratory level) at a temperature of 12°C,
the authors found that diclofenac is not
biodegradable in large scale and the reaction rate
constant (k′) and biodegradation constant (kbiol)
were 1.7 d-1
and 0.6 l gss-1
d-1
, respectively in
WWTP. In laboratory scale the biodegradation rate
showed a difference between the reactors where
with 10ug / l of diclofenac the biodegradation rate
12
Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Avril edition. Vol.1. N
o1. (2015)
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was 86% in the reactor 1, whereas in the other
reactors was 90%. The authors explained this
difference by the amount of active nitrifying
bacteria in the reactors which was influenced by
temperature. [69] studied the removal of diclofenac
in two lab-scale conventional activated sludge
reactors under nitrifying (aerobic) and denitrifying
(anoxic) conditions for more than 1.5 years, they
found that the removal by the biological treatment
with nitrifying or denitrifying bacteria was not
significant (<25%). Diclofenac in anoxic conditions
(kbiol< 0.04 Lgss-1
d-1
) is persistent with respect to
aerobic conditions (kbiol= 1.2 Lgss-1
d-1
) [69]. [65]
found a similar partition coefficient (kd) under
aerobic and anoxic conditions (0.319 and 0.303
L.gSS-1
, respectively).
Sludge characteristics may influence the sorption
diclofenac. These characteristics vary depending on
the operation of treatment plants as activated sludge
[70]. [71] Studied the biodegradability of the
diclofenac on two types of sludge; sterilized and
activated. Results of batch adsorption experiments
via sterilized sludge showed that the removal
efficiency was 40.1% at 6 hours and 19.7% for
activated sludge where the contributions of sludge
adsorption and biodegradation were 14.9% at 6
hours and 4.8%, respectively, The authors
suggested that this difference in removal efficiency
by sterilized and activated sludge is due probably
by the sterilizing effect of the activated sludge
which can be caused changes in the characteristics
of the sludge and improves the elimination of
diclofenac and also suggested that the structure of
diclofenac (the electronic withdrawing groups)
namely its functional groups (amine, halogen, and
carboxylic groups) causes the resistance of
diclofenac in its biodegradation.
2.2 Membranes bioreactors
Recently, the membrane bioreactor process has
become the most effective process for the removal
of diclofenac compared to activated sludge [72],
where the authors have demonstrated that the
removal rate of diclofenac by membrane bioreactor
process was 65%. The molecular features of
diclofenac can affect the rate of his elimination by
membrane bioreactor on the scale of laboratory
[73]. In this study, the authors observed a very low
rate of elimination (17 %) and they justified this
behavior of diclofenac in the MBR system by the
presence of chlorine group and also the electron
withdrawing functional groups generates an
electron deficiency[74] investigated the degradation
of diclofenac by a white-rot fungus-augmented
membrane bioreactor (MBR) with and without
addition of a redox mediator (1-hydroxy
benzotriazole, HBT); the results showed that the
addition of a redox mediator (1-hydroxy
benzotriazole, HBT) improve the removal
efficiency of diclofenac from 70% to 95%. On the
other hand anaerobic MBR system has not shown
an effective elimination rate for diclofenac (<10%)
[75], these results are consistent with those of [76]
these authors worked on a process of anaerobic /
anoxic / aerobic membrane bioreactor in a large
scale and observed removal rate below 20% for
diclofenac. The full-scale MBR showed
significantly better removal of hydrophilic
compound (log D < 3) [77]; they explained the
greater removal by the existence of preand post-
anoxic tanks and the combination of aerobic zones
with different levels of DO (Dissolved Oxygen)
relative to a pre-anoxic and one aerobic tank in the
pilot MBR. In contrast in another study [28] where
they used an anaerobic system by anaerobic
fluidized membrane bioreactor (AFMBR) using
granular activated carbon (GAC) as carrier medium,
78% was the removal rate of diclofenac and the
elimination rate of COD was 95% at total HRT of 5
h. It can be concluded that the use of GAC helps
eliminate diclofenac in the anaerobic system. In
non-sterile conditions studied by [72] the removal
rate of diclofenac was 55% in an MBR system with
a hydraulic retention time of two days [78] have
shown that increasing the biomass concentration in
the MBR system due to the long retention time
favors the elimination of diclofenac and can be
influenced by microbial activity according to [79].
These authors found that the reduction of microbial
activity in the MBR system induces a decrease in
the rate of elimination of diclofenac which indicates
that the latter is eliminated by biological
degradation and not by the sorption process only.
[80] investigated the elimination of diclofenac by
MBR under different temperature (10-45°C) in
laboratory-scale and demonstrated that the
temperature has an effect on the microbial activity.
The results showed that the maximum and
minimum removal rate were at 10 ° C and 20°C,
respectively.
As regards the influence of pH, [81] explain the
relationship between physicochemical properties of
diclofenac and his efficiency removal by a
laboratory scale MBR at mixed liquor pH values of
5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. At pH 5 the rate of removal was
highest; this result is due to the physicochemical
properties of this ionisable compound under acidic
conditions wherein the pKa value is 4.15 [82] so at
pH 5 diclofenac is neutral which makes it a
hydrophobic compound. The increase of the made
pH decreases log D and consequently the
hydrophobicity of diclofenac what makes decrease
also the efficiency elimination. [83] confirmed the
11 13
D. Cherik et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
results found by [81] with their study where they
assessed the biotransformation of diclofenac by
laccase in an enzymatic membrane reactor, DCF
biodegradation was better at acidic pH (3 and 4.5),
and decreased with increasing pH.
3. Conclusion
The elimination of diclofenac was demonstrated to
large and small scale with two process treatment of
polluted water; biological process or biodegradation
using conventional activated sludge (CAS) and
membrane bioreactor (MBR) where the
microorganisms are responsible for its degradation.
Discussion of studies and publications used in this
review demonstrated that biodegradation by
membrane bioreactor is the most effective process
for the removal of a resistant and persistent
contaminant such as diclofenac with complete
retention of suspended solids, thus reducing
emissions to the dissolved fractions, but this
removal may be influenced by various factors:
Chemical structure where the presence of
chlorine group and functional groups can
influence the biodegradability of diclofenac.
Sludge retention time (SRT) where the increase
in this factor increasing the biomass
concentration and therefore improves
elimination of diclofenac.
The temperature can affect the microbial
activity in sludge and the maximum removal of
diclofenac was seen at low temperatures.
At acidic pH eliminating diclofenac was
considered very favorable where the
Hydrophobicity plays a very important role.
Redox conditions: aerobic conditions in the
elimination of diclofenac were better compared
to the other conditions.
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A review, , Algerian J. Env. Sc. Technology, 1:1 (2015) 11-17
17
Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Avril edition. Vol.1. N
o1. (2015)
ISSN : 2437-1114
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Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Contribution of Anhydrous Milk Fat to environmental impacts generated by the dairy processing
F. Younsi
Food Technology Research Laboratory, University of Boumerdes, 35000 - Boumerdes, ALGERIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT / RESUME
Article History
Received : 14/12/2014
Accepted : 11/02/2015
Milk constitutes an important ingredient in the Algerian population diet. it is
obtained by recovering process from milk powder or the recombination-based
milk powder and anhydrous milk fat (AMF). These are the two main processes
in place in Algerian dairies. In this study, carried out in a dairy processing
situated in Boudouaou (Algiers), a comparative analysis of these two
processes was conducted in order to determinate the contribution to
environmental impacts of different basic elements of manufacturing milk. The
approach used was based on the life cycle assessment (LCA), which is a
standardized method (ISO 14040-14044). Results showed that the milk
powder is the main hot spot in almost all the categories under assessment.
Furthermore, adding the AMF has allowed the reduction of all impacts of the
order of 3 to 6% resulting in a decrease of 4.74 E-02 kgCO2eq of Global
Warming Potential, 0.21MJ of the consumption of non-renewable energy, a
reduction of 2.60 E-03kg SO2eq for terrestrial acidification/nitrification
potential. A decrease of 0.16kg TEGsoil is recorded to terrestrial ecotoxicity
and 2.80 E-05kg PM2.5eq to respiratory inorganics.
Key Words / Mots clés Milk; LCA; Algeria ; Global
Warming ; Eco toxicity
I. Introduction
The focus on sustainable development in recent
years in the food industry mainly environmental
aspects has motivated the emergence of several
evaluation studies in this sector in particular the
dairy industry. The most used tool was the Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA) witch is a performing tool
for environmental management that provides
knowledge about the environmental impacts
associated with a product or human activity.
Several authors assessed the environmental impacts
generated by milk production have used this
method [1-5]. Various authors [6,7] used the LCA
method to compare the modes of production of
milk. LCA was also used by some other authors [8-
12] in plants transformation. LCA was also used to
measure the environmental impact of dairy
derivatives such as cheese [12,13], yogurt [14] and
butter [15] and to compare the impact of different
methods of cleaning in place (CIP) in dairies. The
Algerian dairy industry mainly operates on the
basis of imported raw materials i.e. milk powder
and anhydrous milk fat (AMF). Technologically,
two transformation processes allow us to obtain
pasteurized milk: reconstitution and recombination.
