CONTENTSkamkus.org/coursematerial/Unit-1 Eng..pdf · CONTENTS UNIT –I ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE OF...

CONTENTS

UNIT –IELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE OF UNITS OF SOUNDS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE (BRITISH R.P.)

- Phonetics - Consonants- Vowels- Organs of Speech- The SyllableIMPORTANT QUESTIONS

UNIT –IISTRESS AND INTONATION

- Word Stress, Sentence Stress, Pause- Intonation or Pitch- Variation in Tone and Manner- Variety of the Use of English: Register, Structure, Situation, StyleIMPORTANT QUESTIONS

UNIT –IIINOTE-MAKING AND NOTE-TAKING

- Dictionary- Encyclopedia- Bibliography- Thesaurus

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

UNIT –IVBUSINESS COMMUNICATION

- Barriers to Communicating - Group Discussion - Presentation - Interview

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

UNIT –VSTUDY OF LITERARY TEXTSHORT STORIES BY EMINENT WRITERS

- The Gift the Magi- O. Henry- The Eyes are Not Here – Ruskin Bond- The Lament –A.P. Chekhow- The Rocking Horse Winner – D.H. Lawrence- The Barbers' Trade Union – Mulk Raj Anand

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

SUGGESTED READINGS

STUDENTS ASSIGNMENT

1

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UNIT – I

ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE OF UNITS OF SOUNDS IN English LANGUAGE (BRITISH R.P.]

Language: Language is a system of communication through speech, and written language is an attempt to represent the spoken language by visual symbols. In English the correspondence between the written form and the spoken form is not consistently maintained. It is therefore necessary for Indian students to make a systematic study of the English sound system - the phonetics of English - and avoid any prejudices arising out of their study of written English.

Language has a very important social purpose because it is mainly used for linguistic communication. A language can be used in two ways for the purposes of communication. It can be spoken or written. In other words, we can communicate, using the same language, using the spoken medium or the written medium.

The medium of speech is more important than the medium of writing. This is because speech comes first in the history of any language community - in fact, it came centuries before writing in the history of any language community. Secondly, speech comes first in the history of any individual. We started speaking long before we started writing. Thirdly, speech as a medium of communication is used much more than the medium of writing. Fourthly, written language is only an attempt to represent, using marks on paper, the sounds used in spoken language. In every language, a letter of the alphabet represents a particular sound. Lastly, modern technology has contributed tremendously to the importance of speech. Modem inventions like the telephone, the radio, the tape recorder and several such devices have raised problem of communication primarily concerned with speech.

Linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific and systematic study of language. It is concerned primarily with natural languages. Each of the several thousand recognizably distinct natural languages spoken throughout the world is a specific instance of something more general. In this regard Bloch & Trager write, "Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates."

According to Hall, "Language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. "

The field of linguistics can be divided into several subfields according to the point of view that is adopted or the special emphasis that is given to one set of assumptions rather than another. The first distinction to be drawn is between general and descriptive linguistics. These two linguistics are by no means unrelated. Each depends, explicitly or implicitly upon the other. General linguistics supply the concepts and categories in terms of which particular languages are to be analysed. Descriptive linguistics wish to describe a particular language, not because they are interested in providing data for general linguistics or in testing conflicting theories and hypotheses, but because they wish to produce a reference, grammar or dictionary for practical purposes. But this fact does not affect the inter dependence of the two complementary subfields of general and descriptive linguistics.

Secondly, there are two ten11s 'diachronic' and 'synchronic' used to describe a language. A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that

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have taken place in it between successive points in time. A 'synchronic' description of a language is non-historical; it presents an account of the language as it is at some particular point of time.

Thirdly, there is another discussion about its field which holds between theoretical and applied linguistics. Theoretical linguistics studies languages with a view to construct a theory of their functions and structure and without regard to any practical applications that the investigation of language and languages might have. Applied linguistics has its concern with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to a variety of practical tasks, including language teaching. The last dichotomy has to do with a narrower and a broader view of the scope of the subject. In the narrower view or the 'micro linguistics' one is concerned solely with the structure of language-system, on the other hand, the broader view or 'macro linguistics' is concerned with everything that pertains in any way at all to language and languages.

