REVIEWARTICLE

Environmental management in North American mining sector

Zunaira Asif1 & Zhi Chen1

Received: 28 May 2015 /Accepted: 20 October 2015 /Published online: 3 November 2015# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Abstract This paper reviews the environmental issues andmanagement practices in the mining sector in the NorthAmerica. The sustainable measures on waste managementare recognized as one of the most serious environmental con-cerns in the mining industry. For mining activities, it will beno surprise that the metal recovery reagents and acid effluentsare a threat to the ecosystem as well as hazards to humanhealth. In addition, poor air quality and ventilation in under-ground mines can lead to occupational illness and death ofworkers. Electricity usage and fuel consumption are majorfactors that contribute to greenhouse gases. On the other hand,many sustainability challenges are faced in the management oftailings and disposal of waste rock. This paper aims to high-light the problems that arise due to poor air quality and acidmine drainage. The paper also addresses some of the advan-tages and limitations of tailing and waste rock managementthat still have to be studied in context of the mining sector.This paper suggests that implementation of suitable environ-mental management tools like life cycle assessment (LCA),cleaner production technologies (CPTs), and multicriteria de-cision analysis (MCD) are important as it ultimately lead toimprove environmental performance and enabling a mine tofocus on the next stage of sustainability.

Keywords Sustainable .Mining . Air quality . Recoveryreagents . Ventilation . Tailings

Introduction

The mining industry contributes significantly to the economyinNorth America especially Canada.Mining operations, how-ever, emit various types of pollutants and produce waste thatmust have significant impacts on the environment.Minimizing these impacts, while continuing to be a leadingin mining sector worldwide, is one of the most importantchallenges facing by the North American countries like theUSA, Canada, andMexico. Amine can be operated in variousways including open pit, underground methods, surface strip-ping, and hydraulic leaching (NSWmining 2013). Theminingoperation also includes milling. In turn, the methods of bothmining and milling generated a large amount of waste that canaffect the surrounding ecosystem (Natural Resources Canada2005).

The mining sector in the USA contributes 2.33 % to thecountry’s annual gross domestic product (GDP). The leadingmineral resources in the USA include coal, copper, gold, ironore, lead, silver, uranium, zinc, and rare earths (Pwc report2012). Quebec ranked first among the Canadian provinces,in terms of metallic mineral producer. Approximately 30 min-erals are mined, with the most important being gold, iron,copper, silver, zinc, nickel, titanium, niobium, and stone(MERN 2014). Mexico weighs among the world’s largestmetal producer due to its geological potential. During 2010,Mexico regained the world’s first place in silver productionand also recorded major production of copper, gold, and zinc(Deloitte 2012).

The concerned environmental challenges in North Americamining sector are degradation of water quality, erosion/

Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues

* Zhi Chenzhichen@alcor.concordia.ca

Zunaira Asifzunairabilal1@gmail.com

1 Department of Building, Civil and Environmental Engineering(BCEE), Faculty of Engineering and Computer Sciences, ConcordiaUniversity, Montreal, QC, Canada

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:167–179DOI 10.1007/s11356-015-5651-8

sedimentation, effect on air quality (Emissions of nitrogenoxide (NOx), sulfur oxide (SOx), and particulate matter(PM10 and PM2.5) from various activities of mine (NationalPollutant Release Inventory 2013) and greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions (Mining Association Report 2012). In Canada, theextraction and transformation of metals create risks of nega-tive impacts on the environment and on the surrounding com-munities. Not only do the processes of metals require impor-tant quantities of energy, water, and toxic reagents (e.g., cya-nide) but also responsible for the greenhouse gas generation,vast quantities of atmospheric pollution, dust, and especiallysolid rock wastes (Ecojustice Report 2009). In addition to theabovementioned environmental issues in the mining sector,acid mine drainage (AMD) and metal leaching of tailing candeteriorate water quality, can kill aquatic life like fish, andmake water practically unusable (Environmental MiningCouncil of B.C. 2012).

Many reagents used in processes of mining can cause airpollution like SO2 in the process of cyanide destruction andduring fuel consumption. Fuel combustion is also responsiblefor the release of carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxide(NOx). Particulate emissions are primarily associated with fu-gitive dust that comes from usage of heavy equipment such ashaul truck and windblown dust from mineral stockpiles andblasting activities. Point source emissions from ore crushingare also potentially important (CEAA 2010). Carbon dioxide(CO2) will derive mainly from on-site fuel combustion, explo-sive detonation, and from off-site power generation at theenergy production sources which are responsible for carbonfootprints. Additional consumption of fuel and CO2 emissionswill result from transportation of people and materials to themining site (CEAA 2010).

