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Transcript of Enhancing Business Writing Skills Handbook Aug 2009 V5
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Enhancing Business
Writing Skills
Facilitated by Mosedimosi Business
Training
September to October 2009
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED COPYRIGHT
The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those of the Setas.
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Table of Contents
Module 1........................................................................................................................................51 Planning and constructing documents.................................................................................................5
1.1 The importance of written communication.........................................................5
Methods of communicating........................................................................................................5Value of the written word..........................................................................................................7
Resistance to writing..................................................................................................................7Cultivate your writing skills.......................................................................................................7
1.2 Set the objective(s)..............................................................................................9
1.3 Purpose and Scope..............................................................................................................121.3.1 Purpose.............................................................................................................................121.3.2 Scope.................................................................................................................................12
1.4 Planning the document..............................................................................................................131.4.1 When following the planning process, you need to:...................................................13
1.4.2 State the purpose............................................................................................................. .......14
1.4.4 Gather required information ..................................................................................................16Notes on drafting a questionnaire ....................................................................... ......... .......18
1.4.5 Analyse your information ....................................................................................... ........ ......181.4.6 Determine the solution ........................................................................................................ ..19
1.4.7 Organise your document............................................................................................... .........20
Module 2......................................................................................................................................212.1 Mind Maps.........................................................................................................................................21
2.1.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................212.1.2 Drawing Basic Mind Maps................................................................................... .........22
2.1.3 Improving your Mind Maps......................................................................................... ..232.2.1 Terms of Reference ...............................................................................................................24
2.2.4 Preliminary findings................................................................................................................272.2.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................28
2.2.6 Financial implications...................................................................................................... ......29
2.3 Tactics to get rid of writers block..........................................................................................30
Module 3..................................................................................................................333.1. The foundations of your writing skills..............................................................33
The system focuses on four rules.............................................................................................33
Its foundations are................................................................................................................. ...34English a complex language.............................................................................................................34
What you are up against learning English:..................................................................................34H. Schultz v The New York Cleaning Department......................................................................353.2 Grammar...........................................................................................................................................38Education is when you read the fine print. Experience is what you get if you dont..............................39
3.2.3.2 Word use......................................................................................................................................41Be precise, avoid jargon and clichs........................................................................................41
3.2.3.3 Useless words...............................................................................................................................423.2.3.4 Nice words...................................................................................................43
Nice man......................................................................................................... .........43Nice food..................................................................................................................43
Nice flowers.......................................................................................................... ...43
3.2.3.5 Positive and negative words.........................................................................................................43
3.2.3.6 Dont use big words.....................................................................................................................463.2.3.7 When to use a BIG word..........................................................................................................46
3.2.4 Pomposity........................................................................................................................................48Creative pomposity...............................................................................................................................49
3.2.5 Verbs...............................................................................................................................................513.2.5.1 Active and Passive.......................................................................................................................51
Active voice.............................................................................................................................52Passive voice............................................................................................................................52
Example....................................................................................................................................52
3.2.5.2 When to use the passive voice.....................................................................................523.2.6 Sentences.........................................................................................................................................55
Major punctuation marks are . ? ! : ; -......................................................................................55
Minor punctuation marks are , ( ) ........................................................................ .......55Sentence length........................................................................................................................55
Sentence structure................................................................................................................55Enhancing your Business Writing SkillsSeptember to October 2009
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3.2.7 Paragraphs.......................................................................................................................................57
3.2.7.1 Signposts......................................................................................................................573.2.8 Punctuation......................................................................................................................................60
Option 1.......................................................................................................................................67Option 2.......................................................................................................................................674 Producing documents which are clear, effective and professional............................................. .........69
4.1 Ambiguity..........................................................................................................................................69
4.2 Choosing the correct tone.....................................................................................................70
4.3.6 Ten principles for effective writing.................................................................................................77..................................................................................................................................................................79
5.1 Inter-office memos.............................................................................................................................805.2 Letters.................................................................................................................................................82
5.2.1 Structure of a letter.........................................................................................................................825.2.2 Business letter examples.................................................................................................................86
Example:..................................................................................................................................................895.2.2.3 Responding to an enquiry/request for information......................................................................90
5.2.5 Exercise................................................................................................................................. ..99Decide what type of complaint the following complaints are and choose one that you are going to
respond to in writing........................................................................................................................99Your customer complained that another customer received a reduced rate, but he paid the full
price. He insists to also pay the reduced rate............................................................................ .......99
A very rude customer complains about a rude staff member...........................................................99A customer complains that one staff member made a promise and another now says that thepromise cant be fulfilled as its against the policy..........................................................................99
The closest to perfection a person ever comes is when he fills out a job application form...................107
Leads to action..........................................................................................................................108Gets to the point........................................................................................................................108Is user friendly...........................................................................................................................1085.4.2 Informal reports.............................................................................................................................109
5.4.2.1 Layout of an informal report: example....................................................................... ......1105.4.2.2 Language and tone of informal reports..............................................................................110
5.4.3 Proposed structure of final report.................................................................................................117Report writing - example of an executive summary............................................................................ ..118
Purpose...................................................................................................................................................118
Methodology..............................................................................................................................118Findings......................................................................................................................................118Conclusion &.............................................................................................................................118
