Environmental benefits and business decision making · PDF filebenefits and business decision...

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Environmental benefits and business decision making toolkitThis toolkit is designed to

help businesses who want to gain a fuller picture of the relationship between their operations and the environment.

Introduction

An Ecosystems Approach

Dependencies

Activities and Impacts

All businesses are to some degree dependent on the natural environment and the benefits or services it provides us with. Equally, the way we run businesses can have significant implications for the environment – both positively and negatively.

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How will the toolkit help you?

An ecosystems approach

Structure of the toolkit

About the toolkit

1 IntroductionHow will the toolkit help you?


Toolkit structure

About the toolkit

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About the toolkit


The toolkit is designed to help you:

• Better understand those aspects of the environment upon which your business depends

• Help you take account of environmental effects flowing from your business decisions

• Identify opportunities to reduce negative effects and increase benefits

This should, in turn, help you to:

• Justify proposals and demonstrate their effects to regulators

• Provide a good news story linked to your business

• Reduce upfront or running costs

• Help you meet current regulatory requirements or anticipate future changes

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About the toolkit

An ecosystems approachThe toolkit makes use of an ecosystems approach – a concept which is increasingly being adopted by the Scottish Government and its agencies and regulators. Although sounding complicated, the approach is based on the simple premise that the environment, in its widest sense, provides us with a range of services or benefits. Understanding these benefits allows us to make more informed and integrated decisions.

> Click here to learn more about an ecosystems approach

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Structure of the toolkitThe toolkit has four main sections:

• This introduction

• An overview of the ecosystems approach including a description of the different benefits we get from the environment and the ways in which they support or can be affected by business activities.

> Click here to find out about an ecosystem approach.

• Guidance on considering ways in which your business is dependent on benefits provided by the environment including, advice on how to reduce risks to your business by protecting these wherever possible.

> Click here to get information on how your business is dependent on ecosystem services, and how to manage these dependencies.

• Guidance on the ways in which your business decisions and activities can influence the benefits provided by the environment, including advice on how to reduce negative effects and secure greater benefits.

> Click here for guidance on the ways in which investment decisions and other business activities can affect ecosystem services and advice on how to reduce impacts and maximise benefits.

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> Click here for a flow diagram illustrating the structure and content of the toolkit

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About the toolkit

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Provisioning services

Food and fibre

Fuel production

Genetic resources

Biochemicals, natural medicines, and pharmaceuticals

Ornamental products

Water supplies

Regulating services

Climate regulation

Flood hazard regulation

Erosion hazard regulation

Soil quality regulation

Water quality regulation

Toxic hazard regulation

Noise regulation

Pest and disease regulation

Pollination

PART 3Introduction




Businesses their dependence on ecosystem services

Introduction

Why you need to think about ecosystem services

How dependent on ecosystem services is your business?

Managing dependencies and business risk

Part 2 Ecosystems Services

Introduction

Background

Ecosystems Services

Businesses decisions and business activities

Introduction

Which activities and impacts are most relevant to your business?

Thinking about location

Key activity types

Introduction

Business dependencies

Business impacts

Sector and activities scoping table

Activities and impacts scoping table

Introduction

Air pollution

Water pollution

Soil

Invasive alien species

Noise

Development or use of land

Key benefits

Impacts on benefits

How to reduce impacts

How to maximise benefits

Cultural services

Community development

Spiritual and religious services

Education

Inspirational, aesthetic values and sense of place

Cultural heritage

Recreation and Tourism

Supporting services

Soil formation

Primary production

Nutrient cycling

Water cycling

Dependency Check list

Key Activities

Transportation

Development and use of land

Agriculture and forestry

Manufacturing and processing

Mineral extraction

Operation of business premises

Treatment and disposal of waste materials

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PART 2

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About the toolkit

About the toolkitThe toolkit was commissioned by the

Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA)

Prepared by

LUC and GHK International.

2 An Ecosystems Approach Introduction

Background

Ecosystem Services

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Introduction

Background

Ecosystems Services

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IntroductionThe concept of an ecosystems approach is based around the idea that the environment provides us with a range of services (sometimes referred to as ecosystem services) or benefits. The approach is designed to support the integrated, sustainable and equitable management of land, water and living resources.

> Click here to find out more about the approach

> Click here to see a list of ecosystem services



Introduction

Background

Ecosystems Services

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The approach was introduced by the Convention on Biological Diversity and applied in Britain through the UK National Ecosystem Assessment.

In the past, society has often focused on a limited range of these benefits (for example, food production, flood management, the provision of clean water) with the result that decisions sometimes resulted in unforeseen implications and often failed to identify opportunities for positive benefits or synergies between different interests.

Our understanding of environment is increasingly recognising that features such as woodland provide a number of different benefits – contributing to biodiversity, carbon sequestration and storage, sustainable flood management, landscape quality and woodfuel.

An ecosystems approach provides a framework for looking at whole ecosystems in decision making, and provides a basis for valuing the services they provide. This helps ensure that we maintain a healthy and resilient natural environment now and for future generations.

Decision making processes and funding mechanisms are starting to reflect these interrelationships. It is important that businesses are able to develop an understanding of how their business depends on benefits such as clean water or landscape quality. Equally, businesses will increasingly need to demonstrate that negative and positive effects on ecosystem services have been taken into account in the way operations are run and decisions taken.

Ecosystem services are often described in terms of four main categories:

Provisioning services, representing the different ways in which ecosystems provide a range of physical, technological and aesthetic benefits. This category includes services including food, fuel, medicines and water.

Regulating services, including a wide range of ways in which natural processes contribute to regulation of the wider environment, including in terms of flooding, air quality, noise and climate.

Cultural services, comprising many of the less tangible but important ways in which ecosystems contribute to quality of life. This category includes aspects such as education, community, sense of place, cultural heritage and spiritual values.

Supporting services, comprising services which support the basic functioning of ecosystems and thus the services they provide. This category includes services such as soil formation and water cycling.

Background



Introduction

Background

Ecosystems Services

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Ecosystem services


• Food and fibre

• Fuel production

• Genetic resources

• Biochemicals,

natural

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• Ornamental

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• Water supplies

Regulating services

• Climate regulation

• Flood hazard

regulation

• Erosion hazard

regulation

• Soil quality

regulation

• Water quality

regulation

• Toxic hazard

regulation

• Noise regulation

• Pest and disease

regulation

• Pollination

Cultural services

• Community

development

• Spiritual and

religious services

• Education

• Inspirational,

aesthetic values

and sense of place

• Cultural heritage

• Recreation and

Tourism

Supporting services

• Soil formation

• Primary production

• Nutrient cycling

• Water cycling

Introduction

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Ecosystems Home

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Provisioning servicesFood and fibre

Fuel production

Genetic resources

Biochemicals, natural medicines, and

pharmaceuticals

Ornamental products

Water supplies

Regulating servicesClimate regulation






Noise regulation


Pollination

Cultural servicesCommunity development


Education

Inspirational, aesthetic values and

sense of place

Cultural heritage


Supporting servicesSoil formation

Primary production

Nutrient cycling

Water cycling

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Ecosystems Home

Food and fibreThis category includes most products from agriculture and forestry, including food production, timber production and the cultivation of crops such as hay, reeds or hemp. It also includes food gathered from the wild including game, fishing.

The provision of food and fibre are dependent on other ecosystem services, particularly in terms of environmental regulation and supporting services. The provision of food and fibre contribute to cultural services, for example by shaping landscapes, communities and contributing to sense of place. They deliver direct economic benefits in terms of employment and economic activity.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on food and fibre production

Introduction

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesMany businesses are dependent on the provision of food and fibres. These include:

• Farm and horticultural businesses

• Food processing, wholesale and retail businesses

• Catering and hospitality businesses

• Textile manufacturing and clothing

• Forest management and contracting businesses

• Timber processing businesses

• Construction businesses

• Biomass energy processing and supply businesses

Ensuring continuity of supply of relevant food and fibres will be critical to many of these businesses. In some cases there are well established relationships between producers and processors, in other cases a more open market operates. Maintaining supplies will in part be reliant on other ecosystem services being managed sustainably.

Business impactsThe most obvious way that businesses can impact on the production of food and fibre is by taking land out of production, for example as a result of development. This can be mitigated by:

• Re-using brownfield land

• Making efficient use of land

• Avoiding more productive agricultural land

• Ensuring that any losses of woodland are more than compensated by new planting

Businesses can also have indirect effects on food and fibre production, for example as a result of:

• Creating a new demand for ground or surface water

• Creating sources of water, air or soil pollution

• Creating demand for new crops (e.g. energy crops) which reduce the amount of land available for other forms of production

• Increasing flood risk with implications for downstream agricultural land

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Fuel productionThis category includes the provision of fuel from ecosystems in the form of biomass (e.g. logs, woodchips, wood pellets, energy crops) and the anaerobic digestion of agricultural waste. It is often interpreted as including sources of renewable energy such as wind and hydro power. It does not normally include fossil fuels or energy from nuclear sources.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on fuel production

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesAll businesses are dependent on the supply of fuel, whether that is generated on site or provided by the national grid. With the transition to a low carbon economy, the role of ecosystems in providing a source of fuel will become of increasing importance.

Ensuring continuity of fuel supply will be critical to many businesses. While many will remain dependent on the national grid on the generators which supply it with power, there is a trend towards dedicated heat and power plants for larger energy users. Such schemes may be dependent, for example, on the security of supply of wood fuel or the maintenance of water levels in rivers powering hydro-schemes. Maintaining supplies will therefore in part be reliant on other ecosystem services being managed sustainably.

There is also a link to other services including climate regulation, air quality regulation, flood regulation and soil quality regulation.

Business impactsWays that businesses can impact on fuel production include:

• Reducing woodland cover

• Taking woodland out of positive management for wood fuel

• Altering flows in watercourses currently or potentially providing a source of hydro electricity

• Restricting or opposing renewable energy development

It is more likely that businesses can make a positive impact on fuel production by promoting energy efficiency, including making use of surplus heat, developing low energy buildings, securing energy from renewable suppliers or installing renewable energy equipment in their premises.

Fuel production

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Genetic resourcesThis category refers to the provision of genetic resources for animal and plant breeding and biotechnology. This can include active current use in breeding programmes and as a gene bank for potential future use.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies impacts on genetic resources

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesAgricultural businesses are most dependent on the provision of genetic resources for animal and plant breeding, but there will also be downstream dependencies in terms of food processing, wholesale and retail businesses, catering and hospitality. With the increasing profile of food traceability, local products and rare breeds, this service is becoming more important.

Looking to the future, knowledge of genetic resources is likely to be increasing important as food security and the effects of climate change become more significant.

Business impactsWays that businesses can impact on the provision of genetic resources include:

• Taking land out of agricultural production

• Reducing diversity in supply chain

It is more likely that businesses can make a positive impact on genetic resources by increasing demand for local products and rare breeds and supporting investment in genetic and biotechnology research.

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Biochemicals, natural medicines and pharmaceuticalsThis category refers to the provision of biochemicals, natural medicines and pharmaceuticals from agricultural and wild harvested species.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on biochemicals, natural medicines and pharmaceuticals

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesNatural health and chemical manufacturers are most dependent on the provision of biochemicals, natural medicines and pharmaceuticals, but there will also be downstream dependencies in terms of the conventional and alternative health sectors and industries making use of biochemical (e.g. environmentally friendly cleaning products).

Business impactsWays that businesses can impact on the provision of biochemical, natural medicines and pharmaceutical include:

• Taking land out of agricultural production

• Reducing woodland cover or altering woodland management

• It is more likely that businesses can make a positive impact on the production of biochemical, natural medicines and pharmaceuticals by creating new products and meeting demand for sustainable products.

Biochemicals, natural medicines and pharmaceuticals

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Ornamental products This category refers to the provision of ornamental items such as plants, flowers, skins, shells, rocks, sands and gravels.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on ornamental products

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesA variety of businesses are dependent on the provision of ornamental products. These include nurseries, garden centres and florists, craft based industries and builders merchants supplying ornamental gravels, sands and rocks.

Business impactsWays that businesses can impact on the provision of ornamental products include:

• Taking land out of horticultural production

• Neutralising ornamental mineral resources, for example as a result of development.

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Water suppliesThis category refers to the provision of water for public supply, agriculture, manufacturing and energy generation. Water is also essential for life so is regarded as a supporting service.

Water supplies have an influence on the provision of other services including food and fibre, fuel and cultural services, for example by shaping landscape and creating recreational opportunities.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on water supplies

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesAll businesses are to some degree dependent on the provision of water supplies. Prominent among these are:

• Water supply and waste water treatment


• Food and drink processing businesses

• Hydro energy generation businesses

• Fish farming businesses

• Water based recreation businesses

• Conventional power generation

• Manufacturing

Ensuring continuity of water supplies is critical to many of these businesses. In some cases businesses make use of private supplies and many aim to reduce their vulnerability to fluctuations in supply by increasing the efficiency of water use and recycling. Maintaining supplies will in part be reliant on other ecosystem services being managed sustainably.

Business impactsThere are two ways in which businesses can have an impact on water supplies.

The first of these is where business activity results in a reduction in water quality, for example as a result of the pollution of soils, surface water or ground water. This may result from the application of chemicals, through spillage or deposition of airborne pollution. It can also occur where activities such a mineral working, construction, agriculture or forestry result in soil erosion and high levels of suspended solids in surface and ground water. Pollution can also take the form of changes in temperature, for example where discharges from an industrial process are at a different temperature to that of the receiving waterbody.

The second of type of impact is where business activity results in a reduction in water supply, for example by increased water abstraction (e.g. for irrigation or to service food processing) or where the hydrological character of river catchments are altered by development or changes in land cover, resulting in an increase in the ‘peakiness’ of flow.

SEPA, working with local authorities, works to maintain water quality and manage the quantity of water supplies.

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Climate regulationThis type of service relates to the ability of the environment to regulate the climate at a number of different scales:

• Global - The regulation of greenhouse gasses where ecosystems capture, store and release atmospheric carbon

• Regional - The regulation of regional climates where the extent, condition and configuration ecosystems influence local precipitation and temperature levels

• Site -The regulation of climate at the site scale where ecosystems influence climate parameters at properties, dwellings and on agricultural landholdings

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on regulation of the climate.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesAll businesses are influenced by the climate and the role of the environment in providing natural regulation.

The ability of the environment to contribute to carbon reduction and carbon storage will have an influence on the speed and extent of climate change, with rising temperatures, changing patterns of rainfall, rising sea levels and more frequent extreme weather events such as storms and flooding all having significant implications for many businesses. The risks and uncertainties associated with the changing climate has potential for impacts right across the economy, with implications for production (e.g. agriculture), processing, transport and distribution and retailing and consumption.

While some businesses could benefit from extended growing season and improved growing conditions (e.g. some types of agriculture and forestry), or improved conditions for outdoor recreation and tourism, but for many the impacts will be negative overall.

Regional and micro climatic conditions can also have an influence in terms of businesses’ heating and cooling costs, the requirement to incorporate sustainable drainage systems and the way in which outdoor operations (such as ploughing or timber harvesting) are managed.

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on climate regulation in a number of ways:

• Creating new sources of carbon emissions, for example by increasing demand for fossil based fuels

• Reducing or limiting the potential of the environment to absorb and store carbon from the atmosphere, for example by reducing woodland cover or undertaking activities which degrade peatlands

• Altering micro-climates by removing the shelter provided by woodland or introducing new buildings or structures which affect solar gain.

Businesses can also make important contributions to climate regulation for example by:

• Reducing energy demand (transport, heating, lighting, processing) and associated carbon emissions by increasing energy efficiency and reducing waste

• Developing or using low carbon energy and materials (e.g. renewable energy, timber in construction)

• Supporting woodland expansion and management of existing woodland

• Supporting sustainable management of peatland and high carbon soils

Climate regulation

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Ecosystems Home

Flood hazard regulationThis type of service relates to the ability of the environment to regulate potential flood hazards affecting human property or business interests including farmland and horticulture.

Trees, woodlands and other vegetation can intercept rainfall, slowing the rate of run-off into burns and rivers. Rivers, lochs and floodplains can provide natural storage for flood water, while wetlands can help absorb and reduce the power of floodwaters. It is increasingly recognised that working with natural river forms and processes can help reduce the severity of flooding, providing a sustainable alternative or complement to more engineered responses such as flood embankments.

The increases in rainfall projected to occur as a result of climate change mean this service will become even more important in the future. It is likely that policies will continue to prioritise restoration of natural flood regulation processes.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on flood hazard regulation.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesMany businesses are affected by the risk of flooding, either directly or as a result of disruption caused to supply chains and transport systems. Climate change is likely to increase the frequency and severity of flood events as a result of increased rainfall, storminess and sea level rise. This means there is a need to improve the capacity of the environment to regulate flood risk even in order to stand still.

While location is likely to be the most significant factor governing businesses’ vulnerability to flooding, changes in rainfall patterns means that surface water flooding is of increasing significance where drainage infrastructure is unable to cope with high flows.

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on flood hazard regulation in a number of ways:

• Increasing run-off from developed land including buildings and paved surfaces

• Reducing the capacity of flood plains to accommodate peak flows

• Reducing the capacity of ecosystems such as woodland or peatlands to intercept rainfall and slow run-off into watercourses

Businesses can also make important contributions to flood hazard regulation for example by:

• Including sustainable drainage techniques to slow or reduce run-off from existing or new developments

• Contributing to sustainable flood management techniques, for example by increasing woodland planting or reversing patterns of upland drainage

• Modifying management of areas at risk of flooding or waterlogging

• Helping communities at risk of flooding, for example with temporary flood defences or early warning systems.

By implementing measures to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions, businesses can help slow the rate of climate change and the increases in flooding that are likely to occur as a result.


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Ecosystems Home

Erosion hazard regulationThis type of service relates to the ability of the environment to regulate the risk of soil erosion by water, wind and wave action. Vegetation can play a key role in preventing soil erosion and managing the risk of land instability. Examples include woodland and scrub which can help to stabilise steep slopes where there is a risk of landslides and the role of hedges and shelter belts in reducing the loss of light sandy soils to wind erosion. Riparian woodland can help reduce the risk of river bank erosion, particularly during periods of flood flow.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impactson erosion hazard regulation.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesBusinesses such as agriculture, horticulture and forestry are most dependent on the protection that the natural environment provides for soils. There are indirect benefits for those businesses that are dependent on the products from these sectors.

A wider range of businesses have potential to be affected by land instability which can impact on premises and transport infrastructure. Road and rail networks in the Highlands are particularly vulnerable to landslides, creating significant additional costs for businesses that have to use alternative, often significantly longer routes. Projected increases in rainfall mean it is likely that these impacts will increase in the future.

Erosion hazard regulation Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on erosion hazard regulation in a number of ways:

• Adopting land management practices which leave areas of soil exposed to rainfall, surface water flows and wind

• Creating additional sources of surface water run-off

• Reducing woodland cover or other vegetation cover on steep or unstable slopes

• Reducing the natural shelter provided by woodlands, trees, hedges and dykes, thereby increasing the risk of wind erosion affecting soils.

Businesses can also make important contributions to erosion hazard regulation for example by:

• Moving to continuous cover forestry cover in preference to clear fell harvesting techniques

• Minimising the period during which farmland is left unvegetated (for example making use of winter ground cover crops)

• Use of contour planting to reduce risk of erosive run-off

• Maintaining and restoring field boundaries and woodlands where these reduce the risk of soil erosion by wind

• Careful soil management during construction and land management activities to prevent compaction and maintain infiltration

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Ecosystems Home

Soil quality regulationThis type of service relates to the ability of the environment to maintain soil quality through natural processes of vegetation and organism decomposition.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on regulation of soil quality.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesBusinesses such as agriculture, horticulture and forestry are most dependent on the natural processes which form soils. There are indirect benefits for those businesses that are dependent on the products from these sectors.

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on soil quality in a number of ways:

• Creating sources of pollution which contaminate soils

• Reducing the extent of natural soils for example through development and soil sealing

• Modifying soils through intensive use or by the use of chemicals or addition of other materials

• Modification of drainage resulting in waterlogging and or drying out

• Adoption of land management practices which result in compaction of soils

Businesses can help improve soil quality and support natural processes of soil formation by:

• Reducing chemical inputs

• Making appropriate use of organic materials to replenish soils

• Managing drainage and land management operations to minimise impacts on soils


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Water quality regulationThis type of service relates to the role of the environment in providing and ameliorating chemicals and particles that affect water quality. Water is essential for life so is also regarded as a supporting service.

Water quality has an influence on the provision of other services including food and fibre, fuel and cultural services, for example by shaping landscape and creating recreational opportunities.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on water quality regulation.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesAll businesses are to some degree dependent on water quality. Prominent among these are:

• Water supply





Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on water quality regulation in a number of ways:

• Reducing the capacity of the environment to store and filter water, for example as a result of over abstraction of ground water or surface water

• Creating sources of pollution (chemical or particulate) which exceed the capacity of the environment to regulate water quality

Businesses can also make important contributions to water quality regulation for example by:

• Careful soil management during construction and land management activities to prevent compaction, maintain infiltration and limit erosion

• Avoiding sources of chemical or particulate pollution and ensuring that water discharges are at least the same quality as abstractions

• Establish patterns of land cover vegetation which support filtering and water quality improvements


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Toxic hazard regulationThis type of service relates to the role of the environment in regulating the risk of toxic hazard.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on toxic hazard regulation.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesAll businesses are to some degree dependent on minimising toxic hazard. Prominent among these are:

• Water supply





Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on toxic hazard regulation in a number of ways:

• Creating sources of pollution which exceed the capacity of the environment to regulate toxic hazard

Businesses can also make important contributions to water quality regulation for example by:

• Minimising the risk of toxic hazard and ensuring that contingency responses are in place.


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Noise regulationThis type of service relates to the role of the environment in regulating noise levels. This can include, for example, the role of woodlands in providing a buffer to reduce the noise pollution associated with road or rail corridors.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on noise regulation.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesBusinesses dependent on natural noise regulation include:

• Recreation and tourism businesses

• Residential development businesses

• Commercial property businesses

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on water quality regulation in a number of ways:

• Reducing the capacity of the environment to regulate or mitigate noise, for example by reducing woodland cover

• Introducing new sources of noise, for example from mineral extraction, manufacturing processes or transport, which exceed the capacity of the environment to absorb or regulate it.

Businesses can also make important contributions to noise regulation for example by:

• Woodland planting to increase capacity to absorb noise

• Careful location of noise generating activities

• Adoption of low noise equipment and techniques.

