Enlightenment

The Age of Lights

and its limitations

What is Enlightenment?• An intellectual movement that spread across

Europe in the 18th century• Promoted a confidence in human reason – a

legacy of the Scientific Revolution• Promoted the ideas of human liberty and

freedom• Promoted a belief in the perfectibility of man

through the use of reason• Sought to organize all knowledge which could

then be harnessed toward human use (like Bacon)

The world of the philosophes

• Many of the most ardent promoters of the cultural project of the Enlightenment were French

• They believed themselves to be free thinkers, unrestrained by dogmas of the past – building a society of reason

• They drew heavily on English writers of the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly Bacon, Newton, and Locke

Voltaire (1694-1778)• Voltaire personified the

Enlightenment – writing about religious and political liberty

• He promoted open-mindedness and empiricism

• He often used satire to get his point across, ridiculing people and institutions he did not like

• “Ecrasez l’infâme” Stamp out repression

Montesquieu (1689-1785)• A nobleman and a jurist• Wrote the Persian Letters

as a satire of France• Made an empirical study

of laws, Spirit of Laws, which analyzed different systems of government

• Montesquieu was a great admirer of Locke and believed in political freedom

Diderot (1713-1784)• Was one of the editors of

the Encyclopedie, which claimed to be an epitome of all knowledge – using reason to bring happiness and progress to mankind

• The encyclopedia included some satirical pieces which mocked the French style of government

• Shows the popularization of scientific knowledge

Freedom and Liberty• The philosophes believed that their study

of nature revealed that man’s natural state was freedom

• Thus, they criticized those aspects of contemporary society that limited freedom

• Amplified the argument of earlier scientists like Bacon that human beings could shape their own destiny and not be held back by traditions and conventions

Humanitarianism and Toleration

• The philosophes and their enlightened followers championed causes that highlighted problems of political and religious liberty and fought against persecution

• Voltaire was a prime example of a philosophe who championed such causes as religious and political toleration

Ceasare Beccaria (1738-1794)

• Wrote On Crimes and Punishments in 1764

• Promoted a reform of laws and argued for leniency and deterrence of crime

• Argued against corporal punishment and the death penalty

• Very influential for legal reform across Europe in this period

Gotthold Lessing (1729-1781)• Argued for religious

toleration, and argued that the three monotheistic religions were three versions of the truth

• Wrote sympathetically of Jews

• Religion should make people virtuous

Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786)

• A self-educated Rabbi and bookkeeper – made links between Europe’s Jews and the philosophes

• Argued against anti-semitism and defended the Jewish religion from Enlightenment criticism

Laissez-faire la nature

• One of the main themes of the Enlightenment is to live closer to the state of nature

• The hallmark of liberalism, the concept of Laissez-faire encouraged systems that were in harmony with nature – not fighting against it

• This was transferable to a number of fields, especially economics

Adam Smith (1723-1790)• The most important liberal

economic theorist of his time• Argued against state

intervention in trade and commerce – believed in a free market system based on competition

• Developed the concept of the invisible hand – i.e. individuals led by self-interest could advance the interest of society

Enlightenment and Empire• Enlightenment ideas provided an

intellectual arena for understanding and promoting empire

• The “New World” offered thousands of species of plants and animals to be “discovered” and classified

• Paternalistic attitudes towards non-Europeans became stronger, as Europeans believed they were bringing “Enlightenment” to the dark corners of the earth

The growth of the public sphere

• One of the most striking aspects of the Enlightenment was the number of people it brought together, from around the world, to discuss the same issues

• The printing press had an enourmous impact on spreading the messages of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Scientific Revolution

The Book Trade

• Books were an important medium for the spread of ‘enlightened’ ideas

• Greater public education and rising literacy rates expanded how many people could feel and interest in the spread of ideas

• Printed books, newspapers, and periodicals flourished in this period, tapping an increasing audience of readers

The “Public Sphere”• The Renaissance had created a Republic

of Letters – a group of international scholars who shared their work

• This continued to grow as works on religion and science became more international

• Out of this develops the idea of public opinion – and that all literate people can take part in its development

• Builds on the scientific academies that had been established in the 17th century

Salons and Coffee Houses• Informal groups of people who gather

together to discuss issues of the day – they could be engaged in parlour games or serious debates about ideas

• Women were a prominent part of salon culture

• Coffee houses also became important centres for public debate and sociability

• These discussions invariable turn to politics among civic-minded people

A French literary salon c. 1755. Notice the bust of Voltaire around which these Philosophes are gathered. Notice also the attendance of women. This salon was hosted by Madame Geoffrin.

Bust of Voltaire

An English coffeehouse circa 1750. Notice how many of the customers are reading newspapers and books.

The Rise of the Middle Class

• The Enlightenment tended to be a middle-class movement; most philosophes abhorred the arbitrary privileges of nobility

• Adam Smith promoted the middle class as the most fit to rule – since they were the ones who generated wealth in society

• The Middle Class sees itself both as better than the nobles and the protectors of the lower classes in society

The Limits of Enlightenment

• While the Enlightenment promoted the idea of perfectibility of mankind through reason – many of its central assumptions did not question the status quo– Slavery– The role of women in society– Radical politics

Slavery• On a philosophical and metaphorical level

slavery was against the laws of nature – and many philosophes condemned it

• In practice, though, many philosophes supported the slave trade – or ignored it; only a very few came out and called for the abolition of slavery

• Many people did not question slavery because it was the source of much of Europe’s wealth

Women in society• Most enlightenment figures did not

question underlying assumptions about gender in society

• Many argued that in nature females were the weaker sex and that prevailing notions about women’s inferiority should be kept

• Other questioned this, arguing that women were as much human beings as men and that they should have access to the same opportunities as men

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)• In her Vindication of the Rights

of Women (1792) she argued that women were inferior because they were cut off from access to education

• Argued that women had the same innate capacity for reason and government as men; that virtue should mean the same thing for men and women; that relations between the sexes should be based on equality.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)• A promoter of popular

sovereignty and democracy• Argued that people should

live more in accordance with nature

• “Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains”

• Argued that people needed to be forced to be free

• Emile (1762) promotes education that instills virtue

Conclusion• Enlightenment ideas offered Europeans a

common goal of bettering the world through the application of reason to practical problems

• It also gave them the confidence to try and do just that

• Despite the seemingly boundless optimism of some Enlightenment figures, some critics identified contradictions in ideas of freedom and liberty