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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: A Global Concern, 5th edition
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Transcript of ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: A Global Concern, 5th edition
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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: A Global Concern, 5th edition
William P. Cunningham University of Minnesota
Barbara Woodworth Saigo
Saiwood Biology Resources
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CHAPTER 1
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES
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What is Environmental Science?
• Environment• Environmental Science• History of Environmental Science
– utilitarian conservation– altruistic preservation
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CURRENT CONDITIONS
• Planet Earth• Environmental Dilemmas
– population– food shortages– energy– pollution
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A DIVIDED WORLD
• Rich vs. Poor• North vs. South• Developed countries vs. undeveloped
countries– First, Second, Third and Fourth World
Countries
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT• Human Development Index• Developmental Discrepancies
– basic social services• education• health care
– agrarian reform– employment– civil rights– sustainable resource use
• Sustainable Development
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ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
• Neo-Malthusian• Technological optimists/Promethean
environmentalism• “Cornucopian Fallacy”• Lessons from the Past
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CHAPTER 2
TOOLS FOR BUILDING A BETTER WORLD
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Environmental Ethics and Philosophy
• Universal Ethical Principles– Relativists– Nihilists– Utilitarians
• Modernism & Postmodernism
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Values, Rights & Obligations
• Morals• Animal Rights • Inherent Value• Instrumental Value
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Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives
• Domination• Stewardship• Biocentrism• Ecofeminism
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Environmental Justice
• Environmental racism• Toxic colonialism• Is Nature fragile or resilient?
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Science as a Way of Knowing
• Scientific Method• Hypotheses Testing• Indirect Scientific Evidence• Technology and Progress• Appropriate Technology
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CHAPTER 3
MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE
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From Atoms to Cells
• Atoms– ions– atomic number
• Molecules– compound
• Organic Compounds– carbon
• Cells
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Energy Types and Qualities
• Kinetic Energy– heat– temperature
• Potential Energy• Chemical Energy• Conservation of Matter• Thermodynamics
– 1st law– 2nd law
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Energy for Life
• Solar Energy
• Photosynthesis– Chlorophyll– cellular respiration
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From Species to Ecosystems
• Population• Communities
– biological community
• Ecosystems
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Food Chains• Productivity/biomass• Food chain/food web• Trophic level
– producers– consumers
• Organisms– herbivores– carnivores– omnivores
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Material Cycles and Life Processes
• Carbon Cycle• Nitrogen Cycle• Phosphorus Cycle• Sulfur Cycle
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CHAPTER 4
BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES AND SPECIES INTERACTION
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Critical Factors, Who Lives Where?
• Temperature• Moisture levels• Nutrient supply• Soil chemistry• Water chemistry
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• Natural Selection
• Adaptation
• Evolution
• HABITAT
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SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND
COMMUNITY DYNAMICS
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Predation
• Predators– parasites– Pathogens
• Prey
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Competition
• Intraspecific competition• Interspecific competition
• Territoriality
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Symbiosis
• Commensalism• Mutualism
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Community Properties• Productivity• Abundance and Diversity• Complexity and Connectedness• Resilience and Stability• Structure• Edges and Boundaries
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Ecological Succession
• Primary Succession• Secondary Succession• Pioneer Species• Ecological Development• Climax Community
• Introduced Species and Community Change
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CHAPTER 5
BIOMES, LANDSCAPES, RESOTRATION AND
MANAGEMENT
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Terrestrial Biomes• Deserts• Grasslands
– Prairies– Savannas
• Tundra• Conifer Forests• Evergreen Forests• Tropical Forests• Tropical Seasonal Forests
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Aquatic Ecosystems
• Freshwater and Saline Ecosystems• Estuaries and Wetlands• Shorelines and Barrier Islands
– Coral reefs
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Landscape Ecology
• Patchiness & Heterogeneity• Landscape Dynamics
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Restoration Ecology
• Rehabilitation• Remediation• Reclamation• Re-creation• Nature, self-healing
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CHAPTER 6
POPULATION DYNAMICS
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Population Growth
• Exponential Growth• Geometric Growth• Arithmetic Growth• J Curve