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Pest and disease regulationThis type of service relates to the role of the environment in regulating the outbreak and spread of pests and diseases.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on pest and disease regulation.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesBusinesses such as agriculture, horticulture, forestry and fish farming are most dependent on the regulation of pests and diseases. The changing climate, allied to the increased transport of plants and animals makes this a growing concern.

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on the spread of pests and diseases in a number of ways:

• Reducing the diversity and resilience of agricultural and forestry crops by favouring monocultures over extensive areas

• Facilitating the spread of disease through the increased movement of plants and animals within and between countries

• Reducing the resilience of natural species as a result of habitat reduction and the effects of chemical applications

Businesses can also make important contributions to pest and disease regulation for example by:

• Cultivating a mosaic of crops and varying the age and species classes of woodland

• Minimising the transport of plants and animals

• Supporting measures to control pests and diseases.


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Pollination regulationThis service relates to the role of the environment in supporting the presence and abundance of natural pollinators.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on pollination regulation.

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Pollination regulation

Business dependenciesBusinesses such as agriculture, horticulture and forestry are most dependent on the presence of natural pollinators. Given the importance of pollination as a means of sustaining plant and thus animal life, many other businesses are indirectly dependent too. They range from food processing and catering to businesses which rely on the quality of natural environments and habitats. Ultimately, all life is dependent on healthy populations of pollinators.

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on the presence of pollinators in a number of ways:

• Reducing the extent of habitats supporting populations of pollinators as a consequence of development or changes in land management

• Adopting land management practices which encourage the spread of diseases affecting pollinators

Businesses can also make important contributions to pollination regulation for example by:

• Cultivating a mosaic of habitats suitable for pollinators

• Retaining woodlands and uncultivated areas

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Community developmentThis type of service relates to the role of the environment in contributing to community development for example through increased social cohesion, the creation of job opportunities or the cultivation of local pride.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on communities.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesMany businesses have traditionally enjoyed a strong and supportive relationship with local communities. This is increasingly recognised as an important aspect of business operations and one that contributes to corporate reporting.

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on the contribution of the environment to community development in a number of ways:

• Impacting on valued community assets such as public open space, access routes or other facilities as a result of development or air, water or noise pollution

• Impacting on local environmental quality, for example by creating derelict or underused areas of land, or poor quality or unattractive development

Businesses can also make important contributions to community development for example by:

• Engaging with local communities with regard to investment or development decisions

• Adopting high quality design and development where this affects local communities

• Avoiding dereliction or abandonment of land, seeking temporary uses where possible

• Identifying opportunities for local volunteering, training and employment

• Where appropriate supporting local environmental initiatives


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Spiritual and religious valuesThis type of service relates to the role of the environment in contributing to religious or spiritual values. This can range from the contribution of the historic environment to religious heritage and practice, to the intangible spiritual qualities enjoyed by some in areas of wilderness, woodland or coast.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on spiritual and religious values.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesTourism and recreation businesses are most likely to be dependent on the contribution that the environment makes to religious or spiritual values.

Business impactsThese values are likely to be highly dependent on the area in question and the character and quality of its setting. The most obvious way this is likely to be affected by business is as a result of new development, particularly where this is out of character with the location in question. Other activities, particularly relating to land management, or the generation of air, noise or water pollution may also have an adverse impact.

Businesses can also make important contributions to spiritual and religious values for example by:

• Supporting initiatives to raise awareness of religious or spiritual elements of the natural or cultural environment.

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EducationThis type of service relates to the role of the environment in supporting education, including training and lifelong learning. This can range from initiatives such as Forest Schools, through university research to the work of local naturalists.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on education.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesLand based businesses, together with recreation and tourism benefits are most likely to be dependent on the contribution that the environment makes to education.

Business impactsThese values are likely to be highly dependent on the area in question and the character and quality of its setting. The most obvious way this is likely to be affected by business is as a result of new development, particularly where this affect areas of importance for formal or informal education. Other activities, particularly relating to land management, or the generation of air, noise or water pollution may also have an adverse impact.

Businesses can also make important contributions to education for example by:

• Working with local educational interests to support the role of the environment in learning and training.

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Inspiration, aesthetic values and sense of placeThis group of services relates to the role of the environment in contributing to people’s inspiration, aesthetic values and sense of place. This relates principally to the landscape and cultural heritage of an area, but can also reflect other values to do with biodiversity, historic and artistic associations.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on inspiration, aesthetic values and sense of place.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesRecreation and tourism businesses are most likely to be dependent on the contribution that the environment makes to inspiration, aesthetic values and sense of place. However, these values are also important in terms of attracting and retaining a skilled workforce, so are of indirect importance to a larger number of businesses.

Business impactsThese values are likely to be highly dependent on the character and quality of the area in question. The most obvious way this is likely to be affected by business is as a result of new development, particularly where this is of a scale or nature that conflicts with the qualities of the area. Other activities, particularly relating to land management, or the generation of air, noise or water pollution may also have an adverse impact.

Businesses can also make important contributions to inspiration, aesthetic values and sense of place for example by:

• Maintaining buildings, structures and other landscape elements which make an important contribution to local environmental character and quality

• Ensure that new development is located and designed in a way that complements local environmental character and quality.

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Ecosystems Home

Cultural heritageThis services relates to the role of the environment in contributing to the creation, expression, preservation, or public understanding of our past and present cultural heritage. It relates to built heritage, the historic dimension of the landscape, ancient woodlands and historic and cultural associations, traditions and folklore.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on cultural heritage.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesRecreation and tourism businesses are most likely to be dependent on the contribution that the environment makes to our enjoyment of cultural heritage. However, these values are also important in terms of attracting and retaining a skilled workforce, so are of indirect importance to a larger number of businesses.

Business impactsThese values are likely to be highly dependent on the character and quality of the area in question. The most obvious way this is likely to be affected by business is as a result of new development, particularly where this is of a scale or nature that conflicts with the cultural heritage of the area. Other activities, particularly relating to land management, or the generation of air, noise or water pollution may also have an adverse impact.

Businesses can also make important contributions to people’s appreciation of cultural heritage for example by:

• Maintaining buildings, structures and other landscape elements which make an important contribution to our cultural heritage

• Ensure that new development is located and designed in a way that complements the character of the historic environment.

Cultural heritage

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Recreation and tourismThis services relates to the role of the environment in supporting recreation and tourism.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on recreation and tourism.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesRecreation and tourism businesses are most likely to be dependent on the contribution that the environment makes to our enjoyment of cultural heritage. However, recreation opportunities can also be important in terms of attracting and retaining a skilled workforce, so they are of indirect importance to a larger number of businesses.

Business impactsThese values are likely to be highly dependent on the character and quality of the area in question. The most obvious way this is likely to be affected by business is as a result of new development, particularly where this is of a scale or nature that conflicts with the cultural heritage of the area. Other activities, particularly relating to land management, or the generation of air, noise or water pollution may also have an adverse impact.

Businesses can also make important contributions to opportunities for recreation and tourism for example by:

• Maintaining buildings, structures and other landscape elements which make an important contribution to environmental character and quality

• Ensure that new development is located and designed in a way that complements the character of the environment

• Creating new opportunities for informal or informal recreation, for example by contributing to local path networks.

Recreation and tourism

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Soil formationThis type of service relates to the ability of the environment to form soil through natural processes of vegetation and organism decomposition.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on soil formation.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesBusinesses such as agriculture, horticulture and forestry are most dependent on the natural processes which form soils. There are indirect benefits for those businesses that are dependent on the products from these sectors.

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on soil formation in a number of ways:

• Creating sources of pollution which contaminate soils

• Reducing the extent of natural soils for example through development and soil sealing

• Modifying soils through intensive use or by the use of chemicals or addition of other materials

• Modification of drainage resulting in waterlogging and or drying out

• Adoption of land management practices which result in compaction of soils

Businesses can help improve soil quality and support natural processes of soil formation by:

• Reducing chemical inputs

• Making appropriate use of organic materials to replenish soils

• Managing drainage and land management operations to minimise impacts on soils.

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Primary productionThis type of service relates to the formation of biological material by plants through photosynthesis and the take up and use of nutrients. Primary production lies at the root of all ecosystems.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on primary production.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesPrimary production lies at the root of all ecosystems and all life is therefore dependent upon it either directly or indirectly. Businesses such as agriculture, horticulture and forestry are most dependent on primary production, but there are also indirect benefits for those businesses that are dependent on the products from these sectors.

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on primary production in a number of ways:

• Reducing the extent of areas of natural or managed vegetation, for example through development and soil sealing

• Altering the composition of vegetation or applying chemical or other treatments which affect plant growth and processes of photosynthesis.

Businesses can help maintain primary production by:

• Building biodiversity into new developments.

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Introduction

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Nutrient cycling This type of service relates to the flow of nutrients such as nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorous and carbon through ecosystems.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on nutrient cycling.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesNutrient cycling is essential for the ecosystems to function, so all life is therefore directly or indirectly dependent upon it. Businesses such as agriculture, horticulture and forestry are most dependent on nutrient cycling, but there are also indirect benefits for those businesses that are dependent on the products from these sectors.

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on nutrient cycling in a number of ways:

• Altering the natural functioning of ecosystems by affecting air quality, water quality or quantity, the integrity of habitats and processes of decay and assimilation.

Businesses can help maintain nutrient cycling by:

• Building biodiversity into new developments.

Nutrient cycling

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Water cycling This type of service relates to the cycling of water through ecosystems, in liquid, gaseous or solid form.

> Click here to find out more about business dependencies and impacts on water cycling.

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Ecosystems Home Business dependenciesThe cycling of water through precipitation, infiltration, run-off, ground water and surface flow, evaporation and condensation is fundamental to life. It is of specific importance to business such as agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture and forestry and to industries such as food processing, manufacturing, power generation and water based recreation. There are also indirect benefits for those businesses that are dependent on the products from these sectors.

Business impactsBusinesses can have an impact on water cycling by altering any of the key stages in the cycle, whether that is by reducing opportunities for infiltration by soil sealing, altering surface or ground water flows or evaporation from vegetation and other surfaces.

Businesses can help maintain nutrient cycling by:

• As far as possible building natural processes into new developments and restoring natural processes where they have been modified or lost in the past.

Water cycling

3Dependencies

Introduction

Why think about ecosystem Services

How dependent is your business?

Managing Dependencies and risk

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Introduction



Dependency check list


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Business dependencies

IntroductionAll businesses are to some degree dependent on benefits provided by the environment – whether that is the supply of clean water, the production of agricultural crops or the quality of the natural environment.

Recognising such dependencies and exploring ways of safeguarding these benefits or services can be critically important in managing business risks.

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Why should you think about your business and the relationship with environmental benefits or services?It will help you:

• Better understand those aspects of the environment upon which your business depends

• Help you take account of environmental effects flowing from your business decisions

• Identify opportunities to reduce negative effects and increase benefits

This will help you:

• Justify proposals and demonstrate their effects to regulators

• Provide a good news story linked to your business

• Reduce upfront or running costs

• Help you meet current regulatory requirements or anticipate future changes

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How dependent are you?All businesses depend on benefits provided by the environment.

The relationship is most obvious for farming or forestry businesses whose work is directly related to the provisioning of food, timber or other related products. For these businesses, services such as soil formation, water quality and supply, pollination and the regulation of pests and diseases are all critical to their viability. In the past, the pursuit of increased production has sometimes placed too much emphasis on short term benefits at the expense of other benefits such as soil quality, water quality or scenic qualities, or has required interventions such as spraying to control pests and diseases.

Companies that use or process ‘products’ provided by the environment (provisioning services) are also very dependent. Examples include food processing companies who depend on supplies of agricultural products, whisky distillers who need a constant supply of pure water and the building industry which depends on a supply of high quality timber for construction.

Environmental quality is of importance to a growing number of businesses. Many tourism and recreation businesses (accommodation, visitor and activity centres, cafes and restaurants, cycle hire etc) depend on people being attracted by the quality of the environment, including its scenic qualities, history and its biodiversity. Other businesses, indeed regional economies, are recognising the importance of an attractive and high quality environment in attracting and retaining high quality employees.

All businesses depend on the role that the environment plays in regulating things such as flooding, air quality, noise, pests and diseases. In many cases, past activity has reduced the capacity of the environment to provide these benefits. In the case of flood regulation we have sometimes increased our vulnerability by the way we manage land and where we allow new development. Changing weather patterns place additional pressure on the ability of natural systems to deliver benefits.

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Dependency checklist:• Which types of environmental benefit or ecosystem service does your business depend upon and how critical are these to your operation?

• How are these benefits or services derived? Do you know where they are provided and who controls or influences them?

• How much security or confidence do you have over their future supply?

• Where a type of benefit or service is critical to your business and you have little influence over its supply, are there things you could do to reduce the business risk, for example through:

• Collaborating with those managing the provision of these services to enhance or guarantee their delivery?

• Collaborating with similar business to create a stronger voice and more power in influencing the delivery of the benefit in question?

• Inputting to policies or regulation as appropriate?

• Modifying your business operations to reduce dependency or spread risk?

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Managing dependencies and business riskThe extent to which businesses can influence these dependencies and manage the associated risk to their business varies:

• Some businesses are able to reduce risk by controlling the supply of the environmental benefit or service in question. A business that is dependent on high quality water supply might, for example, secure its own private water supply. A farm or orchard business might improve habitat for bees and other pollinators, while an increasing number of food retailing businesses gain ownership or contractual control over processors and even producers.

• Some businesses take a proactive approach to maintain, enhance or guarantee the supply of a particular benefit or service. Examples might include negotiating with upstream land managers to protect the quality of water supplies for distilleries, or building links with local communities to ensure that issues are identified and addressed before they become business critical.

• For many businesses, there are fewer opportunities to directly influence or secure the environmental services upon which they depend. In some cases businesses can collaborate to create a stronger ‘buying’ power or a more effective lobbying voice in calling for protection of the landscape, improved flood regulation or measures to deal with pests and diseases.

• In other cases, the benefit in question will be regulated, for example by the land use planning system, flood risk management plans, support mechanisms such as the Scotland Rural Development Plan or climate change strategies. By engaging with the development and implementation of these policies, businesses or groups of businesses can help ensure that the benefits they depend upon are properly planned for.

4Activities and Impacts Introduction

Identifying relevant activities and impacts

Thinking about Location

Key activity types

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Key activity types: Information and guidance

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Business decisions, business activities

IntroductionBusiness decisions and operations can affect capacity of the environment to provide benefits or services to society.

In some cases business activities will enhance the delivery of a particular benefit. Often, there is potential for mixed or negative impacts, and these may be experienced by third parties or the wider community.

Understanding how business activities can influence the ability of the environment to deliver benefits can help improve environmental performance, create financial savings, support corporate reporting and make the process of dealing with regulators more straightforward. Good environmental performance can also be important in the way that companies present themselves, for example in communicating their brand, values and corporate objectives.

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Which activities and effects are relevant to your business?The relative scale and importance of these activities and their environmental effects will vary by economic sector and type of business.

Table 1 provides a quick guide to the kinds of activities which may be most relevant to your business.

Table 1: economic sectors and business activities

Business activity or investment decision

Economic sectorTransport


Operation of premises

Primary production – cultivation and cropping

Primary production - Mineral extraction


Disposal of waste materials

Agriculture x X X X

Forestry x X x X

Fishing x

Mining and quarrying x x x X

Manufacturing x X x x x

Energy generation and infrastructure

x x

Water supply x x x

Waste water treatment X x x x

Construction X x x

Wholesale x x

Retail x x

Transport x

Warehousing x x

Accommodation and catering

x x

Information and communication

x x

Admin and services x x

Continue >

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Which activities and effects are relevant to your business?Table 2 shows the environmental effects likely to result from each type of activity.

Table 2: business activities and environmental impacts

Environmental effects

Business activity or investment decision

Air pollutionWater pollution

Carbon emissions

NoiseLoss of land

Water consumption

Energy consumption Use of

chemicals

Habitat loss and fragmentation

Invasive species

Transport x x x x x X

Development of land

X X X X X


X X X


x x x x x x X

Mineral extraction

x x x x x


x x x x x X

Disposal of waste materials

x x x x x x x

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Location, location, location• The implications of these activities and environmental effects will also be influenced by the sensitivity of the location or environment within which they take place

• Cultural services are likely to be particularly important in areas such as National Parks, National Scenic Areas, conservation areas, world heritage sites and within or close to settlements and communities

• Supporting services may be particularly important in areas such as internationally, nationally and locally designated biodiversity sites

• Regulatory services may be particularly important where the local environment is at or beyond its capacity to deliver these benefits (especially where this is a result of human influence)

• Provisioning services may be particularly important on more productive agricultural land, within river catchments providing water supplies to larger settlements and in areas where timber production is concentrated.

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Key activity types: Information and guidanceThe toolkit provides advice on how negative effects on the provision of environmental services or ecosystem services can be reduced and positive effects enhanced.

Transportation Development and use of land



Mineral extraction



Air pollution Carbon emissions

Carbon emissions

Air pollution Development or use of land

Management of land and buildings

Greenhouse gas emissions

Water pollution Energy consumption

Air pollution Water pollution and consumption

Waste Use of energy and resources

Soil and surface water contamination

Soil Noise Water pollution Carbon emissions and energy use

Water use and de-watering

Generation of waste, pollution and noise

Development of land for waste disposal sites


Loss of land Loss of land Noise pollution Road transportation

The development and refurbishment of buildings

Visual impacts and odours

Noise Habitat loss and fragmentation

Energy consumption

Dust Development or use of land: transport of staff, materials and goods

Transport of waste materials


Use of chemicals Noise


Click on activities listed below to find out more.

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Introduction



Key activity types: information and guidance

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4Activities and Impacts


Introduction




Key Activity Types

Activities and Impacts home


Transportation

What do we mean by ‘transportation of goods and people’?

Introduction

Most significant impacts associated with the transportation of people and goods

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Transportation of goods and people


There are a number of different aspects related to transportation that can impact the environment. This section of the toolkit will be relevant for:

• Business travel: your staff travelling for work purposes such as business meetings or conferences

• Movement of goods: the transportation of goods, even couriered materials, by truck, train, ship or plane

• Fleet management: operations and maintenance of a fleet of vehicles

• Employee commuting: your staff travelling between their home and work place

• Transport infrastructure: the use of land for access roads or car parks

All of these aspects can have environmental impacts. Aside from the more well-known and recognised impacts associated with greenhouse gas emissions which contribute to climate change, there are also many other ways in which transport can affect ecosystems and their services.

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IntroductionThis toolkit will help you to identify the key aspects related to your business’ transportation which are likely to have an impact on different ecosystem services, and will highlight measures you can take to address these.

It will also summarise some of the key business benefits of taking action, and identify further sources of information, advice and tools that can help your business take action

Understanding these impacts and adopting measures to address these can offer opportunities to improve your environmental performance and reduce costs. In addition to reducing your environmental impact, better use of transport can benefit your business by saving you money, increasing business opportunities and could enhance your business’ image.

In the case of business travel, employer commuting and the movement of goods, the nature and scale of the potential impacts generally depends on:

• The mode of transport that is used (i.e. by road, rail, air or sea)

• The type of technology or equipment used (e.g. alternative fuel sources, low emission vehicles)

• The frequency of the trips being undertaken

• The distance of the trips

• The route of travel (i.e. whether the route taken runs through sensitive environmental areas).

In the specific case of transport infrastructure, the key influencing factors are the location and size of the infrastructure.

In the case of fleet management, however, factors include the nature of the fleet (i.e. the type of vehicles that are being used), their maintenance (i.e. how well they are looked after) and their use (i.e. how efficiently they are driven and how well the routes are planned).

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Most significant impacts associated with the transportation of people and goodsThe transportation of people and goods result in a number of potential environmental effects, each of which can impact on ecosystem services.

The effects tend to vary depending on the mode of transport being used.

The main environmental effects stem from:

• Air pollution, including greenhouse gas emissions

• Water pollution

• Impacts on soil

• The introduction of invasive alien species

• Noise

• The development of land for transportation-related infrastructure

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Key benefits provided by the environment

Impacts on environmental benefits

Reducing impacts on environmental benefits

Maximising environmental benefits

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Air pollution, including greenhouse gas emissions

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe principal benefit is the ability of the environment to absorb and filter air pollutants. In the case of greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon, ecosystems can also sequester and store carbon over long periods of time in organic matter.

Wherever possible, business activities should aim to maintain or increase the ability of the environment to filter or absorb pollutants in the atmosphere.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsVehicles, marine engines, and aircraft emit gas and particulate matters that affect air quality causing damage to human health and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Small particles released by exhausts and engines can have widespread impacts on ecosystem health, which can affect ecosystem services delivery. For instance, ozone can lead to leaf and root damage which can affect primary production and regulating services (e.g. air quality regulation), whilst NOx and SO2 can lead to the acidification of soil and water which can, for instance, affect the provision of fresh water and the regulation of soil quality.

Excessive greenhouse gas emissions can interfere with the ability of ecosystems to regulate the climate. The impacts of resulting climate change can also affect primary production and provisioning services, and certain regulating and supporting services (e.g. soil formation, nutrient cycling).

Air pollution is a particular problem with air and road travel. Low-altitude air pollution in the case of air travel (i.e. during take off and landing) can be especially damaging.

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Avoid impacts by:

• Considering alternative vehicle technologies which replace conventional gasoline with other fuel types (e.g. hybrid, electric, biofuel)

Reduce impacts by:

• Reducing the amount of travel (e.g. by using tele- or video-conferencing facilities, by consolidating shipments, by citing premises near transit hubs)

• Using green vehicles and vehicles that are properly maintained

• Improving fuel use and fuel management (e.g. choosing the right vehicles which are the right size and are fuel efficient, favouring off-peak times, implementing driver training,reducing the weight and volume of items being transported)

Mitigate impacts by:

• Changing the nature of travel (e.g. by encouraging the use of public transportation, favouring rail transport over air or road transportation for the transportation of goods).

• Planning routes so that travel is more efficient

• If suppliers are used, using companies which are eco-certified

• Considering carbon off-setting

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Maximising environmental benefitsProtecting and enhancing vegetation which can absorb and filter air pollution. This can include trees and woodland and high carbon soils such as peat.

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Water pollution

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe key benefit delivered by the environment is the ability to absorb, filter and regulate pollution through soil and water processes.

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Water pollution

Impacts on environmental benefitsWater pollution can arise from the use of oil, fuel and other toxic chemicals, and runoff from impervious surfaces such as roads and parking lots which can then end up in natural waterways. Leaks and spillages from the transportation of cargo, from rail and shipping, can also have significant effects.