The first process consists in rehydrating the whole
milk powder while in the second process; the
finished product is obtained from a mixture of
reconstituted milk, based on skim milk powder and
AMF. A lack of studies on the environmental
analysis of reconstituted milk powder was
observed, hence the interest of this approach to
determine the impacts of various basic elements of
this product. The study was carried out at a dairy
processing plant in Algeria to assess the
environmental impacts of the main constituents of
pasteurized milk, especially the AMF used in the
process of recombination.
18
F. Younsi
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
II. Materiels and methods
The method used in this study was LCA, an
environmental assessment tool standardized
according to ISO 14040 (ISO, 2006a) and 14044
(ISO, 2006b). LCA methodology includes four
major stages: goal and scope definition, life cycle
inventory (LCI), life cycle impact analysis (LCIA)
and interpretation of the results (ISO, 2006a). In the
goal and scope phase, a functional unit, system
boundary and allocation procedures are defined,
depending on the subject and intended use of the
study. For the LCI, all input and output processes
are defined, quantified and summarized. The LCI is
linked to environmental impact categories and
indicators by the LCIA, and interpreted relative to
the FU. SimaPro7.1.5 was used as support software
in this study. System boundaries of this study
encompass production of raw materials (milk
powder, raw milk, AMF), milk processing, packing
production (polyethylene, metal drums), and
transportation of the raw materials to the milk plant.
The delivery of final product from the dairy factory
to retailers was excluded from the system
boundaries as well as the consumption phase of the
product [9,12]. Production of capital goods
(machinery and buildings) was excluded from the
study in accordance with several studies [7,8].
Production, transportation and use of detergents and
disinfectants were also excluded from this study [3]
as well as the different scenarios of waste
management.
Inventory analysis
The inventory analysis involves the collection of
data concerning resource use, energy consumption,
emissions, and products resulting from each activity
in the system studied. In this study, inventory data
for the dairy factory were collected by means of
surveys, interviews and visits to the plant. The data
processing steps, transportation, energy and
packaging were collected from the Boudouaou
dairy plant which refers to 2013.
III. Results and discusion
The results for the characterization step are shown
in Table 1 referred to the functional unit. The
values of impacts related to the production of
reconstituted milk are higher than those of the
recombined milk and in order to determine the
origin of these impacts, we will discuss the
contribution of both systems to main categories of
impact.
Respiratory inorganics
This type of impact (Fig.1) represents the health
hazards caused by breathing inorganics particles
released into the air, in kg equivalent PM2.5. Table
2 shows that for 1 liter of milk, this impact in
scenario1 is more important than the scenario2 of
the order of 0.17 E-4kg PM2.5eq. This difference is
attributed to the milk powder which is the main
contributor in both scenarios (76% vs. 65.5%). The
adding of the AMF in scenario2 will decrease this
value of the order of 0.713 E-4kgPM2.5eq (9.12%).
The amount of raw milk in the scenario2 was
higher than in Scenario1, this will play a role in the
reduction of the order of 0.071 E-4kgPM2.5eq of
this impact. The production of steam also plays a
role in this impact category where it intervenes at
10% of the overall impact at both scenarios,
because milk reconstitution requires large amounts
of hot water and steam (It takes about 1 to 12 liters
of water heated to 400°C to reconstitute 1 liter of
milk). The steam was used mainly in the processing
operations including milk pasteurization. These two
energy sources are generally produced in boiler fuel
(fuel used in the dairy industry) resulting in the
emission of carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). According to the
operation of the boiler, unburned can be produced,
giving rise to the emission of solid particles. A
contribution of 6.88% of transport by ship was
noted at both scenarios. Indeed, the environmental
impact of shipping was accompanied by emissions
of different gases (CO2, NOx, SO2 and CO) and
fine particles smaller than 2.5 microns. The PE
packaging production intervenes at 2.17 and 2.25%
respectively in both scenarios. In fact, the
production of 1kg of PE generates 12g of NOx, 9g
of SOx, 16.6 g of NMCOV and 3g of particles
(BUWAL 250, 1996). The contribution of the
remaining elements was <1% of the overall impact.
These values were considered negligible. We can
therefore conclude that this impact category was
attributed mainly to the milk powder and the use of
the AMF contributed to the reduction of 3.46% of
this impact.
Figure.1: Contribution to respiratory inorganics
(for 1l of milk)
19
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Global Warming
This effect contributes to the climate change
(Fig.2). It is due to the greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions such as CO2, CH4, and N2O. It is
expressed in kgCO2eq. As shown in Table 1, for 1
liter of milk, the GWP was higher in the Scenario1
of the order of 2.60 E-02kgCO2eq (4.28%). These
emissions were mainly attributed to the milk
powder, whose the contribution in Scenario1 was
greater than that in scenario2 of the order of 77.10
and 66.78% respectively. This is explained by the
need to use a large quantity of milk for the
production of milk powder (it takes about 7.8 kg of
milk to make 1 kg of powdered milk (LCA Food)
and several studies confirmed that the production of
raw milk is the main source of GHG (Eide, 2002;
Hospido et al, 2003; Castanheira et al, 2010; Fantin
et al, 2012; González-García et al, 2013). In the
same way, the production of raw milk added in both
process intervenes at the rate of 3.34 and 4.29%
respectively. The manufacture of PE packaging and
transport ship, come at a same rate (≈ 2.63%) in
both scenarios. The production of PE emanated
several GHG (per 1 kg of PE, 2.32 kg of CO2 4.4 g
of CH4 and 12g of NOx were emitted)
(BUWAL250, 1996). The impact of thermal energy
was important for both scenarios (13.28 and
13.87%) respectively, this was observed in the
various processing operations, because the
pasteurization of milk requires great amount of
steam. The production of the latter requires natural
gas, which generates greenhouse gases both in its
production than consumption (boiler). The impact
of other Process was considered negligible (<1% of
the total impact). For 1 liter of milk, the use of the
AMF in the second scenario contributed at 8.16%,
this allowed the reduction of the order of 4.28% of
the impact.
Terrestrial acidification/nitrification
The terrestrial acidification (Fig.3) is mainly caused
by atmospheric deposition of acidifying compounds
such as SO2, NOx, NH3,.... etc.. It is expressed in
equivalent kgSO2. For one liter of milk, the total
contribution to the terrestrial acidification and
nitrification was 6.64E-02 kgSO2eq in Scenario1
and 6.38E-02 kgSO2eq in scenario2 (Table 1). The
difference between the two scenarios was mainly
due to the milk powder which represents 89.91% of
the impact in scenario1 and 77.43% in scenario2.
The impact of raw milk in both scenarios was about
4.55 and 5.83% respectively. Its production was the
main contributor to acidification [1,4,8,12]. The
production of steam followed by ship transport,
contributed in both scenarios up to 2.50% and
2.06% respectively. The AMF contributed in
scenario2 with 6.97E-03kg SO2eq (10.92%), hence
a reduction of this impact of about 2.60 E-03 kg
SO2eq.
Figure.2: Contribution to the global warming
potential (for 1l of milk)
Figure.3: Contribution of two processes in
terrestrial acidification (for 1l of milk)
Availability of data
The inventory data is a crucial step in any LCA
study. However, accurate inventory data are not
always available [7]. Most LCA on the dairy
industry are focused on the primary production of
milk "cradle-to-farm-gate" [1-7]. There are very
few studies on the impacts of milk processing
plants [8,9-12] and no studies have addressed the
reconstitution milk production or milk powder.
Hence the difficulties in comparing our study to
those mentioned above. It is important to note that
few authors have included in their studies
respiratory inorganics and ecotoxicity categories,
mostly due to the lack of available information
[7,17].