In order to evaluate environmental performances in themining sector, there is a need to study all environmental chal-lenges faced by the mining sector. This paper consists of areview of environmental issues and risk assessment at minesites, followed by a summary of treatment methods for tailingsand waste rocks. This paper also provides studies of variousenvironmental management tools like a life cycle assessmentmodel, cleaner production technologies, and multicriteria de-cision analysis techniques for addressing environmental issuesin the mining sector.

Environmental challenges and issues in miningsector

Short-term waste management issues

There are dozens of mines in USA and Canada that have leftscars on the land and which are responsible for continuoussource of pollution as mining waste leak into rivers and lakes.In the past, many of the mining sites have been closed due to

improper tailings disposal and poor waste dumping plans. Forinstance, in 2010 Saskatchewan, BGolden Band Resources^ atits Jolu Central Gold Mill proposed to dump around 200,000 tof tailings per year into Mallard Lake, which had been previ-ously used as a tailings dump for 24 years and caused severecontamination in the water of Mallard Lake and responsiblefor fish death in YewLake (CEAA 2010). Manymines causedenvironmental issues due to short-term waste managementlike Lorraine mine due to improper disposal of 600,000 t oftailing in pond caused acid seepage problem (Anne-Marieet al. 2001) and acid generating issues at Louvicourt sulfidedeposit, Val-d’Or, Quebec (Ouellet et al. 2010).

Risk issues due to metal recovery reagents

Cyanide is used for metal recovery in mining processes (inCanada, more than 90 % of the mines, gold is extracted fromores with the cyanidation process (Ronald et al. 2004)) con-sidered as deadly chemical. Exposure to high levels of cyanideharms the brain and heart and may cause coma and death.Exposure to lower levels may result in breathing difficulties,heart pains, vomiting, blood changes, headaches, and enlarge-ment of the thyroid gland (Eisler 2000). Fish kills from acci-dental discharges of cyanide gold mining wastes are common(Da Rosa and Lyon 1997; Eisler et al. 1999; Eisler 2000).Many species of migratory birds were found dead in the im-mediate vicinity of gold mine heap leach extraction facilitiesand tailing ponds, presumably as a result of drinking thecyanide-contaminated waters (Clark and Hothem 1991;Henny et al. 1994; Hill and Henry 1996; Da Rosa and Lyon1997). Other than cyanide, sometimes mercury is used bysmall-scale operations for metal extraction which not onlypoisons the workers and their families but is also disperseddirectly into rivers, irreversibly contaminating the local fish-eries and environment (Cordy et al. 2011). Mercury emissionsare slated to go down 80 % by 2016 compared to 1990 levels,due to US environmental protection agency (EPA) regulationsfrom the year 2011 in the gold mining and cement plants(NRDC 2015). In August 2014, in Northern Mexico,2000 cm3 of cyanide solution leaked at a gold mine inDurango, after heavy rain caused a tailing pond to overflow.More than 20,000 people were left without drinking water(Wilton 2014).

Greenhouse gases and carbon credit

January 1, 2013, marked the beginning of a new era in thefight against greenhouse gases and climate change in Québec,the era of the western climate initiative’s (WCI) carbon mar-ket. Industries that emit 25,000 metric tons or more of CO2

equivalent a year are subject to the cap and trade system forthe first compliance period (2013–2014). Fossil fuel distribu-tors will also be subject to the system starting in January 2015

168 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:167–179

when the second compliance period begins. The third compli-ance period will extend from 2018 to 2020 (Technical over-view Quebec 2013).

Electricity use and fuel consumption are mainly responsi-ble for just over half of the GHG emissions. This indicates thatattempts to lessen the environmental impact should focus onthese two stages (Norgate and Haque 2012). Figure 1 showstotal CO2 production and GHG emissions for the Canadianmetal mining industry from the year 2000 to 2013. Overall,metal mining produces 3397 (Kt CO2 eq.) and 3466 (Kt CO2

eq.) of total GHGs in average during this time period(CIEEDAC 2015).

Poor ventilation and air quality

Poor air quality in underground mines can lead to occupation-al illness and death of workers. In particular, workers are atrisk when exposed to carbon monoxide in diesel exhaust.Sixty-nine mine workers died from occupational diseases, in-cluding cancer, according to claims accepted by the workplacesafety and insurance board (WSIB) of Ontario between 2008and 2013 (Ontario Ministry of Labour 2013).