PHONETICS:

What is Phonetics- Phonetics is the scientific study of the production, transmission and reception of speech sounds. It studies the medium of spoken language. Touching upon physiology and physics, phonetics is now a pure science that studies speech processes, including the anatomy, neurology and pathology of speech, as well as the articulation description, classification, production and perception of speech sounds. It looks at speech from three distinct but interdependent viewpoints: it studies the speech organs, which produce sounds of language; it studies waves, the physical form in which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another and it studies the way in which human beings perceive sounds through the medium of the ear.

History of Phonetics: The ancient Hindu Rishis who wrote the Vedas, must have been known the phonetics. The Vedas were to be chanted and pronounced accurately. Even the classification and arrangement of sounds and their formation, in varnas in Sanskrit give an evidence of a sound phonetic base of this language. We can see some concrete and outstanding evidence of the ancient phonetics of India in the works of Panini, Patanjali etc.

Function of Phonetics: Phonetics studies the defining characteristics of all human vocal noises and concentrates its attention on those sounds which occur in the languages of the world. In other words, phoneticians try to study how the various organs of speech - the lungs, the larynx, the tongue-function ill the production of speech. They also attempt to offer participatory descriptions of various sounds by describing the air-stream-machanism and the phonatory and articulator processes involved.

Branches of Phonetics: There are mainly three branches of Phonetics:

1. Acoustic Phonetics: It is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds such as frequency and amplitude in their transmission.

2. Auditory Phonetics: It is the study of hearing and the perception of speech sounds. It studies different auditory impressions of quality, pitch and loudness of sounds.

3. Articulatory Phonetics: It is the study of movement of the speech organs in the articulation of speech.

Speech Sounds: Speech sound includes information concerning the production, transmission and reception

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stages of sounds. It should describe a sound in terms of the movements of the organs of speech, the nature of the sound which is produced and the features perceived by a listener. Speech sounds can be divided into two broad categories - 'Consonants' and 'Vowels'. Whereas sounds known as 'consonants' are described mainly in terms of their articulation, in the description of 'vowel' sounds the auditory impressions will dominate. There is no closure of the air passage and no narrowing of the passage that would cause audible friction. All other sounds are called consonants. For example, if we say the English word 'shoe', we realize that this word is made up of two sounds, one represented by the letters sh and the other represented by the letters oe. In the production of the sound sh, the air escapes through the mouth with friction.

All the speech sounds have been divided into two categories (1) Consonants (2) Vowels.

(A) CONSONANTS: The word consonant has been derived from the Greek word 'consonautem' which means the sound produced with the help of some other sound such as vowel. By most of the modem phoneticians and linguists, it is termed as a sound which is produced by a stoppage or partial stoppage of the breath. In the production of a consonant the movement of air from the lungs is partially or fully obstructed as a result of narrowing or a complete closure of the air passage.

A consonant is usually described, taking into account whether it is voiceless or voiced, its place of articulation and its manner of articulation.

Place of articulation - It means the two articulators involved in the production of a consonant. Consonants can be described according to their places of articulation. The places of articulation that we frequently come across are the following:

1. Bilabial: Consonant which are articulated by the two lips are called Bilabial. Ex. - /p, b, m, w/ 2. Labio-dental: These consonants are articulated by the lower lip against the upper teeth. Ex. /ƒ, vi/3. Dental: We can articulate them by the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth. Ex. θ, r/. 4. Alveolar: These are articulated by the blade of the tongue. Ex. /t, d, s, z, n, l/. 5. Post-alveolar: These consonants can be articulated by the tip of the tongue against the back of the

teeth ridge. Ex. /r/. 6. Retroflex: Consonants which are articulated by the tip of the tongue curled back against the front of

the hard palate. Ex. /t, d/. 7. Palato-Alveolar: These can be articulated by the blade of the tongue against the teeth-ridge, with

the front of the tongue raised towards the hard palate. Ex. /tf, d,ƒ 3/.