20
F. Younsi
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Table.1: Comparison of the two scenarios "characterization" for 1l milk
RI (kg PM2.5eq)
GWP (kg CO2eq)
NRE (MJ) TE (kg TEG soil) TA (kg SO2eq)
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Milk Powder
6,18E-04 5,12E-04 4,68E-01 3,88E-01 2,82 2,33 2,11 1,75 5,97E-02 4,94E-02 Raw Milk
3,08E-05 3,79E-05 2,03E-02 2,49E-02 8,70E-02 1,07E-01 7,83E-02 9,62E-02 3,02E-03 3,72E-03 AMF
/ 7,13E-05 / 4,74E-02 / 2,12E-01 / 1,87E-01 / 6,97E-03 PE packaging
1,76E-05 1,76E-05 1,53E-02 1,53E-02 5,22E-01 5,22E-01 7,38E-03 7,38E-03 4,87E-04 4,87E-04 Paper packaging
8,48E-07 7,78E-07 3,61E-04 3,31E-04 5,72E-03 5,24E-03 2,05E-04 1,88E-04 2,73E-05 2,51E-05 Metal packaging
/ 1,38E-06 / 3,23E-03 / 3,51E-02 / 2,52E-03 / 3,29E-05 Ship transport
5,58E-05 5,38E-05 1,63E-02 1,57E-02 2,32E-01 2,23E-01 3,54E-01 3,42E-01 1,37E-03 1,32E-03 Truck transport
3,20E-06 3,39E-06 2,23E-03 2,44E-03 3,52E-02 3,83E-02 9,59E-02 1,04E-01 9,97E-05 1,05E-04 Electricity
1,24E-06 1,31E-06 4,01E-03 4,22E-03 6,66E-02 7,01E-02 4,48E-02 4,71E-02 5,23E-05 5,51E-05 Steam
8,19E-05 8,19E-05 8,06E-02 8,06E-02 1,16E+00 1,16E+00 7,98E-06 7,98E-06 1,66E-03 1,66E-03 Natural gas
/ 1,61E-06 / 1,00E-03 / 2,02E-02 / 2,14E-05 / 3,22E-05 PE waste
-2,26E-08 -2,26E-08 -1,34E-05 -1,34E-05 -1,23E-03 -1,23E-02 4,32E-05 4,32E-05 -1,22E-06 -1,22E-06 Paper waste
3,13E-08 2,88E-08 -8,11E-05 -7,46E-05 -1,38E-02 -1,27E-03 -1,99E-04 -1,83E-04 1,87E-06 1,72E-06 Metal waste
/ -4,44E-07 / -1,66E-03 / -1,41E-02 / 2,66E-04 / -1,11E-05 Total
8,10E-04 7,82E-04 6,07E-01 5,81E-01 4,91 4,70 2,69 2,53 6,64E-02 6,38E-02
Table. 2: Contribution of the AMF (for 1kg of milk)
Catégorie d'impact Unité Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Ecart %
RI kg PM2.5 eq 8,10E-04 7,82E-04 2,80E-05 3,58
TE kg TEG soil 2,69E+00 2,53E+00 0,16E-01 5,94
TA kg SO2 eq 6,64E-02 6,38E-02 2,58E-03 3,92
GWP kg CO2 eq 6,07E-01 5,81E-01 2,60E-02 4,28
NRE MJ primary 4,91E+00 4,7E+00 2,10E-01 4,27
IV. Conclusion
The application of the LCA procedure to two types
of milk processing, reconstitution and
recombination has made possible the comparison of
their environmental impacts and assessing the
contribution of different components of milk. The
impact criteria selected were quantified according
to the "cradle-to-gate" approach. The consumption
step and waste management were not included in
this study. The result shows that for all impact
categories, milk powder was the main contributor to
the environmental loads in both scenarios, and the
production of raw milk contributed more
significantly due to the large amount of milk
required (7.8 l/ kg of milk powder) (LCA Food).
However, the substitution of a certain amount of
milk powder by the AMF in the recombination
(scenario 2) has reduced the impact of 3 to 6%.
Within this context, it seems optimal to favor the
recombination of milk-based AMF.
V. References
1. Cederberg, C., Mattsson, B., 2000. Life cycle assessment
of milk production– a comparison of conventional and
organic farming. Journal of Cleaner Production 8, 49–60. 2. Castanheira, E.G., Dias, A.C., Arroja, L., Amaro, R., 2010.
The environmental performance of milk production on a
typical Portuguese dairy farm. Agricultural Systems 103,
498–507
3. Flysjö, A., Henriksson, M., Cederberg, C., Ledgarde, L.,
Englund, J.E., 2011.The impact of various parameters on the carbon footprint of milk production in New Zealand
and Sweden. Agricultural Systems 104, 459–469
4. Bartl, K., Gómez, C.A., Nemecek,T., 2011. Life cycle assessment of milk produced in two smallholder dairy
systems in the highlands and the coast of Peru. Journal of
Cleaner Production 19, 1494-1505. 5. Meneses, M., Pasqualino, J., Castells, F., 2012.
Environmental assessment of the milk life cycle: The effect
of packaging selection and the variability of milk
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production data. Journal of Environmental Management
107, 76-83
6. De Boer, De, 2003. IJM. Environmental impact assessment of conventional and organic milk production. Livestock
Production Science 80, 69-77.
7. Thomassen, M.A., Van Calker, K.J., Smits, M.C.J., Iepema, G.L., de Boer, I.J.M., 2008. Life Cycle
Assessment of conventional and organic milk production in
The Netherlands. Agric Syst 96,95–107. 8. Eide, M.H., 2002. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of
Industrial Milk Production. International Journal of LCA
7,115-126. 9. Hospido, A., Moreira, M.T., Feijoo, G., 2003. Simplified
life cycle assessment of Galician milk production. International Dairy Journal 13, 783–796.
10. Berlin, J., Sonesson, U., 2008. Minimizing environmental
impact by sequencing cultured dairy products: two case
studies. J Cleaner Prod 16, 483–98 11. Nutter, D.W., et al., 2012. Greenhouse gas emission
analysis for USA fluid milk processing plants: Processing,
packaging, and distribution, International Dairy Journal http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2012.09.011
12. González-García, S., Castanheira, E.G., Dias, A.C., Arroja,
L., 2013. Using Life Cycle Assessment methodology to assess UHT milk production in Portugal. Science of the
Total Environment 442, 225–234
13. Kim, D., Thoma, G., Nutter, D., Milani, F., Ulrich, R.,
Norris, G., 2013. Life cycle assessment of cheese and whey
production in the USA. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. DOI 10.1007/s11367-013-0553-9
14. González-García, S., Castanheira, E.G., Dias, A.C., Arroja,
L., 2012. Environmental life cycle assessment of a dairy product: the yoghurt. International Journal of Life Cycle
Assess DOI 10.1007/s11367-012-0522-8
15. Nilsson, K., Flysjö, A., Davis, J., Sim, S., Unger, N., Bell, S., 2010. Comparative life cycle assessment of margarine
and butter consumed in the UK, Germany and France.
International Journal of Life Cycle Assess 15, 916–926. DOI 10.1007/s11367-010-0220-3
16. van der Werf, H.M.G., Kanyarushoki, C., Corson, M.S.,
2009. An operational method for the evaluation of resource use and environmental impacts of dairy farms by life cycle
assessment. Journal of Environmental Management. 90,
3643–3652. 17. Yan, M.J., Humphreys, J., Holden, N.M., 2011. An
evaluation of life cycle assessment of European milk
production, Journal of Environmental Management 92, 372-379
Please cite this Article as: F. Younsi., Contribution of Anhydrous Milk Fat to environmental impacts generated by the dairy
processing, Algerian J. Env. Sc. Technology, 1:1 (2015) 18-22
22
Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Avril edition. Vol.1. N
o1. (2015)
ISSN : 2437-1114
www.aljest.webs.com ALJEST
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Toxic effect of surfactants on marine species Mediterranean mussel: Mytilus gallprovinciallis and
evaluation of their aquatic toxicology impact by LCA methodology
M. Belkhir. S. Boughrara. H. Boutiche
Food Technology Research Laboratory, University of Boumerdes, 35000 - Boumerdes, ALGERIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT / RESUME
Article History
Received : 11/01/2015
Accepted : 11/03/2015
The increase of over 500% in ten years, the use of synthetic detergents
explains the high concentrations explain the high concentrations in liquid
effluents. Part of these discharges flow without purification in rivers. Which it
is interesting to assess the impacts thus generated by such a detergent
manufacturing process. In our study we used the tool life cycle assessment
(LCA) methodology to assess the aquatic toxicology impact of liquid detergent
intended multi user. This study needs the use of SimaPro7.1 software and
EDIP 2003method.In order to explain aquatic toxicology impact was chosen
by selecting a type of marine species Mediterranean mussel Mytilus
gallprovinciallis.In our study we determined the toxic effect of anionic
surfactants (LAS, AES) characterization of liquid effluents generated by one of
the leading Algerian companies in detergents. Comparing the toxicology of
two anionic surfactants is obtained after determining the lethal concentrations
of fifty percent (LC50) of the individuated simmering with forty-eight hours
(48h), Ensuring living conditions (temperature, O2, pH, TH, TA, TAC). In an
aquarium. Any and controlling various pollution parameters (BOD5, COD,
Nitrate, Nitrite, Phosphate, Sulfate, Dissolved Oxygen.
Key Words / Mots clés Aquatic toxicology impact,
Mytilus gallprovinciallis,
LCA methodology, anionic
surfactant, LC50.
I. Introduction
With the growing awareness of environmental
issues, the integration of sound environmental
management practices in our industry is growing in
importance. In response to this reality, various
environmental assessment tools have been
developed, such as environmental risk analysis,
analysis of material flow, the ecological footprint.