These impacts will be most evident in the case of road and rail transport, and to some degree from air travel (e.g. from persistent leaks or runoff from impervious surfaces such as runways). Sea transportation however is associated with particularly significant issues, including:

• The routine discharge of ballast water and bilge water from marine vessels, which can introduces oil and other types of water pollution

• Oil and chemical spills at port, in coastal waters, as well as at sea

• The routine maintenance dredging of ports and inland waterways can stir up toxic sediment

• The use of toxic chemicals (e.g. antifouling paint on hulls, leaching of heavy metals)

All of these effects can impact on water composition and can compromise the ability of aquatic ecosystems to deliver ecosystem services such as fresh water provisioning services and water quality regulation.

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Water pollution


Avoid impacts by:

• Planning routes which avoid environmentally sensitive areas

• Taking appropriate measures to removing oil, grease, petrol and diesel from run-off by passing it through an oil separator for more polluting activities, by using catchpots or silt traps on drains, and ensuring that these are in place and working effectively

• Ensuring hazardous goods or contaminants are transported in suitable containers

Reduce impacts by:

• Ensuring transport equipment is well maintained, by checking for and repairing fluid leaks

Mitigate impacts by:

• Carrying pollution control equipment if suitable in the case of a spillage (e.g. absorbent materials)

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enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

84

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84

1

84

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


84

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

8484

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84



Introduction




1


Water pollution





Summary table

84

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84

1

84

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


84

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

84

Water pollution

Maximising enviornmental benefitsBuffers and bioswales introduced along transportation features can filter contaminated runoff before it enters streams.

85

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

85



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

85

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

85

1

85

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

85

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


85

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

85

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

85

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

85

Impacts on soil

Key benefits provided by the environmentGood quality soil structure ensures that soil quality is preserved, nutrients continue to be recycled, and pollutants are absorbed and filtered through soils. Soil structure also regulates flood hazards.

86

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

86



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

86

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

86

1

86

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

86

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


86

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

86

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

86

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

86

Impacts on soil

Impacts on environmental benefitsTransportation can lead to soil erosion and soil contamination. Coastal transport facilities, for instance, have significant impacts on soil erosion. Soil contamination can also occur through the use of toxic materials by the transport industry if, for instance, fuel and oil spills from motor vehicles are washed on road sides and enter the soil.

Impacts on soil are most likely to occur from road and rail transportation, although shipping activities can also modify the scale and scope of wave actions, which can lead to serious damage in confined channels such as river banks.

Soil erosion can reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate flooding hazards (e.g. by altering the surface over which water flows), whilst chemical contamination of soils can affect the ability of soils to contribute to nutrient cycling, and can reduce soil quality. This can affect provisioning services as primary production is affected.

Soils can also become contaminated with pollutants from runoff, similarly to water pollution (see above).

87

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

87



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

87

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

87

1

87

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

87

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


87

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

87

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

87

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

87

Impacts on soil

Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsAvoid sites with particularly vulnerable soils (e.g. when developing land for transportation infrastructure such as transport hubs or planning transportation routes), taking appropriate measures to prevent run off or leakages.

Reduce and mitigate impacts by reinstating soils and controlling machinery movement, avoid unnecessary trafficking of topsoil or subsoil, ensuring that equipment (e.g. vehicles / storage containers) are appropriately maintained to reduce leaks.

88

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

88



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

88

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

88

1

88

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

88

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


88

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

88

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

88

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

88

Impacts on soil

Maximising environmental benefitsPlant, protect or enhance vegetation.

Construct and manage soil mounds. These can also be vegetated by sowing grass or grass/wildflower seeds mixtures.

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

8989

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

89



Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

89

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

8989

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

89



Introduction




1







Summary table

89

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

89

1

89

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

89

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


89

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

89

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

89

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

89

Introduction of invasive alien species

Key benefits provided by the environmentPopulations of species work together in an ecosystem to deliver the different ecosystem services. Invasive alien species can disrupt these processes and this balance by crowding out other species or radically changing the balance of existing ecosystems.

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

9090

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

90



Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

90

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

9090

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

90



Introduction




1







Summary table

90

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

90

1

90

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

90

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


90

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

90

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

90

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

90


Impacts on environmental benefitsThe accidental introduction of invasive species from, for instance, ballast water associated with the shipping of goods, can result in major changes to ecosystems, especially coastal habitats.

Although invasive species can be introduced by any mode of transport, the most common and pervasive means is typically through marine transportation.

Shipping carries a particularly high risk of introducing non-indigenous species, which can have severe consequences if these species survive and flourish, thereby crowding out other species or radically changing the balance of existing ecosystems.

Invasives can be introduced through a wide range of means, including:

• in the goods that are transported (e.g. weed seeds being accidentally introduced through grain)

• the packaging materials used (insects arriving through wood packaging such as crates)

• routine discharge of ballast water or species becoming attached to boat hulls

Invasives, if they survive and flourish, can dramatically alter ecosystem functions and their services. They can, therefore, depending on the type and location of the species being introduced, affect any or a number of the different ecosystem services (e.g. from provisioning, regulating, supporting or cultural services).

The case of the zebra mussel

One of the best known recent examples of the potential impacts of an invasive species is that of the zebra mussel, a bivalve introduced to America from Europe through ballast water. The mussel multiplied

rapidly in the north American Great Lakes and contributed to a decline in phytoplankton, an increase in water clarity in the lakes, decreases in the number of fish with planktonic larval stages and changes in habitat for adult fish.

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

9191

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

91



Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

91

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

9191

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

91



Introduction




1







Summary table

91

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

91

1

91

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

91

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


91

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

91

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

91

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

91


Reducing impacts on environmental benefits Following all import regulations, such as ISPM 15 can significantly reduce the risk associated with invastive alien species

https://www.gov.uk/requirements-for-wood-packaging-used-for-imports-and-exports

Avoid and reduce impacts by change ballast water in mid-ocean, discharging the fresh water picked up in port and replacing it with salt water.

https://www.gov.uk/requirements-for-wood-packaging-used-for-imports-and-exports

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

9292

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

92



Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

92

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

9292

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

92



Introduction




1







Summary table

92

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

92

1

92

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

92

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


92

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

92

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

92

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

92


Maximising environmental benefitsProtecting and enhancing the resilience of populations of native species so that they are capable of dealing with the introduction of invasive aliens.

93

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

93

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

1

93

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


93

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction










Summary table

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB



Introduction





Noise





Summary table

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


93

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

1

93

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

1

93

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

1

93

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

93

Noise

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe key benefit delivered by the environment is the ability to attenuate noise, by effectively muffling sound. Background noise generated in the environment can also help to mask low level sound from transport and other sources.

94

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

94

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

1

94

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


94

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction










Summary table

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB



Introduction





Noise





Summary table

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


94

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

1

94

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

1

94

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

1

94

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

94

Noise

Impacts on environmental benefitsTransportation can create significant levels of noise (particularly air, rail and road transport).

Impacts on ecosystem services from noise are likely to be limited to impacts on cultural services, whereby the amenity values of sites are reduced such that they may no longer used for recreational purposes.

95

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

95

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

1

95

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


95

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction










Summary table

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB



Introduction





Noise





Summary table

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


95

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

1

95

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

1

95

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

1

95

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

95

Noise

Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsAvoid removing or altering environmental features that are important in regulating the effects of noise and avoid locations which are particularly noise-sensitive due to cultural, spiritual or biodiversity value (e.g. by planning transport routes accordingly)

Reduce and mitigate impacts by for instance, using vehicles which are quieter, by consolidating deliveries to reduce the number of trips being made or by using less noisy means of transportation (e.g. river transportation rather than road or rail).

96

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

96

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

1

96

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


96

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction










Summary table

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB



Introduction





Noise





Summary table

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


96

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

1

96

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

1

96

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

1

96

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

96

Noise

Maximising environmental benefitsNoise attenuation by the environment is a passive process, therefore protecting or enhancing the features and assets that provide this service (e.g. buffers) is the key means of sustaining delivery of this benefit.

97

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

97

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97

1

97

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


97

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction










Summary table

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB



Introduction





Noise





Summary table

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


97

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97

1

97

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97

1

97

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97

1

97

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

97



Introduction










Summary table

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


Development of land for transportation-related infrastructure

Key benefits provided by the environmentLand and associated habitats have the potential to deliver on all the different ecosystem services.

By changing the land and the condition or type of habitats, these benefits can be significantly affected, potentially disrupting the ability of ecosystems to deliver their services.

98

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

98

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98

1

98

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


98

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction










Summary table

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB



Introduction





Noise





Summary table

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


98

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98

1

98

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98

1

98

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98

1

98

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

98



Introduction










Summary table

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


Transport related development

Impacts on environmental benefitsInfrastructure related to transportation such as roads and car parks requires space, which typically was once taken up by natural vegetation and associated wildlife. Transportation infrastructure can therefore result in significant changes to natural habitats.

By altering landscapes and surfaces, or changing the condition or nature of the habitats, this can affect the range of ecosystem services which were previously being delivered by these areas (e.g. water, climate and air quality regulation, provisioning services). The impacts can be particularly great where the site being developed for waste management was on previously natural areas rather than on sites which had already been heavily modified.

For a full discussion on the ecosystem service impacts associated with the development of use of land, see Development use of land.

99

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

99

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99

1

99

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


99

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction










Summary table

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB



Introduction





Noise





Summary table

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


99

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99

1

99

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99

1

99

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99

1

99

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

99



Introduction










Summary table

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction



Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsAvoid impacts by minimising the scale and/or type of natural vegetation that is lost and by avoiding siting infrastructure near, or on, sensitive ecosystem.

Reduce and mitigate impacts by, for instance, reducing the area of impervious surface through innovative technologies and creative designs.

For further information on what measures can be implemented to address the impacts following the development of land more generally, see Development use of land.

100

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

100



Introduction




1


Soil





Summary table

100

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

100

1

100

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

100

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


100

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

100

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

100

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

100

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction










Summary table

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Key Activity Types



Transportation


Introduction


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

1

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

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Maximising environmental benefitsUsing permeable surfaces which allow infiltration or storage of stormwater (e.g. sustainable drainage systems).

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Impact on ecosystem services

Environmental effect

CommentsAir pollution

Water pollution

Impacts on soil


NoiseUse of land


Food Loss (e.g. from site development) or contamination of food production (from pollutants to soil and/or air). Climate impacts from greenhouse gas emissions can also affect primary production (negatively and positively)

Fibre Loss of the ability to provide fibre resources (e.g. from development of land or from pollutants to air and/or soil). Climate impacts from greenhouse gas emissions can also affect primary production (negatively and positively)

Fuel

Genetic resources

Deterioration of genetic resources (e.g. if key species are lost as a result of land development) or if invasive alien species outcompete native species. Climate impacts from greenhouse gas emissions may mean that certain species are no longer able to cope or adapt, leading to loss of species or viable populations.


Ornamental

Fresh water

Changes to the ability of ecosystems to provide fresh water as a result of changes to surface flows and the quality of water because of development of land, from contamination (e.g. from pollutants / spillages) or from soil erosion. Climate impacts can impact on water cycling processes which may affect the provision of fresh water.

Summary tableProvisioning services

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Water pollution

Impacts on soil


NoiseUse of land

Regulating services

Air quality regulation

The loss of vegetation (from development of land) can reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate air quality. Transport pollution and greenhouse gas emissions can reduce the ability of the environment to maintain high air quality.

Climate regulation

The loss of vegetation can reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate the climate, whilst greenhouse gas emissions (e.g. from waste disposal / storage / treatment or from transport) can also overwhelm the ability of the environment to absorb emissions, interfering with the ability to regulate the climate. Soil erosion can affect the ability of soils to either absorb carbon, or mean that carbon is released from soil stores.


Climate impacts from greenhouse gas emissions can make natural disasters like floods more frequent and severe, making it more difficult for ecosystems to regulate these hazards. The loss of vegetation from the development of land or from soil erosion can affect surface water flows and the ability of ecosystems to regulate flood hazards.


The loss of vegetation (e.g. from development of land or from soil erosion) can affect the ability of ecosystems to regulate soil erosion and the risk of landslides.


Development of land and disturbance to soil, as well as contamination or leakages from transport, can affect soil quality. Air pollutants being absorbed by the soil can also affect soil quality.


Loss of vegetation (e.g. from development of land or soil erosion) can affect the water regime and water flows. Spills/leaks from the transportation can lead to the contamination of surface and ground water. All of these can affect the ability of ecosystems to maintain high water quality.


Contamination from spills / leaks can reduce the ability of the environment to maintain low levels of toxic hazard

Noise regulation The loss of vegetation from the development of land can affect the ability of ecosystems to regulate noise.

Disease regulation

Changes to habitats and species composition from the development of land may increase susceptibility of species to disease through poor plant and animal health. The introduction of invasive alien species may also reduce species’s resilience to disease. The impacts of climate change may change the viability / area of vector populations in different areas, further affecting disease regulation services.

Pest regulation

Changes to habitats and species composition from the development of land, and the introduction of invasive alien species, may decrease the ability of species in ecosystems to regulate pests. The impacts of climate change may change the viability / area of pest populations in different areas, further affecting disease regulation services.

Pollination

Changes to habitats and species composition from the development of land, pollution, the introduction of alien species and the impacts of climate change, may reduce the number of pollinating species, thereby affecting the ability of ecosystems to provide pollination services.

Summary tableRegulating services

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Water pollution

Impacts on soil


NoiseUse of land

Cultural services


Visual changes to landscapes from the development of land, pollution and/or contamination, and noise levels can affect quality of life, including health, of communities

Spiritual services Visual changes to landscapes from the development of land, pollution and/or contamination, and noise levels can affect the spiritual services delivered by ecosystems

Religious

Education

Changes to landscapes and habitats, both structurally and visually, can affect the ability of ecosystems to provide education services. If native species are lost due to the introduction of invasive alien species, education services may also be lost if those species are rare or of education value.

Inspirational Visual changes to landscapes (e.g. from development of land) and waste site heaps, pollution or noise from transportation, and contamination by waste can affect the ability of the environment to provide inspiration

Aesthetic

Visual changes to landscapes from the development of land, pollution and/or contamination, and noise levels can affect aesthetic qualities. Pervasive effects (e.g. structural changes) caused by invasive alien species can also change the aesthetic nature of a place.

Sense of place

Visual changes to landscapes from the development of land, pollution and/or contamination, and noise levels can have a negative impact of sense of place. The impacts of climate change can also affect people’s sense of place if the impacts mean that the identity or nature of an area changes. Pervasive effects (e.g. structural changes) caused by invasive alien species can also affect people’s sense of a place.

Cultural heritage

Visual changes to landscapes (e.g. from development of land) and through air pollution can affect the conservation and appreciation of cultural heritage. The impacts of climate change can also affect cultural heritage values if the impacts mean that the identity or nature of an area changes.

Recreation

Visual changes to landscapes from the development of land, pollution and/or contamination, and noise levels can reduce the attractiveness of an area for recreation. Climate change impacts can also make recreation either less or more viable (e.g. temperature changes).

Tourism

Visual changes to landscapes from the development of land, pollution and/or contamination, and noise levels can reduce the attractiveness of an area for tourism. Climate change impacts can also make recreation either less or more viable (e.g. temperature changes).

Summary tableCultural services

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Water pollution

Impacts on soil


NoiseUse of land

Supporting services

Soil formation

Development of land and associated changes to habitats and contamination of soils by transport-related pollutants can impact processes of soil formation. Climate change impacts may affect soil structures which can affect soil formation. Invasive alien species may also affect species composition which could impact on soil formation processes.

Primary production

Development of land and associated changes to habitats, changes to water regimes and soil structures from soil erosion, and transport pollution can impact primary production. Climate change impacts can either decrease or increase primary production. Invasive alien species may also affect species composition which could impact on primary production processes.

Nutrient cycling

Development of land and associated changes to habitats, changes to water regimes and soil structures from soil erosion and transport pollution can impact on the cycling of nutrients. Climate change impacts can affect soil structures and microbial populations, affecting nutrient cycling processes. Invasive alien species may also affect species composition which could impact on nutrient cycling processes.

Water cycling

Development of land and associated changes to habitats, changes to water quality from spills / leaks / pollution from transport, and impacts of climate change can affect water cycling. Invasive alien species may also affect species composition which could impact on water cycling processes. Summary

tableSupporting services

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Development and use of landWhat do we mean by ‘development’ and ‘use of land’?

Overview

Most significant impacts associated with development and land use change


What do we mean by ‘development’?Broadly, any activity that involves any form of construction or extraction can be thought of as development, regardless of type, scale or governing legislation.

What do we mean by ‘use of land’?‘Land use’ in this context refers to all operations on land, including agriculture, horticulture and forestry, which relate principally to the utilisation of the primary productivity of land and do not fall within the definition of ‘development’ above. (It should be noted, however, that land-based industries frequently require ‘development’ – for example to accommodate machinery, livestock or produce.)

This section of the toolkit is primarily concerned with the effects of changing the use to which land is put – rather than the inherent effects of land-based industries, which are covered in the section covering agriculture and forestry of the toolkit.

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Development or use of land: Overview

DevelopmentDevelopment can result in a wide range of impacts on ecosystem services, which will generally be closely related to the location, type and scale of the proposal.

Impacts on ecosystem services can occur during the construction phase of development, resulting in the change from one land use to another, and during the operation of development – resulting in the potential for pollution, emissions and loss of valued resources.

In general, larger developments have the potential for more significant impacts on the benefits delivered by the environment – converting larger areas of land and potentially reducing its ability to deliver as wide a range of services. Extractive industries can have particularly significant impacts, and are covered separately in the mineral extraction section of this toolkit.

The location of development is critical in influencing the potential impact on benefits. Areas that deliver a wide range of benefits, such as wetlands, are inherently more sensitive to development. Similarly, land with high biodiversity or cultural value are susceptible to impacts at even relatively low levels.

It should be noted that many of the impacts of development on ecosystem services are both unavoidable and irreversible – in that, once land delivering a particular service is sealed under buildings or infrastructure, its ability to deliver that service is generally lost.

Land use changeChanging the way that land is used and managed can have equally significant effects on the delivery of ecosystem service delivery. Again, this is strongly related to the nature, scale and location of the proposed change.

Intensification of use, through increased cultivation, fertiliser application and cropping cycles, can affect the function of processes – such as water and nutrient cycling – that underpin wider environmental health. Similarly, larger-scale change tends to have more significant effects on service delivery. However, this need not be wholly negative, with some change – such as well-planned woodland expansion – having significant potential to enhance the delivery of services ranging from habitat connectivity and flood attenuation to restoration of degraded landscapes.

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Most significant impacts associated with development and land use changeThe development and use of land can result in a number of potential effects, each of which can impact on ecosystem services.

The effects tend to vary according the type of development or land use in question.


• Carbon emissions

• Energy consumption

• Noise

• Loss of land

• Habitat loss and fragmentation

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Carbon emissions





Summary table

Carbon emissions

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe principal benefits in relation to carbon are the ability of the environment to absorb (or ‘sequester’) and store carbon over long periods of time in organic matter.

Peat soils are a key example, storing carbon in the form of partially decomposed plant material that, in many cases, has built up over millennia. However, the integrity of these stores – and the ability of ecosystems to absorb additional carbon – depends on the conservation and management of environmental assets.

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Carbon emissions





Summary table

Carbon emissions

Impacts on environmental benefitsCarbon storage in soils, vegetation and other organic matter, and the capacity to lock up more, is a key benefit provided by the environment. Although direct impacts may be experienced locally, their effects can have consequences that act over a much wider area.

Development and land use change have the potential to increase carbon emissions through a number of pathways, including:

• Direct emissions through impacts on carbon stores:

• Release of carbon from soils as a consequence of disturbance

• Release of carbon from trees and other vegetation cleared to facilitate development

• Direct emissions from operations:

• Emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) from plant and machinery used in construction and operations

• Release of carbon dioxide from construction materials, most notably concrete and cement

• Increased emissions as a consequence of energy use in completed / operational development

• Indirect emissions, as a result of using energy-intensive materials such as steel or aluminium in construction, or transporting materials over a long distance (e.g. using imported, rather than locally sourced, timber or stone)

Development can also reduce the ability of the environment to absorb carbon from the atmosphere by removing, reducing or adversely affecting the health of vegetation – particularly trees – that actively take in CO2 and convert it into organic matter.

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Carbon emissions





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Carbon emissions

Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsWhere possible development should:

• Avoid emissions through:

• Avoiding greenfield / semi-natural sites where significant carbon release from soil and vegetation disturbance is both inevitable and difficult to satisfactorily mitigate

• Avoid high carbon soils, particularly peat

• Reusing and converting existing buildings, rather than clearing and completely rebuilding

• Reduce emissions through:

• the use of lower carbon, locally sourced materials – particularly timber, which locks carbon within the fabric of the building

• Adopting less carbon-intensive approaches to land management, such as: continuous cover forestry; livestock diet management to reduce methane emissions; reduced cultivation and increased soil organic matter content

• Designing in low energy and low carbon technologies, for example; on-site energy generation; high standards of insulation and sealing; passive ventilation, heating and cooling systems

• Mitigate emissions through:

• the creation of new woodland to sequester the carbon released1, either on or off site

• emissions trading schemes

1 Any woodland removed as a consequence of development must be replaced under the Scottish Government’s Policy on the Control of Woodland Removal

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Carbon emissions





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Carbon emissions

Maximising environmental benefitsProtecting on-site carbon stores, and the other environmental assets they depend on to function effectively, is the key means of maximising carbon-related benefits. Ideally, development should be designed around significant environmental features and assets to preserve the benefits they already deliver. Expanding and/or improving the management of woodland assets can be accomplished through development-driven landscaping schemes.

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Energy consumption





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Energy consumption

Key benefits provided by the environmentAs noted above, development is often an energy-intensive undertaking, necessitating the use of heavy machinery and materials with high embodied energy costs.

Many of the materials used by the development sector are sourced from nature, resulting in potential impacts – but also alternatives that can enable energy reduction measures in both construction and operation of buildings.

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Energy consumption





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Energy consumption

Impacts on environmental benefitsThe direct impacts of energy consumption by the development industry are generally experienced at the macro-scale – due to the globalised nature of oil supply, and the cumulative global impact of carbon emissions (discussed above). More local effects include noise (discussed separately below) and potential effects on air quality.

Energy consumption in the production of construction materials is significant, particularly steelwork, synthetic insulation and petrochemical-based products e.g. plastics or mastic asphalt for damp-proof courses and vapour-permeable membrane weather-skins/‘housewrap’ installed under cladding systems. Similarly, the energy used in transporting construction materials is often significant – particularly when components or raw materials are brought in from overseas.