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Population Oscillations and Irruptive Growth
• Dieback• Overshoot• Irruptive or Malthusian growth
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Growth to a Stable Population
• Logistic growth• Environmental resistance
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Strategies of Population Growth
• Malthusian Strategies• Logistic Strategies
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Factors affecting Population
• Natality, Fecundity, and Fertility• Immigration• Mortality and survivorship• Age Structure• Emigration• Education
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Factors Affecting Birth and Fertility Rates
• Education/affluence• Importance of children to family labor force• Urbanization• Cost - raising and educating children• Education & Employment opportunity - women• Infant mortality rate• Average marriage age• Availability - pension• Birth control• Religious beliefs, tradition and culture
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Factors Affecting Death Rate
• Nutrition• Fewer infant deaths and increased longevity• Health and technology
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• Teen Pregnancy in the USA• Migration• Immigration
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Population Age Structure
–Ways of classifying• Pre-reproductive age• Reproductive age• Post-reproductive age
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Solutions Influencing Population
– Controlling Migration– Reducing Birth Rates
• Economic development• Family planning• Economic rewards• Empowering women
– Population Control Studies• India• China
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Population Distribution
– Urbanization and Growth• The future is urban• Hyper-urbanization - LDCs• The United States and other MDC’s• Spatial patterns of development
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CHAPTER 7
HUMAN POPULATIONS
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Population Growth
• Birth Rates• Over-population• Technology and Ingenuity
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Limits to Population Growth
• Malthusian checks• Karl Marx• Neo-Malthusian
– Technology solutions?– Can More people be Beneficial?
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Human Demography
• Fertility• Birthrate• Zero population growth• Mortality and death rates• Population growth rates• Life span and life expectancy
– dependency ratio
• Emigration and Immigration
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Population Growth: Opposition
• Pronatalist/Social Pressures• Birth Reduction Pressures
– Education– Birth control– Economics
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Demographic Transition
• Improved living conditions• Development and Population• Optimistic View• Pessimistic View• Social Justice View• Ecojustice View• Infant Mortality• Women’s Rights
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Family Planning & Fertility Control
• Birth Control– Celibacy– Mechanical barriers– Surgery– Chemicals– Implantation of physical controls– Abortion
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CHAPTER 8
ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS
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Classical Economics
• Diminished Returns• Demand• Supply• Market Equilibrium• Marginal Costs• Price Elasticity
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• Neoclassical Economics– Karl Marx– E. F. Schumacher
• Ecological Economics– steady-state economy
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Resources, Capital and Reserves
• Resource Types– Capital– Resource– Nonrenewable resources– Renewable resources– Intangible resources
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Economic Resource Categories
• Proven resources• Known resources• Undiscovered resources• Recoverable resources
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Population, Technology, and Scarcity
• Market Efficiencies• Increasing Environmental Carrying
Capacity• Economic Models• Why Not Conserve Resources?
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Natural Resource Accounting
• Gross National Product (GNP)• Human Development Index (HDI)• Non-market Values• Cost/Benefit Ratios• Green Business• Jobs and the Environment
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Sustainability
Sustainable Development
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CHAPTER 9
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY
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Health Hazards
• Infectious Diseases• Respiratory diseases
– pneumonia– tuberculosis– influenza– whooping cough
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•Malaria•Parasitic Mematodes•Schistosomiasis•Onchocerciasis (river blindness)•Trachoma•STD’s
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Toxic Chemicals• Irritants• Respiratory fibrotic agents• Asphyxiants• Allergens• Neurotoxins• Mutagens• Teratogens• Carcinogens
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• Natural and Synthetic Toxin• Physical Agents
– radiation
• Trauma– stress
• Diet
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Chemical Hazards and Toxicology
• Dose and response– LD5O factor
• Acute effect• Chronic effect• Types
– toxic substances– hazardous– carcinogens– mutagens– teratogens
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Movement, Distribution and Fate of Toxins
• Solubility• Bioaccumulation• Biomagnification• Persistence• Chemical Interactions
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Minimizing Toxic Effects
• Metabolic Degradation• Excretion• Repair Mechanisms
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Measuring Toxicity
• Animal Testing• Toxicity Ratings• Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects• Detection Limits
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Assessment
• Risks
• Acceptable risks??