According to the article Finnveden, G., Hauschild,
MZ, Ekvall, "Recent developments in Life Cycle
Assessment" pull Journal of Environmental
Management, these players end up saying that
environmental tools provide some answers for
decision informed decisions, both for those in the
public and private sectors [1]. LCA appears as an
appropriate tool to measure and certify the
improvement of its production cycle or ease of
waste treatment. In fact, some organizations rank
companies based on their impact on the
environment [2]. This methodology has taken place
within ISO 14040 series [3-6]. The control of the
environmental impact of activities in the detergents
manufacturing industries is now essential for their
durability, as well as the reduction of production
costs or improving product quality. It also affects
the image of the products from the consumer and
also intervenes in their "quality"[7]. Surfactants are
an important part of the composition of detergents
in 1995, the Health Research Institute and safety at
23
M. Belkheir et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
work of Québec, Montreal shows that global
production is about 3106 tons or increased in the
past ten years is over 500%, this increase explains
their high concentrations in industrial effluents and
sewage, or they flow without purification in rivers.
In our study we determined the toxic effect of three
kinds of surfactants (LAS, AES and NI07) that fall
within the composition of a multi user detergence.
LAS: Linear Alkyl benzene sulphonate (anionic)
AES: Alkyl Ether Sulfate (sulphonate) (anionic)
NI 07: Fatty Alcohol Ethoxylate (nonionic)
And for the purpose of an environmental
assessment of their impacts aquatic toxicology, we
applied the approach Life Cycle Assessment to
justify of results obtained by their ecotoxicity tests.
II. Materiels and methods
The methods used in our study are:
The determination of the lethal concentrations of
fifty percent (LC50) of three surfactants on
mussels
The potential ecotoxicity was addressed by
performing a toxicity test (acute effects) assets
tensions LAS, AES and NI07 on an aquatic
organism Mediterranean mussel Mytilus
galloprovincialis causing mortality 50% of the
population exposed to a fixed concentration of a
24H and 48H surfactant with mid renewal.
Experimental Protocol
More than 200 species of mussel Mytilus
galloprovincialis were collected in July 2013, in a
Sghirate site, it is located 5km from the center
wilaya of Boumerdes (east of Algiers). The molds
were kept in seawater and transported to the
laboratory in coolers. Before moving to the
toxicological test should be allowed mussels an
adjustment period in aquariums, with a dozen
mussels in 10L water ensuring ventilation the one
hand and avoiding their toxicity nitrate comes from
their nitrogenous waste.
Preparing the aquarium
The main difficulty in setting up an aquarium is to
recreate the best conditions for living environment
mussels (sea water), either the temperature, the
hardness of the water, the nitrate problem etc. The
molds are placed in the tank (food plastic basin) at a
temperature entre14 ° C and 16 ° C (temperature of
sea water).
The Life cycle assessment
LCA is a method for environmental analysis
identifies the major sources of environmental
impacts and avoiding further transfer of pollution
from one phase of the life cycle to another. It is
therefore essential to cover the entire life cycle so
that improving the overall rendering is not reflected
on another scale.[8]. These steps are more
commonly referred to as "cradle to grave". During
each of these steps, products and processes interact
with the environment.
Goal and scope of the study
The goal of the present study is to assess the
environmental performance of detergent. The
model focuses on production of detergent liquid
form that is: multi user liquid, the production
processes include the mixture of all compounds in
aqueous solution. The functional. Unit of analysis
in this study is the production of one ton of this
detergent.
Inventory analysis
To establish LCA for the multipurpose workshop,
we tried to collect all the theoretical and
experimental data from the various analyzes carried
companions. These data include those relating to
the consumption of raw materials (surfactants,
fragrances, dyes, packaging material) and energy
consumption (water, electricity). Which are related
to the functional unit defined above.
Balance incoming
The raw material consumption and energy is
presented in Table 1.
Tab.1: Consumption of raw materials and energy Inputs consumption
(kg)
LAS (alkyl benzènesulfonâte ) 21.207
AES (alkyl ethoxy sulfate ) 26.414
NaoH 0.526
NaCl 4.260
Parfum 1.230
Formol 0.662
NI LT07 3.787
Dye 0.153
acetic acid 0.037
Dequest 0.568
Packaging material consumption
(kg)
cellulose Cards (Kg) 50
Labels (plastic) (Kg) 3.60
caps (PEHD) (Kg) 4.80
bottles (PET) (Kg) 48
Energy Consumption
Electricity (KWh) 32.14
Water (m3 ) 941.18
Out going balance
Outgoing balance consists of rejecting liquid
(water) and solid (packaging waste), including
pollution parameters are measured and calculated
according to standardized methods of water
analysis. (See the book by Rodier ) [4]. But the
concentrations of the surfactants (LAS, AES and
NI07) are determined by the chromatographic
method using a (HPLC).
24
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Tab. 2: Analysis methods HPLC (In mobile phase at high ionic strength) [5]
with :
Fig.1: Chromatogram of surfactants
SPE : Solid phase extraction.
SM :Mass Spectrometry.
REA: anion exchange resin
LD: limit dedétection.
CTMA: cetyltrimethylammonium.
G: gradient.
I: isocratic.
Tab.3:physicochemical parameter of rejecting
liquid
Outputs
physicochemical parameter Results
temperature (°C) 20
Ph 9.07
COD (mg of o2/l) 983.00
BOD5 (mg of o2/l) 103.33
LAS (g/l) 1.96
AES (g/l) 0.600
NI07 (g/l) 0.068
salinity (g/l) 3.50
turbidity (NTU) 71.11
The O2 below (mg/l) 13.32
Phosphates (mg/l) 76.00
Sulfates (mg/l) 800.00
Nitrates (mg/l) 30.00
TDS (g/l) 3.45
Solid waste
cellulose Carton 5
Label plastic 2
25
M. Belkheir et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
III. Results and discusion
Ecotoxicity tests surfactants on mussels
1st test :
The experiments were usually performed in
continuous flow aquaria. In order to assure natural
conditions, the aquarium is alimented by sea water
at a constant continuous flow with variation of
temperature between 14C° to 18C° and Ph varies
between 7 to 8 for each 10 animals in 10L of sea
water for 48 Hours for each experience. The
standard sample is taken in sea water, that its
characteristics are summarized in table 3. It’s
remarked that no mortality of animals (see table 4).
Tab .4: Physicochemical characteristic of standard
sample (only sea water) Physicochemical parameter Results
O2 (mg/ l) 8,60
Ph 7,42
Salinity (g/l) 29
Turbidity (NTU) 8 ,11
Total of dissolute Salt (TDS (F°) 26,4
Sulfate (mg/l) 0,02
Nitrate (mg/l) 2,72
TH (F°) 1060
Tab. 5: Mortality of mussels in 1nd
test (see water) Day of
contact
1st
Da
y
2nd
Da
y
4th
Da
y
6th
Da
y
8th
Da
y
9th
Da
y
10th
Da
y
% Mortality 0 0 0 0 0 1 3
Tab. 6: Physicochemical characteristic of standard
sample after the 1nd
test
Contact time
Physicochemical
parameters
1st
Day
4th
Day
9th
Day
10th
Day
O2 (mg/ l) 8.46 8.10 7.89 7.72
Ph 7.41 7.38 7.40 7.42
Salinity (g/l) 30 29.8 29.8 28.7
Turbidity (NTU) 9.30 11.8
2
20.87 30.61
Total of dissolute Salt (TDS
(F°)
28.5 28.3 28.4 28.3
Sulfate (mg/l) 0.02
2
0.01
8
0.024 0.019
Nitrate (mg/l) 59.3
6
75.4
4
133.2
1
195.3
8
TH (°F) 105
6
104
0
1048 1051
2nd test
The mussels are taken in three aquariums
sea water, with addition for each one a surfactant
that it’s concentration is taken in the reject of Eagle
factory (see table 3). These animals are taken
contact with each solution for 48 Hours, that the
results are summarizes in table 7.
Tab.7: Mortality of mussels in contact with the
actual concentrations.
Concentration surfactant
Mortality%
LAS
(1,98
g/l)
AES
(0,65g/l)
NI07
(68mg/l)
24h 60 80 70
48h 100 100 100
These results show that the:
- LAS LC50 for mussels is <1.98g / l.
- AES LC50 for mussels is <0.65g / l.
- NI07LC50 for mussels is <68mg / l.