The more widespread use of locally sourced timber to reduce energy use could increase pressure for afforestation in inappropriate locations – however, the systems in place through the Forestry Commission regulatory procedures and the UK Forestry Standard largely preclude significant adverse impacts. There is slightly elevated risk of impact from more intensive use of locally sourced stone and aggregates, as this could increase pressure on resources and drive expansion in the minerals sector – with consequent impacts on local ecosystem services (see the Minerals section of the toolkit for further information).

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Energy consumption





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Energy consumption

Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsThe total avoidance of impacts is not possible in this instance, as some level of energy use will always be required in construction activities. However, it is possible to make use of lower energy alternatives, potentially reducing the overall embodied energy of developments and reducing effects on ecosystem services. The development industry should seek, wherever possible to:

Reduce impacts by:

• Sourcing low energy insulation, such as sheep’s wool or straw bales

• Swapping locally produced timber/laminates for steel structural members

• Using locally sourced stone, brick and blockwork, using recycled materials where available

• Ensuring that project managers optimise the logistics of plant and material delivery to reduce total number of vehicle movements

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Energy consumption

Maximising environmental benefitsThe development process affords few direct opportunities to optimise the benefits delivered by the environment. However, there are opportunities provided in the management and operation of buildings and facilities that can reduce overall impacts on energy use – for example through the application of renewable energy technologies and good planning and management of green infrastructure.

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Noise

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe key benefit delivered by the environment is the ability to attenuate noise, by effectively muffling sound (by interrupting, absorbing or reflecting sound energy). Background noise generated in the environment, by the wind, water and moving vegetation, can also help to mask low level sound.

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Noise

Impacts on environmental benefitsNoise and vibration-related impacts on ecosystem services can vary significantly. Environmental features, such as landform and vegetation, can serve to regulate and reduce the impacts of sources of noise. Development and land use change, through the removal or alteration of these features, can reduce this capacity. Similarly, industries involving the use of heavy plant and machinery can generate noise, which can add to existing issues (e.g. from transport or other development) or introduce significant noise sources into other quiet areas.

Noise has the potential to affect the delivery and value of a range of cultural services; relative tranquillity is a key aspect of many valued landscapes, spiritual and heritage experiences. In turn, this could affect tourism and recreational values. Excessive noise could potentially disturb livestock and important native species, potentially affecting food production and biodiversity respectively. Impacts on communities are a key consideration, as excessive noise can affect quality of life and development aspirations.

Impacts are likely to be strongly related to development type, and will generally be localised (within around 1km of source).

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Noise

Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsWhere possible, development should:

• Avoid:

• Removing or altering environmental features that are important in regulating the effects of noise

• Locations that are particularly noise-sensitive due to cultural, spiritual or biodiversity value

• Reduce noise impacts by:

• Make use of ‘quiet’ technology wherever possible (e.g. gearless wind turbines generate substantially less mechanical noise that traditional machines)

• Considering the transport impacts of the development, and encouraging more sustainable alternatives

• Mitigate noise impacts by:

• Designing in screening, for example through landscaping and planting, to muffle the effects of noise generated by construction or operation of developments

• Keeping areas of hard surfacing to a minimum to reduce sound reflection

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Noise

Maximising environmental benefitsNoise attenuation by the environment is a passive process, therefore protecting the features and assets that provide this service is the key means of sustaining delivery.

Woodland providing noise screening can be enhanced through additional planting and good management to add to its capabilities. Where landform is the key factor, development should be designed around preserving the key features providing screening. More complex landforms absorb more sound, but it is recognised that retaining every ‘lump and bump’ will not be compatible with all types of development.

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Loss of land

Key benefits provided by the environmentPrimary productivity – land’s ability to grow and sustain plants – is the basis of our agricultural, horticultural and forestry industries, and provides vital food and raw materials that support social and economic development.

Land also provides a host of benefits that relate to the regulation of environmental processes, such as flood and pollution attenuation and the regulation of local climate through the provision of shelter, shade and evaporative cooling.

People have a strong attachment to ‘their’ landscapes and the cultural and historical associations of places. These values can make a strong contribution to sense of place, and local people’s sense of identity and heritage. The ways in which people respond to places can make a substantial economic contribution, through tourism and recreation, as well as contributing to wider quality of life – making areas attractive for people to live, work and invest.

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Loss of land

Impacts on environmental benefitsLand provides a wide range of benefits to people, derived from its key properties, namely: primary productivity; supporting fundamental ecological processes that underpin all other benefits; and, the human values attached to land - its history and cultural associations that contribute to quality of life and sense of place.

Impacts arising from development can affect these properties in the following ways:

• Primary productivity:

• Reducing the area of land available for growing food or supporting native species and habitats

• Increasing the intensity of use, increasing agricultural production – but affecting the land’s ability to deliver wider benefits, such as water, climate and air quality regulation

• Environmental processes:

• Converting land to hard, impermeable surfaces (buildings, roads and hard-standing) that reduce the ability of land to store water – increasing run-off and the potential for erosion, and also potentially increasing downsteam flooding. This also reduces the capacity of land to contribute to water quality, both as a result of potential pollution from increased run- off, and the reduction in land available to filter water and contribute to water quality. Consequently, recharging of ground and surface water resources may be altered

• Sealing soil resources under buildings and other hard surfaces also reduces the area of land available to support water and nutrient cycling

• Human values:

• Archaeological remains represent an important link to past societies, and contribute to our understanding of our shared heritage. Development can physically damage or destroy archaeological sites, affecting the cultural value and significance of an area – and also their potential to contribute to social and economic value

• Loss of open land can substantially alter the landscapes of an area, changing how people respond to and value the land, with potential knock-on effects on tourism and recreation

• Change from open land to development can also affect the way people think about their own area, affecting their sense of place and quality of life

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Loss of land

Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsDevelopment inevitably requires the conversion of land from one use to another. In general, this will involve the erection of buildings, structures and infrastructure that reduces the overall amount of undeveloped land available to contribute to important ecological processes.

Where possible, development should:

• Avoid impacts by:

• Prioritising the development of brownfield sites to limit impact on land resources

• Protecting high quality land and environmental assets that provides most benefit (e.g. prime agricultural land with high growing potential; woodland that provides a range of regulating services; floodplains that retain floodwater, reducing downstream impacts)

• Preserving areas with strong cultural associations or heritage value1

• Reduce impacts by:

• Designing development to work with key natural processes – for example leaving areas of the site prone to flooding undeveloped, or preserving areas of existing woodland

• Keeping hard surfaces to the minimum required and using ‘green roof’ techniques where appropriate

• Designing development to fit within its landscape and historic context, reducing potential effects on cultural values

• Mitigate impacts by:

• Designing in features to mimic natural processes, for example using permeable surfacing for carparks and using Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) to collect, store and filter run-off

• Creating new woodland or water features to address losses incurred through development1This is generally secured through the planning process

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Loss of land

Maximising environmental benefitsConversion of land to development will inevitably reduce the potential of the resource to deliver ecosystem services. Decisions will therefore focus on where benefits can be optimised, and what trade-offs need to be made in terms of development extent and design to deliver these benefits.

The benefits delivered by land can be maximised through development in the following ways:


• Prioritising the protection and enhancement of high quality land and environmental assets on site, potentially compensating for losses of lower quality land

• Supporting ecological processes:

• Development and land use change should, wherever possible, work with existing natural processes. This requires an extensive understanding of the ecological functions acting across the site, and how the proposed development will interact

• Preserving the features that deliver the most numerous / most significant benefits

• Human values:

• Prioritising the re-use of previously developed sites to preserve culturally significant locations

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Key benefits provided by the environmentNatural and semi-natural habitats play a critical role in the function of our ecosystems – even in urban or developed settings. ‘Green infrastructure’ is increasingly recognised as a critical component of the built environment, providing shelter, shade and cooling, along with water management and biodiversity benefits.

In addition, natural heritage makes an important contribution to the character and distinctiveness of places and, in many areas, is a key aspect of the tourist industry.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsDevelopment can generate a wide range of impacts on habitats, resulting from changes in land use and working practices.

These can be summarised as follows:

• Direct impacts on habitat from:

• Conversion of semi-natural or valued habitat to other less beneficial land uses

• Fragmentation of habitat resources, reducing connectivity for species

• Disturbance from adjacent development

• Air and water pollution

• Indirect impacts on habitat from:

• Increased pressure on resources as species are displaced

• ‘Squeezing’ fragile habitats between areas of developed land / immovable features (such as the coastal edge), reducing the potential for migration and adaptation in response to the effects of climate change

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Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsWhere possible, development and land use should seek to:


• Developing brownfield locations

• ‘densification’ of existing settlements and developed areas, rather than expansion


• Preserving key habitat network links in the design and implementation of development and land use change

• Ensuring that key habitats are afforded ‘climate space’ to adapt to predicted changes, and that development is planned to accommodate this


• Delivering enhancement of existing habitats

• Establishing alternative habitat links, where loss of existing resources is an inevitable consequence of planned change

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Maximising environmental benefitsWell-planned development can play a role in safeguarding and managing important habitats, and has the potential to contribute to improved ecosystem service delivery through provision of high quality green infrastructure. However, in many cases this will require a change from ‘business-as-usual’ approaches.

The principal means of optimising habitat benefits is through the protection and enhancement of existing resources, ensuring that planned activities work with nature wherever possible.

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CommentsCarbon emissions

Noise Loss of landEnergy consumption

Habitat loss & fragmentation


Food

Climate impacts from GHG emissions can affect primary production. Excessive noise can potentially disturb livestock, affecting food production. Loss/contamination of land and habitats for food production (e.g. from construction or development). Livestock diet management to reduce methane emissions. Restoration efforts and improvements to habitats can increase food production.

Fibre

Loss/contamination of land and habitats impacting on the ability to provide fibre resources. Increasing crop rotations due to loss of land. Climate impacts from GHG emissions can affect primary production. Restoration efforts and improvements to habitats can increase fibre production.

Fuel

Creation/expansion of woodland to sequester carbon release. Release of carbon from trees cleared to facilitate development. Loss of habitats & fragmentation from clearance of land (e.g. tree felling) for development. Potential habitat restoration through mitigation planting.

Genetic resources Deterioration of genetic resources (e.g. if key species are lost as a result of land development).


Loss/contamination of land and habitats impacting on the ability of ecosystems to produce natural medicines.

Ornamental

Fresh water Changes to the ability of ecosystems to provide fresh water as a result of changes to surface flows and the quality of water because of development of land.


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Regulating services


The loss of land and habitats (particularly trees) can reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate air quality. Emission of CO2 and GHGs from operations and release of carbon into the atmosphere from soil disturbance can negatively impact on air quality. The creation of green infrastructure may contribute positively to local air quality.

Climate regulation

The loss of land & habitats (particularly trees) and the release of carbon, CO2 and GHG emissions from development/construction can significantly impact on the ability of the environment to regulate the climate. Green infrastructure promotes connectivity for species and increases the potential for migration and adaptation in response to the effects of climate change.


Climate impacts from GHG emissions can make natural disasters more frequent and severe, making it more difficult for ecosystems to regulate these hazards. The loss of land and habitats to development or from soil erosion caused by development can affect surface water flows and potentially increase downstream flooding.


Soil erosion from development can affect the ability of soils to either absorb carbon, or result in carbon being released from soil stores. The loss of vegetation from development can affect the ability of ecosystems to regulate soil erosion and to reduce the risk of landslides.


Development of land, habitat loss, and disturbance of soil, as well as contamination from construction/development, can affect soil quality.


Development of land reduces the capacity of land to contribute to water quality, both as a result of potential pollution from increased run-off, and the reduction in land available to filter water.


Noise regulation

Development of land can reduce the ability of the environment to regulate noise, particularly if trees are removed as they play an important role in the regulation of noise levels. Energy consumption during construction/ operation may produce local negative impacts.

Disease regulation

Changes to habitats and species composition from the development of land may increase susceptibility of species to disease through poor plant and animal health. Energy use may impact indirectly on the regulation of disease through the effects of climate change.

Pest regulation

Changes to habitats and species composition from the development of land may decrease the ability of species in ecosystems to regulate pests. Energy use may impact indirectly on the regulation of pests through the effects of climate change.

Pollination The development of land could affect populations of pollinators. Energy use may impact indirectly on pollination through the effects of climate change.


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Cultural services


Changes to landscapes (visually & structurally) from the development of land and excessive noise levels from construction/development can affect quality of life (including the health of communities) and can change people’s perceptions of an area.

Spiritual services Noise (e.g. from development & construction) can affect the spiritual services delivered by ecosystems.

Religious Noise (e.g. from development & construction) can affect the spiritual services delivered by ecosystems.

Education

Inspirational Noise from construction/development and the removal of environmental features important in regulating the effects of noise can disturb the tranquillity of an area.

Aesthetic

Development of land and loss of habitats could change the character and appearance of the landscape at local and broader scales. Noise can have a negative impact on the aesthetic quality of an area particularly if trees are removed as they play an important role in the regulation of noise levels.

Sense of place

Noise can have a negative impact on the sense of place of an area particularly if trees are removed as they play an important role in the regulation of noise levels. The loss of habitats and land to development can affect & change the sense of place of an area.

Cultural heritage

Development of land can physically destroy or damage archaeological sites or remains. Changes to the landscape, both visually & structurally, from the development of land can have significant impacts on the setting of cultural heritage features and sites.

Recreation

Visual changes to landscapes from the development of land, noise from construction/development, and the removal of environmental features important in regulating the effects of noise can reduce the attractiveness of an area for recreation.

Tourism

Development of land could change the character and appearance of the landscape at local and broader scales with potential effects on tourism. Habitat loss, noise from construction/development, and the removal of environmental features important in regulating the effects of noise can reduce the attractiveness of an area for tourism.


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Most significant impacts associated with agriculture and forestry






Supporting services

Soil formation

Development of land, changes to habitats and contamination of soil from construction/development can impacts on the process of soil formation. Climate change impacts may affect soil structures which in turn can affect soil formation.

Primary production

Development of land, changes to habitats, changes to water regimes and soil structures due to contamination can impact on primary production. Climate change impacts can either decrease or increase primary production.

Nutrient cycling

Development of land and associated changes to habitats, changes to water regimes and soil structures from soil erosion can impact on the cycling of nutrients.

Water cycling

Development of land and associated changes to habitats, changes to water quality from increased run-off and the reduction in land available to filter water, and impacts of climate change can affect water cycling.

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Agriculture and forestryLand-based industries are a critical component of Scotland’s rural economy, supporting a wide range of primary and secondary businesses, jobs and communities. In addition to providing food, fibre and other essential raw materials, farmers and foresters are responsible for the management of a significant proportion of Scotland’s land resource, and the wide range of benefits it provides. As such, substantial public funding, delivered through the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the Scotland Rural Development Programme (SRDP), is deployed to support the activities of these industries. Securing appropriate public benefit in return for this investment – in the form of the protection and enhancement of ecosystem services – is therefore a priority.

AgricultureAgricultural activity in Scotland encompasses a wide range of practices and delivers an equally diverse range of products – from hill farming, dairying and beef production to very large scale lowland arable enterprises. Regardless of nature and scale, all agricultural enterprises are wholly reliant on ecosystem services, and can all generate a variety of impacts on their delivery.

Farming, and farm-derived products, often have lengthy supply chains that can generate impacts in their own right. These will also be explored in this section of the toolkit.

ForestryAlthough synonymous with large-scale non-native conifer plantations, forestry in Scotland is a diverse industry. While non-native planted conifers comprise the majority of the national woodland resource, the industry is also responsible for the management of a further 344,000ha of native broadleaved woodlands, much of which is ancient and/or semi-natural.

Recent developments in energy policy have stimulated growth in the biomass industry, promoting the planting of short-rotation coppice woodlands (mainly willow), and exploring shorter rotations of traditional timber trees (notably Sitka spruce) and a range of other species (including ash, birch, sycamore and eucalypts) to provide woodfuel.

Timber and other forest products can also have similarly complex supply chains, the potential effects of which are also explored in this section of the toolkit.

> ContinueSource: FC Forestry Facts and Figures 2013 http://www.forestry.gov.uk/forestry/infd-7aqf6j

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OverviewFarming and forestry are entirely reliant on the primary productivity of land to support their activities. However, the type, location, scale and intensity of these activities are the principal determining factors with regard to potential impacts on ecosystem services.

AgricultureArable agriculture, most prevalent in the lower-lying and more fertile areas of Scotland – concentrated in the east of the country – is often large-scale and draws directly on the primary productivity of land to grow crops for food, livestock fodder/forage, energy, oils (e.g. from rapeseed) and as feedstock for industrial processes and the drinks industry (e.g. barley for whisky production). It consumes significant quantities of water, mainly through absorbed rainfalls, but in many areas abstraction from surface and groundwater is required to irrigate crops. Tillage (ploughing, rolling harrowing etc.) alters soil structure and promotes drying, as well as increasing vulnerability to wind and water erosion, increasing runoff during heavy rain. It also reduces the amount of organic material in the soil by promoting decomposition through exposure to air, leading to carbon release and a potential loss of soil biodiversity. Modern arable agriculture is highly carbon intensive, relying heavily on diesel-powered machinery and industrial fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides.

Some areas of Scotland, notably the Carse of Gowrie, are also important for soft fruit production. Raspberries and strawberries are grown in ‘polytunnels’, with consequent effects on the character and appearance of the landscape – as well as necessitating intensive irrigation. Many crops, including strawberries, potatoes and some brassicas, are increasingly grown under protective ‘fleece’ material, which also alters the appearance of the landscape but can reduce the need for pesticide use and help delicate crops survive uncertain weather patterns.

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Pastoral agriculture, whether for meat or dairying, is widespread in Scotland. Reliant on the availability of appropriate pasture, with dairy cattle requiring higher quality grazing than either beef cattle or sheep (although this is highly breed dependent). Ruminants are significant carbon emitters, in the form of methane, from both flatus and decomposition of faecal material. Similarly, the maintenance and improvement of pasture also generates emissions through the use of machinery and fertilisers, and can cause carbon release – particularly where previously uncultivated areas are taken into pasture. Clearly, livestock also require drinking water, often necessitating abstraction. In fields close to water bodies, livestock are a significant source of diffuse pollution, through run-off of faecal material and urine and increased sediment loads where cattle enter lochs and rivers to drink and cool off. Uncontrolled cattle can also cause substantial damage to river bank and bed morphology. The effects of climate change mean that overwintering livestock, particularly cattle, is increasingly challenging. Wetter winters, leading to waterlogging of fields, mean that stock needs to be housed indoors – and fed from sources other than natural forage. Preserving forage through anaerobic fermentation, producing silage, is a key means feeding livestock through the winter. However, the process emits significant amounts of carbon and produces effluent that can present a pollution hazard, as it is rich in nutrients and highly acidic (containing nitric acid).

Hill farming is the dominant mode of agriculture in upland Scotland, from the Southern Uplands to Sutherland and the islands, and accounts for over half of all the agricultural land in the country. Focussed principally on sheep-rearing or mixed sheep and beef cattle, hill farms are characteristic of areas with lower productivity soils, a shorter growing season and of relatively harsh climate. The hardy breeds used on hill farms are better able to withstand long winters and, where possible, are overwintered outdoors, but with supplementary food in the form of hay, silage and/or commercial feed products. Key impacts on ecosystem services include the potential adverse effects on biodiversity and soils from overgrazing and the effects of poorly-controlled muirburn. Equally, under-management can have adverse effects, with bracken and scrub colonisation of grassland.

The supply chain for agricultural business is often complex and can generate impacts on ecosystem services in its own right. These include the high embodied energy and carbon emissions generated by agrochemical production, machinery and the transportation of supplies and outputs (e.g. produce, livestock, carcasses). Depending on the uses to which outputs are put, subsequent processing may have further effects on ecosystem services, for example through the processing of meat, milk, vegetables or grains.

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ForestryIn Scotland, the majority of planted conifer forests are managed using the traditional clear-fell approach, where coupes are densely stocked as monocultures, grown to maturity and felled as a block. This has the potential to generate significant impacts on ecosystem services, including: increased risk of erosion and runoff from exposure of fragile forest and mineral soils to rainfall; carbon release through soil disturbance and decomposition of waste wood (sawdust, chips, brash and uneconomic small diameter roundwood from ‘top-and-lop’).

Management of broadleaved and mixed woodlands tends to be more selective, with targeted thinning and felling of individual trees to maintain continuous cover. In recent years, there has been more widespread adoption of this approach in suitable conifer forests – but this is dependent on topography and accessibility.

The process of woodland establishment also has the potential to generate a range of impacts, depending on the location and the techniques employed. In addition to the direct effects of changing one land cover to another, the use of machinery and deep ploughing can result in significant carbon release (particularly on peat soils), damage to heritage assets and increased run-off and sedimentation/nutrification of water courses. Industrial forestry, like farming, is heavily dependent on mechanisation at every stage of the process – from ground preparation and planting to harvesting, haulage and processing – and is therefore highly carbon-intensive.

Trees are very effective at ‘scrubbing’ pollutants from the air – most notably particulate matter that is trapped by leaves and needles. While this can be of major benefit, these pollutants can be dissolved by rainfall and result in acidification of watercourses. They also absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide and release oxygen as part of the process of photosynthesis. In urban areas however, the small quantities of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by trees2 may exacerbate poor air quality by contributing to the production of ozone (O3) where this is an issue. This is not a significant issue in more rural areas, and the benefits in terms of oxygen production, particulate interception and carbon sequestration vastly outweigh any adverse effects from VOC excretion.

2 Emission levels and composition depend on tree species, but generally relate to chemical products excreted to, amongst other things: attract pollinators; deter herbivores; deal with thermal stress; combat pathogens; assist in competition /antagonism with other species.

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Most significant impacts associated with agriculture and forestryAgriculture and forestry can result in a number of potential effects, each of which can impact on ecosystem services.

The effects tend to vary according the type of land management and the nature of the host environment.


• Carbon emissions

• Air pollution

• Water pollution

• Loss of land

• Energy consumption

• Use of chemicals

• Habitat loss and fragmentation

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Summary table

Carbon emissions

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe ability of vegetation to absorb and store carbon is a critical benefit delivered by the environment.

The upland moors and permanent pasture managed for grazing by farmers represents an important carbon store. Soils tilled for arable agriculture are, however, much less rich in organic material. Similarly, crops do not store significant amounts of carbon as much of the plant is discarded and the edible remainder processed and eaten relatively rapidly.