Recommendations......................................................................................................................118
5.4.5 Example of a structure of a business plan ......................................................................119Executive summary...................................................................................................................119Introduction and background.....................................................................................................119Business outline.........................................................................................................................119Data gathering...........................................................................................................................120Operations.................................................................................................................................120Financial.....................................................................................................................................120Risk / reward assessment.........................................................................................................120
5.4.6 Financial and statistical reports ............................................................................................120
5.4.6.1 Numbers.............................................................................................................................121Comparison the key to understanding.............................................................................122
Columns.............................................................................................................................122Decimals.............................................................................................................................122
Consistency........................................................................................................................122Diagrams............................................................................................................................122
Colours...............................................................................................................................122...........................................................................................................................................124
5.4.7.2 Guidelines for writing an effective prcis..........................................................................124Original document..............................................................................................................125
Action: underline key words or ideas.................................................................................126
Action: write note-form summary .....................................................................................126
5.4.8 Persuasive report writing ......................................................................................................1265.5.1 Definition of a meeting.................................................................................................................130
5.5.2 Cycle of a Meeting........................................................................................................................130
This cycle is for a monthly meeting assuming it is held on the 1st of each month. Numbers inbrackets are target dates for each action..................................................................................130
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For less frequent meetings, the principle of an agenda sent out a week before, minutes sent outwithin the week after, should still be applied.............................................................................130For weekly meetings, the dates change from a week to a couple of days. This cycle may seemto set very tight deadlines, but:..................................................................................................130If you dont enjoy typing up your minutes, they only get worse with procrastination ...............130If you have to phone a participant and ask for clarification on content, it is better to do it whiles/he can still remember what was said......................................................................................130................................................................................................................................................................131
5.5.3 The Stages in the cycle..................................................................................................................1325.5.4 Preparing the Notice......................................................................................................................133
5.5.5 Specimen of notice of board meeting............................................................................134BATAVIER ENGINEERING SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED...................................... ..134
5.5.7 A specimen agenda of a routine board meeting......................................................... ..136For meeting of directors to be held in the Board Room on................................................136
5.5.8 Note-taking skills..........................................................................................................................137
5.5.8.1 Get the complete picture..............................................................................................137First Step PREPARATION.............................................................................................137
Second Step - DURING THE MEETING................................................................. ........137Third Step - AFTER THE MEETING...............................................................................138
Suggestions........................................................................................................................138
5.5.8.2 Ways to streamline notes.............................................................................................140
5.5.9 The minutes of a meeting..............................................................................................................1415.5.10 Necessity of minutes......................................................................................................1425.5.11 Minutes of narration........................................................................................................143
Chairperson .......................................................................................................................144BATAVIER ENGINEERING SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED...........................................................146
Present: Mr L King (Chairman).................................................................................. ...146Vote No Description Amount........... .....147
Module 6....................................................................................................................................1486.1 Proof reading ...........................................................................................................................1486.2 Editing......................................................................................................................................150
6.3 Presentation............................................................................................................................ ..1516.4 Document polishing check-list.................................................................................................155
6.6 Where do you go from here?....................................................................................................159
6.7 Can you raed tihs? Olny srmat poelpe can........................................................................160
To learn is to change. Education is a process
that changes the learner.
George B Leonard
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Module 1
1 Planning and constructingdocuments
After attending this module delegates will be able to
Understand the need and importance of written communications in
their business environment State the objectives and characteristics of different types of written
communications
State the purpose and scope of the proposed document
Compile a plan for the process of conceiving and writing the
document
Consider the information needs of their audiences
Follow the required steps to gather information
Analyse and process information
Submit a potential solution.
1.1 The importance of written communication
Methods of communicating
The most practical ways to communicate with other persons in business are
Face to face
By telephone
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In writing
Most of us prefer talking face to face or on the telephone because we are
more practised at it. Feedback is also quicker and more effective we can
make certain that the listener understands the message.
Writing has the benefit of forcing us to think the matter through. Writing
encourages us to gather the facts before we communicate an idea,
instruction or message. It prompts us to present the facts in a logical
fashion.
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Value of the written word
The written word is vitally important in business:
it provides a permanent record of the communication
it can be shared among many people
it is readily accessible when stored on paper or magnetic media(memory stick, hard disk)
it can be re-used and be expanded upon for new ideas.
However, time spent thinking, writing, typing, reading and clarifying is
expensive. We must therefore use time effectively to prevent
miscommunication which forces the reader to refer back to the writer.
Resistance to writing
Writing requires
a disciplined mind
taking responsibility; an attitude of do it now
being creative
an understanding of the needs of the reader
proper planning
a good command of language
Cultivate your writing skills
discover your brain power:
Both the left and right side of the brain are engaged in writing.
Left brainers tend to produce precise, structured, procedural writing
(non-fiction). Right brainers tend to produce imagery, fantasy, drama,
comedy (fiction). Whether left or right orientated YOU CAN WRITE.
initially force yourself and practise
critically analyse the writing of others
sharpen your language skills through extensive reading, particularlybooks, magazines and articles on websites and blogs related to yourfield of expertise
witness the power of your writing: people act upon your ideas,requests, commands, expression of appreciation, etc
discover your own creativity (even if it is producing a dry procedure
manual). Soon you will produce valuable new ideas from your own
think-tank
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the written word is mightier than the sword
the most brilliant ideas cannot be implemented if they are not reducedto writing.
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1.2 Set the objective(s)
In the finance related professions a host of documents require to be
compiled; e.g. letters, e-mails, contracts, proposals, reports, minutes. While
each one has its own format and structure, the essence of communication is
the same: providing information on which decisions can be based.
Get the purpose clear to make sure that you communicate most effectively
and efficiently with the reader. Always get the IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE
WHAT? quite clear in your mind. This forces you to focus on the result
rather than being content with the reason.
Formulate the what, who, how, when, why, where.
Here are some questions to ask:
WHY WRITE?
Would speaking not be more effective than writing?
WHO AM I WRITING TO?
How skilled is the reader in the subject matter?
Who else will read it?
Why will they want to read it?
What do they know already?
WHAT DO I WANT TO ACHIEVE?
Is it to inform? To persuade? Or to record?
What does the reader need to know?
What does the reader need to do?
What answers do I need from the reader?
HOW WILL THE READER REACT?
Are they senior of junior?
What sort of tone should I use?
How can I make it clearer?
WHEN WILL IT BE READ?
By when must it be completed?
Might it be read in years to come?
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WHERE WILL IT BE READ?
Home or abroad?
In the office or at home?
At a meeting?
In court?
Internal or external to the organisation?
All these points concern the Reader rather than the Writer. Think of the
reader
Exercise: Write a report on why you believe taxshould be paid by all.
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1.3 Purpose and Scope
1.3.1 Purpose
There is always (or should always be) a reason for asking someone to spend
time and effort in compiling a document, and this needs to be clear. The
purpose is the criterion against which the agreement, report, proposal; etc.
will be judged and must be stated specifically. If this is not done, when the
naming, shaming and blaming begin, who is wrong? Take a report as an
example
the manager/client who requested the report without defining the
purpose properly and/or communicating it clearly, and
the staff member/service/provider who agreed to write it without a clear
idea of what s/he was supposed to achieve, and did not ask!