Based on national pollutant release inventory (NPRI) re-port 2013, between 1998 and 2011, the mining sector madeconsiderable progress in reducing emissions of air pollutants,i.e., SOx (52.0 %), PM2.5 (44.2 %), NOx (28.4 %), and PM10

(26.9 %) (see Table 1). At the subsector level, emissions ofeach pollutant have declined consistently in non-metallic min-eral product manufacturing and in primary metal manufactur-ing section. However, emissions of two pollutants increased inthe mining as well as in rock quarrying subsector, i.e., PM10

levels increased by 0.03 % for the same time period and by13.9% between 2008 and 2011, whereas NOx levels increased

by 24.2 % between 2008 and 2011 (National PollutantRelease Inventory 2013). The increased level of airborne par-ticulate matter resulted from various operational activities in-cluding drilling, blasting, crushing, loading, hauling, andtransferring to belts. In addition, open pit mining, waste rockstockpiling, and open dumped solid waste are also major po-tential sources of dust/windblown PM10. Similarly, the per-centage of NOx increased due to fuel and diesel consumptionby heavy equipment used during haulage, drilling, mainte-nance, personnel transportation, generators, and heating andcooling. On the other hand, the decline in SOx, PM2.5, andNOx emissions can be attributed in part to federal and provin-cial government regulatory initiatives such as the implemen-tation of the Canada-wide acid rain strategy for post-2000, aswell as treaties with the USA on SOx emission caps. Thereduction can also be attributed to the use of low-sulfur fuels,upgradation of technologies, pollution control equipment forbase-metal smelters, and proper mine closures (NationalPollutant Release Inventory 2013).

There are strict rules for health and safety of workers byQuebec government, especially those working in undergroundmining. Fresh air must be supplied to all underground workareas in sufficient amounts by main fans and ventilation cir-cuits to prevent any dangerous or harmful accumulation ofdusts, fumes, mists, vapors, or gases (OHS Quebec 2015).Natural ventilation by itself is no longer regarded as workablein large room-and-pillar mines in the USA because it does notguarantee a consistent measurable airflow (Head 2001a).

If natural ventilation does not provide the necessary airquality through sufficient air volume and air flow, the employ-er must provide mechanical ventilation to ensure that eachemployee working underground has at least 200 ft3 (5.7 m3)of fresh air per minute (OSHA 2013).

No. of years

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014

CO

2 eq

.(K t

)

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

total CO2 in metal mining

total GHGs in metal mining

GHGs in gold mining

GHGs in Iron mining

GHGs in lead,Nicle,Copper & Zinc

Fig. 1 Carbon dioxide andgreenhouse gas emission from2000 to 2013 in Canada metalmining sector (source: CanadianIndustrial Energy End use Dataand Analysis Center (CIEEDAC2015))

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:167–179 169

Diesel-powered equipment has gained huge popularity inunderground mines; however, this equipment emits importantamounts of gaseous and particulate pollutants that necessitatea considerable increase in ventilation airflow requirementsalso along the depth of mine in order to satisfy the healthand safety regulations (Bartsch et al. 2010; Rody et al.2014). The evaluation of a mine ventilation system can be bestexpressed by calculating the volumetric efficiency. It relies onthe simple formula as given below Eq. (1) (Stinnette 2013):

Ventilation Efficiency %ð Þ

¼ 100� Total Quantity of Air usefully employed

Total Quantity of Air Supplied through the Main Fan sð Þð1Þ

Improper treatment of acid effluent

Treatment of acidic effluent is required so that dischargedwaters can meet a specific pH range and maximum concen-tration of metals (Ritcey 1989; Azcue 1999; Bruno 2009;Edwards et al. 2011). Among the methods used for treatingacid mine drainage (AMD), the most common are biologicalprocesses, chemical treatment which is typically performed byneutralization with lime, followed by the precipitation ofmetals as hydroxides and solid-liquid separation (Walton-Day 2003). These approaches that have been traditionallyused by the mining industry to tackle these problems havebeen unable to effectively prevent environmental damages,improper sludge handling (Dromer et al. 2004), and contactof rainwater with pyrite during AMD management and con-sequently have created enormous cleanup costs for firms(Akcil and Soner 2006). The problem should be tackled byimproving characterization methods of mine wastes and efflu-ents and by developing more representative modeling ap-proaches based on lab and experimental data. An importantincident occurred on August 2014, remembered as Bthe worstenvironmental disaster by the mining industry in moderntimes,^ was of a copper-producing company Buenavista delCobre, a subsidiary of Mexico’s largest mining corporation

Mexico, spilt 40,000 cm3 of copper sulfate acid into publicwaterways near Cananea (located in northernMexican state ofSonora). The toxic leak had affected more than 24,000 peopleand aquatic life (see Fig. 2a) followed by abnormally heavyrainfall, which caused the mine’s tailing pond to overflow,releasing an estimated 40,000 cm3 of heavy-metal-laden slur-ry into the river (Tetreault 2014; Wilton 2014).