Woodlands and forests are major carbon stores and absorb additional atmospheric CO2 throughout their growing lives. However, wherever trees are harvested carbon is released through soil disturbance and decomposition of waste wood. The end use of wood is important to the carbon balance of forestry – for example, structural timber retains most of its carbon for the entire lifespan of its use in buildings; whereas wood that is burned as fuel releases virtually all of the carbon it once held. Restocking of an equivalent area, as generally required by the UK Forestry Standard, is necessary to ensure that there is no net loss of carbon storage.

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Carbon emissions

Impacts on environmental benefitsAgricultural activity can have a range of impacts on carbon stores, and the ability of the environment to absorb additional atmospheric carbon, through the following pathways:

• Direct emissions through impacts on carbon stores:

• Release of soil carbon through tillage, and taking additional land into cultivation / afforestation

• Reduction in soil organic content through wind and water erosion, and intensive tillage

• Direct emissions from operations and livestock:

• Direct emission of methane by livestock and their waste

• Direct emission of carbon dioxide from muirburn

• Direct emission of carbon dioxide and other GHGs from plant and machinery used in agriculture and forestry

• Direct emission from decomposing waste wood and crop residues

• Direct emissions from silage production and feeding out

• Direct emissions from end-use:

• Direct carbon dioxide emissions from combustion of woodfuel

• Emissions from food processing waste

• Emissions from use of energy crops

• Indirect emissions from supply chains:

• Emissions from transportation of agricultural and forest products

• Emissions from production of fertilisers, other agro-chemicals, animal feed and materials (e.g. plastic- based bale wrapping, geotextiles, tree-shelters)

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Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsEfforts to reduce the impact of the forestry sector have been in place for some time, and are a cornerstone of the UK Forestry Standard. Similarly, the Farming for a Better Climate initiative, funded by the Scottish Government, provides practical support to the sector to assist in mitigation and adaptation measures.

Where possible, farming and forestry practice should:

• Avoid emissions through:

• Adopting no tillage systems where appropriate

• Avoiding taking unworked land into cultivation

• Avoid high carbon and peat soils for new woodland creation

• Reduce emissions through:

• Adopting reduced tillage approaches (e.g. direct drilling uses up to five times less fuel than the equivalent plough/sow/cultivate approach)

• Adopting lower impact silvicultural systems for woodland creation and management

• Choosing energy-efficient equivalents when replacing machinery (e.g. vehicles with central tyre inflation systems to improve traction / lower ground pressure)

• Ensuring vehicles and machinery are appropriately serviced and maintained to optimise efficiency and fuel use

• Minimise field tracking and confining vehicles to permanent ‘tramlines’ or defined routes

• Ensuring workers are properly trained in efficient driving techniques, potentially saving up to a third on fuel costs

• Restricting the use of muirburn

• Implementing on-farm renewable energy projects to reduce overall carbon footprint (e.g. anaerobic digestion, using animal waste to generate energy; wind turbines; biomass)

• Mitigate impacts through:

• Restoring moorland and peatlands through drain-blocking, adopting lower impact approaches to management

• Woodland expansion to ensure net carbon reductions

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Maximising environmental benefitsProtecting on-site carbon stores, such as peat soils and existing woodlands, is the key means of optimising carbon-related benefits. The integrity of these assets can be secured through a range of management and enhancement options, funded through SRDP. These could include the protection, management and expansion of existing woodlands and restoring natural processes and functions to areas of degraded peatlands with few other realistic options for use and management.

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Air pollution

Key benefits provided by the environmentTrees and woodland provide a critical service in ‘scrubbing’ – or physically capturing – pollutants from the air. The effect can be particularly significant where planting is adjacent to transport corridors or other sources of pollution. Hedgerows and verges alongside roads can also perform a similar function, albeit to a less extent.

Field trees, farm woodlands and shelter-belts can play an important role in reducing wind erosion of soils, reducing – and intercepting – airborne dust loads and avoiding impacts on neighbouring communities and environmental assets (e.g. preventing nutrification of lochs and other water bodies).

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Air pollution

Impacts on environmental benefitsFarming and forestry can affect the delivery of these benefits through the removal of trees and woodland. Particular care is therefore required in managing woodlands adjacent to / downwind of transport routes and other sources of particulate matter.

Under-management of farm woodlands, shelter-belts and field trees can reduce their value in preventing wind erosion of soils, placing a critical farm asset at risk. Similarly, planned clear-felling of productive coupes can impair the ability of woodland to deliver air quality benefits – potentially removing a huge total surface area previously available to intercept pollutants.

Restocking decisions may also affect the long term ability of woodland to intercept pollutants, as some tree species are more effective than others in this regard.

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Air pollution

Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsWhere possible, farming and forestry practice should:


• Conserving and managing existing trees and woodland, where long term retention is the principal aim

• Adopting ‘continuous cover’ approaches to management to maintain canopy integrity

• Designing in air quality considerations to new management plans


• Retaining ‘buffer strips’ adjacent to pollution sources when clear-felling productive coupes


• Ensuring that restocking of woodlands includes or comprises species with good pollution control potential

• Planting new woodland to restore pollution control potential elsewhere

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Air pollution

Maximising environmental benefitsEnsuring that woodlands that are important to local air quality are appropriately managed is the key means of securing the delivery of these benefits. There will clearly be a need to balance preserving overall woodland cover – maintaining the pollution interception potential – with the wider management objectives of the woodland (e.g. timber or biomass production, biodiversity, habitat connectivity, shelter and shade for livestock). Continuous cover approaches, where applicable, will be the most effective means of securing long-term air quality enhancement – balancing the felling of mature trees with continuous restocking and healthy populations of younger trees, which have been shown to be most effective at pollution interception (Beckett et al., 2000)3.

3Beckett, K.P., Freer-Smith, P.H., Taylor, G. (2000). The capture of particulate pollution by trees at five contrasting urban sites. Arboricultural Journal 24, 209–230.

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Water pollution

Key benefits provided by environmentHill ground and moorland play an important role in capturing, retaining and filtering rainfall. Similarly, trees and woodland are important factors in increasing the infiltration and storage capacity of catchments – and can play a role in trapping and absorbing potential pollutants. All vegetated land, including arable land and pasture, can perform similar functions, albeit often to a lesser extent.

As so much of Scotland’s land area is managed for farming and forestry, land managers are a crucial link in maintaining and enhancing water quality. Recognition of the role of both industries in contributing to diffuse pollution has led to improvements in practice, and the relevant guidelines in place through the UK Forestry Standard and the cross-compliance objectives put in place through CAP and SRDP.

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Water pollution

Impacts on environmental benefitsArable farming can directly affect water quality through run-off from fields, which may contain:

• Soil and nutrients in suspension / solution: leading to increased turbidity in water bodies, increased sediment loads and nutrification

• Chemical and natural (manure, slurry, compost, bone meal) fertilisers: leading to nutrification and increased nitrogen and phosphorus levels

• Herbicides, fungicides and insecticides: potentially killing or supressing aquatic flora and fauna

• Hydrocarbon residues from machinery fuel, lubricants and hydraulic fluids

In addition, pastoral farming adds the risk of diffuse pollution from animal waste entering watercourses either directly or as run-off, introducing significant loads of pathogens and nutrients.

Any storage facilities for silage or slurry represent a significant risk to water quality, and are therefore closely regulated. Nevertheless, the potential exists for such facilities, along with barns and sheds used for housing animals, to result in both diffuse pollution (from gradual leaks or run-off, resulting from poor construction, maintenance or working practices) or large-scale point-source events (resulting from structural failure or large-scale spillage).

Forest operations, including ground preparation, planting and felling, have the potential to generate adverse effects through run-off from broken ground, and increased rates of run-off due to drainage or felling. Risks from fertilisers and machinery tend to be confined to the establishment and harvesting phases.

As noted above, forests themselves can indirectly contribute to diffuse pollution through the interception and solution of airborne pollutants, resulting in acidification of watercourses.

Taking land into cultivation can significantly reduce its ability to deliver pollution reduction services, as drainage, regular tillage and chemical/slurry application increase the risk of pollution, along with livestock grazing. The closer land is to water bodies, the greater the risk. Similarly, high stocking densities or intensive cultivation further increase the risk – and decrease the ability of land to deliver natural ecosystem functions. Where this occurs close to water bodies and in areas prone to flooding, the effects are likely to be more significant.

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Water pollution

Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsWhere possible, farming and forestry should aim to:

• Avoid impacts through:

• Designing in appropriate ‘buffer strips’ and exclusion areas adjacent to watercourses

• Ensuring any facilities for storage of potentially polluting materials (waste, silage, fuel, lubricants and agro-chemicals) are located a suitable distance from potential receptors, and the necessary design standards are met

• Retaining and expanding existing riparian woodland to ensure activities have no adverse effects

• Avoiding intensification of activities in areas of importance for water quality

• Appropriate stock control measures, such as fencing or hedges, to maintain separation distances between livestock and watercourses

• Adopting zero tillage agricultural systems (e.g. direct drilling of seed, rather than ploughing, avoiding any significant soil disturbance)

• Reduce impacts through:

• Adopting lower tillage systems

• Adopting lower impact / continuous cover silvicultural systems


• Using lower ground pressure vehicles to reduce the amount of soil disturbance, potentially reducing the sediment loads in runoff

• Controlling stock densities to reduce diffuse pollution impacts

• Timing operations to reduce the potential for adverse effects from runoff (e.g. during ground preparation or harvesting)

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Maximising environmental benefitsFor forest land, the key means of securing water quality benefits is ensuring continuous tree cover. While trees can be felled and replanted, the woodland as a whole remains intact, reducing the amount of disturbance to soils and the potential for polluted runoff. It also maintains the overall capacity of the woodland to reduce the impact of intense rainfall, slowing catchment response times and helping to reduce the severity of flood events.

On arable land, maintaining continuous ground cover, through the use of ‘cover crops’ can help to manage soil fertility, quality and water retention – as well as reducing runoff through increased surface roughness.

In pastoral areas, many measures required to assist livestock production to adapt to climate change may be incompatible with maintaining ecosystem services. For instance, due to increased rainfall, additional land drains are often required – reducing the capacity of the land to contribute to water management. Ensuring that, wherever possible, stock is excluded from areas liable to waterlogging.

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Key benefits provided by the envionmentPrimary productivity – land’s ability to grow and sustain plants – is the basis of our agricultural, horticultural and forestry industries, and provides vital food and raw materials that support social and economic development. In this context, ‘loss of land’ should be understood to mean the conversion of currently uncultivated land to agriculture or woodland.

Land also provides a host of benefits that relate to the regulation of environmental processes, such as flood and pollution attenuation and the regulation of local climate through the provision of shelter, shade and evaporative cooling.

People have a strong attachment to ‘their’ landscapes and the cultural and historical associations of places. These values can make a strong contribution to sense of place, and local people’s sense of identity and heritage. The ways in which people respond to places can make a substantial economic contribution, through tourism and recreation, as well as contributing to wider quality of life – making areas attractive for people to live, work and invest.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsLand provides a wide range of benefits to people, derived from its key properties, namely: primary productivity; supporting fundamental ecological processes that underpin all other benefits; and, the human values attached to land - its history and cultural associations that contribute to quality of life and sense of place.

The significance of impacts will be strongly related to where agriculture or woodland expansion occurs – and the benefits already delivered by the land in question. In general, the more ‘natural’ the vegetation cover and ecosystem processes in place, the more significant the impacts of change will be. Similarly, changes will not be wholly negative, with both agriculture and forestry providing a suite of benefits in their own right. The key question, however, is whether the planned activity will compromise the overall ability of the environment to sustain the package of services necessary to safeguard overall environmental quality and resilience.

Impacts arising from agriculture and forestry can affect these properties in the following ways:


• Growing energy crops, or trees principally for woodfuel production, can reduce the area of land available for food production

• Intensive cultivation and chemical use, while improving crop yields, can reduce the capacity of the land to support biodiversity

• Crops, including timber trees, consume significant amounts of water, which may reduce the capacity of catchments to support native species and habitats particularly where abstraction from ground or surface waters is required

• Environmental processes:

• Converting land to agriculture can reduce its capacity to deliver ecosystem services, particularly in relation to water quality and flood attenuation. For details, see the ‘water pollution’ section of this toolkit

• Conversion of peatland or semi-natural grassland to woodland can reduce the biodiversity value of

these habitats, and reduce their contribution to wider ecosystem function

• Extensive chemical application can affect natural nutrient cycling processes, and the ability of land to buffer natural chemical loads

• Human values:

• Archaeological remains represent an important link to past societies, and contribute to our understanding of our shared heritage. Arable agriculture, through plough damage, can erode or destroy archaeological sites, affecting the cultural value and significance of an area. Poorly planned afforestation can destroy or obscure heritage assets

• Loss of open land to forestry can substantially alter the landscapes of an area, changing how people respond to and value the land, with potential knock-on effects on tourism and recreation

• Agricultural intensification can erode landscape structure and character through the loss of field boundary hedges and field trees

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Agriculture and forestry should, wherever possible seek to:


• Not expanding intensive agriculture into previously uncultivated land

• Limiting afforestation to land that currently has lower ecosystem service value than would be created by new woodland (e.g. degraded heather moorland, avoiding deep peat soils)

• Improving the management of existing woodland to provide sustainable woodfuel, rather than expanding overall cover

• Conserving and enhancing existing landscape features, such as field boundary trees


• Consolidating intensive food production in areas where there is environmental capacity to accommodate the activities

• Recognising the value of historic landscape features and conserving their character and significance through the planning and management of land use

• Adopting low / no tillage systems to reduce impacts on archaeological assets and ecological processes

• Ensuring that intensification of agriculture is matched by appropriate provision of habitat corridors, connecting existing resources and conserving biodiversity values and ecosystem functions

• Delivering compensatory habitat creation / enhancement to mitigate impacts of afforestation or Adopting lower intensity agricultural intensification

Many impacts from agriculture and forestry are inherent and are not readily mitigated, as they require wholesale ecosystem change from one land cover to another.

• Targeting woodland expansion in areas of degraded environmental quality – such as former mining areas – where trees could contribute to enhancement of ecosystem service delivery


• Ensuring that planned activities ‘design in’ the retention of key ecosystem services, for example: by creating/retaining networks of habitat to maintain connectivity for species; expanding riparian woodland in parallel with agricultural expansion to retain and enhance pollution control and flood attenuation benefits; or by retaining landscape features that contribute to distinctiveness

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Maximising environmental benefitsFood production is of critical strategic importance, and key productive resources (such as land of highest agricultural capability) already enjoy significant protection through the planning and forestry regulatory system – therefore large scale loss of this resource is very unlikely. However, there is a need to build greater resilience in to agricultural systems, as well as reducing wider adverse effects on ecosystem processes and functions. Where appropriate, the application of lower impact systems can have both economic and environmental advantages for farmers. While business decisions will often focus on what is best for the ‘bottom line’, making trade-offs against maintaining key ecological functions and cultural values will be necessary.

Arable crop production can potentially be optimised to sustain a wider range of other benefits by adopting lower tillage systems that generate similar returns, but result in much lower levels of soil disturbance, reduced erosion and improved nutrient cycling and soil carbon content. However, such systems will not be suitable in all areas of Scotland. Retention of key environmental features, providing networks of habitat, pollution and water management and landscape structure will be the principal means of ensuring that planning activities deliver optimal benefits.

Woodland provides a wide range of important benefits, not least timber and other forest products. Improving the management of existing woodlands is a key means of improving their economic performance – for example, providing additional income through biomass production – and the environmental benefits they deliver. Creating new woodland can significantly enhance the ability of land to deliver environmental benefits, particularly with regard to water management, carbon storage and biodiversity (depending on species mix and planting design). However, careful planning is necessary to ensure woodlands are created in the right places, and are appropriate to environmental conditions. Forestry and Woodland Strategies are a key means of delivering appropriate woodland expansion, and land managers should refer to them in developing proposals for new planting.

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Energy consumptionFarming and forestry can be highly energy-intensive enterprises. To operate at any significant scale, appropriate machinery is required. Most of this relies almost entirely on fossil fuels, and can be relatively inefficient, leading to excessive consumption, high fuel bills and squeezed profit margins for land-based industries.

The use of fossil fuels in agriculture contributes to a high carbon footprint (just over 50 million tonnes of CO2 a year, or 9.3% of total UK greenhouse gas emissions), but only around 9% (c.4.5Mt CO2) of this total arises from on-farm fuel use. In recent years, there has been a drive to improve energy efficiency in the sector, including the development of more efficient machinery and the promotion and adoption of farm-scale renewable energy schemes. Although they can reduce the ‘downstream impacts of high levels of energy use, they can also generate local impacts in their own right. Forestry is currently a net remover of carbon from the atmosphere, due to the sequestration potential of new and existing woodlands, absorbing around 10Mt of CO2 a year. In addition, harvested wood products continue to store the equivalent of 2.5Mt CO2 every year – until they decompose or are burned. However, fuel use and cost – notably in timber transport – is a major economic issue for the sector, particularly in more remote parts of Scotland.

Land-based industries benefit from a lower fuel tax regime for tractors, material handlers and other vehicles primarily for off-road use, such as combine harvesters, crop sprayers, forestry harvesters, forwarders and skidders. Fuel consumption is frequently high, particularly in poor ground conditions, and until relatively recently economic pressure to improve efficiency has not been a major factor.

In addition to energy consumed in primary activities such as planting and harvesting, farming consumes significant amounts of energy in housing and feeding livestock, and recovering and processing products (e.g. milking or drying grain). Primary forest products are necessarily bulk items and are difficult to handle and transport, necessitating the use of substantial machines. Similarly, processing wood is highly energy intensive and is often undertaken at considerable distance from timber source, necessitating relatively long-distance logistics networks and large-scale, centralised processing locations.

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Key benefits provided by the environmentThe environment provides farming and forestry with a range of potential energy sources. Wind and solar energy can be harvested through the installation of appropriate technology. Similarly, the fibre in plant matter – particularly woody biomass and large exotic grasses – can be used to fuel combustion, generating heat and electricity for on-site use or export to the national grid.

Crops can be processed and refined to produce fuels, such as bioethanol and ‘biodiesel’ – which already comprises at least 5% of all commercially available fuels under the Renewable Transport Fuels Obligation. Similarly, waste oils and animal fats can also be successfully used to produce biodiesel through a relatively simple and scalable process.

Animal manure and plant waste from harvesting can also be used to produce energy through anaerobic digestion, to produce biogas (mainly methane), that can be burned to produce heat and electricity for use on-site/exported to the grid, injected into the mains gas grid or used to fuel gas-powered processes on site.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsThe impacts on ecosystem services from large-scale energy consumption are generally experienced at the macro scale, rather than on-site (other than the economic impact of fuel costs). Consumption of grid electricity, where derived from fossil fuels, contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, local air quality issues and acid deposition.

On-farm energy generation, while offsetting such impacts, can generate more localised effects.

Anaerobic digestion of animal and plant waste can be an attractive means of generating lower carbon energy, and disposing of waste material. Similarly, on-farm wind and solar power installations can help to reduce energy bills and lower operations’ carbon footprint. However, the infrastructure required has the potential to affect heritage and landscape values, although these factors are considered and should be mitigated through the planning system. The pollution risk presented by anaerobic digestion, and the nutrient-rich digestate, is carefully managed through the Pollution Prevention and Control (Scotland) Regulations 2010 or the Waste Management Licencing (Scotland) Regulations 2011.

Biomass heat and power, from the combustion of wood and forestry by-products, is also increasingly employed in decentralised generation. It is particularly useful in applications where both heat and power are required, for instance in lighting and warming greenhouses. Major timber processors are also employing biomass to drive plant and dry timber, significantly reducing their reliance on grid electricity and fossil fuels. However, larger-scale developments are likely to generate substantial landscape and visual effects, and may not be suitable in all locations. Similarly, combustion generates particulate and gaseous emissions that may contribute to local air quality issues.

Bioethanol, produced from carbohydrate-rich crops, uses land that could be used for food production. Biodiesel is generally produced from waste fats and organic oils, or from oil-rich crops (such as oil seed rape / canola), and is often considered to be more sustainable. It can readily be produced at the farm scale, and no duty is payable for annual production under 2,500 litres, and a rebated rate applies to off-road use.

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Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsComplete avoidance of impacts will generally not be possible, due to the requirements of modern agriculture and forestry. However, land managers’ investment decisions can make a significant contribution to limiting further effects. Where possible they should seek to:


• Ensuring that planned machinery upgrades source the most efficient models available, and that are best suited to local environmental conditions

• Adopting low or no-till systems, and the necessary machinery, to reduce the number of vehicle passes required on fields – as well as reducing the energy required for each pass (direct-drilling of seed requires far less energy than pulling a plough through the soil)

• Implementing low-impact silvicultural systems on suitable sites, along with the development of standing timber grading technology, can substantially reduce energy use over traditional clearfell systems by allowing more selective felling of timber to cater to particular markets – reducing wastage and optimising returns


• Where possible, ensuring that vehicles and machinery are appropriately serviced and operating as efficiently as possible

• Adopting technologies such as variable ground pressure systems on suitable vehicles to improve fuel efficiency, particularly in poor ground conditions (in addition to reducing adverse effects on soils and the water environment)

• Collaborating with neighbouring land managers and communities to optimise energy returns from renewable projects, in locations where impacts can be minimised or accommodated most effectively (e.g. developing a communal anaerobic digester on the farm where landscape and visual impacts will be least significant)

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Energy consumption

Maximising environmental benefitsOn-farm energy use could be substantially reduced through the adoption of biomass and/or anaerobic digestion heat and power plants. Both technologies make use of readily available materials, and can stimulate more positive management of resources, benefitting business and the environment.

Biomass production can act as a driver to bring existing woodlands back into positive management, providing a long-term low-carbon source of energy – and safeguarding important environmental assets.

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Use of chemicals

Key benefits provided by the environmentAgriculture and forestry are significant users of chemicals, as noted above. These can be derived from natural or synthetic sources and, while often important for securing crop yields or preventing pest and disease issues, can generate a range of impacts on ecosystem services.

The nutrient content of soils is fundamental in the capacity of land to grow food. Natural cycling processes return nutrients to the soil through the decomposition of crop wastes and other biomass and direct nitrogen-fixing (e.g. by clover and other legumes grown in rotation).

The presence of soil biodiversity, in the form of earthworms, other invertebrates and beneficial microorganisms4, along with insect pollinators are a key part of our ability to grow trees and plants to provide food and fibre.