The characteristic of solution after contacts are
summarized in table 6
The characteristic of the environment solution of
the 2nd
experiment after contact is summarized in
table 8
Tab.8. physicochemical characteristic after the 2nd
test Physicochemical
parameters
LAS AES NI
07
O2 (mg/ l) 9,73 9,57 9,75
Ph 6,80 6,68 6,83
Salinity (g/l) 32 32,5 32,4
Turbidity (NTU) 801 30,3 13,2
Total of dissolute Salt (TDS (F°) 29,8 30 30,2
Sulfate (mg/l) 710,20 689,79 0,026
Nitrate (mg/l) 5112,76 139,14 84,27
TH (°F) 850 870 700
3rd test
The animals are taken in one aquariums of sea
water, with addition a mixture of three surfactant
that it’s concentration is taken in the reject of Eagle
factory (see table 3). These animals are taken
contact in this environment for 48 Hours, that the
results of mortality are summarizes in table 9 and
the characteristics of this environment after contact
are summarized in table 10.
Tab. 9: Mortality of mussels for the 3rd test Time of contact % of mortality
24 H 90
48 H 100
Tab: 10. Physicochemical characteristic after the
3rd test Physicochemical parameter Results
O2 (mg/ l) 9.70
Ph 6.80
Salinity (g/l) 32.5
Turbidity (NTU) 830
26
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
4th
test
The animals are taken in four aquariums of sea
water, with addition different concentrations
(table11 of the anionic surfactant (LAS) contacting
the animals for 48 Hours. The results of mortality
are summarizes in table 11 and figure 2, the
characteristics of this environment after contact are
summarized in table 12
Tab: 11: Mortality of mussels in contact with the
concentrations of LAS
Concentration of LAS
Mortality %
10
mg/l
50
mg/l
75
mg/l
100
mg/l
24h 10 20 40 60
48h 40 80 100 100
Fig.2: Mortality of mussels on function
concentration of LAS
Tab.12: physicochemical characteristic after the 4th
test
Concentration
of LAS
Physicochemic
al parameters
10
mg/l
50
mg/l
75
mg/l
100
mg/l
O2 (mg/ l) 7 7,10 7,05 6,90
Ph 7,20 7,24 7,30 7,10
Salinity (g/l) 29,8 29,8 29,7 28,6
Turbidity (NTU)
22 101 135 182
Total of
dissolute Salt (TDS (F°)
28,3 28,4 28,3 28,2
Sulfate (mg/l) 3.51 17.5
9
26.3
9
143.31
Nitrate (mg/l) 644.68
861.70
1161.70
1440.42
TH (°F) 830 810 750 700
5th
test
The mussels are taken in four aquariums of sea
water, with addition different concentrations
(table12) of the anionic surfactant (AES) contacting
the animals for 48 Hours. The results of mortality
are summarizes in table 13, the characteristics of
this environment after contact are summarized in
table 13.
Tab.13: Mortality of mussels 5th
test
Concentration of AES
Mortality %
10 mg/l 50
mg/l
75
mg/l
100
mg/l
24h 40 50 70 80
48h 50 90 100 100
The AES LC50 for mussels is 10 mg / l.
Tab.14: physicochemical characteristic after the 5
th
test
Concentration of
AES
Physicochemical
parameters
10
mg/l
50
mg/l
75
mg/l
100
mg/l
O2 (mg/ l) 8,01 7,10 6,87 6,70
Ph 7,27 7,08 7,03 7,10
Salinity (g/l) 30,00 29,8 29,8 28,7
Turbidity (NTU) 59,5 63,8 122 163
Total of dissolute
Salt (TDS (F°)
28,5 28,3 28,4 28,3
Sulfate (mg/l) 3.51 17.59 26.3
9
35.19
Nitrate (mg/l) 379.68 407.75 778.
72
1040.42
TH (°F) 900 870 850 830
6
th test
The animals are taken in four aquariums of sea
water, with addition different concentrations
(table15) of the nonionic surfactant (NI 07)
contacting the animals for 48 Hours. The results of
mortality are summarizes in table 15 and figure 3,
the characteristics of this environment after contact
are summarized in table 16
Tab.15: Concentration surfactants and animals
mortality in 6th
test
Concentration of NI 07
Mortality %
1
mg/l
5
mg/l
10
mg/l
24h 10 70 100
48h 20 100 100
It is found that the nonionic may cause 100%
mortality of the population at a concentration of 10
mg/l. The CL5048h of NI07 is between 1 mg / l and
5 mg / L, and it is possible to graphically determine
the mortality curve as a function of the
concentration of NI07.
27
M. Belkheir et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Fig.3: Mortality of mussels on function
concentration of NI O7
Tab.16: physicochemical characteristic after the
6th
test Concentration of NI 07
Physicochemical
parameters
1
mg/l
5
mg/l
10
mg/l
O2 (mg/ l) 6.95 7.01 10.40
Ph 7.01 7.02 6.85
Salinity (g/l) 29 ?8 30 30?9
Turbidity (NTU) 30 64 86.5
Total of dissolute Salt (TDS (F°)
28.5 28.3 28.6
Sulfate (mg/l) 0.019 0.024 0.020
Nitrate (mg/l) 191.48 408.51 552.12
TH (°F) 910 870 800
Based on the results, a 48H of contact with different
surfactants is sufficient to cause a mortality rate of
100% of the population, we note that the LAS 24H
has a concentration [LAS] = 1.98g / l to cause 60%
mortality, AES has de0.65g / l causes 80%
mortality and the mortality rate of NI07 is 70% to
68mg / l.
Rather, the mixture of the three surfactants caused a
mortality rate of 90% of the population after 24
hours of which we can conclude that the
assemblement of these surfactants is more toxic
than mètrent separately, something that does not
happen in the manufacture of cleaning products.
It is noted that the hardness decreases with increase
in the concentration of the LAS, the decrease is due
to the ions of the complexities of the reactions with
sulphate ions Mg ++
and Ca ++
forming precipitates:
Ca (LAS) 2
and Mg (LAS) 2. 48 hours after contact,
mussels with different concentrations of the AES,
we find that:
- pH decreases slightly, and this due to the
acidification caused by the presence of sulphate
ions in the aquatic environment by keeping the
neutral medium.
-The reduction of dissolved O2 is due to the
breathing of the mussels, it is one of the nutrients
necessary for survival and growth of the mussels.
In the control, test there's no real change in the
water body except a slight decrease in hardness and
dissolved O2 that due to consumption by mussels
and a nitrate concentration increased from
nitrogenous waste mussels.
To compare the ecotoxicity of three surfactants with
each other, a determination was performed per
class, depending on the CL5048H each surfactant.
Fig.5: Comparison ecotoxicity of three surfactants
Finally we will justify the results of the tests of
Ecotoxicological these three surfactants by applying
the LCA approach that will allow us to make a
toxicological classification of the three surfactants
and assessing their impacts aquatic toxicity.
Application of life cycle assessment on multi
user liquid detergent
Impacts assessment
The EDIP2003 method is used to assess the
environmental impacts.
The impacts considered in this study are shown in
figure 4 and summarized in table 17:
Aquatic eutrophication EP(N) expressed on kg N
Aquatic eutrophication EP(P) expressed on kg p
Human toxicity water expressed on m 3
Bulk waste expressed on Kg
Tab.17: Impact generated by detergent liquid multi
user-EDIP 2003 method
Impact categories Unit Results
Aquatic eutrophication EP(N) Kg N 4.07 E-6
Aquatic eutrophication EP(P) Kg P 2.21 E-5
Human tocxicity water m3 0.105
Bulk waste Kg 7.00
y = 8,5246x + 27,8690
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 5 10 15
mo
rtal
itè
en
%
concentrations en mg/l
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 5 10 50 75 100m
ort
alit
y %
concentration mg/l
NI07
AES
LAS
28
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Contribution of components to the impacts
generated
Edip2013 method allows us to explain the origin of
some important impacts : human toxicity by the
water. Which we are interested in their origins.
Tab.18: Contribution to Human toxicity water
impact generated
Impact
categories
Element
contribution
Unit Results
Human toxicity
water
Alkyl Ether Sulfate
(sulphonate)
m3 1.78 E-4
Fatty alcohol ethoxylate
m3 0.103
Linear Alkyl
benzene sulfonate
m3 5.28 E-4
The aquatic toxicity has received particular
attention in the regulatory context, as the aquatic
compartment is a typical sink for industrial
pollution due to direct releases and indirect
emission pathways. This impact category is
primarily influenced by the emission of the
surfactants in the various processes for the
production of detergents
The multi pollutant in use is the impact of human
toxicity by the water with a large contribution of
NI07 surfactants, LAS and AES.
The surfactants are responsible aquatic human
toxiicity, explain what these surfactants
concentrations accumulated by aquatic species and
transformation to the human food chain
Conclusion
Reviews conducted environmental toxicity of
certain assets tensions in several marine species,
and to complete these studies and to provide
knowledge in the same perspective, our study was
performed on a species called mussels , there was
little toxicological studies in this context.
In The practical part, we tried to vary the
concentrations of three active tension, two of which
are anionic (LAS, AES) and one non-ionic (NI7),
and put it in contact for a definite time with mussels
and monitored physiological variations and the
number of deaths of the species.