Often a report is requested because there is a "bit of a problem" showing.
The report aims to find out how big the problem is - like an iceberg there
may be a huge amount of hidden material or very little.
Under these circumstances, the report would need to begin with a referenceto the "tip of the iceberg" - the reason that a problem has been noticed, or
an investigation requested.
1.3.2 Scope
It is also necessary, when requesting or undertaking a report, to be clear
about how wide an area needs to be covered. If the brief is "What are the
implications for medical aid fund administrators of the governmentsintention to introduce a national health insurance scheme", the brief is wide,
and the report is a huge undertaking. If the brief is "Jane, find out why Mary
Lekabe is again absent from work", Jane simply needs to find out what the
story is with Mary and get it onto a single sheet of paper. She does not have
to investigate the organisations sick leave policy and recent Labour Court
judgements on that topic.
The scope of a report to be written in terms of an act or regulation is usuallywell defined and needs to be strictly complied with. It is essential that the
author of such a report makes a careful study of the topics specified and the
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1.4 Planning the document
Before you start to write, you need to be clear about what you want to
achieve and what you want to say. This will involve proper planning. If you
plan a letter, agreement, proposal, report; etc well, it will save time - and
will save much drafting and redrafting.
1.4.1 When following the planning process,
you need to:
Understand why the document is required (the purpose, objective), andthe terms of the brief
Know the due date and undertake that you will have the documentcomplete and ready on that date
Plan how you will proceed to gather information
Plan how you will meet the deadline - estimating how long each part of
the process will take. Allocate a time to each section, and get on with it
without procrastination
Proceed with your information gathering
Record the results of your information gathering
Consider the information. This requires time for you to "mull it over",
chat to someone about it (make sure that you do not chat about
confidential information to an unsuitable partner), let it simmer in your
head etc. You need to plan some time to evaluate your conclusions
Consider what can be done about the problem or to meet the objective -
this usually involves going into "creative mode" where you generate as
many alternative solutions as you can think of
Draft the document - and let it sit a while (you must make provision for
this time interval!). If it is a complex or very important report, for
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instance, you might ask someone to read it and discuss it with you.
Check that you have findings in Findings, conclusions in Conclusions etc.
Redraft the document (professional documents are not written - they arere-written.)
Proof-read it and check the presentation.
1.4.2 State the purpose
Get the purpose clear to make sure that you communicate most effectively
and efficiently with the reader. Always get the IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE
WHAT? quite clear in your mind. This forces you to focus on the result
rather than being content with the reason.
Ask the objectives questions given in paragraph 1.2 above.
What are the objectives for your document?
1.4.3 Consider the audience
Even before starting to gather information it is imperative that you consider
your readers. Unlike letters and memos, reports and proposals usually have
a far wider distribution. Many people may be involved in a decision-making
process and need to read the information in the document.
Your job is to make it easy for the reader. In order to make reading your
document easier, think in terms of the reader.
Each audience has unique needs. Some audience considerations include:
Need (for the information)
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Position in the organisation
Knowledge of your topic or area
Responsibility to act
Age
Biases
Preferences
Attitudes
Some false assumptions commonly made regarding audiences are:
1. That the person who will first read or edit the document
is the audience
2. That the audience is a group of specialists in their field
3. That the audience is familiar with the subject of thedocument
4. That the audience has time to read the entire document
5. That the audience has a strong interest in the subject ofthe document
6. That the author will always be available to discuss thedocument
To avoid making these false assumptions, writers should identify everyone
who might read the document; characterise those readers according to their
professional training, position in the organisation, and personal traits; and
determine how and when the reader might use the document.
Audiences are basically of three kinds:
Primary People who have to act or make decisions
on the basis of the document
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Secondary People who will be affected by actions the
primary audiences are going to take in
response to the document
Intermediate People responsible for evaluating the
document and passing it on the rightpeople
For the document you intend to write, who are your audiences?
Primary
Secondary
Intermediate
1.4.4 Gather required information
Once you have a clear understanding of the purpose and scope of your
document and
who you are writing for, you are ready to gather information.
It is necessary to identify the information sources and to determine the
organisational procedures for obtaining and distributing information.
What type of information do you need for your document?
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Who/what are your information sources?
The information you gather can be of two types: Secondary and Primary.
Secondary refers to information gathered and recorded by others. Primary
refers to information you gather and record yourself.
Type Sources Caution
Secondary Books, internet, reports,
newspapers, magazines,
pamphlets, and journals
Information may be
inaccurate, out of date,
or biased
Primary Meetings, interviews,
questionnaires, surveys,
observation, experiments,
historical information, and
raw data
Information must be
gathered carefully to
ensure it is accurate and
bias free.
At this point you should be doing your research. Think where you are going
to find your information. If the purpose of your report requires market
research, you will have to consult professional researchers. For certain
types of information you can consult your own professional institutes.
Magazines, journals or newspapers and institutions such as the BER of the
University of Stellenbosch, Statistics SA and the BMR of UNISA may offer
just the information you are looking for. A vital resource is the Internet.
Conduct a search using keywords to find information that will be useful to
you in search engines such as Google, Yahoo, etc. Subscribe to RSS feeds
such as those offered by Google Alerts.
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Notes on drafting a questionnaire
Ask yourself:
How am I going to get people to answer my questions?
How many questions will my target group be prepared to answer?
How am I going to record their answers or get back their
questionnaires?
Do my questions relate directly to what I want to know?
Do I want closed questions? Open-ended questions? Opinions?
Facts? Ideas?
Are my questions appropriate - courteous, not personally
offensive or invasive?
Are they clear, unambiguous and easily understandable?
Are my questions in the correct sequence to get people thinking?
It is always best to test a questionnaire on a small pilot group before using it
to investigate. You may think it is clear, polite etc, but two or more heads
are better than one in this respect.
1.4.5 Analyse your information
Now that you have information, you need to analyse it.