The use of chemicals can also be necessary to safeguard the delivery of ecosystem services, particularly in relation to the control of invasive non-native plant species such as Rhododendron ponticum, giant hogweed, Himalayan balsam and Japanese knotweed, which can out-compete

Low and no-tillage systems, although more sustainable in many other respects, can be heavily reliant on glyphosate (‘Round-Up’) herbicide.

4 For example, Rhizobia bacteria that, when established in legume root nodules, fix nitrogen in soil, or mycorrhizal fungi that assist plant root systems in nutrient uptake and exchange

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Use of chemicals

Impacts on environmental benefitsWhile agrochemicals can improve crop yields, by increasing nutrient availability, removing/reducing weed competition and eliminating pests and diseases, they can have adverse effects on natural processes and wider ecosystem services. These include:

• Direct effects on:

• Primary productivity: chemical use can disrupt processes of nutrient cycling and soil formation, affecting the quality of the growing medium and necessitating additional interventions

• Environmental processes, including water quality regulation, toxic hazard regulation and pollination, by exceeding environmental capacity to absorb and disperse pollutants, and by accidentally killing all insect life, rather than just target species

• Crop and plant symbiosis, by disturbing or killing important microorganisms

• Potential pesticide resistance in weeds, pests and pathogens

• Human health, through chemicals applied or administered to livestock

• Indirect effects through:

• Reliance on fossil fuels to synthesise, package, distribute and apply agrochemicals, resulting in carbon emissions

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Use of chemicals

Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsWhere possible, agriculture and forestry should seek to:


• Eliminating chemical use wherever feasible, introducing more sustainable crop rotations to limit pest and pathogen lifecycles

• Selecting pest-resistant crop and tree varieties to eliminate the need for spraying

• Using approved ‘biological control agents’ (natural predators, parasites or pathogens of pest species) in place of chemical control agents – although care should be exercised to ensure there is no risk of their becoming invasive and affecting biodiversity

• The use of direct injection of herbicides to invasive plants (particularly rhododendron) to improve results and remove the need for indiscriminate spraying


• The application of up-to-date best practice guidance, that can help to reduce chemical use and save money

• Using technology to facilitate selective application of pesticides and fertiliser (e.g. GPS-based dosing systems), targeting areas with most need and restricting potential for over-application


• Ensuring that appropriate buffer strips are in place adjacent to all watercourses to mitigate the potential effects of polluted run-off from fields

• Limiting application of chemicals to periods of good weather to ensure that the potential for run-off is reduced

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Use of chemicals

Maximising environmental benefitsChemical use need not be incompatible with the conservation and management of healthy ecosystems. However, their use needs to be proportionate and targeted to ensure that wider effects do not occur.

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Key benefits provided by the environmentNatural and semi-natural habitats play a critical role in the function of our ecosystems – even in agricultural and forestry settings. They provide a wide range of benefits that underpin the productivity of land, the growth of crops and livestock, and the regulation of the environment that makes agriculture and forestry possible. For example, peatland and moorland intercept and retain rainfall, allowing groundwater to recharge and preventing flooding lower in the catchment. Trees and woodland provide shelter and shade for livestock, and help to prevent wind erosion of soil resources. Semi-natural vegetation also provides habitat for pollinators, which are particularly important in horticulture and fruit production.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsAgriculture and forestry can generate a wide range of impacts on habitats, resulting from changes in land use and working practices.

These can be summarised as follows:

• Direct impacts on habitat from:

• Conversion of semi-natural or non-intensively managed habitat to more intensive/different land use, resulting in reduction or loss of habitat value

• Afforestation of sensitive open ground habitats

• Under-management of existing components of habitat networks, such as wetlands, riparian woodland, farm woodland or unimproved grassland, reducing the amount of available habitats, connectivity and the ability of species to migrate and adapt to the effects of climate change

• Removal of habitat network features as a consequence of intensification, for example grubbing up hedges or removing field trees to facilitate the use of larger machinery

• Leaching and runoff of pesticides, fertilisers, soil and animal wastes resulting in the nutrification and/or pollution of the water environment

• Changes in livestock densities, leading to over- or under-grazing, altering the composition,height and vigour of vegetation communities – with consequent effects for key species, such as ground-nesting birds

• Indirect impacts on habitat from:

• Changes in water availability, flow rates and catchment response times as a result of drainage and/or planting, or abstraction for agricultural use

• Acidification of watercourses, resulting from trees intercepting air pollution, affecting downstream aquatic habitats

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Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsWhere possible, agriculture and forestry should seek to:

Avoid impacts by:

• Focussing on management of existing woodlands and farmland, rather than extending the limits of cultivation

• Restricting woodland expansion to areas where habitat values and ecosystem service provision are currently lower than would be delivered through appropriate tree planting (e.g. degraded but stable heather moorland)


• Preserving important habitat features, such as wetland or woodland, in situ

• Ensuring that habitat networks are built into planned changes – for example, retaining semi-natural riparian woodland corridors when planning afforestation or other changes in land management


• Developing habitat management plans to ensure that adjacent areas of habitat are enhanced and, where possible, expanded, to address losses incurred through planned change

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Maximising environmental benefitsFarming and forestry can play an important role in safeguarding and managing important habitats, and have the potential to contribute to improved ecosystem service delivery. In many cases this will require a change from ‘business-as-usual’ approaches, but can convey a range of benefits in terms of meeting environmental requirements (including cross-compliance objectives), contributing to resilience and aid adaptation to climate change.

The principal means of optimising habitat benefits is through the protection and enhancement of existing resources, ensuring that planned activities work with nature wherever possible.

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Air pollution

Water pollution

Loss of land

Energy consumption

Use of chemicals



Food

Climate impacts from GHG & carbon emissions can affect primary production. Direct effects from chemicals administered to livestock. Loss/contamination of land and habitats for food production (e.g. from farming/forestry operations). Livestock diet management to reduce methane emissions. Restoration efforts and improvements to habitats can increase food production. Growing energy crops or tress principally for woodfuel production can reduce the area of land available for food production.

Fibre

Agrochemicals can improve crop yields by increasing nutrient availability and eliminating pests & diseases. Intensive cultivation can reduce the capacity of the land to support biodiversity. Climate impacts from GHG and carbon emissions can affect primary production.

Fuel

Creation/expansion of woodland to sequester carbon release. The felling of large areas of trees can reduce the capacity of the local environment to intercept air pollution. Loss of habitats & fragmentation from clearance of land (e.g. tree felling).

Genetic resources

The use of chemicals can control invasive non-native species which can outcompete native species. Climate impacts from GHGs and other chemical emissions may result in certain species not being able to cope or adapt, leading to loss of species or viable populations.


Loss of land/habitats and contamination from incorrect or overuse of chemicals may impact on the ability of ecosystems to produce natural medicines.

Ornamental

Fresh water

High consumption of water by animals, increasing the concentration of pollutants (through run-off of faecal material) and reducing the capacity of the local environment to deal with additional pollutants (through the loss of land) can reduce the quality of water. Contamination for the incorrect or overuse of chemicals can reduce the provision of high quality water.


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Air pollution

Water pollution

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Regulating services


The loss of land and habitats (particularly trees) can reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate air quality. Emission of CO2 and GHGs from farming operations and release of carbon into the atmosphere from soil disturbance (e.g. tillage) can negatively impact on air quality. Reliance on fossil fuels to synthesise, package and distribute agrochemicals, resulting in carbon emissions. Woodland expansion ensures net carbon reductions.

Climate regulation

Direct negative impacts the loss of land & habitats (particularly trees), from chemical use, CO2 and GHGs as by-products of farming & forestry processes and release of carbon into the atmosphere from soil disturbance or from use of fossil fuels for plant and machinery operation reduces the ability of the environment to regulate climate change.


Climate impacts from GHG emissions can make natural disasters more frequent and severe, making it more difficult for ecosystems to regulate these hazards. The loss of land & habitats and soil erosion from farming and forestry practices can affect surface water flows and potentially increase downstream flooding.


Farming practices such as ploughing and rolling harrowing alter soil structure and promote drying, as well as increasing vulnerability to wind and water erosion, increasing runoff during heavy rain. Soil erosion (e.g. from the felling of large areas of trees) can affect the ability of soils to either absorb carbon, or result in carbon being released from soil stores. Woodland expansion can stabilise soil structures reducing carbon emissions.


Habitat loss and disturbance of soil, as well as contamination from chemical use, can affect soil quality. Air and water pollutants absorbed by the soil can also affect soil quality.


Contamination of surface and ground water from chemical use/fertilisers and pollution from animal waste can affect the ability of ecosystems to maintain high water quality.


Contamination from incorrect or overuse of chemicals can reduce the ability of the environment to maintain low levels of toxic hazard.

Noise regulation Woodland expansion increases the environments ability to regulate noise.

Disease regulation

The use of chemicals can control invasive non-native species and limit the spread of disease. Conversely, changes to habitats and species composition from the contamination and pollution of air/ water/ soil from farming & forestry processes may increase susceptibility to disease through poor plant and animal health.

Pest regulation Potential pesticide resistance in weeds, pests and pathogens through the use of chemicals.

Pollination

Contamination from chemical use and pollution of air/ water/ soil from farming & forestry processes may reduce the number of pollinating species, thereby affecting the ability of ecosystems to provide pollination services.


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Air pollution

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Cultural services


Air/water/noise pollution and/or contamination from forestry and farming processes particularly from the incorrect or overuse of chemicals can affect quality of life including the health of communities.

Spiritual services Air pollution from ruminant animals can affect the spiritual services delivered by ecosystems.

Religious

Education

Inspirational Noise from forestry & farming practices (e.g. from the operation of machinery, felling of trees) can affect the ability of the environment to provide inspiration.

Aesthetic

Agricultural intensification and loss of habitats could change the character and appearance of the landscape at local and broader scales (e.g. through the loss of field boundary hedges & trees).

Sense of place Loss of open land to forestry can substantially alter the landscape of an area, and can change the sense of place of an area.

Cultural heritage

Arable agriculture, through plough damage, can erode or destroy archaeological sites, affecting the cultural and significance of an area. Poorly planned afforestation can destroy or obscure heritage assets. Air and water pollution can also affect the conservation and appreciation of cultural heritage.

Recreation Air pollution from the use of fossil fuels in plant & machinery, loss of land and habitats to agricultural intensification, and the contamination and pollution of water can reduce the attractiveness of an area and may have a significant effect on water users, including downstream businesses, communities and tourism, and recreation industries.

Tourism


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Air pollutionWater pollution

Loss of landEnergy consumption

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Supporting services

Soil formation

Soil erosion from farming practices (e.g. tillage) can alter soil structure and impact on the process of soil formation. Chemical use can disrupt the process of soil formation affecting the quality of the growing medium & necessitating additional interventions. Climate change impacts may affect soil structures which in turn can affect soil formation.

Primary production

Changes to habitats, water regimes and soil structures due to contamination/pollution from forestry and farming processes can impact on primary production. Climate change impacts can either decrease or increase primary production.

Nutrient cycling

Contamination/pollution of air and water, overuse/incorrect use of chemicals and changes to soil structures from soil erosion can impact on the cycling of nutrients.

Water cycling

Excessive consumption of water by animals, discharge of pollutants, and the reduction in land available to filter water can all affect water cycling.


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Most significant impacts associated with manufacturing

Manufacturing and processingManufacturing and processing industries play a critical role in underpinning the operation of a significant proportion of the economy. While many of these industries rely on inputs from the environment, they can also generate a range of effects on ecosystem services.

This section of the toolkit focuses on the effects of the industrial processes themselves, rather than the generic effects of the operation of premises, or the requirement to develop land for the construction of factories etc. These effects are covered elsewhere in the toolkit.

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OverviewHistorically, manufacturing has been a key sector of the Scottish economy – although it is currently smaller, but much more diverse, than in the past. Processing encompasses a wide range of industries, from food and drink through to petrochemicals, and draws on both natural resources and the availability of a highly skilled workforce.

The principal components of the sector are:

• Chemicals and life sciences: e.g. petrochemicals and plastics, organic chemistry, pharmaceuticals, clinical and other lab-based research materials, diagnostic tools and products, plant and animal breeding and genetics

• Precision engineering and electronics: e.g. precision engineering for the rail, marine, automotive, aerospace, defence and energy industries; electronic components and products for the communications and computing industry

• Fabrication and heavy engineering: e.g. steelwork for the transport, energy (oil/gas and renewables), marine and defence sectors

• Food and drink; e.g. brewing and distilling; food processing, production and packaging

• Forestry and construction: e.g. sawmills, chipboard plants, biomass producers; structural timber, laminates, pre-fabricated/’kit’ houses

• Textiles: e.g. wool processing and garment, carpet or furnishing manufacturing

Either directly or indirectly, much of this activity relies on natural resources, often sourced from within Scotland. The potential for impacts on ecosystem services is therefore significant and can be either localised or wide-ranging.

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Most significant impacts associated with manufacturing and processingManufacturing and processing industries carry strong public associations as being ‘dirty’ and polluting. Although environmental standards and regulation have improved immeasurably, these industries still have significant potential to affect the delivery of benefits from nature and the health of human populations. These can be characterised as follows:

• Air pollution

• Water pollution and consumption

• Carbon emissions and energy use

• Noise pollution

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Air pollution





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Air pollution

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe environment provides a range of benefits with regard to the absorption and mitigation of air pollution, principally the capture, retention and ‘bioremediation’ by vegetation and soils.

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Air pollution





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Air pollution

Impacts on environmental benefitsManufacturing and processing industries can have a wide range of impacts on air quality and the ecosystem functions that underpin the service.

• Direct impacts:

• airborne particulate or chemical emissions that, through direct contact or solution in precipitation, reduce or impair the ability of trees and vegetation to ‘scrub’ pollutants from the air – for example resulting in defoliation or reduced leaf cover

• felling of large areas of trees to provide raw materials (see Agriculture and forestry section for more details), reducing the capacity of the local environment to intercept air pollution – albeit temporarily, as trees will generally be replaced

• Indirect impacts:

• Impacts from transport at all stages of the supply chain

• Industrial activities creating increased demand for products or materials, increasing potential impacts on air quality

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Air pollution





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Air pollution

Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsBeyond the regulation of emissions already in place for industries, businesses should, where possible:


• Switching to non-emitting or closed system processes (where technology allows), or building in particulate ‘scrubbers’ when upgrading plant


• Modal shift in transport of raw materials and products (e.g. from road to rail)

• Energy conservation / ‘lean’ processes to reduce overall emissions


• Local tree planting to intercept air pollution close to source

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Air pollution





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Air pollution

Maximising environmental benefitsClearly, reducing emissions is the most effective means of securing local air quality. However, it is recognised that some level of emission from industrial processes is inevitable. Therefore, boosting the environment’s capacity to absorb pollutants and avoid impacts on sensitive receptors – including people – is a key step in ensuring businesses become more sustainable. Expanding local woodland cover, including through landscaping schemes associated with industrial and business premises, is a cost-effective and multi-benefit means of addressing this issue.

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Key benefits provided by the environmentMany manufacturing and processing businesses rely heavily on the ability of the environment to provide water for a range of functions. This includes:

• Acting as a coolant

• Being an ingredient for foodstuffs or chemical processes

• For cleaning materials and products

• Providing an energy source, through hydropower or water source heat pumps

Water may be extracted from surface water bodies, such as lochs and rivers, or abstracted from groundwater sources.

The environment also provides additional – free – treatment services for water discharged by industrial users. This can relate to biological or chemical remediation of pollutants, temperature regulation and trapping of particulate matter in vegetation or sediments.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsIndustrial users can impact on water quality in a number of ways, including:

• Direct impacts:

• Consumption of water resources, reducing downstream availability

• Discharge of wastewater to the environment that is chemically, biologically or thermally different to the receiving environment and/or below appropriate standards

• Discharge of wastewater that is high is suspended solids, increasing turbidity

• Discharge of other pollutants to the water environment, changing the chemical or biological conditions

• Changes to river morphology resulting from abstraction / discharge engineering

• Uncontrolled discharges from water storage / treatment facilities as a result of accidents or severe weather events

• Indirect impacts:

• Consumption of surface water resulting in reduced flow / volume, increasing the concentration of existing pollutant loads and reducing the capacity of the local environment to deal with additional pollutants

• Consumption of groundwater, increasing time taken to recharge aquifers from rainfall – with consequent increases in vulnerability to pollution

These effects can result in the downstream reduction of the health of water bodies, reducing their capacity to deal with existing or additional environmental stresses – for example the effects of climate change or existing pollutant loads. Even relatively small changes in water chemistry or nutrient and sediment load can radically alter biodiversity values, for instance through promoting algal blooms, depleting oxygen resources and killing fish and other organisms. In turn, this can have significant effects on other water users, including downstream businesses, communities and tourism and recreation industries.

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Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsWhere possible, industrial water users should:


• Adopting closed systems that do not discharge process water to the environment, treating and recycling water on site

• Adopting sustainable water treatment systems to ensure that water is as closely matched to – or better than – local conditions prior to discharge


• Reducing abstraction and treating / recycling water on site to reduce overall environmental effects

• Ensuring that water used for cooling is at ambient temperature before discharge to the environment – e.g. through heat exchangers, to contribute to heating other processes and optimise energy use and recovery

• Ensuring that working areas are appropriately sealed off from the water environment, to prevent accidental spillages and runoff polluted by fuel, lubricants or other agents (e.g. degreasers, cleaning products, animal products)


• Redesigning abstraction and discharge facilities to mirror natural processes, mitigating effects on river morphology

• Restoring ecosystem functions to boost environmental capacity to absorb pollutants, e.g. wetland and floodplain restoration

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Maximising environmental benefitsIndustry can make a substantial contribution to local water quality by ensuring that the water discharged to the environment is equal to, or of better quality, than the receiving environment. This can help the overall enhancement of the water environment and, as industrial water use and discharge is closely monitored, can make a quantifiable contribution to local environmental quality.

Major water-using industries, such as Scotch whisky, have a major stake in the health of the entire catchment – as they depend on the upstream quality of the water entering their processes, and their licences and reputation can be adversely affected by adverse downstream effects. There are opportunities for landowners, water-using businesses and regulators to work together to promote catchment-scale action that can ensure the long-term health of the resource, reduce costs and deliver significant local benefits.

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Key benefits provided by the environmentMany manufacturing and processing industries are inherently energy intensive. This can result from primary carbon emissions as a result of combustion, chemical or biological reactions, or secondary emissions from the supply chain, particularly through transport.

The principal benefit provided by the environment is the ability of plants to capture and store atmospheric carbon through photosynthesis at both the local and global level.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsIndustry can affect the ability of the environment to absorb carbon in a number of ways. These include:

• Direct emissions from combustion:

• Carbon release through use of fossil fuels for energy production or direct heating of processes

• Use of fossil fuel-powered machinery

• Direct emissions from processes e.g. carbon dioxide, methane and other GHG emissions as by- products of industrial processes

• Direct emissions through the use of carbon dioxide in industrial processes (e.g. as a shielding gas in arc welding1)

• Direct emissions from waste products e.g. decomposition of animal waste and animal by-products from meat processing

• Indirect emissions from supply chains;

• Indirect emissions produced by or resulting from finished products (e.g. vehicles, plant or machinery)

• Indirect impacts through land use change to provide process feedstocks (e.g. barley for whisky distilling or oil seed rape for biodiesel), resulting in intensification and loss of soil carbon

1 Shielding gases are used to protect the weld area from atmospheric gases, particularly oxygen and nitrogen, which can cause defects, impurities and brittleness in the weld.

Older techniques make use of flux-coated electrodes that, when melted by the arc, emit CO2.

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Where possible, industry should seek to:


• Switching to renewable energy sources to avoid emissions from fossil fuels


• Using suitable by-products to contribute to on-site renewable energy generation through anaerobic digestion (for organic wastes), combustion (e.g. of distillers’ draff)

• Implementing modal shift in transport of raw materials and products to reduce emissions

• Adopting more energy-efficient plant and machinery when upgrading

• For major metalworking and fabrication, switching to welding techniques that use gases other than CO2 as the inert/semi-inert shielding gas, where this will not adversely affect the quality and durability of outputs

• Adopting lower weight packaging and packing materials to reduce the energy required to transport products


• Adopting carbon capture and storage technology, as this becomes available

• Contributing to woodland expansion to boost the amount of carbon stored by the environment

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Maximising environmental benefitsProtecting existing carbon stores and improving the capacity of the environment to store additional carbon are the principal means of optimising benefits.

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Noise pollution

Key benefits provided by the environmentEnvironmental features, such as landform and woodland, can play an important role in reducing the impact of industrial noise on sensitive receptors, such as nearby communities.

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Noise pollution

Impacts on environmental benefitsNoise and vibration-related impacts on ecosystem services can vary significantly. Environmental features, such as landform and vegetation, can serve to regulate and reduce the impacts of sources of noise. Industries involving the use of heavy plant and machinery can generate noise, which can add to existing issues (e.g. from transport or other development) or introduce significant noise sources into other quiet areas.

Noise has the potential to affect the delivery and value of a range of cultural services; relative tranquillity is a key aspect of many valued landscapes, spiritual and heritage experiences. In turn, this could affect tourism and recreational values. Excessive noise could potentially disturb livestock and important native species, potentially affecting food production and biodiversity respectively. Impacts on communities are a key consideration, as excessive noise can affect quality of life and development aspirations.

Impacts are likely to be strongly related to development type, and will generally be localised (within around 1km of source).

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Noise pollution


• Avoid:

• Removing or altering environmental features that are important in regulating the effects of noise

• Locations that are particularly noise-sensitive due to cultural, spiritual or biodiversity value

• Reduce noise impacts by:

• Make use of ‘quiet’ technology wherever possible

• Considering the transport impacts of the development, and encouraging more sustainable alternatives

• Mitigate noise impacts by:

• Designing in screening, for example through landscaping and planting, to muffle the effects of noise generated by plant

• Keeping areas of hard surfacing to a minimum to reduce sound reflection

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Noise pollution


Woodland providing noise screening can be enhanced through additional planting and good management to add to its capabilities. Where landform is the key factor, facilities should be designed around preserving the key features providing screening.

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Water pollution & consumption

Carbon emissions & energy use

Noise pollution


Food

Discharge of contaminated, untreated wastewater and other pollutants to the environment can affect food production (e.g. killing fish, etc.). Climate impacts from GHG emissions & carbon released through the burning of fossil fuels for energy production/heating processes can affect primary production. Excessive noise from industrial processes can potentially disturb livestock, affecting food production.

Fibre

Contamination of land from air, soil and water pollutants from industrial processes can impact on the ability of the environment to provide fibre resources. Climate impacts from GHGs and carbon release can also affect primary production. Indirect impacts through land use change to provide process feedstocks (e.g. barley for whiskey distilling) can result in intensification.