This study followed the results of the LCA
approach that has allowed us to make an assessment
of the impact of human aquatic toxicity of liquid
detergent (multi use) and to determine the
contribution of components to these impacts.
The ecotoxicity of the aquatic species studied
shows that the nonionic is more toxic than anionic
because it caused the death of all individuals
contacted in time less than 24heurs with behavioral
disturbance and physiology of this species.
Through this research we can propose the
replacement of the most polluting power assets
(non-ionic) with oils play an important role in
detergents such as essential oils or ethoxylated oils
that are low in toxicity.
Finally, wishing us by this research that will result
in the initiative, and it will serve as a reference for
future research.
V. References
1. ANDRE, P., DELISLE, C., REVERET, J.P.,
L’évaluation des impacts sur l’environnement :
processus, acteurs et pratique, Presses internationales Polytechnique, ISBN 2-553-2003, 519 p.
2. 01132-6,
3. Directive du Conseil n° 85/337/CEE du 27 juin 1985 concernant l'évaluation des incidences de certains
projets publics et privés sur l'environnement,
article 3 tel que modifié par la Directive n° 97/11/CE du 3 mars 1997, Journal Officiel de la
Communauté Européenne n° L 175 du 5 juillet 1985. 4. ISO Systèmes de management environnemental :
spécifications et lignes directrices pour son
utilisation, norme française AFNOR en ISO 14001,
1996, 15 p.
5. Olivier Jollet, Myriam Saade, Pierre Crettaz, Analyse
du cycle de vie : comprendre a réalisé un écobilan , 2010.
6. ADEME, Note de synthèse externe, "Introduction à
l'analyse du cycle de vie (ACV)," 2005. 7. Organisation Internationale de Normalisation,
"Norme ISO 14040 ‐ Analyse du cycle de vie ‐ principes et cadre ,2006.
8. Sebastien Renou, Analyse du cycle de vie appliquèe
aux systemes de traitement des eaux usées, thèse de doctorat de l’institut national polytechnique de
Lorraine .2006.
9. Rodier.J,Legube.B,Merlier.N et Coll, L’analyse de l’eau, Edition 9, entire mise a jour, Dunod Paris, 2009
10. Morris, M.; Wolf, K. (1998) Water-Based Repair and
Maintenance Cleaning: Case Study Conversions. Institute for Research and Technical Assistance's
Pollution revention Center, Santa Monica, CA.
Please cite this Article as: M. Belkhir., S. Boughrara., H. Boutiche., Toxic effect of surfactants on marine species Mediterranean mussel: Mytilus gallprovinciallis and evaluation of their aquatic toxicology impact by
LCA methodology, Algerian J. Env. Sc. Technology, 1:1 (2015) 23-29
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Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Avril edition. Vol.1. N
o1. (2015)
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Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Reaction in water under microwave: rapid and convenient synthesis of N-hydroxymethylimides and N-hydroxymethyl
lactams
M. Hachemi
Faculté des Sciences de l’Ingénieur-UMBB- Boumerdes
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article History:
Received : 11/01/2015
Accepted : 11/02/2015
N-hydroxymethyl imides and N-hydroxymethyl lactams were obtained
by the reaction of formaldehyde with imides or lactams in water under
microwave irradiation (15 min., 240 W).
.
Key Words:
Microwave,
Water,
Formaldehyde,
N-Hydroxymethy
I. Introduction
Actually chemical synthesis employs
large amounts of hazardous and toxic
solvents. In last decade, there has been an
incredible growth in research involving
water as a green, environmentally benign
replacement for a wide range of organic
solvents.1 The water is a no toxic, non-
flammable, non-polluting and inexpensive
solvent. It is an ideal solvent for synthesis
on condition that the organic compound
can be dissolved.2 It has also a high
dielectric constant so their molecules are
very well activated under microwave
irradiation.3
We have been interested in the synthesis of
a series of related compounds belonging to
the following families: the N-
hydroxymethyl lactams and N-
hydroxymethyl imides
We report herein the reaction of
an aqueous formaldehyde solution under
microwave irradiation for the
transformation of amides into N-
hydroxymethyl lactams without use of any
catalyst (Scheme 1)
OH
O
NH
O
N
240 W, 15 min.
microwaves
HCHO, H2O
Scheme 1: Synthesis of N-hydroxymethyl
imide or N-hydroxymethyl lactam
Morever the application of N-
hydroxymethyl imides or N-hydroxymethyl lactams
has been of great interest in the field of
agropharmaceutical manufacturing ( potential
antipsychotic4, agents for modification of textile
material5, precursor of surface-active ethers, in the
synthesis of insecticides (tribenuron)6, proteolytic
enzyme inhibitors and so on. They are also used in
active energy-curable varnishes for coatings7, inks
and adhesives for protecting wood surface,8 as
corrosion inhibitors, and as flame-protection agents.
Although, a large number of synthesis of these
products is described, only few are really effective
and generally, the assistance of catalysts is
necessary.9
03
M.Hachemi
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Previously, it has been reported the formation of
aromatic hydroxymethyl imide by action of the
paraformaldehyde on amides in DMF10, (the use of
aqueous formaldehyde leads to very bad results).
Unlike of our case, a kitchen microwave oven was
used without reflux cooler, in these conditions, the
formaldehyde formed escape quickly with the water
and can’t react sufficiently with the reagent.On the
other part, the insufficient coupling with a
multimode irradiator does not allow to obtain good
and reproducible results with water.
In our case, the aqueous solution formed with
formaldehyde and lactam or imide was irradiated
under reflux with a microwave monomode
irradiator. The main advantage of this procedure is
to carry out reactions which would be impossible
to do correctly in a kitchen microwave oven.
It is also possible to follow the rise in temperature
in the reactor (use an infrared thermometer).
Reactional mixtures were irradiated for 15 minutes,
but reaction is generally ended after 4-5 min. The
curve of evolution of the temperature shows an
inflection point followed by a landing temperature
showing the end of the reaction. By cooling the
reaction mixture, the products N-hydroxymethyl
lactams crystallize. A further crystallization (for the
solvent, see table 1) was not always necessary to
obtain the pure product. The yield of the reaction
was almost quantitative. Results with different
imides and lactams are reported in the table 1.
The products obtained were characterised by
their 1H and 13CNMR spectra and their
quantitative analysis.
In conclusion, the synthesis under focused
microwave irradiation of N-hydroxymethyl imides
or N-hydroxymethyl lactams is fast and efficient
from a commercial available aqueous formaldehyde
without the assistance of any catalyst.
II. Experimental part
Reactions were carried out with a monomode
microwave irradiator Prolabo Synthewave 402 at
2450 MHz monitored by a microcomputer. The
power of irradiation was fixed and the temperature
was recorded in direct.
General procedure (N-hydroxymethylimide or N-
hydroxymethyllactam) ex: Phthalimide
In a quartz tube surmounted with a reflux cooler,
the phthalimide (100 mmol) and an aqueous
solution of of formaldehyde (37%, 3 ml) were
irradiated for 15 min with power 240 W. A
homogeneous solution was obtained and by
cooling, crystallised in a heap of colourless crystals.
The product was recristallised in a acetone Mp=
149°C (lit=149).
All N-hydroxymethlimides crystallised
spontaneously. In the case of N-
hydroxymethyllactams, liquids were first obtained.
The pyrrolidin-2-one derivative was crystallised in
ethanol, in the case of the piperidin-2-one
derivative, we have not obtained crystallisation.
III. References
1. D. J. H. Clark and D. Macquarrie, Handbook of Green
Chemistry and Technology, Clark, Blackwell Publishing
Ld , Oxford, 2002. 2. R. Breslow, Acc. Chem. Res., 2002, 35, 9; C. J. Li, Chem.
Rev.,1993, 93, 2023; A. Lubineau, J. Auge and Y.
Queneau, Synthesis, 1994, 741; C. J. Li, Tetrahedron, 1996, 52, 5643; C.J. Li and T.H. Chen, Tetrahedron, 1999,
55, 11149 ; C. J. Li and H. T. Chang, Organic Reactions in
Aqueous Media, Wiley, New York, 1997; P. A. Grieco,
Organic Synthesis in Water, Blackie Academic and
Professional, London, 1998.
3. B. L. Hayes, Microwave Synthesis-Chemistry at the Speed of Light, CEM publishing, Matthews, 2002.
4. M. K. Scott, E. W. Baxter, J. Bennett, , R. E Boyd, P. S.
Blum, E. E. Codd, M. J. Kukla, E. Malloy and B. E Maryanoff, J. Med. Chem., 1995, 38, 4198.
5. S. L. Vail, Textile Res. J. ,1972, 42, 360; S. L. Vail and
A.G. Pierce Jr, Textile Res. J. ,1973, 43, 294 . 6. K. Nishimura, T. Kitahaba, Y. Ikemoto and T. Fujita,
Pesticide Biochem. Physio. 988), 31, 155.; A.K.