Impact of climate change and other natural hazardson mining activities

In contrast to the fact that the mining sector is responsible foremissions of greenhouse gases and other adverse factorswhich lead to global consequences, climate changing alsoprovide potential opportunities to affect the mining activities(Nelson and Schuchard 2009; see Fig. 3). In order to deal withphysical and chemical constraints of the mined degraded eco-system and climate change, it is very necessary to understandthe important interaction mechanisms. For instance, reflectiv-ity or albedo factor (the portion of solar radiation reflected bythe atmosphere). The surface albedo varies throughout the dayas depends upon the color and texture of earth’s surface, e.g.,yellow gold tailings give a value of albedo 0.33, whereas darkbrown tailings give 0.06 value (Geoffrey 2010). Black carbonwhich is generated due to various mining activities (Kholodand Evans 2015) is also responsible for rising regional andglobal temperatures (World Bank Report 2014). Other heatemissions generated during mining processes if coupled withhumidity may cause serious illness (Michael 2012). In turn,warming temperatures may increase water scarcity, inhibitingsoil farming operations and complicating site reclamationsand ecological restoration (Klára et al. 2011).

Climate is an integral component of the operating environ-ment for the North America mining sector. However, in recentyears, mines across Canada have been affected by significantNaTech accidents, several which are regarded to be indicativeof climate change. In the mining sector, climate change is anirresistible environmental threat as well as a significant busi-ness risk (Pearce et al. 2011). Examples of the miningindustry’s vulnerability to climatic conditions are as follows:

Table 1 Air emissions in miningsector (tonnes) for the year 1998,2008, and 2011 (NationalPollutant Release Inventory 2013)

Mining and rock quarrying (tonnes) Non-metallic mineral production (tonnes)

Years SOx NOx PM10 PM2.5 SOx NOx PM10 PM2.5

1998 55,852 42,694 49,598 19,932 39,490 44,102 19,859 9439

2008 23,203 30,011 43,566 13,406 32,235 38,430 18,508 8977

2011 17,729 37,265 49,614 11,757 22,940 30,053 14,652 6950

Primary metal manufacturing (tonnes) Total sector emissions (tonnes)

SOx NOx PM10 PM2.5 SOx NOx PM10 PM2.5

1998 890,910 27,328 41,768 28,813 986,252 114,124 111,225 58,184

2008 665,563 18,453 21,107 16,064 721,002 86,895 83,182 38,448

2011 432,605 14,340 17,003 13,765 473,274 81,658 81,269 32,472

170 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:167–179

& A prolonged drought in Saskatchewan in the late 1980sresulted in the Chaplin sodium sulfate mine to have almostno production due to reduced water levels. In 2005, asimilar situation in Ontario resulted in several mines, re-ducing water intake and finding alternative resources(Dale et al. 2009).

& Hot and dry temperatures in recent years have decreasedthe availability of water in southern Quebec, forcing grav-el quarries to decrease production in order to abide by dustsuppression regulations. Moreover, in several Ontariomines, usually but not exclusively, employees face highheat exposure levels that can lead to heat stress duringdeep mining operations (Dale et al. 2009; Health andSafety Report 2014).

& In 1998, ice storm cut off power to several Quebec minesfor 3 to 4 weeks (Dale et al. 2009).

& In August 2008, heavy rains in the Yukon flooded 4 km ofthe Minto mine access road and forced the company torelease excess untreated water directly into the YukonRiver system. Still, climate changing is observed in thisregion of considerable uncertainty about future conditionsand trends because of the lack of good quality standard-ized long-term data. There are relatively few meteorolog-ical stations in this part of the Yukon and have variedrecording histories. It is expected that increased glacial

melt, early spring runoff, and variability in precipitationwill change hydrological regimes. Consequent eventssuch as flooding have the potential to add to the miningcost by disturbing mining operational activities and trans-portation (Duerden et al. 2014).

& Deteriorating ice conditions due to unseasoned warm tem-perature led to closure of the southern portion of the winterroad for several weeks in the year 2006. The mines thatdepend on the winter ice road to bring in fuel, heavyequipment, bulk supplies, and explosive material includethe Diavik diamond mine, BHP Billiton’s (BHP-N) Ekatimine, Tahera Diamond’s newly constructed Jericho mine,and De Beers’ Snap Lake project. These mines in theNorthwest Territories (NWT) in Canada cost millions ofdollars for fuel and other auxiliary equipment to betransported by air (Global mining news 2006).