The purpose of the analysis is to make sense, objectively, out of the
information you have gathered. You will not want personal bias of any kind
to enter into the analysis.
Information is compared and contrasted in an effort to find new ideas or
select the best ideas. Separate facts and figures need to be interpreted by
explaining what they mean --what significance they have.
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At what conclusions have you arrived?
It is essential, before you start an investigation, to have the willingness to
learn from what you discover,
and the courage to act on the new information.
1.4.6 Determine the solution
Based on your analysis, you will be ready to offer a solution (or solutions) to
the problem you have been studying.
Your conclusions have to reflect your findings. Personal integrity demands
that you put aside your favourite opinions and leave behind your pride and
your prejudices. Let your conclusions reflect exactly what you found - even
if you don't like them.
Therefore the gathered information should be the basis for making this
decision. There is also a tendency in business report writing to "slant"
information to lead the reader to the decision the writer wants. Make sure
you report all pertinent information--good and bad. The credibility of the
document (and your credibility) is at stake.
Generate as many possible solutions or courses of action as you can
think of to deal with any problems you have uncovered
Go back and work out which of the solutions you thought of are possible.
Of the possible courses of action, which do you think would be best? This
could be a single action or a number of actions. These are your
recommendations.
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What are the solutions you hope to offer your management/client?
1.4.7 Organise your document
You've got your topic, your information, and your proposal/recommendation.
Now you're ready to determine how to present your information.
Before actually writing, organise your information into an outline form. You
can formulate an outline for your document by choosing the major and
supporting ideas, developing the details, and eliminating the unnecessaryideas you've gathered. This outline becomes the basic "structure" of your
document.
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Module 2
2 Writing with increased confidencein a structuredand disciplined manner
At the end of this module delegates will be able to:
Apply mind mapping skills
Introduce the content with terms of reference, purpose and
background
Achieve flow by means of simple language, short sentences, good
paragraphing and descriptive headings
Structure contents in a logical sequence
Select relevant information in line with the objective of the document
Uphold the integrity of the facts in conclusions and recommendations
Overcome writers block
2.1 Mind Maps
A Powerful Approach to brainstorming and drafting your document
2.1.1 Introduction
How to use the tool:
Mind Maps are very important techniques for improving the way you
brainstorm content and drafting your document. By using Mind Maps you
show the structure of the subject and linkages between points, as well as
the raw facts contained in normal notes. Mind Maps hold information in a
format that your mind will find easy to remember and quick to review.
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Mind Maps abandon the list format of conventional brainstorming. They do
this in favour of a two-dimensional structure. A good Mind Map shows the
'shape' of the subject, the relative importance of individual points and the
way in which one fact relates to the other.
Mind Maps are more compact than conventional notes, often taking up one
side of the paper. This helps you to make associations easily. If you find out
more information after you have drawn the main Mind Map, then you can
easily integrate it with little disruption.
Mind Maps are useful for:
summarising information
consolidating information from different research sources
thinking through complex problems, and
presenting information that shows the overall structure of your
subject
Mind Maps are also very quick to review, as it is easy to refresh informationin your mind just by glancing at one.
Mind Maps can also be effective mnemonics (a word intending to help your
memory). Remembering the shape and structure of a Mind Map can provide
the cues necessary to remember the information within it. They engage
much more of the brain in the process of assimilating and connecting facts
than conventional notes.
2.1.2 Drawing Basic Mind Maps
To make notes on a subject or preparing your draft document using a Mind
Map, draw it in the following way:
Write the title of the subject in the centre of the page, and draw a
circle around it.
For the major subject subheadings, draw lines out from this circle.Label these lines with the subheadings.
If you have another level of information belonging to the subheadings
above, draw these and link them to the subheading lines.
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Finally, for individual facts or ideas, draw lines out from the
appropriate heading line and label them.
As you come across new information, link it in to the Mind Map
appropriately.
A complete Mind Map may have main topic lines radiating in all directions
from the centre. Sub-topics and facts will branch off these, like branches
and twigs from the trunk of a tree. You do not need to worry about the
structure produced, as this will evolve of its own accord.
2.1.3 Improving your Mind Maps
Your Mind Maps are your own property: once you understand how to make
notes in the Mind Map format, you can develop your own conventions to
take them further. The following suggestions may help to increase theeffectiveness of your Mind Maps:
:
Use single words or simple phrases for information
Most words in normal writing are padding, as they ensure that facts are
conveyed in the correct context, and in a format that is pleasant to read. In
your own Mind Maps, single strong words and meaningful phrases can
convey the same meaning more potently. Excess words just clutter the Mind
Map.
Print words:
Joined up or indistinct writing can be more difficult to read.
Use colour to separate different ideas:
This will help you to separate ideas where necessary. It also helps you to
visualise the Mind Map for recall. Colour also helps to show the organisation
of the subject.
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Use symbols and images:
Where a symbol or picture means something to you, use it. Pictures can
help you to remember information more effectively than words.
Using cross-linkages:
Information in one part of the Mind Map may relate to another part. Here
you can draw in lines to show the cross-linkages. This helps you to see how
one part of the subject affects another.
Key points:
Mind Maps provide an extremely effective method of taking notes and
preparing the main points for writing your report.
They show not only facts, but also the overall structure of a subject and the
relative importance of individual parts of it. Mind Maps help you to associate
ideas and make connections that you might not otherwise make.
Acknowledgement: "Mind Map" is a trade mark of the Buzan Organisation
2.2 Content structure
Once you have compiled a mind map you are ready to draft your document.
The example below is that of an investigative report. You can borrow from
this approach to compile other documents such as proposals and
agreements.
2.2.1 Terms of Reference
This section sets the scene for your report. It should define the scope and
limitations of the investigation and the purpose of the report. It should say
who the report is for, any constraints (for example your deadline, permitted
length) - in other words, your aims and objectives - the overall purpose of
your report and more specifically what you want to achieve.
Write down the answer to the following questions:
to whom is the report to be addressed?
why are you writing the report (What is the "tip of the iceberg"?)
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what is the objective of the report?
how wide is your brief?
when must the report be ready?