Bhattacherjee and P. Dureja, Pesticide Sc. ,1999, 55, 183. 7. Y. Inaba, G. Urano, T. Kobayashi, U.S. Pat. Appl. Publ.
(2005), US 2005014924, Chem. Abs., 2005, 142:135564 .
8. T. Watanabe, (Sekisui Chemical Co. Ltd., Japan), Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho (2002), JP 2002080509, Chem.
Abs., 2002 136, 248414.
9. B. Jouglet, S. Oumoch and G. Rousseau, Synth. Commun., 1995, 25, 3869.
10. K. Kacprzak, Synth. Comm., 2003, 33, 1499.
31
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Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Table 1: Synthesis of N-hydroxymethyllactams or N-hydroxymethylimides under microwave irradiation (15 min,
240 W).
Product Starting product Yield
(%)
mp °C
Solvent
Mol formula C Found (required)%
H
2a phthalimide 98 149 (acetone) C9H7NO3 60.97(61.02) 3.96(3.98)
2b saccharin 97 125 (EtOH) C8H7NO4S 45.10(45.07) 3.27(3.31)
2c maleimide 96 104-106 (EtOAc) C5H5NO3 47.34(47.25) 4.03(3.97)
2d succinimide 98 64-66 (EtOAc) C5H7NO3 46.58(46.51) 5.51(5.46)
2e pyrrolidin-2-one 88 82 (EtOH) C5H9NO2 52.22(52.16) 7.82(7.88)
2f piperidin -2-one 85 liquid C6H11NO2 55.61(55.8) 8.68(8.58)
Reaction in water under microwave: rapid and convenient synthesis of N-hydroxymethylimides and N-hydroxymethyl lactams
Please cite this Article as: Hachemi, M., Reaction in water under microwave: rapid and convenient synthesis of N-hydroxymethylimides and N-hydroxymethyl lactams, Algerian J. Env. Sc. Technology, 1:1 (2015)
30-32
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Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Study of dispersion of brine water into coastal seawater by using a pilot
Laboratory of Food Technology, Faculty of Engineering Science, university of Boumerdes Algeria.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT / RESUME
Article History:
Received : 11/01/2015
Accepted : 11/04/2015
Les technologies utilisées dans le dessalement des eaux de mer sont
accompagnées par diverses impacts sur l’environnement. Plusieurs
effects considérés dans les unites de dessalement tells que les imacts
marins et la pollution marine. Les unites de dessalement des eaux de
mer sont localisées pour apporter un supplement d’eau aux
populations et aux diverses applications. La construction des unites
dessalement et les infrastructures installées sur les côtes affectent le
milieu marin. La grande salinité de la saumure et les produits
chimiques utilizes sont dévérsés dans le milieu marin. Ainsi, plusieurs
impacts sont causes par la décharge de la saumure. Dans cet article,
l’objectif de ce travail consiste d’étudierl’influence de different
parameters de dispersion de la saumure comme la position du rejet, le
déplacement et le temps. Different points de rejet de la saumure ( P1,
P2, P3) sont étudiés horizontalement et verticalement en fonction de la
température de l’eau de mer. Les resultants expérimentaux obtenus
montrent que la dispersion de la saumure , la meilleure pposition est
celle la plus loine et la plus profonde (P3).
The technologies used in water desalination are accompanied by
adverse environmental effects. There are several effects to be
considered in desalination plants, such as the use of the land, the
groundwater, the marine environment and noise pollution. Seawater
desalination plants are located by the shoreline, to supply desalted
water to the population of the main cities and for other uses. The
construction of both the desalination plants and all the required
infrastructure in coastal areas affects the local environment. For
instance, the high salt concentration in the brine and several chemical
products used in the desalination process are returned to the sea. Most
impacts on the marine environment arise as a consequence of the brine
discharge. In this paper, the objective of this work consists to study the
dispersion of the brine discharges and its impact into marine
environment. Then, a pilot used to study the different parameters of
dispersion such as position of brine and depth and time of dispersion.
Different points of brine (P1, P2, P3) were studied horizontally and
vertically according to the ambient sea water. Experimental results
obtained show that dispersion of brine in best then position of brine
point is far and in down sea (P3).
Key Words:
Desalination,
Environment,
brine,
sea water,
pilot.
L. Habet*, K. benrachedi
33
L. Habet et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
I. Introduction
Algeria with a semi-arid climate and with its
limited water resources already intensively utilized,
suffers from temporary water shortages, with a high
level of utilization of its water resources, water
demand increasing due to repeated drought. The
government of Algeria has decided to construct a
number of desalination plants based on reverse
osmosis. Reverse osmosis is a physical process in
which contaminants and the undesirable
compounds are removed by using pressure on the
feed water by forcing it through a semi permeable
membrane [1]. Provision of potable water by
seawater desalination is generally considered a
benefit despite high construction and operating
costs of plants. This is especially true when
conventional sources of freshwater are absent or
cannot be exploited without severe environmental
damage. Whoever is familiar with the situation in
arid countries such as Algeria knows that
desalination plants are often large industries
facilities, which consume space and emit
substantial amounts of combustion gases. It is also
knows that potable water production means
emitting a concentrate into the sea or into the
ground. However, a generally less noticed fact is
that this concentrate contains not only the contents
of the seawater taken in, but also additives
necessary for the desalting process and corrosion by
products [2, 3]. The response of the impacted
marine ecosystem depends on its sensitivity [4] and
the magnitude of the impact, which in turn depends
on factors such as distance, transport direction and
dilution. Most impacts on the marine environment
arise as a consequence of the brine discharge and its
effects could be worse in the Mediterranean sea
than in other areas. So our purpose is to study
desalination of sea water impact into marine
environment, using a pilot dispersion of brine into
marine environment.
II. desalination of sea water impacts into
environment
Desalination of seawater is thus the technology
predominantly used for alleviating the problem of
water scarcity in coastal regions. Although
desalination of seawater offers a range of human
health, socio-economic and environmental benefits
by providing a seemingly unlimited, constant
supply of high drinking water without impairing
natural freshwater ecosystems, concerns are raised
due to potential negative impacts. These are mainly
attributed to the concentrate and chemical
discharges, which may impair coastal water quality
and affect marine life, and air pollutant emissions
attributed to the energy demand of the process. The
list of potential impacts can be extended, however,
the information available on the marine discharges
alone indicates the need for a comprehensive
environment evaluation [5, 6].
III. Matériel et méthodes
1. Study of dispersion for brine into laboratory
pilot
The brine is a reject of desalination process. The
high salt concentration in the brine and several
chemical products used in the desalination process
are returned to the sea. In our research, we have
studied specially dispersion or propagation of brine
into sea water by using laboratory pilot which is
constituted by a sea water basin and a reservoir of
brine (see figure 1)
2-Experimental work
We have used in this study the following
laboratory pilot :
Figure.1: pilot experimental and his accessories
Legend :
1- graduated reservoir of brine (volume = 10 liters)
2- control valve of brine flow
3- flow to measure reject flow
4- conduct of reject in glass or plastic (PVC)
diameter d= 5mm
5- Manometer to measure reject pressure
6- Position of reject point (variable)
7- ventilation point
8- graduated tank of sea water (volume = 760 liters in
glass)
9- Metallic supports
10- brine
11- Sea water
1
0
1
1
2
3
5
6 7
8
9
1
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3. Analysis Method :
3.1. brine and sea water preparation
To study the brine discharge propagation in
seawater, we have used concentration equal at 60
g/l. , salinity of sample for sea water at 32 g/l
(temperature ambiente = 15° C).
Then, we have considered constant flow and
pressure of brine reject.
Experimental Conditions
Sea water ambient
Time of dispersion for brine is 20 minutes.
Reject flow QR = 0,15 l/min.
reject pressure for position (P1 et P2) = 0,07 bar
reject pressure for position (P3) = 0.1 bar
prepared volumes
Vbrine = 10 liters
Vseawater = 300 liters
3.2. Experimental protocol and operation mode :
1- placing brine and sea water in the tank
successively in the basin.
2- Opening the valve (2) for a constant flow.
3- Monitoring over time and space :
- For different positions for reject point (6),
we measure :
- changes in salinity in the basin according
to the time and the directions (x,y,z) ;
salinity (t,x,y,z)
3.3. Point reject situation :
Table 1 : Rreject points situation
Positions sampling on the axis z
( depth, surface level)
P1
- at surface level.
- at 10cm below
- at 20cm below
P2
at 20cm below
P3
at 20cm below
IV. RÉSULTAT ET DISCUSSION
1. dispersion of brine in the sea water according
to the depth of the basin
Figure 2 : evolution for the salinity of brine
discharge into seawater in the basin area at P1,
with sea water stable according to distance and
time (x, y, z=0, t=20 min).