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Risk Analysis
– Identifying Risks– The Greatest Risks– Problems - Risk Assessment– Risk-Benefit Analysis– Managing Risks
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CHAPTER 10
FOOD, HUNGER AND NUTRITION
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Human Nutrition
• Energy Needs– undernourishment– over-nourishment
• Nutritional Needs– proteins– carbohydrates– lipids and oils– minerals– vitamins
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World Food Resoureces
• Major Crops– wheat– rice– corn– potatoes
• Meat and Milk• Croplands
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Increasing Food Production
• Green Revolution– Technology– Genetic Engineering– Increased Farm Output
• New Food Sources• Blue Revolution
– Aqua-culture
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Agricultural Economics
• Food Supplies• Food Subsidies• Agricultural Aid• International Food Trade• Cash Crops
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• World Hunger– Famines– Food Shortages
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CHAPTER 11
SOIL RESOURECES AND SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
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What is soil?• Soil, a renewable resource• Soil composition
– humus
• Soil organisms• Soil profiles
– top soil– sub-soil– parent material– bedrock
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Use and Abuse of Soil
• Land Resources
• Land Degradation
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Erosion
• Types of erosion– sheet erosion– rill erosion– gully erosion– streambank erosion
• Erosion in the United States• Erosion in other countries
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Agricultural Resources
• Water• Fertilizer• Climate• Energy• Crop Diversity
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Soil Conservation
• Managing Topography– contour plowing– strip-farming– tied ridges– terracing
• Providing Ground Cover– cover crops– mulch
• Reduced Tillage Systems
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CHAPTER 12
PEST CONTROL
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What are Pest and Pesticides?• Biological Pests
– Insects– Large animals
• Botanical Pests– Weeds
• Pesticides– Insecticides
• Herbicides– Fungicides
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Pest Controls
• Early Controls– Botanical– Chemical
• Modern Controls– Synthetic chemicals
• DDT
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Pesticide Types• Inorganic pesticides• Natural organic pesticides
– botanicals
• Fumigants• Chlorinated hydrocarbons• Organophosphates• Carbamates• Microbial agents
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Pesticide Benefits
• Disease control• Crop protection• Increased crop production
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Pesticide Problems
• Effects on Nontarget Species• Pesticide Resistance/Pest resurgence• Creation of New Pests• Persistence and Mobility in the
Environment• Human Health Problems
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Alternative Pesticide Uses
• Crop rotation• Biological controls
– predatory insects– pathogens
• Herbivorous insects• Genetic and bioengineering
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Reducing Pesticide Exposure
• Regulation– EPA– USDA
• Personal Safety
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CHAPTER 13
BIODIVERSITY
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Biodiversity and Species Concept
• What is Biodiversity?• What are species?
– Number of species
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Benefits of Biodiversity
• Food• Drugs• Medicine• Ecological Benefits• Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits
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Threats to Biodiversity
• Extinction• Natural Causes• Mass Extinction
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Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
• Habitat Destruction• Hunting and Fishing• Commercial products and Live Specimens• Predator and Pest Control• Exotic Species Introductions• Disease• Pollution• Genetic Assimilation
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Biodiversity Protection• Hunting and Fishing Laws• Endangered Species Act• Recovery Plans• Private Land and Critical Habitat• Minimum Viable Populations• Habitat Protection• International Wildlife Treaties• Zoos• Botanical Gardens• Captive Breeding Programs
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CHAPTER 14
LAND USE: FORESTS AND RANGELANDS
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World Land Use
• Forest, 30%• Range and pasture, 26%• Cropland, 1%• Other, 33
– tundra– desert– wetlands– urban areas
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World Forests
• Forest Distribution– Closed canopy– Open canopy– Woodland
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Forest Products
• Industrial Timber• Fuelwood
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Tropical Forests
• Diminishing Forests• Swidden Agriculture• Logging and Land Invasions• Forest Protection
– Reforestation
• Debt-for-Nature Swaps
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Temperate Forests
• Ancient forest/old growth forests• Wilderness Protection• Wildlife Protection• Harvesting old growth forests
– clear-cutting– strip-cutting– selective-cutting
• Fire Management
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Rangelands
• Range Management• Overgrazing and Land
Degradation– desertification
• Forage Conversion• Harvesting Wild Animals
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Rangelands in the U.S.