2.2.2 Introduction/background
This will help to tune your readers in to the background of your report. It is
not another name for a summary and should not be confused with this.
They can be two separate sections or combined: background detail could
include details of the topic you are writing about. You could take the
opportunity to expand on your Terms of Reference within the introduction
and give more detail as to the background of the report.
Report writing - example of an introduction
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In an article entitled, Few honours for e-degree, Joe
Gelonesi (2002) presents many a cautionary tale for
institutions embarking on e-learning. The purpose of
this study was to investigate the issues raised in this
article on Beacon Universitys increasing use of onlinetechnology in the delivery of its courses. The
information gathered was to assist in continuous
improvement and decision-making with regard to
modes of course delivery.
Based on Federal Government and industry reports
(DEET 1999; McInnis 2001; Smith 2001) it was
assumed that competition from private educational
organisations will increase and that student
engagement with universities is changing. This will
necessitate universities rethinking what they offer
and the way they offer it.
The experiences of academics currently teaching in
three Schools were considered in terms of changing
student needs and acceptance of the new
technologies by students and academics.
Information was gathered by way of interviews with
the selected academics. This was supplemented by a
review of current literature on e-learning.
Although expressions of interest were sought fromstudents for focus group discussions, none were
received and interviews were therefore limited to
academic staff. While the lack of a student voice on
such an important issue is a limiting factor, much of
The reasons for
undertaking the
study are
outlined
Any
assumptions
made in the
study are noted
The scope or
extent of
coverage is
clarified
Methodology
(how the
research was
conducted) is
outlined
Limitations of
the study are
explained
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This section outlines how you investigated the area. How you gathered
information, where from and how much (e.g. if you used a survey, how the
survey was carried out, how did you decide on the target group, how many
were surveyed, how were they surveyed - by interviews or questionnaire?)
What do you need to do to investigate the problem?
call a meeting, visit information sources or arrange interviews?
speak to people who have already expressed views on the problem
areas or on possible solutions?
send out questionnaires or set up a telephone "hot-line"?
search the web for topics published internationally?
research business custom, regulations, industry standards?
consult other offices that have undertaken similar projects?
2.2.4 Preliminary findings
It reflects the current situation - it describes the size, shape and nature of
the "iceberg below the water line".
This is the main body of the report, where you develop your ideas. The
nature of this section will depend on the brief and scope of the report. The
sections should deal with the main topics being discussed - there should be
a logical sequence, moving from the descriptive to the analytical. It should
contain sufficient information to justify the conclusions and
recommendations that follow. Selection of appropriate information is crucial
here: if information is important to help understanding, then it should be
included; irrelevant information should be omitted.
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What are your findings?
2.2.5 Conclusions
These are drawn from the analysis in the previous section and should be
clear and concise. They should also link back to the Terms of Reference. At
this stage in the report, no new information can be included. The
conclusions should cover what you have deduced about the situation - bullet
points will be satisfactory.
Report writing - example of a conclusion
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Online learning has become an important aspect of
the way education is delivered. Initially, in tertiary
education this push came about as a way of reducing
course delivery costs, but as Gelonesi (2002) points
out, online delivery is not necessarily a cheaper way
of doing things. Some in the education sector also
argue that online education is second-rate because
education is fundamentally interpersonal, and
technology interferes with and reduces this
interaction.
However, it is becoming evident that students are
seeking greater flexibility in their engagement with
universities. For tertiary institutions like Beacon
University, online delivery is an important way of
providing this flexibility. As a major provider of
tertiary education, Beacon has begun to introduce an
online component into many of its courses. Most of
Beacons course materials are online, as are some
administrative processes. A significant move is now
being undertaken to put student support services
online.
So, while the concerns about online education cannot
Restatement of
questions/problem
s that led to the
preparation of the
report
Summary of key
points
Link back to the
purpose of the
report
What are the conclusions you have come to?
2.2.6 Financial implications
What are the benefits vs. costs and risks from the suggested solution?
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2.2.7 Recommendations
Write down your recommendation with emphasis on how the
project/solution will be implemented
Recommendations always look forward, to the future, and each point which
you make under Recommendations is a "should". Once again, your
recommendations must arise logically from your conclusions. Summarise
the key strengths and weaknesses of the resources. Discuss strategies that
can be implemented to minimise the risk factors. Suggest starting off with a
test market
2.3 Tactics to get rid of writers block
Start brainstorming
Jot down all the possible ideas you can think of. At first, these will be fairly
logical. Then, as you run out of options, you'll find that you start to come up
with more innovative ideas. These might be just what you need to get you
going again.
Ease into your writing
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Start your writing session with something that's 'easy' - a routine letter, e-
mail or even a 'to do' list. Then go back to your difficult assignment. You
may find, as others have in the past, that a half-hour session of processing
simple correspondence is a good warm-up for a writing session.
Take some time out
Only you know how much time this should be. It might be a few minutes, an
hour or even a day. Sometimes the subconscious simply needs time to work
its magic.
Revisit the last few pages
If you have already written some content go back a few pages and revise.
You could even retype the last page completely, and see if that releases
new ideas.
Use the tried and true 'carrot' trick. Reward yourself!
Think of something you'd really, really like. A chocolate? See a movie that
night? Dinner out? New clothes? Give yourself a reward that is
commensurate with the size of the task - and DO IT.
Pressure Cooker Tactics
Some of us work well only under pressure. You'll probably know if this
applies to you by thinking back to how you handled the previous
assignments. If you can produce when the pressure's on, then set yourself a
deadline. Don't make that deadline too unrealistic, though, or you may find
that you're setting yourself up for failure - again.
Change the time and venue
J.K. Rowling wrote the first Harry Potter book in extended stints in a cafe (or
so the story goes). Roald Dahl (children books author) worked in a battered
garden shed. Try changing the venue or the time of your writing - from the
office to a coffee shop (if you have a laptop); from late afternoon to early
morning; perhaps even at a table in the corner of your bedroom.
Meditate or go walking
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Sometimes it helps to get out in the fresh air, or to sit quietly and move into
a meditative state and just let the ideas flow. Or not flow. Perhaps what you
need is to dissociate yourself from the world for a while.