8. Palatal: These consonants are articulated by the front of the tongue against the hard palate. Ex. /j/. 9. Velar: Consonants which are articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate. Ex. /k., g,n/10. Glottal: These consonants are articulated or produced by an obstruction or narrowing between the

vocal cords. Ex. /h/.

Manner of Articulation

We can classify consonants according to the manner of articulation also. The place of articulation may be closed completely or partially. There may be some friction also. On the basis of manner of articulation consonants can be classified as follows:

1. Plosive: These consonants are articulated when the air passage is completely closed and then the obstacle is removed by the rapid, parting of organs so as to allow the compressed air to escape

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making an explosive sound. For ex. : I p I = pack Id l = die I b I = back I d I = cat I g I = got

2. Affricate: In the production of these sounds, there is a complete closure of air passage in the mouth, then the organs are separated so slowly that friction is heard. For ex.:[t ƒ] chair [d] = jaw

3. Fricative: In the articulation of these sounds two organs are brought close together and the narrowing of air passsage at some point takes place so that the air while escaping makes a sort of hissing sound or produces a strong friction. For ex.:[ƒ] = face[v] = vain [θ] = thin[] = then[s] = sad[ƒ] = ship[3] = measure[h] = hair

4. Nasals: In the production of these sounds there is a complete closure in the mouth at some point and the soft palate remains in its lowered position, with the result that the air is allowed to pass through the nose. For ex.: [m] mail [n] nail [ ŋ] bring

5. Lactoral: These sounds are articulated by means of a partial closure of the mouth because of an obstacle placed in middle so that air escapes through the sides. For ex.: [l] = late

6. Frictionless Continuant: In the production of these sounds there is no closure or friction but the sound has a consonantal function.

a) Roll: There is a number of rapid taps made by a flexible organ, against former surface. For ex.: People pronounce |r| by making the tip of the tongue strike against the teeth ridge a number of times.

b) Flat : There is only one tap.

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For ex. : In the pronounciation of |r|, as in the word 'very', the tip of the tongue make one top against the lip ridge.

7. Semi Vowels: It consists of a gliding sound in which there is a glide of speech organs from the position of a closed vowel towards some more prominent sound in the same syllable. It is regarded as a consonant because of association of its position with that of a consonant. | j | = yellow| w | = women

The Sound of English Consonants: The consonants of English will be described in terms of (i) voice or voice lessness, (ii) the place of articulation, and (iii) the manner of articulation.

Consonants of RP: In RP there are 24 consonants (or consonant phonemes, to be precise). These are listed below along with examples that illustrate their occurrence in the initial, medial, and final positions. A blank space in 1be table indicates the non-occurence of a consonant in that position. The phonetic symbols used for the consonants as the same as those used in dictionaries such as the Oxford Advanced Learner S Dictionary of Current English (Revised and updated) by AS Horn by, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, and English Pronouncing Dictionary (14th ed.) by Daniel Jones.

Consonant Initial Medial Final

p pin spin ship b bit clubs hub t take stone lit d day heads lid k key sky talk g go eggs bag t ƒ chain fetched teach d3 jail barged large m main small sum n nail snake shine ŋ things sing I late slate tell f fan sphere half v view thieves live θ thin months bath ? then bathes clothe s sit taste loss z zoo buzzed lose ƒ ship wished fresh 3 division rouge h hat behave r run shrewd w win swim j yes tune

When classified according to the manner of articulation, the English Consonants fall into the following groups.