Tailing and waste management

Tailings are of great and growing concern in themining sector,specifically due to the presence of heavy metals. TheCanadian mineral industry generates one million tonnes ofwaste rock and 950,000 t of tailings per day, totaling 650

Fig. 2 Examples of acid minedrainage and tailings dam failure:a 40,000 cm3 of copper sulfateacid poisoned the Sonora River,Mexico (Tetreault 2014); bmassive breach of the tailing pondof Mount Polley mine in BritishColumbia, Canada (CBC News2014); c storm water pipedraining coal ash into Dan River,Carolina, USA (WISE 2015)

Mining Activities

Greenhouse Gases

emissions (GHGs)

Consumption of

fossil fuel

(Processing &

Transportation)

Electricity

generation

Fugitive sources

Climate change

Environmental

concern

Surface erosion;

Hot and dry

temperatures;

Water level

reduced/increased

(a) Reflectivity

Earth’s climate varies over

time due to change is solar

energy and reflectivity of

mining surface

(b) Black carbon responsible

for Increase in temperature

(85%) diesel usage

Drilling equipment

Shovel, bulldozers,

excavators

Haul trucks

(c) Heat emissions

Energy sector in mining is

responsible for heat content

which contributed in high

rise in temperature

Key factors to

help in mitigation

Internal

mechanism

Responsible for

climate change

Fig. 3 Interlink betweengreenhouse gases and climatechanges in mining sector alongwith interaction mechanism

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:167–179 171

million tonnes of waste per year (Government of Canada1991). Reported levels of tailings and waste rock were rela-tively consistent despite the fluctuations in mineral productionbetween 2006 and 2009. However, levels increased by 23 %between 2009 and 2010 and by 27 % between 2010 and 2011(Environment Canada 2011).

The storage required due to the volume of tailings oftenexceeds the in situ total volume of the ore being mined andprocessed. Storage of tailings not only requires a significantamount of land but also has the potential of causing river andair pollution. Historically, tailings were routinely dischargeddirectly into the nearest surface water course and is still prac-ticed in some parts of the world. This type of tailings disposalcreates vast environmental liabilities and costs associated withremediation and reclamation (Reid et al. 2009).

Solid mine wastes are usually stored aboveground in theform of piles or in tailings impoundments around or near minesites. In the past, tailings were directly discharged to rivers orwetlands. Disposing of large volumes of mine waste into ariver system may increase sediment load and result in thedownstream deposition of sediments. Currently, tailings areused as backfill underground, stored in open pits, dried, andstacked or pumped into tailings impoundments ranging(Edward et al. 2011). Furthermore, tailings have a large sur-face area which may also affect their chemical stability, par-ticularly when sulfide minerals are present in the wastes. Inthis case, water contamination of surface and undergroundmine becomes a concern (Ritcey 1989; Bruno 2009).

Another serious concern of tailing storage is the safety asso-ciated with the impoundment structures. Failure of the impound-ment can have severe impact on people living in the immediatevicinity as well as the environment. For instance, the recentepisode was a breach of the tailing pond of Mount Polley minein British Columbia on August 2014, due to which 25 millioncubic meters of contaminated water and mining waste-pollutedlakes, creeks, and rivers (CBC News 2014) as shown in Fig. 2b(CBC News 2014), and on February 2014, collapse of an olddrainage pipe under a 27-acre ash waste pond at the coal mine,Eden, North Carolina, USA, contaminated Dan River by 82,000 t of toxic coal ash (see Fig. 2c) (WISE 2015).

Mine wastes and tailings require careful management toensure the long-term stability of storage and disposal facilities.During the design phase of a mine, waste management plansare frequently developed and the reclamation of waste rockdumps and tailing ponds are increasingly incorporated into thedesigns of new mines. Rigorous site selection methods areavailable for the location of mine waste-related facilities butare optimized by mine engineers depending on specific siteconditions. Selection of site for waste disposal, storage, ortreatment selection must proceed simultaneously with the se-lection of the most appropriate control and closure technolo-gies that will be applied at each site. These designs take intoaccount the potential for extreme events, such as earthquakes

and floods. The factors involved in land disposal are topogra-phy, hydrology, site seismicity, geology, and land use. Wasterock storage facilities vary in height depending strongly on thetopographic conditions at the mine site. Slope failures of highwaste rock storage facilities in steep terrain can affect largeareas due to surface runoff (Van Zyl et al. 2002). Slope stabil-ity has therefore been emphasized in developing these facili-ties. Surface water controls, such as diversions and speciallyconstructed channels, are mostly recommended to limit ero-sion in any terrain but especially when it is steep (Tailings Info2015). Other tailings and waste rock management and currentpractices are mentioned in Table 2.

Stability of the geotechnical infrastructure of mine-relatedunits during their operating life is paramount. Mining and geo-technical engineers should be responsible for maintaining sta-bility of these structures. Although many user-friendly comput-er programs are commercially available, still there is need ofselection of the shear strength parameters and other materialand site characteristics. The overall stability of storage structureand heap leach facilities are dependent on the foundation con-ditions, characteristics of the materials used in the structure, thewater pressure in the facility, and the potential for flood/earthquake events at the site. Moreover, tailings facilities thatcontain large amounts of storage may also be vulnerable toovertopping as the tailings are readily eroded. Any over-topping may result in the containment being washed away,causing a huge failure of the facility (Van Zyl et al. 2002).