• Bureau of Land Management• State of the Range
– feral animals
• Grazing Fees
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Land Ownership
• Who owns what?
• Land Reform
• Indigenous Lands
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CHAPTER 15
PRESERVING NATURE
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Parks and Nature Preserves
• Origins and History• Natural Landscaping
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North American Parks– Existing Systems– U.S. National Park System– Park Problems
• Over crowding• Roads• Commercialism• Pollution
– Wildlife– New Directions– New Parks
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World Parks and Preserves• Biosphere Reserves• Protecting Natural Heritage• Size and Design of Nature Preserves
– recreation areas– historic areas– conservation areas– pristine research areas
• Conservation and Economic Development• Indigenous Communities
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Wilderness Areas
• Wildlife Refuges– Refuge Management– International Wildlife Preserves
• poaching
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Wetlands, Floodplains, & Coastal Regions
• Wetland Values• Wetland Destruction• Floods and Flood Control
– Floodplains
• Beaches, barrier Islands, and Estuaries
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CHAPTER 16
EARTH AND ITS CRUSTAL RESOURCES
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Earth, A Dynamic Sphere• Earth’s Layers
– Crust– Mantle– Outer Core– Inner Core
• Tectonic Processes– Tectonic Plates– Magma
• Shifting Continents
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Rock Types & How They Formed
• Igneous Rock• Weathering• Sedimentation• Sedimentary Rock• Biogenic Sedimentation• Metamorphic Rock
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Mineralogy
• Metals• Nonmetal Minerals• Strategic Minerals
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Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction
• Mining– tunneling– water leakage– strip mining
• Processing– water pollution– chemical emissions
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Conserving Mineral Resources
• Recycling– Aluminum & Platinum– Steel & Iron
• Substituting New Materials for Old Ones
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Geologic Hazards
• Earthquakes– Tsunami
• Volcanoes• Floods
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CHAPTER 17
AIR, CLIMATE, AND WEATHER
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The Atmosphere,Composition & Structure
• Gas Mixture• Layered Envelope
– Troposphere– Stratosphere– Mesosphere– Thermosphere– Ionosphere
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Weather Engine
• Solar Radiation/ Heat– Albedo (reflectivity)– “Greenhouse effect”
• Convection Currents– Water vapor
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Weather• Energy Balance in the Atmosphere• Convection Cells • Prevailing Winds• Jet Streams• Frontal Weather
– cold and warm fronts• Cyclonic Storms
– hurricanes and tornadoes• Seasonal Winds
– monsoon• Weather Modification
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Climate
• Climatic Catastrophes– Ice Ages
• Driving Forces & Patterns in Climatic Changes– Milankovitch Cycles
• El Niño
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Human-caused Global Climate Change
• Greenhouse Gases– Carbon Dioxide– Aerosols
• Sources– Burning Fossil Fuels– Industrial Processes– Deforestation– Agriculture
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Effects of Climate Change
• Temperature Changes• Impact on Plants and Animals• Rising Sea Levels impacting Coastlines• Melting Ice Packs• Possible Increase of Disease
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Cutting Emissions
• United Nations “Earth Summit”• Kyoto Protocol• Developed Nations• Developing Nations
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CHAPTER 18
AIR POLLUTION
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Natural Sources of Air Pollution
• Volcanoes• Emissions from vegetation
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Human-Caused Air Pollution
• Primary pollutants• Secondary pollutants• Fugitive emissions
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Conventional or “Criteria” Pollutants
• Sulfur compounds• Nitrogen Compounds• Carbon Oxides• Metals and Halogens• Particulate Materials• Volatile Organic Compounds• Photochemical Oxidants
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Unconventional Pollutants
• Emissions & emissions standards• Unconventional or noncriteria pollutants• Aesthetic degradation• Indoor air Pollution
– smoke
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Climate, Topography, & Atmospheric Processes
• Inversions• Dust Domes and Heat Islands• Long Range Transport• Stratospheric Ozone
– chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