Fuel

Creation/expansion of woodland to sequester carbon release. Direct negative impacts on the environment from carbon release through the use of fossil fuels for energy production or direct heating processes. The felling of large areas of trees to provide raw materials can reduce the capacity of the local environment to intercept air pollution and to regulate noise.

Genetic resources

Climate impacts from GHGs and other chemical emissions may result in certain species not being able to cope or adapt, leading to loss of species or viable populations.


Contamination of land may impact on the ability of ecosystems to produce natural medicines.

Ornamental

Fresh water

High consumption of water for processing can result in reduced flow/ volume, increasing the concentration of existing pollutants and reducing the capacity of the local environment to deal with additional pollutants which reduces the quality of water. Contamination (e.g. from pollutants/spillages) or soil erosion also reduce the provision of high quality water.


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Noise pollution

Regulating services


Direct negative impacts from chemical emissions, CO2 and GHGs as by-products of industrial processes and release of carbon into the atmosphere from soil disturbance or from use of fossil fuels for energy production can negatively impact on air quality. The felling of large areas of trees for use as raw materials also reduces the capacity of the local environment to intercept air pollution.

Climate regulation

Direct negative impacts from chemical emissions, CO2 and GHGs as by-products of industrial processes and release of carbon into the atmosphere from soil disturbance or from use of fossil fuels for energy production reduces the ability of the environment to regulate climate change.


Climate impacts from chemical emissions, CO2 and GHG emissions can make natural disasters more frequent and severe, making it more difficult for ecosystems to regulate these hazards. Discharge of wastewater & other pollutants, and changes to river morphology from abstraction/consumption can affect the water regime and water flow reducing the ability of ecosystems to regulate flood hazards.

Erosion hazard regulationSoil erosion (e.g. from the felling of large areas of trees to provide raw materials) can affect the ability of soils to either absorb carbon, or result in carbon being released from soil stores.

Soil quality regulationDisturbance of soil and contamination from industrial processes can negatively affect soil quality. Air and water pollutants absorbed by the soil can also affect soil quality.


High consumption of water for processing can result in reduced flow/ volume, increasing the concentration of existing pollutants and reducing the capacity of the local environment to deal with additional pollutants which reduces the quality of water. Contamination (e.g. from pollutants/spillages) or soil erosion also reduce the provision of high quality water.

Toxic hazard regulation Contamination from spills/leaks can reduce the ability of the environment to maintain low levels of toxic hazard.

Noise regulation

Industries involving the use of heavy plant and machinery can generate excessive noise (particularly if coupled with the noise generated by the transport of products) which in turn can affect the ability of the environment to regulate noise, particularly if trees are removed as they play an important role in the regulation of noise levels.

Disease regulation Changes to habitats and species composition from the contamination and pollution of air/ water/ soil from industrial processes may increase susceptibility to disease through poor plant and animal health, may decrease the ability of species in ecosystems to regulate pests and may reduce the number of pollinating species, thereby affecting the ability of ecosystems to provide pollination services.

Pest regulation

Pollination


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Noise pollution

Cultural services

Community development Air/water/noise pollution and/or contamination from industrial processes can affect quality of life including the health of communities.

Spiritual servicesIndustries involving the use of heavy plant and machinery can generate excessive noise (particularly if coupled with the noise generated by the transport of products) which in turn can affect the spiritual services delivered by ecosystems.

Religious

Education

Inspirational Noise from manufacturing processes and the removal of environmental features (e.g. felling of trees for raw materials) important in regulating the effects of noise can affect the ability of the environment to provide inspiration.

Aesthetic

The presence of manufacturing buildings, plant and machinery can have a negative effect and change the aesthetic nature of a place. Noise can have a negative impact on the aesthetic quality of an area particularly if trees are removed as they play an important role in the regulation of noise levels.

Sense of place Air/water/noise pollution and/or contamination from industrial processes can affect and change the sense of place of an area.

Cultural heritage Air and water pollution and excessive noise levels can affect the conservation and appreciation of cultural heritage.

Recreation Air pollution from industrial processes, the removal of environmental features important in regulating the effects of noise, and the contamination and pollution of water can reduce the attractiveness of an area and may have a significant effect on water users, including downstream businesses, communities and tourism, and recreation industries.

Tourism


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Noise pollution

Supporting services

Soil formation

Soil erosion and contamination of soil from industrial processes (e.g. waste products) or transport related pollutants can impact on the process of soil formation. Climate change impacts may affect soil structures which in turn can affect soil formation.

Primary production

Changes to habitats, water regimes and soil structures due to contamination/pollution from industrial processes can impact on primary production. Climate change impacts can either decrease or increase primary production.

Nutrient cycling

Contamination/pollution of air and water, and changes to soil structures from soil erosion can impact on the cycling of nutrients.

Water cycling

Excessive consumption of water resources reducing downstream availability, discharge of wastewater/pollutants, and the reduction in land available to filter water can all affect water cycling.


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Mineral extraction

What do we mean by ‘mineral extraction’?

Overview

Most significant impacts associated with mineral extraction

Mineral extraction

What do we mean by ‘mineral extraction’?This toolkit focuses on the ecosystem services impacts of surface mineral working, given that there is currently very little if any, extraction of marine aggregates in Scotland.

All stages of mineral extraction are taken into account, including exploration, construction, operation and site closure.

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Mineral working

OverviewBy its very nature, the extraction of minerals inevitably has an impact on the land, which can therefore impact on the ecosystem services the land provides. The largest impacts are likely to come from construction and operation, while the methods used to restore closed mineral sites will have a profound (and potentially positive) influence on the ecosystem services they deliver in future.

Not all effects of mineral extraction on ecosystem services are therefore negative, the extractive industry can also make an important net positive contribution to the delivery of ecosystem services especially where the condition of these was impoverished to begin with, through for instance the rehabilitation of mining sites at the end of the project cycle.

By significantly altering the physical characteristics of a site, minerals extraction can also result in wholesale changes in the types and levels of ecosystem services provided.

Several factors influence the scale of the potential impacts of mineral extraction on ecosystem services, including:

• The kind of extraction methods and processing techniques that are used

• The scale of the extraction, which will also influence the length of time over which a mine operates

• The location of the site, especially the sensitivity of the environment. Extraction sites located in fragile environments, such as wetlands, near rivers or lakes, or on land that is of high nature value, are likely to have a potentially greater impact than those located in areas which have already been heavily modified

The exact nature and scale of the impacts can therefore only be accurately determined on a case by case basis. This toolkit highlights the key potential impacts which are largely common to all mining activities, although their scale may vary.

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Most significant impacts associated with mineral extractionActivities of mineral extraction result in a number of environmental effects, each of which can impact on ecosystem services.

The main environmental effects from mineral extraction which can impact on ecosystem services stem from:

• Changes to the landscape, through the development or use of land, the changes in physical character, and subsequent restoration

• Waste products and discharge of waste into soil and surface water

• Water use and de-watering

• Transport of materials, both on-site and off-site

• Dust

• Noise

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Mineral extraction

Changes to the landscape from the development or use of landThe greatest impact on ecosystem services from mineral extraction will be through changes to the landscape and associated habitats, and through the clearance of land. Virtually all ecosystem services could potentially be affected.

For a fuller discussion on the ecosystem service impacts associated with the development of use of land, see Development and use of land. Only a brief overview is presented here.

Key benefits provided by the environment Land and associated habitats have the potential to deliver on all the different ecosystem services.


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Changes to the landscape from the development or use of land

Impacts on environmental benefitsMineral extraction can involve stripping away the topsoil or removing vegetation on a large scale. Construction of associated infrastructure such as roads, may also result in the loss or degradation of ecosystems. All of these can impact on ecosystem services.

For instance, alterations to the surface over which the water flows can affect the water regime and can change the ability of ecosystems to regulate water levels and water quality. This can reduce or change the pattern of surface water flows, reduce recharge rates from groundwater or stream beds, and change the physical/chemical quality of the water.

More widely, visual and landscape effects can reduce the cultural services, especially where sites are close to residential areas. Severance and restricted access to footpaths can remove access to recreational facilities and make access to recreational areas more difficult.

Not all effects are negative; important positive contributions to the delivery of ecosystem services can also be made through appropriate management, mitigation measures and rehabilitation of sites at the end of the project cycle. If a site was in particularly poor condition to begin with, improvements can deliver net positive benefits.

The type of benefits being delivered by a site may also change following its use for extraction, where for instance, a new type of habitat is created in place of the habitat which was originally there (e.g. sites used for gravel extraction can be used to create new wetland areas).

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Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsImpacts, if properly assessed and understood, can be avoided or mitigated by changing the extraction site’s design and methods of operation and by carefully selecting the site location.

• Avoid impacts by, for instance, locating extraction sites in less environmentally sensitive areas

• Reduce and mitigate impacts by, for instance, changing the extraction site’s design and methods of operation

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Maximising environmental benefits Agree landscaping requirements

By rehabilitating a site to ensure that services which were being delivered before extraction continue once the site is closed.

By rehabilitating a site so that it delivered greater (i.e. net positive) benefits than before extraction started, especially if the site was in poor condition to begin with

One example is the Eden project in Cornwall, where a former china clay pit is now being used as a national educational and tourism resource.

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Waste products and discharge into soil and surface water

Key benefits provided the environmentThe principal benefits in relation to waste is the ability of the environment to absorb, filter and regulate pollution including waste products through soil, water and air processes.

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Impacts on environmental benefits• Mineral extraction often results in large amounts of waste including wastewater. The water quality or soil around a mineral extraction site can also become contaminated with waste rock dumps or tailings

• Waste products can contaminate both soils and surface water, affecting the chemical quality of water flows and soil structures, especially where hazardous substances are involved. This can damage services such as water provision and water purification

• Excavated material and site waste heaps can also create further structural effects by changing the nature and character of the landscape and therefore affecting surface water flows. This can affect the ability of ecosystems to regulate water flows and can reduce the ability for the system to regulate flood regimes. These heaps can also have visual impacts which can compromise the quality of the cultural services being delivered in the area

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• Avoid impacts by, for instance, minimising waste production, preventing the seepage of contaminated runoff through floor of quarry, encasing waste and contaminants in impermeable material

• Reduce and mitigate impacts by siting waste heaps in ways which limit their impacts on the landscape, groundwater, surface water courses and the flood regime

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Maximising environmental benefits• Using waste for landscaping or as part of a programme of progressive restoration

• Landscape and vegetate waste heaps

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Key benefits provided by the environmentThe principal benefits in relation to water is the ability of the environment to regulate water flows and water quality, preventing certain natural hazards such as floods and landslides.

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Mineral extraction


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Impacts on environmental benefits The development and operation of an extraction site often requires huge quantities of water. De-watering of works or diversion of surface water courses is also often needed, whereby water is taken from one place and discharged into another.

De-watering and excessive water use can modify hydrological conditions at the site and in the surrounding area, resulting in potential changes in the drainage network by creating imbalances in surface runoff, infiltration and other processes. De-watering can also reduce the flow of wells and streams. There is also the risk of over-drainage, hydraulic disruptions and changes in water quality.

Changes to water regimes, particularly groundwater, can also affect the quality of the water recharging the aquifer and being discharged, the timing of recharge rates and surface water flows, and the supply of water.

All the above can affect the ability of ecosystems to provide fresh water, to regulate water quality and to regulate water flows, which may affect the ability to regulate flood hazards.

Wetlands may be particularly vulnerable because of the water-intensive nature of most extraction processes.

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• Avoid impacts by, for instance, defining and assessing the hydrogeological regime to identify sensitive areas to avoid, by considering whether dewatering is necessary, by using an appropriate drainage system to keep surface water out of workings

• Reduce impacts by, for instance, dewatering progressively in cells and reduce the inflow of water by sealing if dewatering is needed, by designing an integrated water management system (e.g. which controls particulars, removes oil and scum)

• Mitigate impacts by providing for recharge of aquifers and by following codes of practice for temporary spoil mounds and slope stability, leaving adequate margins around water courses, river corridors and other sensitive areas, minimising obstruction of flood flows

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Maximising environmental benefits• Leaving effective filter layers between aquifers

• Rapidly vegetating exposed areas

• Restoring working areas

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Road transportation For a fuller discussion on the ecosystem service impacts associated with the development of use of land, see Development and use of land. Only a brief overview is presented here.

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe principal benefits in relation to road transport are the ability of the environment to absorb and filter pollution from transport (e.g. carbon emissions) and potential leakages or spillages from the transportation of goods.

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Road transportation

Impacts on environmental benefitsRoad transport can result in air pollution, and in particular greenhouse gas emissions, which if excessive can exceed an ecosystems ability to regulate these pollutants. Small particles released by exhausts can have widespread impacts on ecosystem health, which can affect ecosystem services delivery. For instance, ozone can lead to leaf and root damage which can affect primary production and regulating services (e.g. air quality regulation), whilst NOx and SO2 can lead to the acidification of soil and water which can, for instance, affect the provision of fresh water and the regulation of soil quality.

Leaks and spillages (whether these are persistent or from a concentrated event) can also contaminate soils and water bodies, also affecting the provision of fresh water and the regulation of soil quality.

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Road transportation


• Avoid impacts by, for instance, planning transport routes which bypass environmentally sensitive areas or by considering alternatives to road haulage from excavation site to processing plant (e.g. conveyors, rail transport)

• Reduce impacts by, for instance, consolidating shipments to reduce the number of trips being made, reducing the weight and volume of items being transported to reduce carbon emissions and by ensuring drivers are trained (including in washing and sheeting vehicles where appropriate)

• Mitigate impacts by improving fuel use and fuel efficiency (e.g. driver training) and by using eco- certified haulage companies (if suppliers are being used)

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Road transportation

Maximising environmental benefits• Use of permeable surfaces (e.g. sustainable drainage systems)

• Use buffers and bioswales along transportation routes to increase filtration of contaminated runoff

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Dust

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe principal benefits in relation to dust is the ability of the environment to absorb, filter and regulate dust pollution.

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Dust

Impacts on environmental benefits Dust pollution can impact on surface and groundwater, not just on site but potentially quite far afield as well. The nature and scale of the impacts will depend on the chemical composition of the dust, and if the particles are either chemically active (e.g. limestone) or effectively inert (e.g. sand).

Dust can lead to the physical and/ or chemical contamination of ecosystems. Dust can coat vegetation and contaminate soils which can lead to changes in growth rates of vegetation (including crops and agricultural products if these are nearby).

Dust can also contaminate water courses which can affect the ability of ecosystems to provide fresh water and regulate water quality.

There may also be impacts on the ability for ecosystems to regulate air quality, which can have potential health effects.

Dust can also less obvious impacts on cultural services, by making access roads or pathways less attractive which can mean affect their amenity value.

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Dust


• Avoid the creation of dust by using conveyors rather than haulroads

• Reduce impacts by for instance, constructing stockpiles / tips / mounds to minimise dust creation by using gentle slopes, by using dust removal systems and fitting dust extractors

• Mitigate impacts by locating haulroads, tips and stockpiles in places away from environmentally sensitive, production or recreational areas, by enclosing areas where dust is created (e.g. conveyors) or restricting dust-making activities to sheltered areas, using windbreaks / screens

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Dust

Maximising environmental benefits• Using, maintaining and/or enhancing trees and shrubs and other greenery around the site

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Noise

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe key benefit delivered by the environment is the ability to attenuate noise, by effectively muffling sound. Background noise generated in the environment can also help to mask low level sound.

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Noise

Impacts on environmental benefits • Blasting and other activities also create noise disturbance

• Impacts on ecosystem services from noise are likely to be limited to impacts on cultural services, whereby the amenity values of sites are reduced such that they may no longer used for recreational purposes

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Noise





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Noise


• Avoid removing or altering environmental features that are important in regulating the effects of noise and avoid locations which are particularly noise-sensitive due to cultural, spiritual or biodiversity value

• Reduce impacts by for instance, changing the methods or tools of operation (e.g. using ‘quiet’ technology)

• Mitigate noise impacts by considering how to incorporate into the site design ways of screening (e.g. landscaping / planting) to muffle noise effects, including along haulroads

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Environmental effect Comments

NB: In the case of habitat change and the clearance of land, the impacts on ecosystem services described below can be both negative (e.g. during construction and operation phase due to the clearance of land) and positive (e.g. during site restoration following site closure).

Development / use of land

Waste discharge

De-watering Dust Transport


Food

Loss (e.g. from habitat changes) or contamination of food production (from dust coating, pollutants from transport and waste discharge). Restoration efforts and improvements to habitats can also increase food production.

Fibre

Loss of the ability to provide fibre resources (e.g. from habitat change). Restoration efforts and improvements to habitats can also increase fibre production.

Fuel

Genetic resources

Deterioration of genetic resources (e.g. if key species are lost as a result of land clearance or from being critically affected by contaminated waste). Restoration efforts and improvements to habitats can also improve the provision of genetic resources.


Ornamental

Fresh water

Changes to the ability of ecosystems to provide fresh water as a result of changes to, or reduction in, surface flows, reduced recharge rates, and the quality of water because of changes to the landscape (e.g. from loss of land or waste site heaps), from contamination (e.g. from dust, transport pollutants / spillages or waste) or from de-watering.


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Waste discharge

De-watering

Dust Transport

Regulating services


Changes to the habitats and the loss of vegetation can reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate air quality. Dust pollution can reduce the ability of the environment to maintain high air quality

Climate regulation

Changes to the habitats and the loss of vegetation can reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate the climate.


Changes to the habitats, the loss of vegetation and waste site heaps can affect surface water flows and the ability of ecosystems to regulate water flows. De-watering can also affect the timing and relative rates of aquifer recharge and surface water flows which can also reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate flood hazards.


Changes to the habitats and the loss of vegetation can affect the ability of ecosystems to regulate soil erosion and the risk of landslides.


Changes to the habitats and disturbance to soil, as well as contamination from waste discharge and dust particulates, can affect soil quality


Changes to the habitats, loss of vegetation, waste site heaps can affect the water regime and water flows. Waste discharges and dust particulates can lead to the contamination of surface and ground water. All of these can affect the ability of ecosystems to maintain high water quality.


Changes to habitats and species composition, and pollution from dust and hazardous waste can reduce the ability of the environment to maintain low levels of toxic hazard

Noise regulation

Changes to habitats and their structure, including the loss of vegetation can affect the ability of ecosystems to regulate noise.

Disease regulation

Changes to habitats and species composition, and pollution from dust and waste discharge, may increase susceptibility of species to disease through poor plant and animal health

Pest regulation

Changes to habitats and species composition, and pollution from dust and waste discharge, may decrease the ability of species in ecosystems to regulate pests.

Pollination

Changes to habitats and species composition, and pollution from dust and waste discharge, may reduce the number of pollinating species, thereby affecting the ability of ecosystems to provide pollination services.


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Waste discharge

De-watering

Dust Transport

Cultural services


Visual changes to landscapes including through waste site heaps and pollution from dust can affect quality of life, including health, of communities

Spiritual services

Visual changes to landscapes including through waste site heaps can affect the spiritual services delivered by ecosystems

Religious

Visual changes to landscapes including through waste site heaps can affect the religious services delivered by ecosystems

Education

Changes to landscapes and habitats, both structurally and visually, can affect the ability of ecosystems to provide education services

Inspirational

Visual changes to landscapes including through waste site heaps, and dust pollution can affect the ability of the environment to provide inspiration

Aesthetic

Visual changes to landscapes including through waste site heaps, and dust pollution can affect aesthetic qualities

Sense of place

Visual changes to landscapes including through waste site heaps, and dust pollution can have a negative impact of sense of place

Cultural heritage

Visual changes to landscapes including through waste site heaps, and dust pollution can affect the conservation and appreciation of cultural heritage. Dust contamination can also affect cultural infrastructure.

Recreation

Visual changes to landscapes including through waste site heaps, and dust pollution can reduce the attractiveness of an area for recreation

Tourism

Visual changes to landscapes including through waste site heaps, and dust pollution can reduce the attractiveness of an area for tourism


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Waste discharge

De-watering Dust Transport

Supporting services

Soil formation

Changes to habitats and contamination of soils by waste products or transport-related pollutants can impact processes of soil formation

Primary production

Changes to habitats, changes to water regimes and soil structures from waste, dust pollution, transport pollution and de-watering can impact primary production

Nutrient cycling

Changes to habitats, changes to water regimes and soil structures from waste and transport / dust pollution can impact on the cycling of nutrients

Water cycling

Changes to habitats, changes to water regimes and water flows from waste, dust pollution and de-watering can impact on water cycling


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Operation of Business PremisesThis section deals with the operation of business premises and its relationship to ecosystem services. It aims to cover the operation of buildings and land used for general business purposes, such as offices, retail and distribution premises and other commercial sites. Other sites with particular effects on ecosystem services, such as manufacturing facilities, minerals sites, transport infrastructure and farms are dealt with in other sections.

Here we focus on the operation of sites and premises. Development of new buildings and infrastructure are dealt with separately in the section on “Development”.

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Operation of Business Premises

OverviewThe operation of business premises can affect ecosystems and the services they deliver in a variety of ways.

Most directly, the management of business sites and adjacent land directly affects the ecosystems in which they are located. Ecosystem services are affected through effects on landscape, visual amenity, wildlife habitats, sense of place, noise and the quality of local air and water.

Indirectly, businesses impact on ecosystems through their use of energy and resources and their management of wastes and emissions.

All businesses depend on ecosystem services to maintain an environment in which people can live, work and do business. Ecosystem services are essential to maintain human health and to protect people and businesses from natural hazards. Ecosystem services contribute to a healthy and pleasant working environment, which can enhance the motivation, productivity and loyalty of staff as well as maintaining the reputation of the business and its relationship with clients, suppliers and local communities.

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Most significant impacts associated with the operation of business premisesKey impacts associated with the operation of business premises result from:

• Management of land and buildings

• Use of energy and resources

• The generation of waste, pollution and noise

• The development and refurbishment of buildings

• The transportation of staff, materials and goods

The first two of these are dealt with here, while the other three are addressed in separate sections on waste, manufacturing, development and transportation.

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Key benefits provided by the environmentMany business premises are set in wider grounds which, if well managed, are capable of providing a range of ecosystem services, through their contribution to green infrastructure.

Green infrastructure is defined by the European Commission as “a strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas with other environmental features designed and managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services.” It incorporates green and blue spaces and other physical features in terrestrial, coastal and marine areas, and in rural and urban settings.