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Plosives (6) /p, b, t, d, k, g/Affricates (2) /tƒ,d /3

Nasals (3) /m,n,ŋ/Lateral (1) /i/Fricatives (9) /f, v, θ, ? , s, z, ƒ, 3, h/Frictionless continuant (1) /r/Semi-vowels (2) /w,j/

On the other hand, when classified according to the place of articulation, they fall into the following groups:

Bilabial (4) /p, b, m, w/Labio-dental (2) /f, v/Dental (2) /θ,? /Alveolar (6) /t, d/ n, l, s, z/Post-alveolar (1) /r/Palato-alveo lar (4) /tƒ, d ,ƒm /3 3

Palatal (1) /j/Velar (3) /k,g,ŋ/Glottal (1) /h/

Nine consonants are voiceless: /p, t, k, tƒ, ƒ, θ, s, ƒ, h/, and the remaining 15 voiced: /b, d, g, d , m, n, l, v, ? , z, 3

3, r, w, j/

All the classificatory information given above is summarized in Table.

The consonant /w/ is shown under Velar as well as under Bilabial. This is done in order to indicate that this consonant has a second articulation at the soft palate. This point is explained in the detailed discussion of /w/.

The airstream mechanism for all English sounds is pulmonic and egressive. Besides, except in the case of the nasal consonants, the soft palate is raised, thus shutting off the nasal passage. Therefore, in the detailed description of English consonants that follows, we shall not state the above facts.

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Classification of English Consonants

Detailed Description of the Consonants of RP

In the description of the consonants of RP, we shall follow the order determined by the manner of particulation plosive, affricate, nasal, lateral, fricative, frictionless continuant, and semi-vowel.

Plosives: The production of a plosive is completed in three stages:

1. The closing stage, during which the articulatory organs come together and make a firm contact with each other.

2. The hold or compression stage, during which, as a result of lung actions, the air behind the closure is compressed.

3. The release or explosive stage, during which the articulator organs part rapidly, resulting in the escape of the compressed air with explosion.

RP has three pairs of plosives:

Bilabial /p,b/Alveolar /t,d/Velar /k,g/

/p, t, k/ are voiceless, and /b, d, g/ voiced.

Other notable features of the RP plosives are discussed under (i) voicing, (ii) aspiration, (iii) lip position, and (iv) release stage in the following paragraphs.

Voicing: The voiced plosives /b, d, g/ may be fully voiced only when they occur between voiced sounds, e g in about, ado, sugar, rub in, read out, fag-end, to buy, I do, you go. In initial and (especially) in final positions, they may be only partially voiced or completely voiceless. When they occur initially, as in bell, do, go, the vocal cord vibration begins only towards the last part of the second stage (the compression stage). When, on the other hand, they occur finally, as in cub, read, e.g, the vocal cord vibration ceases before the release stage. (Note: Here, 'initially' means 'following silence'; 'finally' means 'preceding silence'.)

Aspiration: The voiceless plosives /p, t, k/, when they occur at he beginning of accented syllables, are aspirated, that is, a puff of breath follows the release of the plosive. Thus, pen, ten, and cool are pronounced

h h h has [p en, t en, k u:l], the symbol [ ] standing for aspiration. When these plosives are followed by other consonants, the aspiration is manifested in the devoicing of those consonants, i.e. in the loss of voice during the earlier part of their articulation. Thus the consonants [l, r, w, j] are devoiced in words such as plate, pray, tray, twice, tune, clean, cry, quite, and cue. When, however, /s/ precedes the plosives, there is no aspiration.

h hCompare, for example, pin [p ln] with spin [sp n], still [st l] with still [st l], and cool [k u:l]with school l 1 l

[sku;l]. Also, there is no aspiration if /p, t, k/ occur in unaccented syllables as in police [pe'li:s], tomorrow h h

[te''mare], concern [ken's3;n]. (Cf[K ] in conduct (n) ['k andekt] and the initial [k] in conduct (v) [ken'dvkt].)