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Effects of Air Pollution• Human Health
– bronchitis– emphysema
• Plant Pathology• Acid Deposition
– pH and atmospheric acidity– aquatic effects– forest damage– buildings and monuments– visibility reduction
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Air Pollution Control• Moving Pollution to Remote Areas• Particulate Removal
– filters• Sulfur Removal
– fuel switching and fuel cleaning– limestone injection/fluidized bed combustion– flue gas desulfurization– sulfur recovery processes
• Nitrogen Oxide Control• Hydrocarbon Controls
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Clean Air Legislation• Clean Air Act of 1963• Amendments of 1970• Amendments of 1990
– Acid rain– Urban smog– Toxic air pollutants– Ozone protection– Marketing pollution rights– Toxic organic compounds
• EPA
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CHAPTER 19
WATER USE AND MANAGEMENT
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Water Resources• Hydrologic Cycle
– Evaporation/Sublimation– Saturation Point– Relative humidity– Condensation– Dew Point
• Rainfall & Topography– Rain Shadow
• Desert Belts• Balancing the Water Budget
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Major Water Compartments• Oceans• Glaciers, Ice, & Snow• Ground Water
– infiltration– water table– aquifers
• Rivers and Streams• Lakes and Ponds• Wetlands• The Atmosphere
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Water Availability and Use
• Water Supplies• Drought Cycles• Types of Water Use
– Withdrawal– Consumption– Degradation
• Quantities of Water Use• Use by Sector
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Freshwater Shortages
• A Scarce Resource• Depleting Groundwater
– subsidence– sinkholes
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Increasing Water Supplies
• Seeding Clouds &Towing Icebergs• Desalination• Dams, Reservoirs, Canals, & Aqueducts• Environmental Costs
– Evaporation, Leakage, and Siltation– Loss of Free-Flowing Rivers
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Water Management & Conservation
• Watershed Management• Domestic Conservation• Industrial and Agricultural Conservation• Price Mechanisms
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CHAPTER 20
WATER POLLUTION
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Water Pollution
• Point Sources• Non-point Sources• Atmospheric Deposition
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Types and Effects of Water Pollution
• Infectious Agents• Oxygen-Demanding Wastes• Plant Nutrients & Cultural Eutrophication• Toxic Inorganic Materials
– Heavy Metals– Nonmetallic Salts– Acids and Bases
• Organic Chemicals• Sediments• Thermal Pollution
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Water Quality Today
• Surface Water in the U.S. & Canada
• Surface Water in other Countries• Groundwater and Drinking Water
Supplies• Ocean Pollution
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Water Pollution Control
• Source Reduction• Non-point Sources and Land Management
– Agriculture– Urban runoff– Construction sites– Land disposal
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• Human Waste Disposal– Natural Processes– Municipal Sewage Treatment
• Primary treatment• Secondary treatment• Tertiary treatment
– Low-Cost Waste Treatment• effluent sewerage
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Water Legislation
• Clean Water Act• Clean Water Act Reauthorization• Other Important Water Legislation
– Safe Drinking Water Act– Superfund– Great lakes Water Quality Agreement
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CHAPTER 21
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
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Energy• A Brief History• Current Energy Sources
– Fossil fuels– Nuclear power– Hydroelectric– Solar
• Per Capita Consumption• Energy Use
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Coal
• Coal Resources and Reserves• Mining• Air Pollution
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Oil
• Oil Resources and Reserves• Oil Imports and Domestic Supplies• Oil Shales and Tar Sands
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Natural Gas
• Natural Gas Resources and Reserves• Unconventional Gas Sources
– Methane hydrate
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Nuclear Power
• Nuclear Reactors: How They Work?• Types of Reactors• Alternative Reactor Designs• Breeder Reactors
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Radioactive Waste Management
• Ocean Dumping • Land Disposal
– high-level waste repository– monitored, retrievable storage
• Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants
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Changing Fortunes of Nuclear Power
• Changing Public Opinion• Nuclear Fusion
– Magnetic confinement– Inertial confinement