Environmental management concerns in mining

There are many activities taking place at a time in the miningindustry. Many of these processes have the potential to dete-riorate the air, soil, and water quality. During operation andmaintenance phases, some of the processes have significant,negative and long-term impact on the ecosystem. FollowingTable 3 illustrated some of the highlighted processes and areaswhich will be further investigated through sampling andconducting surveys, so that detailed analysis would be donebefore selecting any suitable treatment option.

Future trend toward sustainable developmentin mining sector

To contribute to sustainable development, a mine must lessenenvironmental impacts throughout its life cycle, from explo-ration to reclamation. This would be accomplished througheffective environmental management strategy. During explor-atory stages, effort must be made to avoid adverse impact toflora, fauna, and to aquatic life. During the operational phase,cleaner (mining) technologies must be integrated into variousmodes of operations including substitution technology/fuel or

172 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:167–179

equipment modification. Finally, during mine closure phase,effective reclamationmust occur andmonitoringmust be doneto ensure that air quality is maintained and surface andgroundwater resources are protected (Hilson and Murck2000). The sustainability in the mining sector is accomplishedby adopting a number of environmental management tools asshown in Fig. 4, the most important of which include life cycleassessment (LCA) modeling, cleaner production technologies(CPTs), and selection of best practicable environmental option(BPEO) by multicriteria decision (MCD) technique.

Life cycle assessment modeling

The LCA technique has been used to assess environmentalimpacts associated with various products and systems.

Unfortunately, its use in assessing mining processes hasbeen limited, as evidenced by the limited published literatureon LCA applications in mining (Durucan et al. 2006;Norgate and Haque 2010). This situation is particularly truefor metal mining (Ingwersen 2011; Norgate and Haque2012). Examples of previous LCA case studies of specificmining sectors include smelting of sulfide ores (Norgate andRankin 2002), copper production and its sources (Li andGuan 2009; Northey et al. 2013), aluminum ore mining(Swart and Dewulf 2013), gold mining (Ingwersen 2011;Norgate and Haque 2012), greenhouse gases due to nickelproduction (Norgate and Jahanshahi 2011), environmentalassessment of Barytes mineral (Ravi and Sridhar 2012),and estimation of environmental impacts in surface coalmining (Stewart and Petrie 2006).

Table 2 Pros and cons of current tailing and waste management practices

Tailing and waste rockmanagement

Advantages Disadvantages

Conventionalimpoundment/wet(sedimentationpond)

• Retain tailing for longer time period (Douglas 1996)• Remove suspended solids from waste prior to discharge

(Douglas 1996)

• Embankment failure would compromise acid rock drainagecontrol and cause significant adverse environmental impact;chances of tailing to mix with water from natural resources(Mining Watch Canada Report 2009)

• In situ volume increased, and new pond will be required(NRCan 2005)

• Flooding chances (European commission 2009)

Thickened, paste anddry stack disposal(land based)

• Water recovery and reuse by thickening the tailing waste(Mining Watch Canada Report 2009)

• Reduce the amount of water infiltration and may also seal theleak, minimize the filter size (Frank 2007)

• Provision of effective control of sulfide mineral oxidation(Fortier 2007)

• Highest overall engineering and capital cost for construction;• Additional cost for paste production and pumping facility

(may offset embankment savings) (Fortier 2007)

In-pit tailing • Voids can be filled at a fraction of the costs associated withdesigning, constructing, and operating a conventional,thickened, paste or dry stack facility;

• Tailings do not require retaining walls; thus, the risksassociated with embankment instability are eliminated(Breitenbach 2008)

• The potential for groundwater contamination below andaround the void can be very significant (DME 1999)

• Reduces the solar drying and desiccation potential of thetailings resulting in low strength and poor consolidationproperties (DPI 2003)

• Poor consolidation can result in long durations of surfacedeformation after a pit has been filled;

• Groundwater bores will have to be installed around the pit tomonitor the seepage plumes (DME 1999)

Backfill • Problems associated with dust generation, visual impact,contamination of surface water courses, and inundation risksassociated with tailings facility failure can be mitigatedusing backfill;

• Binders help to minimize groundwater contamination;oxidation rates for pyritic tailings can be reduced (acid rockdrainage (ARD) development prevents roof falls fromblasting (air over pressure (AOP));

• Increased water recovery from the tailings prior to storagewhen compared to conventional disposal (Tailing Info 2015)

• High costs, particularly if binders are used• Expensive positive displacement pumps are usually required

for high-density tailings discharge, seepage of tailingseffluent into groundwater, thus possible contamination,extra manpower, and equipment management (operation ofan independent plant required) (Tailings Info 2015)

• In goldmines where tailings contain cyanide, there is a risk ofcyanide gas poisoning if tailings are backfilled whileworkers are still underground (Mining Watch CanadaReport 2009)