Lip Position: During the articulation of a plosive, the lips may be spread or rounded, depending upon the

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nature of the vowel that immediately follows it. If the vowel that follows immediately is Unfounded, then there is no rounding in the articulation of the plosive either. If, on the other hand, the vowel that follows immediately is rounded, then there is an anticipatory lip-rounding in the articulation of the plosive too. Some examples follow:

Spread-lip variety of the plosive Rounded-lip variety of the plosive

/p/ peak pork /h/ beast boost /t/ tea two /d/ dean dawn /k/ can com /g/ get got

The Release Stage: In certain cases, at the release stage of the plosives in English, there may not be a sudden escape of air. Instead, the release may be accomplished in one of the following ways:

1. Inaudible Release in Final Positions: In the final position, as in ship, mob, meet, need, sack, sag, the release of the plosive may be achieved by a gentle, and therefore relatively inaudible, opening of the oral closure. Although careful speakers usually tend to release such plosives audibly in formal situations, in ordinary conversational style, they too may often use the inaudible unexploded variety.

2. No Audible Release in Stop Clusters: If two stops (plosives, or plosive plus affricate) occur in a cluster, either within a word or at word boundaries, then the first plosive has no audible release, e.g. in act /aekt/, clubbed /klvbd/, good boyl' gd 'b /, subject (n) /'svb"bd31kt/, black jacket /blaek 'd k t/. cl 3ae 1

In such cases the closure for the second stop (plosive or affricate) is made before the release of the first is achieved inaudibly. The release of the first plosive is also delayed in cases of gemination, that is, when the same plosive occurs twice in a sequence, e.g. in book case /'buk 'kels/, hot toast/ 'hat 'test!, big girl /'b g 'ga:l/. l

3. Nasal Release: When a plosive is followed by a homorganic nasal consonant, that is, a nasal consonant articulated at the same place, the oral closure, made initially for the plosive, is retained and the compressed air is released through the nose by lowering the soft palate, e.g. in top most /'topmeust/, sudden/' svdn/.

4. Lateral Release: When the alveolar plosive It! or Id/ is followed by III (which is also alveolar), the plosive is released laterally, that is, by lowering one or both sides of the tongue, while retaining the contact of the tip of the tongue with the teeth ridge, e.g. in kettle/' ketl/, bottle I'batl/, at last/et la:t/ 'lo:t/, headless /'headless/, bad light/' baed 'la t/. 1

Bilabial plosives /p, b/ /p/

Description: In the articulation of /p/, the soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal cavity, the obstacle to the passage of the lung air being provided by the closure of the lips. The lung air is compressed behind this closure, during which stage to vocal cords are kept wide apart. When the lip closure is released, the compressed air escapes with force. Thus /p/ is a voiceless bilabial plosive.

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Fig. /p, b/

Spelling: The consonant /p/ is always spelt with the letter p, the only exception- being the word shepherd I'ƒepd/, in which it is spelt with ph.

The letter p is, however, silent in cupboard, pneumonia, psalm, receipt, and so on.

Allophone of /P/

1. Aspirated /p/ Ipl is aspirated when it occurs initially in an accented syllable as in pot, pull, a 'part, ap 'ply/e 'pIa /, play, prove, pure. In all such cases the consonant that immediately follows /p/ becomes l

devoiced.

2. Unaspirated /p/ /p/ is unaspirated when a) It occurs in unaccented syllables as in pre 'vent, 'leper, 'taper; b) It is preceded by /s/ as in spot, spool, spy, sporadic; and c) It occurs medially in a syllable as in apt, lapse, helped.

3. Inaudibly released (or unexploded) /p/ /p/ is released without an explosion when a. It occurs finally, i.e. before silence, as in cup, sleep, type; and b. It occurs before another plosive or affricate as in wept, captain, stop cheating. 4. Nasally released /p/ /p/ is released through the nose when it is followed by /m/ or /n/ as in happen,

help me, cheap meal.

OCCURRENCE /p/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

Description: The articulation of /h/ differs from that of /p/ only in respect of voicing: while for /p/ the vocal cords do not vibrate, for /b/ they do. Thus /b/ is a voiced bilabial plosive.

Spelling: /h/ is regularly spelt with the letter b. The letter b is, however, silent when preceded by m or followed by t in the word-final position as in climb, comb, thumb, tomb, bomb; debt, doubt. It is also silent in plumber, bomber, and subtle.