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CHAPTER 22
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
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Conservation
• Utilization Efficiencies• Energy Conversion Efficiencies
– net energy yield
• Negawatt programs• Co-generation
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Tapping Solar Energy
• A Vast Resource• Passive Solar Heat• Active Solar Heat
– Eutectic Chemicals
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High-Temperature Solar Energy
• Solar Cookers• Promoting Renewable Energy• Photovaltaic Solar Energy
– Photovoltaic Cells
• Storing Electrical Energy
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Energy from Biomass
• Burning Biomass• Fuelwood crisis in LDCs• Dung and Methane as Fuels• Alcohol from Biomass
– gasohol
• Crop Residues, Energy Crops and Peat
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Energy from the Earth’s Forces• Hydropower
– Dams and Hydro Generators
• Wind Energy– Wind Farms
• Geothermal Energy• Tidal and Wave Energy
– Tidal Stations
• Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion
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CHAPTER 23
SOLID, TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTE
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Solid Waste • Waste Stream
– Paper, 38%– Yard waste, 17%– Metals, 8%– Plastics, 8%– Glass, 7%– Food, 7%– Miscellaneous, 14%
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Waste Disposal Methods• Open Dumps• Ocean Dumpings• Landfills• Export Waste• Incineration and Resource Recovery
– Types of incinerators• refuse-derived fuel• mass burn
– Incinerator Cost and Safety
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Reducing the Waste Stream
• Recycling• Composting• Energy from Waste• Reuse• Producing Less Waste
– Photodegradable plastics– Biodegradable plastics
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Hazardous and Toxic Wastes• Hazardous Waste Disposal• Superfund• Hazardous Waste Management
– Produce Less Waste– Convert to Less Hazardous Substances
• Physical treatments• Chemical treatments• Bioremediation
– Store Permanently• Retrievable Storage• Secure Landfills
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CHAPTER 24
URBANIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE CITIES
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Urbanization
• What is a city?– Rural area– Urban area– Village– City– Megacity– Core region
• World Urbanization
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Causes of Urban Growth
• Immigration Push Factors• Immigration Pull Factors• Government Policies
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Urban Problems
• The Developing World– Traffic and Congestion– Air Pollution– Sewer Systems and Water Pollution– Housing
• Slums• Shantytowns• Squatter Towns
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• The Developed World– Urban Problems– Urban Renewal– Noise
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Transportation and City Growth
• Transportation methods– horse & buggy– automobiles
• Roads/freeways
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City Planning
• History• Garden Cities and New Towns• Cities of the Future
– technopolis
• Urban Redesign• Design for Open space
– conservation
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• Urban Redesign– Limit size– Development areas– Shopping malls into city centers– Convenience for shopping and services– Job location– Exercise areas– Diverse housing– “Superblocks”– Self-sustainable food and waste centers– Public participation
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CHAPTER 25
WHAT THEN SHALL WE DO?
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Environmental Education
• Environmental Literacy• Environmental Careers
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Individual Accountability• Shopping for Green Products
– precycling– Non toxic products– recyclable products– natural products– Environmentally friendly products
• Blue Angels and Green Seals• Limits of Green Consumerism• Paying Attention to What’s Important
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Collective Actions• Student Environmental Groups• Mainline Environmental Organizations• Broadening the Environmental Agenda• Deep or Shallow Environmentalism• Radical Environmental Groups• Anti-environmental Backlash
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Global Issues
• Public Opinions and Environmental Protection– “Post materialist” values
• Sustainable Development• International Nongovernmental
Organizations
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Green Government and Politics• Green Politics
– “Green” Parties
• Green Plans• National Legislation• Courts• Executive Branch• Environmental Impact Statements• International Environmental Treaties and
Conventions