Offshore disposal • Offshore disposal may be used where onshore techniques areeither not possible due to terrain, high seismic activity, highrainfall, and land availability (Coumans 2002)

• Reduces engineering requirements and reduces or preventsthe tailings storage footprint onshore (EC 2004)

• Unpredictable nature of the tailings flows as they leave adischarge outlet, the unknown effects on subaqueousenvironments, and the potential for contamination migration(EC 2004),

• Loss of some, or all, of the contained aquatic habitat, potentialto alter downstream water

• Quality and hydrology (Fortier 2007)

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:167–179 173

To analyze the environmental performance in the miningprocess, there is a need to develop the conceptual model byusing LCAmodel. LCAmodel is used to identify and quantifythe environmental performance of a mining process (Tan andKhoo 2005; Durucan et al. 2006; Ekvall et al. 2007; Norgateand Haque 2012). The system boundary can be drawn aroundthe process of interest only. The material and energy flows thatenter or leave the system include energy resources, pathways,and emissions to water, soil, and air. These are termed asBenvironmental burdens,^ and they arise from various activi-ties as shown in Fig. 4. For instance, gold miningencompassing crushing, grinding, flotation/thickening,cyanidation, extraction, and concentrate (Ronald et al. 2004).The potential impacts of these burdens on the environment arenormally affected on air quality, generation of greenhousegases and carbon footprints. The LCA methodology is basedon International Organization for Standardization (ISO)(14040 and 14044) guidelines. In general, methodologicalframework comprises four phases as follows (ISO 2006;

Awuah-Offei and Adekpedjou 2011): goal and scope defini-tion, life cycle inventory analysis, impact assessment, andinterpretation.

LCA has an analytical approach to system analysis andconsidered as an important decision-making tool in environ-mental management. In contrast to other site-specific methodsfor environmental impact analysis, such as EnvironmentalImpact Assessment and Environmental Audit, it not only fo-cuses on the emissions/pollutant generated but also broadenthe horizon to include all burdens per unit of each process.Mining LCA studies have adopted some of the impact cate-gories that are used mostly for all studies. However, variousauthors have recognized the fact that the standard impact cat-egories (global warming, ozone depletion, human toxicity,fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity, acidification, and eutrophica-tion potential impacts) are not enough to describe the environ-mental impacts of mining. Land transformation due to defor-estation or waste pits, water and energy usage impacts, andresource depletion are some of the impacts that have been

Table 3 Environmentalmanagement concerns in mining(adapted from EnvironmentCanada 2009)

Processes Potential concern

Air quality

Operation and maintenance of vehicles andany on-site power generation facilities

Potential releases of particulate matter, carbonmonoxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide,and volatile organic compounds

Fuel and chemical transportation, handling, andstorage

Potential releases of volatile organic compoundsand other harmful substances

Blasting and crushing Potential release of airborne particulate matter

Processing of metal recovery, e.g., cyanidation Potential release of hydrogen cyanide gas

Process of cyanide destruction Potential release of sulfur dioxide

Water quality and aquatic ecosystems

Process of cyanidation The potential concentrations of ore processingreagents (e.g., cyanide) and their breakdownproducts in processing wastewater

Tailing ponds Metal leaching and acid drainage

Drilling Acid generation from exposed sulfide minerals

Waste rocks Metal leaching and acid drainage

Treatment facilities Potential metals and acid compounds in sludge

Soil quality and terrestrial ecosystems

Fuel and chemical transportation, handling,and storage

In the event of spills, potential releases ofpetroleum products or chemicals that couldaffect soils, vegetation, and wildlife

Operation of vehicles Vehicle operations may result in collisions withwildlife

Disposal of waste rocks or backfilling Land usage and acid drainage

Climate change

Operation and maintenance of vehicles and anyon-site power generation facilities

Greenhouse gases

Fuel and chemical transportation, handling, andstorage

Greenhouse gases

Treatment facilities Greenhouse gases

Tailing ponds Greenhouse gases

174 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:167–179

suggested as equally important in mining LCA (Durucan et al.2006). Likewise, all other life cycle inventories (LCIs), themining LCIs draw their database from various sources, includ-ing company websites, detailed surveys, data collection atmine site, and industry-wide statistics and government reports(Suppen et al. 2006). LCI analysis is the most strategic phaseof LCA as it provides a base to analyze environmental impact.