Allophones of /b/

a) Partially devoiced /b/ /p/ is partially devoiced when it occurs initially in a word as in boy, boat, blade, bring. The vocal cord vibration in such words may start only during the release stage of the articulation of /h/.

b) Voiceless /p//p/ is voiceless when it occurs finally in a word as in club, mob, robe.

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c) Fully voiced /b/ The fully voiced /h/, that is, voiced through all the three stages of its articulation, occurs only intervocalically, or between voiced sounds, as in about, rebound, labour, husband/h zb nd/, ambush. A e

d) Inaudibly released (or unexploded) /b//p/ is released without an explosion when

a. It occurs finally, i.e. before silence as in rob, tub; and

b. It is followed by another plosive or affricate as in rubbed, subcontinent, subject, object.

e) Nasally released /b/ /p/is released through the nose when it is followed by /p/ or /p/ in sub-marine, submit, ribbon..

Occurrence Like /p/, /b/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

Distinction between /p/ and /p/: As the description of the two sounds suggests, they are distinguished by the absence of voicing in /p/ and its presence in /h/. Such distinction is very difficult when /p/ and /h/ occur wordfinally, where both are voiceless; it is only the context that can tell the difference between mopand mob, rope and robe, tap and Jab, for example. In the initial position, too, on account of the partial devoicing of /b/, the distinction can be rather difficult. But in this position, the distinction is restored, if /p/ occurs in an accented syllable, by aspirating it. Thus the following pairs of words, among others, are distinguished, in RP and other native accents of English, chiefly by the aspiration of /p/:

Pin bin pig big Pit bit pad bad Pill bill pack back Pat bat pull bull Peach beach played blade

Alveolar plosives /t, d/ /t/

DESCRIPTION For the articulation of It!, the soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal passage of air, and the primary obstacle to the airstream is formed by a closure made between (i) the tip of the tongue and the teeth ridge, and (ii) the rims of the tongue and the side teeth. The lung air is compressed behind the closure, during which stage the vocal cords are wide apart. When the closure is released, the compressed air escapes with force. It! is thus a voiceless alveolar plosive.

SPELLING The consonant It! is regularly spelt with t and tt as in tank, actor, prompt, and butter, cattle, nett (also spelt net). It is sometimes spelt with th as in Thomas, Thames. Also, the past and past participle marker-ed, when suffixed to verbs ending in voiceless consonants other than /t/, is pronounced as /t/, e.g. heaped /hi:pt!, booked /bkt/ passed /pa:st/, hatched /hretƒt/.

The letter t is, however, silent in castle, Christmas, hustle, bustle, etc.

Allophones of /t/

(i) Aspirated /t/ Like /p/, /t/ is aspirated when it occurs initially in an accented syllable as in tin, tear, ob'

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tain, attire/ e' tale/; try, twice, tune. In all such cases, the vowel or consonant that immediately follows /t/ becomes devoiced.

Fig. /t,d/

(ii) Unaspirated /t/ Again, like /p/, /t/ is unaspirated when

a. It occurs in unaccented syllables as in to 'day, 'filter, 'later;

b. It is preceded by /s/ as in stain, stray, stupendous; and

c. It occurs medially in a syllable as in hats, bits.

(iii) Inaudibly released (or unexploded) /t/ /t/ is released inaudibly, that is; without an explosion, when

a. It occurs finally, i.e. before silence as in hot, wet, late; and b. It is followed by another plosive or affricate as in hotbed, white dog, fat child, that jug.

(iv) Nasally released /t/ /t/is released through the nose if it is followed by /n/ as in button, mutton, cotton.

(v) Laterally released /t/ /t/ is released laterally when it is followed by /n/ as in settle, metal, cattle.

(vi) Dental /t/ /t/ becomes a dental plosive (like the Hindi r [y] as in rqe [yi,] 'you') if it is followed by the dental fricatives /θ, ? / as in eighth, sit there.

(vii) Post-alveolar /t/ /t/ is realized as a post-alveolar plosive if it is followed by /r/ as in trick, true, betray.