The dictionary is the only place where success comes beforework.
Mark Twain
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Module 3
3 Avoiding common errors and
grammar mistakes
At the end of this module delegates will be able to:
Resort to accuracy, brevity, clarity: the ABC of business writing
Explain the need for applying a simple vocabulary
Modify useless, negative, big, redundant, words
Solve ambiguity and pomposity
Distinguish between active and passive verbs Compile sentence and paragraph structures
Apply appropriate punctuation
3.1. The foundations of your writing skills
In writing your major task is to create a message which is clearly
understood and will induce the reader to take the desired action. Readers
should not be left with questions or irritations in their mind.
Writing, to be professional, requires working to a system.
The system focuses on four rules
A clear objective
Correct grammar
Proper structure
Attractive layout
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Its foundations are
1. Accuracy
2. Brevity
3. Clarity
- the ABC of good writing
English a complex language
For many people who will be reading your documents, English will be their
second or third language. If you do not know your reader, assume always
that her/his home language is different from yours.
We are living in a country with 11 official languages. Co-workers may speak
Sotho, Afrikaans, Venda, Zulu, Tswana, or Xhosa.
If you assume that the person receiving your letter, memo, e-mail, report or
minutes is not a first language English speaker, you will probably be right.
It is therefore vital that you keep vocabulary and sentence structure simple
in all the documents you produce.
What you are up against learning English:
IfGH stands for P as in hiccoughIfOUGH stands for O as in dough
IfPHTH stands for T as in phthisisIfEIGH stands for A as in neighbourIfTTE stands for T as in gazetteIfEAU stands for O as in beau
The POTATO would be spelt GHOUGHPHTHEIGHTTEEAU
(FROM James Clark, Stoep Talk, The Star, Thursday 25 November1993)
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H. Schultz v The New York Cleaning Department
A saga in three acts!
Act 1
Dear Sir.
I find Hydrochloric Acid fine for cleaning pipes. Is this OK?
Signed. H Schultz Plumber
Dear Mr Schultz
In response to your enquiry regarding the use of Hydrochloric Acid for
cleaning pipes should be clearly recognised that this is not efficacious. The
Hydrochloric Acid interacts with a variety of metals to produce salts of
various natures, depending on the composition of the metals involved,
which would be more than mildly toxic to any person or persons (or animals)
who might ingest the substance in question. The precise result which would
stem from such ingestion would depend, amongst other less crucial matters,
on the proportion of Hydrochloric Acid and metallic radical to other dilutory
substances in the original combination of substances that induces the salt
producing reaction initially.
Signed. B Pearson, New York Cleaning Department
Act 2
Dear Mr Pearson
Thank you for your interesting letter. Can you please now tell me if it is OKto use Hydrochloric Acid to clean out pipes?
Signed. H Schultz Plumber
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Dear Mr Schultz
As was explained in our previous letter to you it is the opinion of this
Department that the use of Hydrochloric Acid for cleaning would increase
the susceptibility of the population at large to varying degrees of virulence.
The precise degree of virulence in any specific case would depend, of
course, on the total amount, and percentage of toxic content in that total
amount, of debilitating solution imbibed, and naturally the frequency of
such reflections by the person or persons in question.
We trust the position is now clear to you.
Signed. B Pearson, New York Cleaning Department
Act 3
Dear Mr Pearson
Its real nice of you to trust me. I am now cleaning many more pipes with
Hydrochloric Acid.
Signed. H Schultz Plumber
Dear Mr Schultz
Dont use Hydrochloric Acid for cleaning pipes. It poisons the water.
Signed. B Pearson
The moral of this story is .?
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3.2 Grammar
3.2.1 Introduction
The rule is to be natural and human, not pompous and unnatural. If in
doubt, ask: What would I say to this person face to face? Writing should
be more like speaking.
Letters and documents become difficult to read if they contain:
LONG WORDS
LONG SENTENCES
LONG PARAGRAPHS
3.2.2 Getting tenses right
Present
SIMPLE
he works
CONTINUOUS
he is working
PERFECT
he has worked
PERFECTCONTINUOUS
he has been working
Past
SIMPLE
he worked
CONTINUOUS
he was working
PERFECT
he had worked
PERFECTCONTINUOUS
he had been working
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Future
SIMPLE
he will work
CONTINUOUS
he will be working
PERFECT
he will have worked
PERFECTCONTINUOUS
he will have beenworking
Conditional
SIMPLE
he would work
CONTINUOUS
he would be working
PERFECT
he would have worked
PERFECTCONTINUOUS
he would have beenworking
Education is when you read the fine print.Experience is what you get if you dont.
Pete Seeger
Yesterday is historyTomorrow is a mysteryToday is a gift That is
Why it is called a present!
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3.2.3 Words
3.2.3.1 Introduction
Short words are easier to read than long words because they are easier to
recognise and interpret. We get more practice in using the words we speak;
so when we see a word which we do not use in conversation, it is harder for
us to understand.
Never try to impress the reader by deliberately using long words
Always try to use words whose meanings are precise, and not open to
doubt
Use a short word (or even two or three) instead of one long one.However, at times we may need to use some long word for varietyand precision. Try to keep long words below 10% of the total bycutting out the unnecessary ones.
Write to express not impress!
What does hot mean? List the possible meanings of the word hot
One factory has this accident recorded: An electrician put a sign hot on a
bare and protruding piece of metal. A workman was careful to equip
himself with metal tongs before trying to pick it up. He got the shock of his
life.
To an electrical engineer hot means alive with electriccurrent.
To a metallurgist it may mean simply high in temperature.
To some physicists the first meaning would be radioactive.
To some of the men around the office the first meaning of
hot is sexy.
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3.2.3.2 Word use
Keep it short and simple!
Rather than: Use:
discontinue stop
submit for consideration propose
proceed go
commence start
occurrence event
dispatch send
in respect of of, about
make modifications to modify, change
demonstrate show
is in a position to can
we would be grateful if you would please
facilitate help
Be precise, avoid jargon and clichs
correspondence i.e. letter
communication e.g. report, memo, telephone
callillustration graph or diagram
a large proportion of many
concerning about
at the present time now
currently now
despite the fact that although
furnish particulars give details
in conjunction with with
in the course of during
on account of the fact that because
assuring you of our best attention NOTHING. Leave it
out!