Figure 3 : evolution for the salinity of brine
discharge into seawater at depth 10 cm in the basin
at P1 with sea water stable in function ( x, y, z=10
cm, t= 20 min).
35
L. Habet et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
Figure 4 : evolution for the salinity of the brine
discharge of seawater a depth of 20 cm in the
basin at P1, with seawater stable in function (x, y,
z=20 cm, t=20 min).
From the results shown in the figures 2, 3, 4, we
observe that the point of brine discharge, salinity is
too high. It decreases in sea surface from 10 cm on
axis (x), this has been shown by the work of J.J.
Malfeito and al. [7] in the channel Fantana
desalination plant in Javea in Spain [7]. However, it
forms a plume at the bottom of the sea which
becomes highly saline with a concentration 42g/l.
This is due to the difference in density between the
sea and the brine. Then extends to a distance of 120
cm. So, it causes ongoing damage to the aquatic
flora and fauna, especially in the coastal marine
inhabitants.
For instance, and based on the work of Jacqueline L
Dupavillon and al.[8] brine concentrations 50 g/l
have an inhibitory effect on the growth and
development of embryos apama of Sepia, and on
microscopic bacteria or fungi pathogens.
2. Propagation of brine discharge of function
time
(sampling at depth 20cm)
P1 : position of reject point on coastal
Figure 5 : evolution for salinity of brine discharge
into sea water in the basin at P1, with sea water
stable in function (x, y, z=20 cm, t = 10 min).
Figure 6 : evolution , function de (x ;y ; z=20cm ;
t= 20min), salinity of the brine discharge on the
sea water in the basin at P1, with seawater stable
We observe from the results shown in figures : 5, 6
a gradual increase in salinity in the basin over time.
Indeed, the value of the salinity of seawater
recorded after 20 min brine discharge reaches a
maximum value of 42 g/l. This is due to obstacles
located at the bottom of the basin. This high salt
concentration can affect the local marine
inhabitants. Indeed, these comments were raised by
the work of Jacqueline L Dupavillon and al.[8].
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P2 : position of reject point 40 cm far
for cosatal
Figure 7 : evolution of salinity of brine discharge
on the seawater in the basin at P2, with sea water
stable in function (x,y,z=20 cm, t=10 min).
Figure 8 : evolution of salinity of the brine
discharge on the seawater in the basin at P2, with
seawater stable in function ( x, y , z = 20 cm , t= 20
min).
We observe from the results shown in the figures 7,
8 the salt concentration is still high at the discharge
point and extends over time. The brine can go
further but at low concentrations. This is due to the
great depth from the point of discharge. According
to the work of Villanueva R. and al.[9] growth rates
of cephalopods are affected by the low
concentration of salinity, from where low salinity
brine increases the size of statolith. But also causes
deformities of embryos. This comment has been
removed by the work of Paulij,W.P and al. [10]
According to R. Einav [11], category where worked
on the same conditions, no overview of
environmental impact was observed in the region of
Malta (personal information Domovic Darko).
P3 : position of reject point 40 cm l far for
coastal, situated at bottom basin
Figure 9 : evolution of salinity for brine discharge
into sea water in the basin at P3, with sea water
stable in function (x , y, z = 20 cm , t = 10min ).
Figure 10 : evolution of salinity for brine
discharge into seawater in basin at P3 with
seawater stable, in function (x; y; z=20cm;
t=20min).
37
L. Habet et al
Copyright © 2015, Algerian Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, All rights reserved
We note from the results shown in the
figures : 9, 10 salt concentration is still high at
the discharge point. It is decreases with time.
For the discharge of the brine discharge forms
a jet of water, due to the pressure P' = 1,2 bar
(P' > P), and the inclination of the discharge
point upwardly at an angle 30°. This
corresponds to a rapid dilution. In fact, these
comments were raised by the work of T.
Bleninger and al. [12].
According to the work of R. Zimmerman [13]
which he worked on the same conditions, the
jet of brine has a well-defined area (depending
on the flow and speed of the jet). The current
density of the jet can causes erosion at the
bottom, this implies the difficulty of stabilizing
grass prairies and aquatic vegetation (studies in
the Canary Islands – the region of Sardina Del
Norte)
Sandy deposits removed by the phenomenon of
erosion can fill the holes of the rocks, which
are an important marine habitat different fish,
decreasing it with disapperance of aquatic
vegetation and benthos.
3. Effet on temperature on propagation of brine
into sea water in function time (sampling at
profundity 20cm)
P1 : position of reject point on
coastal
Figure 11: evolution for salinity of brine discharge
into sea water in the basin at P1, with sea water
stable at temperature T=25°C in function ( x, y , z
=20 cm, t = 10 min).
Figure 12 : evolution for salinity of brine discharge
into sea water in the basin at P1, with sea water
stable at temperature T=25°C in function ( x, y , z
=20 cm, t = 20 min).
We noticed from the results shown in the
figures: 11, 12 that the diffusion of brine is
faster at 25 °C compared to 15 ° C, so we can
say that according the results of Ahmed.
Hashim and al. [14], Gulf countries:
- the increase in temperature of the brine
typically causes an increase in
temperature of the sea water, which
can directly affect the marine
organisms in the discharge zone.
- We go more over, the high temperature
process can affect water quality and
consequently, decrease the
concentration of dissolved oxygen in
seawater
V. Conclusion
Seawater desalination is a solution to the
growing demand for freshwater, but the used
technical processes could damage the
environment, with impacts such as the global
warning due to the increases use of energy,
noise pollution, negative effects on land use
and adverse effects on the marine environment.
Brine reject is always the main environmental
problem and his discharge is usually done
jointly with the discharge of waste water
treatment, thus diluting it. There are some
marine species affected by the salinity of the
brine discharged into the sea, as grass prairies. In this paper, the work is intended to contribute
to the study of the impacts of seawater
desalination on the marine environment in the
Mediterranean through the use of a pilot
spreading brine on sea water and its effect on
marine environment.
The study of the propagation of brine seawater
as a function of time, we concluded that total
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calm sea water, brine goes to the seabed, as it
provides a source of continuous and
cumulative pollution, it would result in
ongoing damage to the flora and fauna in the
vicinity of the discharge point, and would be
linked to the increase of the salt concentration
and temperature. Since the Mediterranean is
characterized by its great depth, the dilution is
faster. It is therefore desirable to place the
brine discharge point far from the beach
(sample P3) and rocky areas which are rich in
organisms
Perspective, it would be interesting to install
diffusers on channel rejection, the performance
of the operation depends on the number of
broad casters and the space between them.
They will improve the dilution.
Another option is the use of lenses pointing at
an angle of 30-90 ° to the seabed, so that the
concentrated brine is pressed in the direction of
the surface of the sea.
VI. Références bibliographiques
1. K.Benrachedi ; K.Bensouali ; H.Houchati ,2009,Coupling
ultrafiltration with adsorption on activated coffee for use as
a reverse osmosis pretreatment” desalination, 239,pp122-
129. 2. Th. Hoepner ; A , 1999,procedure for environmental
impact assessment (EIA) for seawater desalination plants,
desalination,124,pp1-12. 3. D. Subba Rao and F. Al-Yamani, The Arabian Gulf in :
C.Sheppard, 2000,Ed.seas at the millenium Pergamon,
Amsterdam, pp.1-16. 4. K.Wangnik, 2000, IDA Worlwide desalting plants
inventory report No.16 IDA.
5. S. Lattermann ; T. Höpner;2008, environmental impact and impact assessment of seawater desalination.
Desalination,220,pp.1-15.
6. United Nations Environment Programme- Mediterranean
Action Plan MED POL,2003,Sea Water Desalination in the Mediterranean : Assessment and Guidelines, Map
Technical Reports series No.139, UNEP/MAP, Athens.
7. J.J. Malfeito*a, J. Dýaz-Canejaa, M. Farinasa, Yolanda Fernandez-Torrequemadab, Jose M. Gonzalez-Correab,
Adoracion Carratala´ -Gimenez b, J.L. Sanchez-
Lizaso,2005, Brine discharge from the Javea desalination plant, Desalination, Vol. 185, pp : 87–94.
8. Jacqueline L Dupavillon, Bronwyn M Gillanders,
2009,Impacts of seawater desalination on the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama in the upper Spencer
Gulf, South Australia, Marine Environmental Research.
9. Villanueva,R ; Moltschaniwskyj,N.A ; Bozzano A,2007, A biotic influences on embryo growth : statolith as
experimental tools in the squid early life history. Reviews
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of salinity on embryonic development and the distribution of Sepia Officinalis in the Delta area South Western part of
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Please cite this Article as: Habet, L., Benrachedi, K., Study of dispersion of brine water into coastal seawater by using a pilot,
Algerian J. Env. Sc. Technology, 1:1 (2015) 33-39
33
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