OCCURRENCE /t/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

DESCRIPTION /d/ is articulated in the same way as /t/, except for voicing: while the vocal cords do not vibrate for /t/, they do for /d/, which is therefore a voiced alveolar plosive.

SPELLING /d/ is regularly spelt d or dd as in door, ado, sad; sudden, hidden. The letter d is, however, silent in handkerchief, handsome.

Allophones of /d/

(i) Partially devoiced /d/ /d/ is partially devoiced when it occurs initially in a word as in dig, do, dry, dew. The vocal cord vibration in such words may start only during the release stage of the articulation of /d/.

(ii) Voiceless /d/ /d/is voiceless when it occurs finally in a word as in bid, said, shoved, reused. (iii) Fully voiced /d/ The fully voiced Id/, that is, voiced through all the three stages of its articulation,

occurs only intervocalically, or between voiced sounds, as in ado, render, model, roadways.

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(iv) Inaudibly released (or unexploded) /d/ /d/ is released without an explosion when a. It occurs finally, i.e. before silence as in head, road, pleased; and b. It is followed by another plosive or affricate as in headgear, bad times, good day, good judge.

(v) Nasally released Id/'/dl is released through the nose when it is followed by In! as in sadden, bad name, good night.

(vi) Laterally released /d/ /d/ is released laterally when it is followed by III as in saddle, middle, bad light.

(vii) Dental /d/ /d/ becomes a dental plosive (like the Hindi n [d] as in nku (da:n] 'donation') when it is followed by the dental fricatives /θ, ? / as in sad thought, add this.

(viii) Post-alveolar /d/ /d/is realized as a post-alveolar plosive if it is followed by /r/ as in dry, drain, adrift.

OCCURRENCE /d/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

Distinction between /d/ and /d/

As in the case of /d/ and /d/, the distinction between /d/ and /d/ can also get lost in all those positions in which /d/ is partially or fully devoiced (see above). However, in the initial position in accented syllables, such distinction can be maintained, nevertheless, by aspirating /t/. It is chiefly by the aspiration of /t/, therefore, that the following pairs of words, among others, are distinguished:

Tin din tale dale Tip dip 'try dry Ten den tune dune Tell dell tie die

Pronunciation of the past tense marker-d or-ed

The past tense marker -d or -ed is pronounced in three different ways: (1) It is pronounced /t/ after voiceless consonants other than /t/.

EXAMPLES:

heaped /hi:pt/ passed /pa:st/ looked /lkt/ rushed /raƒt/ laughed Ila:ft/ reached /ri:tst/

(2) It is pronounced /d/ after voiced sounds other than /d/. (Voiced sounds mean all vowels and voiced consonants.)

clubbed /klabd/ hinged /hind3d/ tagged /t gd/ prayed /pre d/ ae l

lived /l vd/ tried /trald/ 1

praised Ipre zd/ sued /su:d/ l

bowed /bad/

(3) It is pronounced / d/ after /t,d/. l

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hated I'he t d/ headed I'hed d/ l l l

batted I'baet d/ raided /'re d d/ l l l

Velar plosives /k,g/ /k/

DESCRIPTION For the articulation of &/, the main obstacle "to the airstream is formed by a firm contact of the back of the tongue against the soft palate. which itself is raised in order to shut off the nasal passage. The lung air is compressed behind the closure, during which stage the vocal cords are wide apart. When the closure is released, the compressed air escapes with force. Ik/ is thus a voiceless velar plosive.

Fig. /k, g/

SPELLING /k/ is spelt in a number of ways: K keen, speaker, peak C cut, act. MetricCc when followed by a,o, or u: occasion, according, occur Ck pack, sick, luck Ch chemist, alchemy, stomach qu (pronounced /kw/) quarter, queen, quiet

The letter k is silent in know, knee, knit, and so on. The letter c is silent in muscle.