Enclosed please find I enclose
Trust this meets with your approval NOTHING. Leave it
out!
Perhaps use: I hope this is what you
wanted
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But remember ultimately,Accuracyand Clarityare more important than
Brevity.
3.2.3.3 Useless words
There are several weasel words in the English language. These are words
which do not add anything to your writing.
It appears that Customer Service will
It should be noted that we will
There are some departments that will
You will be left with:
Customer Service will.
We will
Some department will ..
Other weasel words that should be edited out of writing
Actually Definitely
Hopefully Fortunately
Carefully Pretty sure
Quite sure RatherReal Really
Somewhat Very
Slightly Extremely
For example: He is rather intelligent. It is very large, very high, very clear.
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3.2.3.4 Nice words
Find a more descriptive adjective as a substitute of nice
Nice man Nice woman
Nice food Nice house
Nice flowers Nice holiday
3.2.3.5 Positive and negative words
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Analyse words for positive and negative emotional meanings. For example,
efficient is positive, so is punctual; you must is negative, so is
impossible or incorrect.
A positive tone encourages a favourable, desirable association with a
product or service. A negative tone is a red flag word. It plants seeds of
doubt, or conveys an image that is unfavourable, undesirable, unattractive,
or even frightening. However, too positive a tone will lead to accusations of
pushy.
Positive words
EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE WORDS
Appreciate Satisfaction
Assurance Responsible
Committed Quality
Confidence Honest
Dependable Service
Established Willingness
Negative words
EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE WORDS
Blame Fault
Sorry Inconvenience
Failure Regret
Never ComplaintCant Disagree
Unfortunate Difficult
Prejudiced Unable
Wrong Neglect
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Negative phrases
EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE PHRASES
Your delay
Your dissatisfaction
Why didnt you
We cannot understand your
You claim
You forgot to
You must
You are misinformed
Negative and positive ways of saying things
EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE WAYS OF SAYING THINGS
Complaints department
Customer service
Our office doesnt open until 09h30
Our office opens at 09h30
I was surprised to learn that
I learned from your letter that
Mistakes are bound to happen
We shall take care to prevent a similar occurrence
We hope you wont find our product unsatisfactory
We are sure you will find our product satisfactory
You wont have difficulty operating your new mower if
Your new mower will operate efficiently and easily when
Your failure to write leads us to believe that you
Since we have not heard from you we are sure you
It will never happen again
We have taken the appropriate steps, or
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3.2.3.6 Dont use big words
In promulgating your esoteric cogitation, or articulating your superficial
sentimentalities and amicable, philosophical or psychological observations,
beware of platitudinous ponderosity. Let your conversational
communications possess a clarified conciseness, compact
comprehensiveness, coalescent consistency and a concatenated cogency.
Eschew all conglomerate of flatulent garrulity, jejune, babblement and
asinine affectations. Let your extemporaneous descanting, and
unpremeditated expatiation have intelligibility and veracious vivacity
without rodomontade or thrasonical bombast. Sedulously avoid all
polysyllabic profundity, pompous prolixity, psillacious vacuity, ventriloquil
verbosity and vaniliquent vapidity. Shun double entendres, prurient jocosity
and pestidiferous profanity, obscurant or apparent.
In other words, write plainly, briefly, naturally, sensibly, truthfully, purely.
Keep from slang. Dont put on airs. Say what your mean, mean what you
say, and dont use big words!
3.2.3.7 When to use a BIG word
There are four legitimate reasons for using a big word. Ask yourself if your
big word fits one or more of these four reasons.
S 1. Its SIMPLER or more familiar than the short word equivalent.
Average is
more familiar than mean, and sponsorship, more familiar than
aegis.
U 2. Its UNIQUE. It cant be said in small words. Most technical
vocabulary is
included here (amortise, inventory, appreciation), as well as
such non-
technical words as communicate, civilisation, democratic.
R 3. Its RICH. It conveys precision. Examples are: implement,
document,
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designate, develop, introduce. For instance, calling a marriage
license a
document is more precise than paper.
E. 4. Its ECONOMICAL. It saves a lot of small words.
Unemployment is more
economical than the fact that a lot of people are without jobs;
and
destination more economical than the place to which
(someone) is going.
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3.2.4 Pomposity
Avoid these phrases:
Herewith attached please find the document as requested by
yourselves
You are cordially invited
The above refers, your letter refers
Hope you find the above in order
Your attendance will be highly appreciated
Ensuring you of our best attention at all times
It would be highly appreciated if you
Suggest an alternative for the business terms and phrases:
I would like to give confirmation _____________________________
It is apparent that _____________________________
We are in receipt of _____________________________
Re your enquiry concerning _____________________________
It will be our endeavour _____________________________
Assuring you of our best attention at all times _____________________________
For the purpose of _____________________________
Trusting this meets with your approval _____________________________
I refer to previous correspondence regarding
_____________________________
It would be greatly appreciated if you would
advise us _____________________________
I would be pleased if you could arrange _____________________________
After some discussion within the Department
a decision was reached _____________________________
I hope this information will be sufficient in
resolving your problem area _____________________________
The Committee gave further consideration to a
memorandum containing proposals with regardto _____________________________
The necessary enquiries have been instituted
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It is desired to bring to the attention of all
employees that _____________________________
Eliminate the redundant words from the following sentences:
1. You will see what I mean if you refer back to the introduction
2. We will be able to meet the deadline if we combine together thesections wehave prepared
3. There are too many redundant phrases which add nothing
4. The consensus of opinion favours a June election
5. The new desks are oval in shape
6. Will you please repeat the sentence before I continue on with mytyping
7. Come on Monday together with your assistant
8. We are now currently employing two thousand staff
9. I have received your letter along with enclosures
10. The two departments will be amalgamated together in May
Creative pomposity
Judy Wallman, a professional genealogical researcher, discovered that
Hillary Clintons great-great uncle, Remus Rodham, was hanged for horse
stealing and train robbery in Montana in 1889. The only known photograph
of Remus shows him standing on the gallows. On the back of the picture is
this inscription: Remus Rodham; horse thief, sent to Montana Territorial
Prison 1885, escaped 1887, robbed the Montana Flyer six times.