Cleaner production technologies

In the context of environmental issues that persist in the min-ing sector, there is a need to develop strategies and implementcleaner technologies in order to achieve improvement. Thebasic one is a substitution strategy, which simply involvesreplacing one type of technologies with another type. For ex-ample, cyanidation is used instead of the mercury amalgam-ation in gold refining processes as mercury amalgamationtechniques have been known to have serious environmentaland health issues. In contrast, cyanidation techniques are far

more environmentally benign (Hilson and Murck 2000). Theother strategy would be a replacement, which is simply theupgrading of existing systems using more effective moderntechniques. For example, Minrail company has developed aninnovative mining system for shallow-angle mining opera-tions S.A.M.S™ that promises to revolutionize mining opera-tions. It claims that the mining cost could be reduced by 45 %compared to conventional room-and-pillar mining and reduc-tion of fossil fuel (Poirier et al. 2014). Mines will requireproper strategies in achieving higher levels of sustainabilityand since cleaner technologies result in increased input duringimportant decision-making processes, they can help a mineachieve marked environmental and socioeconomicimprovements.

Multicriteria decision analysis technique

MCD techniques provide a structured approach to a decision-making process (see Fig. 4). This enables systematic analysis

Cleaner Production Technology

Life Cycle Assessment

Inputs

Mass Balance

OutputsMining Process

-Ore (Raw

material)

-Energy

-Mining system

-Tailing pond

-Treatment

-Water effluent

-Solid waste

-Air emission

Comparison of potential Alternative Mining technologies

Existing system Alternative technology

Determine Multi criteria Decision (MCD) analysis

Identify Criteria (e.g. C1,C2….Cn)

Use MCD method

Result Analysis

Is this optimal

Alternative

No YesSelect the

technology

Fig. 4 Framework of systematicanalysis of mining process

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:167–179 175

and modeling options with the target of providing guidance todecision-makers in identifying their most desired and bestsolution (Mokhtari et al. 2012). The major pros of this tech-nique are that it is transparent, non-ambiguous, and easy to useby non-experts. In the past, a number of methods for orderingand quantifying preferences have been developed and some ofthem include simple additive weighting (Madani et al. 2013),weighted product (Pohekar and Ramachandran 2004), criteriaselection (Wang 2009), median ranking method, the analytichierarchy process (Saaty 2008), and uncertainty in criteriaweights and alternative performance values (Madani andLund 2011). The preference of a suitable MCD technique willdepend on a given decision-making situation and need of thedecision-makers. Most of these techniques are based on adefinition of a multiattribute or utility function, which associ-ates a number with each alternative to reflect the importance ofthe attribute in the opinion of the decision-maker, so that allalternatives may be considered.

Conclusions

This paper has presented a broad-ranging review of environ-mental issues and management, with a principal focus on thekey aspects of environmental impacts associated with mining.The environment is mainly affected by the discharge of heavi-ly polluted tailing waste and air pollutants; thus, the signifi-cance and magnitude of the associated risk and selection ofmitigation options are site dependent. Cyanide is one of themost dangerous chemical used during metal recovery process.Tailing waste contaminated with acid and heavy metals isvulnerable to the surrounding ecosystem, therefore should betreated prior to discharge. However, there is no standardizedmethod for predicting, measuring, and reducing the risk ofacidic effluent. Advantages and limitations of various tech-niques of tailings and waste management were also studiedin this paper. It makes sense to gear the response to the prob-ability of serious consequences, which requires a sustainableapproach toward storage and proper disposal of tailings.

On the other hand, tracking trends in air emissions provid-ed an indication that NOx and PM10 emissions have bothincreased from 2008 to 2011 in the North America miningand quarrying subsector. The generation of greenhouse gasesis inevitable or likely due to consumption of diesel fuel at alarger level. In 2011, the metal mining sector emitted 3500CO2 eq. (Kt) of GHG with an increase of 300 Kt (8.5 %) ascompared to the year 2000. Of note, emissions increased by15.7 % (3800 Kt) between 2006 and 2008 before increasingagain in the years 2012 and 2013. This study also highlightsthe incidents of climate change and natural hazards’ impact onthe mining sector.

Undoubtedly, the prediction of weather patterns and otherclimatic scenarios’ impact on various activities in the mining

sector should be a priority. The delays caused by the lack ofresources lead to the advanced damage of the mining sectorand of course to the increase of costs associated with ecolog-ical rehabilitation. Moreover, physical stability of infrastruc-ture (e.g., dam storage) and sustainable waste managementprograms are required to ensure long-term environmental sta-bility of those mining sites which are abandoned or treated ona short-term basis. In underground mining practices, it mustbegin with recognition that there is poor ventilation systemthat would give rise to suffocation problems for workers at acertain depth. However, each employee who is working atcertain depth should be facilitated with mechanical ventilationin addition to natural ventilation system. The assessment ofrisk and impact is therefore very useful in performing a de-tailed financial planning and estimation for the sustainabilityof the mines. Conclusively, the study emphasizes the signifi-cance of using the integrated approach methodology for theevaluation of environmental performance and associated risk.The best sustainable solution could be selected by introducingdeterministic and probabilistic multicriteria decision analysisframework in the context of life cycle assessment along withthe knowledge of cleaner production technologies.

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