Business premises may incorporate a range of green infrastructure elements such as green spaces, trees, gardens, ponds, watercourses, green roofs and sustainable urban drainage systems.

They therefore have the potential to contribute to a range of ecosystem services, particularly regulating services (by helping to enhance air and water quality and mitigate climate change) and cultural services (by contributing to landscape, visual amenity and sense of place).

Developments which include well planned and managed green infrastructure have been shown to be attractive to tenants, to enhance the morale of staff, and to command premium rents.

Even buildings with no adjacent land may contribute to the conservation of biodiversity by providing nesting or roosting sites for birds and bats, thereby contributing to cultural services.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsThe contribution of sites to ecosystem services depends on the extent of green space which accompanies them, and how this is managed.

The management of green infrastructure needs to take account of the local context, including the nature of the site and its surroundings, natural features, views, human uses, hydrology and drainage, micro-climate and location in relation to green networks. This will determine the ecosystem services that the site is capable of providing and their potential importance and value. For example, in some locations drainage and the prevention of flooding will be priorities, while in others landscape and visual amenity, or connectivity with habitats or green corridors may be more important.

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Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsAny adverse impacts of premises on ecosystems and the services they deliver can be minimised through appropriate siting of new premises and measures to minimise the impacts of development. Further details are given in the section on development.

Thinking of the contribution of sites to green infrastructure, and taking account of their local context and benefits to people, should help to optimise the benefits they deliver in terms of ecosystem services.

The green infrastructure approach involves strategic planning of green spaces and features to optimise the services they provide. In the case of business premises, this needs to take account of the needs of the business and its employees, as well as the relationship of the site to its local community and environment and its contribution to ecosystem service delivery more widely.

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Maximising environmental benefitsBenefits can be optimised by developing and implementing a site management plan that examines the current and potential contribution of the site to ecosystem service delivery, and identifies management actions that seek to maximise this contribution.

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Key benefits provided by the environmentThe sustainable use of energy and resources plays an important role in controlling greenhouse gas emissions and therefore maintaining the ability of ecosystems to regulate the climate. The sustainable use of other natural resources by businesses, such as timber, food and minerals, is also important in ensuring the maintenance of ecosystems and the wide range of provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services they provide.

Also important is the sustainable use of water, for the direct provisioning services it provides for human uses, as well as the contribution of water systems to supporting, regulating and cultural services.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsFor many business premises, the use of energy for heating, lighting and power represents the largest single impact on ecosystems and their services. Energy use impacts indirectly on ecosystems over time, by generating greenhouse gas emissions and effecting climate change, which is expected to have profound impacts on the functioning of ecosystems and the services they deliver.

Most businesses also use water to varying extents. Water resources are facing increasing stresses, particularly in the face of climate change, and use of water can therefore have negative effects on aquatic ecosystems and the services they deliver.

Businesses may also use – either directly or indirectly - a range of other resources that impact on ecosystems, such as timber, food and minerals. These resources may have a range of impacts on ecosystems, through direct exploitation of natural systems, extractive activities, and the effects of land use change.

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Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsThese impacts may be addressed by:

• Measuring the use of energy, water and other materials

• Reducing unnecessary usage as far as possible, through energy efficiency and process improvements, and monitoring

• Identifying the source of materials used (e.g. paper, timber) and assessing potential impacts on ecosystems

• Seeking alternative, low impact sources as far as possible (e.g. certified food and timber)

• Examining opportunities to generate renewable energy on-site

• Implementing environmental management systems (e.g. ISO 14001) in order to formalise, deliver and validate the above measures

• Reducing energy, water and resource use will not only improve the management of ecosystems but also yield cost savings and potential reputational benefits

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Energy use Water useUse of other materials


Food

Provisioning services may be impacted indirectly by the use of energy (and effects on climate change), pressure on water resources and demand for materials. There may be more direct impacts through the use of food, fibre, fuel and water on site.

Fibre

Fuel

Genetic resources


Ornamental

Fresh water


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Regulating services

Air quality regulation Green infrastructure may contribute to local air quality. Energy use and associated emissions have negative effects on air quality.

Climate regulation Trees and vegetation on site contribute to the regulation of global and local climate. The use of energy, water and other materials also impacts on climate change.


Appropriately managed green infrastructure, wetlands and sustainable urban drainage systems may help to control local flooding. Energy use may impact on flood hazards through the effects of climate change.

Erosion hazard regulation Management of sites may have effects on soil erosion locally

Soil quality regulation Management of sites may have effects on soil quality locally

Water quality regulation Green infrastructure may have positive effects on local water quality, while energy and resource use may impact negatively but indirectly on water quality

Toxic hazard regulation Some premises are built on sites with a history of land contamination, and management methods – the regulation of toxic hazards will depend on the management of soils and vegetation

Noise regulation Noise levels will be affected by site management practices, while trees and landscaping on site can play a role in regulation of noise levels

Disease regulationEnergy use may impact indirectly on the regulation of disease through the effects of climate change.

Pest regulation

Site management may have an important role in pest regulation, for example on sites which harbour invasive alien species. Energy use may impact indirectly on the regulation of pests through the effects of climate change.

Pollination Site management may contribute to pollination, through appropriate planting and management of vegetation. Energy use may impact indirectly on pollination through the effects of climate change.


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Cultural services


The management of land and buildings has the potential to affect a wide range of cultural services delivered by ecosystems, through effects on landscape, visual amenity, wildlife habitats and the local community. Similarly the use of energy (through the effects of climate change), water and other resources may impact indirectly on these services.

Spiritual services

Religious

Education

Inspirational

Aesthetic

Sense of place

Cultural heritage

Recreation

Tourism


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Supporting services

Soil formation

The operation of sites and premises has potential impacts on supporting services both directly (through the management of grounds) and indirectly (through the use of energy, water and other resources and the resultant effects on climate and water systems).

Primary production

Nutrient cycling

Water cycling


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What do we mean by ‘waste materials’?

Overview

Most significant impacts associated with the treatment and disposal of waste



Introduction






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Disposal and treatment of waste materials

What do we mean by ‘waste materials’?Waste materials are unwanted products or substances which are generated as a by-product of business processes, including manufacturing and industry.

The types of wastes covered in this section are solid wastes (and, where relevant, waste-water). General emissions and pollutants (not arising from waste material) however are not discussed here.

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OverviewThis section is targeted at businesses producing wastes, the impacts that the disposal and treatment of this waste has on ecosystem services, and what businesses generally can do to address these impacts at source. It is not targeted at waste management companies and the specific measures they can take (e.g. in terms of the design and management of waste management facilities).

Businesses produce a range of different types of waste materials, depending on the type of business activity. The type of wastes that your business produces, the impacts these have and what can be done to address these impacts will therefore vary depending on your sector.

• Mining and quarrying, including topsoil and waste rock. Largely inert although can contain dangerous substances such as heavy metals. For more specific information on the impacts on ecosystem services from this business activity, see Mineral extraction

• Construction, demolition and excavation. Largely inert, although these activities are the largest source of hazardous waste. The weight and volume can create difficulties during transportation and disposal

• Commercial and industrial, typically including food, glass, plastic, paper, cardboard. Some materials can be hazardous, with a large proportion of biodegradable material

• Food and agriculture, including sewage and sludges

Several factors influence the scale of the potential impacts of waste materials on ecosystem services, including:

• The type of method used for treating (e.g. incineration, heat/chemical treatment) or disposing of the waste (landfill, underground injection wells, waste piles)

• The type, nature and scale of the waste material in question – linked to the sector producing the waste (see above)

• The location of the waste management facility, especially the sensitivity of the environment. Waste management facilities located near fragile environments are likely to have potentially greater impacts

The exact nature and scale of the impacts can therefore only be accurately determined on a case by case basis. This toolkit highlights the key potential impacts which are common in the disposal of waste materials, although their scale may vary.

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Most significant impacts associated with the treatment and disposal of wasteThe disposal and treatment of waste materials result in a number of potential environmental effects, each of which can impact on ecosystem services.


• Greenhouse gas emissions

• Soil and surface water contamination

• Development of land for waste disposal sites

• Visual impacts and odours

• Transport of waste materials

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Key benefits provided by the environmentFor the key greenhouse gas emissions, the principal benefits in relation to carbon are the ability of the environment to absorb (or ‘sequester’) and store carbon over long periods of time in organic matter. In relation to methane, the environment is able to remove methane through chemical reactions in the atmosphere or by oxidation by methane consuming bacteria in soils.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsEmissions can arise from waste being sent to landfill, waste decomposing in landfill sites, from waste-water handling and waste incineration.

Excessive greenhouse gas emissions can interfere with the ability of ecosystems to regulate the climate. The impacts of resulting climate change can also affect primary production and provisioning services, and certain regulating and supporting services (e.g. soil formation, nutrient cycling).

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Reducing impacts on environmental benefits Impacts can be addressed at source by following measures to implement the waste hierarchy (i.e. reduce, reuse, recycle). See Waste hierarchy

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Maximising environmental benefitsProtecting or enhancing natural areas which act as carbon sinks and stores. Protecting soil quality and good soil structure to enhance or maintain the ability to absorb methane.

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Surface and soil water contamination

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe key benefit delivered by the environment is the ability to absorb, filter and regulate pollution including waste products through soil and water processes.

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Impacts on environmental benefitsWaste that end up in water bodies and groundwater (e.g. leachate) can contaminate and negatively change the chemical composition of the water.

Water bodies near to industrial area can be particularly affected from disposal of waste which can alter the physical, chemical and biological nature of the receiving water body. This can disrupt key natural processes which will affect fresh water provisioning services and water quality regulation.

Hazardous chemicals that get into the soil (contaminants) can harm plants when they take up the contamination through their roots. Poorly designed waste disposal sites can be particularly problematic source of soil contamination. For instance, landfill exfiltration and water leakage from landfill slopes can adversely affect the quality and function of adjoining soils, interrupting key ecosystem services like soil formation, nutrient formation, climate regulation (where soils act as sinks for greenhouse gas emissions) and soil quality regulation.

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Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsImpacts can be avoided by adopting preventative measures such as using plastic protective liners (e.g. during handling or transport) to avoid waste products entering the soil or water.

Impacts can also be minimised or mitigated by ensuring that your business premises are not located near designated or protected areas, which are much more sensitive to environmental impacts.

Impacts can also be addressed at source by following measures to implement the waste hierarchy (i.e. reduce, reuse, recycle).

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Maximising environmental benefitsProtecting soil quality and good soil structure, and maintaining or enhancing vegetation around water bodies.

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Key benefitsLand and associated habitats have the potential to deliver on all the different ecosystem services.


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PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

250

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

250

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

250

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

250



Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

250

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

250

Key Activity Types





Overview



Impacts on environmental benefitsWaste treatment, storage and disposal facilities, in particular landfill sites, require land to be converted to their use.

By altering landscapes and surfaces, or changing the condition or nature of the habitats, this can affect the range of ecosystem services which were previously being delivered by these areas (e.g. water, climate and air quality regulation, provisioning services). The impacts can be particularly great where the site being developed for waste management was on previously natural areas rather than on sites which had already been heavily modified.

For a full discussion on the ecosystem service impacts associated with the development of use of land, see Development and use of land.

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

251

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

251

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

251

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

251



Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

251

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

251

Key Activity Types





Overview



Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsImpacts can be addressed at source by following measures to implement the waste hierarchy (i.e. reduce, reuse, recycle) which would reduce the need for land to be development for waste management purposes.

For further information on what measures can be implemented to address the impacts and optimise benefits following the development of land more generally, see Development and use of land.

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

252

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

252

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

252

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

252



Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

252

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

252

Key Activity Types





Overview



Key benefits provided by the environmentThe environment delivers several cultural and amenity services to local communities and wider stakeholders, affecting how people use and value certain areas (e.g. for recreation and tourism, as a contribution to people’s sense of place and wider quality of life).

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

253

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

253

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

253

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

253



Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

253

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

253

Key Activity Types





Overview



Impacts on environmental benefitsVisual and landscape effects can reduce the cultural services, especially where waste management sites are close to residential areas or in previously more natural areas. Strong odours can also make areas less attractive which can mean affect their amenity value.

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

254

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

254

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

254

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

254



Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

254

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

254

Key Activity Types





Overview



Reducing impacts on environmental benefits Impacts can be avoided or minimised by selecting waste disposal or treatment options which have fewer visual impacts and result in fewer odours, for instance by avoiding or minimising the amount of waste which is sent to landfill.

Impacts can be addressed at source by following measures to implement the waste hierarchy (i.e. reduce, reuse, recycle) so that less waste has to be treated and/or disposed of. See Waste hierarchy.

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

255

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

255

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

255

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

255



Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

255

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

255

Key Activity Types





Overview



Maximising environmental benefitsSolid waste can also be used in some cases for landscaping, or by landscaping and vegetating waste heaps / waste piles.

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

256

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

256

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

256

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

256



Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

256

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

256

Key Activity Types





Overview


Transportation of waste materials

Key benefits provided by the environmentThe principal benefits in relation to road transport are the ability of the environment to absorb and filter pollution from transport (e.g. carbon emissions) and potential leakages or spillages from the transportation of waste material.

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

257

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

257

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

257

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

257



Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

257

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

257

Key Activity Types





Overview



Impacts on environmental benefitsTransport by road of waste material can result in air pollution, and in particular greenhouse gas emissions, which if excessive can exceed an ecosystems ability to regulate these pollutants. Small particles released by exhausts can have widespread impacts on ecosystem health, which can affect ecosystem services delivery. For instance, ozone can lead to leaf and root damage which can affect primary production and regulating services (e.g. air quality regulation), whilst NOx and SO2 can lead to the acidification of soil and water which can, for instance, affect the provision of fresh water and the regulation of soil quality.

Leaks and spillages (whether these are persistent or from a concentrated event) can also contaminate soils and water bodies, also affecting the provision of fresh water and the regulation of soil quality.

For a fuller discussion on the ecosystem service impacts associated with the development of use of land, see Development and use of land. Only a brief overview is presented here.

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

258

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

258

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

258

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

258



Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

258

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

258

Key Activity Types





Overview



Reducing impacts on environmental benefitsWhere possible:

• Avoid: impacts by, for instance, planning transport routes which bypass environmentally sensitive areas or by considering alternatives to road transportation (e.g. rail)

• Reduce impacts by, for instance, consolidating deliveries to reduce the number of trips being made, reducing the weight and volume of waste being transported to reduce carbon emissions

• Mitigate impacts by improving fuel use and fuel efficiency (e.g. driver training) and by using eco- certified transportation companies (if suppliers are being used)

Impacts can be addressed at source by following measures to implement the waste hierarchy (i.e. reduce, reuse, recycle) so that less waste has to transported. See Waste hierarchy.

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

259

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

259

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

259

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

259



Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

259

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

259

Key Activity Types





Overview



Maximising environmental benefitsUse buffers and bioswales along transportation routes to increase filtration of contaminated runoff.

By vegetating areas along transportation routes, emissions (including greenhouse gas emissions) can be absorbed so that fewer pollutants enter the atmosphere.

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

260

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

260

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

260

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

260

Means of addressing impacts by following the waste hierarchyMany, if not all, of the impacts above can be at least somewhat addressed by adopting measures which ensure that your business follows waste hierarchy, by reducing, reusing and recycling waste wherever possible.

The measures that would be relevant to take to do so would depend on the business sector, your business activities and the kind of waste that is produced. Links to more information is provided below.

However, in general the following measures should be adopted by all businesses:

• Avoid impacts by reducing waste (e.g. by using more efficient technology / processes) and storing waste safely and securing (e.g. using suitable containers, using covers to prevent waste from blowing away, using waterproof and plastic liners covers to prevent contaminated run-off, using bunds to prevent liquid waste from accidentally leaking). Ensuring waste is properly treated before its disposal is also key (e.g. before allowing industrial waste-water to enter water bodies). Waste can also be reduced by returning waste material for use in original processes or use the waste material as a raw material substitute for another process

• Reduce impacts by considering alternatives to disposal (e.g. re-use / recycling) and by implementing good operating practices (e.g. waste minimisation programmes, management and personnel practise, loss prevention, waste segregation). Impacts can also be reduced by processing waste material for resource recovery or by re-using packaging materials

• Mitigate impacts by ensuring that any suppliers you use to deal with your waste are licensedWaste hierarchy(i.e reduce, reuse, recycle)

PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

261

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

261

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

261

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

261



CommentsGHG emissions

Soil / water contamination

Development of land

Visual / odour

Transport


Food

Loss (e.g. from site development) or contamination of food production (from pollutants from transport and contamination). Climate impacts from greenhouse gas emissions can also affect primary production (negatively and positively)

Fibre

Loss of the ability to provide fibre resources (e.g. from development of land or from pollutants from transport or contamination). Climate impacts from greenhouse gas emissions can also affect primary production (negatively and positively)

Fuel

Genetic resources

Deterioration of genetic resources (e.g. if key species are lost as a result of land develpoment or from being critically affected by contaminated waste). Climate impacts from greenhouse gas emissions may mean that certain species are no longer able to cope or adapt, leading to loss of species or viable populations.


Ornamental

Fresh water

Changes to the ability of ecosystems to provide fresh water as a result of changes to, or reduction in, surface flows, reduced recharge rates, and the quality of water because of development of land, from contamination (e.g. from transport pollutants / spillages or waste contamination). Climate impacts can impact on water cycling processes which may affect the provision of fresh water.


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Introduction




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Introduction




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Key Activity Types





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Introduction




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CommentsGHG emissions


Development of land

Visual / odour

Transport

Regulating services


The loss of vegetation (from development of land) can reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate air quality. Transport pollution and greenhouse gas emissions can reduce the ability of the environment to maintain high air quality.

Climate regulation

The loss of vegetation can reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate the climate, whilst greenhouse gas emissions (e.g. from waste disposal / storage / treatment or from transport) can also overwhelm the ability of the environment to absorb emissions, interfering with the ability to regulate the climate.


Climate impacts from greenhouse gas emissions can make natural disasters like floods more frequent and severe, making it more difficult for ecosystems to regulate these hazards. The loss of vegetation and waste site heaps can affect surface water flows and the ability of ecosystems to regulate water flows which can also reduce the ability of ecosystems to regulate flood hazards.


The loss of vegetation can affect the ability of ecosystems to regulate soil erosion and the risk of landslides.

Soil quality regulation Development of land and disturbance to soil, as well as contamination from waste discharge or from leakages from transport, can affect soil quality


Loss of vegetation and waste site heaps can affect the water regime and water flows. Waste discharge and spills/leaks from the transportation of waste can lead to the contamination of surface and ground water. All of these can affect the ability of ecosystems to maintain high water quality.


Contamination from hazardous waste can reduce the ability of the environment to maintain low levels of toxic hazard

Noise regulation The loss of vegetation from the development of land can affect the ability of ecosystems to regulate noise.

Disease regulation

Changes to habitats and species composition from the development of land, and pollution from transport and waste discharge, may increase susceptibility of species to disease through poor plant and animal health. The impacts of climate change may change the viability / area of vector populations in different areas, further affecting disease regulation services.

Pest regulation

Changes to habitats and species composition from the development of land, and pollution from transport and waste discharge, may decrease the ability of species in ecosystems to regulate pests. The impacts of climate change may change the viability / area of pest populations in different areas, further affecting disease regulation services.

Pollination

Changes to habitats and species composition from the development of land, and pollution from transport and waste discharge, as well as the impacts of climate change, may reduce the number of pollinating species, thereby affecting the ability of ecosystems to provide pollination services.


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Mineral extraction





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1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


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2

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cies

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Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

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An E

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ach

2

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enden

cies

3

Activities an

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263

Intro

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Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


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GHG emissions


Development of land

Visual / odour

Transport

Cultural services


Visual changes to landscapes including through waste site heaps and pollution and dust from transport can affect quality of life, including health, of communities

Spiritual services Visual changes to landscapes from waste management facilities (e.g. landfills) and waste site heaps can affect the spiritual services delivered by ecosystems

Religious

Education

Changes to landscapes and habitats, both structurally and visually, can affect the ability of ecosystems to provide education services

Inspirational

Visual changes to landscapes from waste management facilities (e.g. landfills) and waste site heaps, pollution or noise from transportation, and contamination by waste can affect the ability of the environment to provide inspiration

Aesthetic

Changes to landscapes from the development of waste management facilities (e.g. landfills), the presence of these facilities and waste site heaps, pollution or noise from transportation, and contamination by waste can affect aesthetic qualities

Sense of place

Changes to landscape from waste management facilities (e.g. landfills) and waste site heaps, pollution or noise from transportation, and contamination by waste can have a negative impact of sense of place. The impacts of climate change can also affect people’s sense of place if the impacts mean that the identity or nature of an area changes.

Cultural heritage

Visual changes to landscapes from waste management facilities (e.g. landfills) and through waste site heaps, and contamination by waste, can affect the conservation and appreciation of cultural heritage. The impacts of climate change can also affect cultural heritage values if the impacts mean that the identity or nature of an area changes.

Recreation

Visual changes to landscapes from waste management facilities (e.g. landfills) and through waste site heaps, and contamination by waste, can reduce the attractiveness of an area for recreation. Climate change impacts can also make recreation either less or more viable (e.g. temperature changes).

Tourism

Visual changes to landscapes from waste management facilities (e.g. landfills) and through waste site heaps, and contamination by waste, can reduce the attractiveness of an area for tourism. Climate change impacts can also make recreation either less or more viable (e.g. temperature changes).


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Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction




1



Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


PB

Intro

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n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

PB

Transportation




Mineral extraction





Introduction






Introduction






Introduction









Summary table

Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

cosystem

s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

264

Intro

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An E

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s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

264

Key Activity Types





Overview




Introduction






Introduction




Key Activity Types





Overview


Intro

ductio

n

1

An E

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s Appro

ach

2

Dep

enden

cies

3

Activities an

d

Impacts

4

264

Intro

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Dep

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GHG emissions


Development of land

Visual / odour

Transport

Supporting services

Soil formation

Development of land and associated changes to habitats and contamination of soils by waste products or transport-related pollutants can impact processes of soil formation. Climate change impacts may affect soil structures which can affect soil formation.

Primary production

Development of land and associated changes to habitats, changes to water regimes and soil structures from waste contamination, and transport pollution can impact primary production. Climate change impacts can either decrease or increase primary production.

Nutrient cycling

Development of land and associated changes to habitats, changes to water regimes and soil structures from waste contaminants and transport pollution can impact on the cycling of nutrients. Climate change impacts can affect soil structures and microbial populations, affecting nutrient cycling processes.

Water cycling Development of land and associated changes to habitats, changes to water quality from waste contamination, and impacts of climate change can affect water cycling.


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