Caught by Pinkerton detectives, convicted and hanged in 1889.
Judy allegedly e-mailed Hillary Clinton for comments. Hillarys staff sent
back the following biographical sketch:
Remus Rodham was a famous cowboy in the Montana Territory. His
business empire grew to include valuable equestrian assets and intimate
dealings with Montana railroad. Beginning in 1883, he devoted several
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years of his life to service at a government facility, finally taking leave to
resume his dealings with the railroad. In 1887 he was a key player in a vital
investigation run by the renowned Pinkerton Detective Agency. In 1889
Remus passed away during a function held in his honour, when the platform
on which he was standing collapsed.
Thats how history is rewritten. (Source: Space, Barry. Untitled. Sunday
Times Magazine: p3).
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3.2.5 Verbs
3.2.5.1 Active and Passive
The verb is the most important part of the sentence. It generally conveys
action. There are three types of verb:
1. the ACTIVE VERB (this is direct and concise: 4 words)
Thabo writes a lease
2. the PASSIVE verb (this has less impact: the same
message in
6 words)
A lease is written by Thabo
It is easy to recognise the passive voice it always has some form of the
verb to be in front of the verb: was, will be, must be
To convert it to the active, the reader has to answer the question by
whom?, e.g. The lease is written by whom? by Thabo.
In the above example the writer has answered the by whom? question.
But often the writer forgets to answer it and this leads to confusion. E.g. In
the event of a rail strike, road transport will be supplied.
By whom? No answer!
In this case the readers do not know who is going to take the action, so they
will probably have to spend time finding out.
3. the VERBAL NOUN (this is dull, verbose and is used as
padding, as in school essays. Total
of 10
The writing of the contact was words)
carried out by Thabo
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So WRITE in the ACTIVE VOICE unless there is a good reason for using the
PASSIVE.
Active voice
Leads to writing which is clear and generally more emphatic. The active
voice forces us to say exactly what we mean. We have to clarify who took,
or should take the action. The active leaves the reader with complete
understanding and steers clear of ambiguity and vagueness, and we have to
accept full responsibility for our statements.
Passive voice
Use of the passive avoids being specific; leaving room to manoeuvre, or as
a safeguard against being tied down too closely. Inappropriate use of the
passive is the most common fault in writing and leads to lack of directness,
more words, and confused and heavy reading. It is particularly risky to use
the passive where actions and procedures are involved they may never
get done by anyone.
Example
Passive
The problem of the need for revision of stock taking procedures was
discussed last year. It was pointed out that no responsibility could be
accepted for the inadequacy of the system at that time.
Active
We discussed the need to revise your stock taking procedures with Mr
Brian Dawes last year. We believed the system was inadequate then
and we could not accept responsibility for it.
3.2.5.2 When to use the passive voice
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Sometimes the passive may be appropriate
To avoid the impression of being critical of people.
e.g.: The accounts have not been completed.
To emphasise the object of the sentence rather than the subject.
e.g.: Standards of safety have been allowed to deteriorate.
To soften a passage which is predominantly active, particularly in
scientific reports where by whom will be self-evident.
e.g.: The computer was installed to mechanise the accounts.
3.2.5.3 Long word and passive verbs
Effective writing is clear, simple and direct.
To surround your ideas in a web of passive verbs, verbal nouns and
abstractions only confuses the reader.
Please rewrite the following sentences in the active form:
1. Your letter was received by us.
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2. The following action is to be taken when processing an insuranceclaim
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3. A cheque for R1 987,00 was sent to the customer by me.
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4. The audit was accomplished by us in under two days.
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5. Forty seven people were interviewed by the research team.
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6. The firm is being advised on this matter by legal experts.
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7. This will require the consideration of several factors on our part.
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3.2.6 Sentences
A sentence is a unit of thought. It should be able to stand on its own.
Sentences are separated by major punctuation marks.
Major punctuation marks are . ? ! : ; -
However, we must not overlook the use of minor punctuation marks.
Minor punctuation marks are , ( )
The golden rule is to always use punctuation marks to clarify the meaning
of the passage.
Sentence length
Sentences should on average be about 14 20 words long more than this,
and ideas can become clouded.
But it is best to vary the length of sentences; it is often dull and tiring if all
sentences are of the same length. In contrast, if the sentences are tooshort it is difficult to make the piece flow.
We can keep sentences short by:
- Keeping to one unit of thought per sentence
- Using active verbs
- Avoiding unnecessary words or phrases which add nothing to
the meaning
Sentence structure
Sentence structure is just as important as length
- The more difficult a text is, the simpler its structure should be.
The best order for a sentence is: subject, verb, direct object, e.g.
The company secretary writes the minutes.
- The essence of the message should be in the first part of the
sentence, as the reader always retains this part better.
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3.2.7 Paragraphs
3.2.7.1 Signposts
Every paragraph should begin with a brief statement of theme. This topic
sentence acts as a signpost to help the reader. The first sentence shouldnot be more than 14 - 15 words.
Efficient readers use the signposts when they skim a document to decide
how closely they need to read it.
3.2.7.2 A new idea or development needs a new paragraph
Paragraphs are there for your reader - to show him/her that you are
beginning a new point.
There should be one, clear idea per paragraph.
Every paragraph has a controlling idea. This is called the topic sentence
and is the thought or vital piece of information from which the rest of the
paragraph flows.
3.2.7.3 Introduce a paragraph with the topic sentence. It
should be quite short.
In the following example, please underline the topic sentence, and then work
out how you could restructure the passage so that it comes first.
After our discussions, I thought about the matter and felt that I needed advice.
I have always felt that our Personnel Officer is a competent woman, and she
has often shown integrity in staff matters so I decided to make an
appointment and to discuss the matter with her. She was very helpful and I
finally decided to accept the transfer to Cape Town, partly because of the
educational opportunities for my children and partly because of the
promotional prospect