Allophones of /k/

(i) Aspirated /k/ Like /p/ and /t/, /k/ is aspirated when it occurs initially in an accented syllable as in king, cat, account /e'kant/; clay, cry, queue, quit. In all such cases. the consonant that immediately follows I k/ becomes devoiced

(ii) Unaspirated /k/ Again, like /p/ and /t/, /k/ is unaspirated when

(1) it occurs in unaccented syllables as in con rain, 'basking, 'bouquet, 'marker; (2) it is preceded by /s/ as in sky, school, square; and (3) it occurs medially in a syllable as in act, checked, packs.

(iii) Inaudibly released (or unexploded) /k/ /k/ is released inaudibly, that is, without an explosion, when (1) it occurs finally, i e before silence as in lack, cheque, take; and (2) it is followed by another plosive or affricate as in backed, back door, blackboard, deckchairs.

(iv) Advanced variety of /k/ /k/ is articulated nearer the palate if it is followed by a front vowel as in keen, kit, cat.

(v) Retracted variety of /k! /k/ is articulated further back in the mouth if it is followed by a back vowel as

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in cool, caught, carl.

Occurrence /k/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

/g/

DESCRIPTION /g/ is articulated in the same way as /k/, but, whereas for /k/ the vocal cords do not vibrate, for /g/ they do. Therefore, /g/ is a voiced velar plosive.

SPELLING /g/ is regularly spelt g or gg as in gate, get, give, go, again, bag; juggle, begged. It is sometimes spelt gh, e g in ghost, aghast. (Students must note that gh in such words is pronounced [9], not [gh], that is, it is not aspirated. In English, voiced consonants are never aspirated.)

The letter g is silent when followed by m or n in the same syllable as in phlegm, diaphragm, gnat, gnaw, feign, sign. But when g and the following m or n occur in two different syllables, g is not silent, e g phlegmatic, signature, ignore, ignite.

Allophones of /g/

Like /b/ and /d/ discussed earlier, /g/ is also partially devoiced, voiceless, or fully voiced, depending on its position in a word or phrase. These three varieties (allophones) are now discussed.

1) Partially devoiced /g/ /g/ is partially de voiced when it occurs initially in a word as in girl, gate, good. In such words, the vocal cord vibration may start only during the release stage of the articulation of /g/.

2) Voiceless /g/ /g/ is voiceless when it occurs finally in a word as in bag, smog, tug.

3) Fully voiced /g/ The fully voiced /g/, that is, voiced through all the three stages of its articulation, occurs only intervocalically or only between voiced sounds, as in ago, against, begin, tiger.

4) Inaudibly released (or unexploded) /g/ /g/ is released without explosion when

(1) it occurs finally, i e before silence, as in tag, drug, fog; and (2) it is followed by another plosive or affricate as in bagpipe, eggcup, big chin, big jacket.

5) Advanced variety of /g/ /g/ is articulated nearer the palate when it is followed by a front vowel as in get, geese, gander.

6) Retracted variety of /g/ /g/ is articulated further back in the mouth when it is followed by a back vowel as in goose, good, gone.

OCCURRENCE /g/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

Distinction between /k/ and /g/

As in the case of the pairs /p/, /b/, and /t/, /d/, the distinction between /k/ and /g/ becomes very difficult when these two sounds occur finally in words, for, in that position, both are voiceless. It is only the context, therefore, that brings out the distinction between back' and bag, lock and log, and smock and smog, for

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example. In the initial position, too, on account of the partial devoicing of /g/, the distinction between /k/ and /g/ can sometimes be lost. But in this position, the distinction is restored in those cases where /k/ is aspirated, i e when /k/ occurs initially in m accented syllable. Thus the following pairs of words; for example, are distinguished, in all native varieties of English, chiefly by the aspiration of /k/:

cane gam got got

class glass cable gable

crew grew curl girl

cold gold come gum

card guard call gall

10.32 Affricates

The production of an affricate is similar to that of a plosive: there is a closing stage, a compression stage, and a release stage. But, whereas in the case of a plosive the release is sudden, for an affricate it is gradual. Because of a gradual separation of articulators (at the release stage), an affricate is accompanied by friction at the same point where the complete closure is made. For this reason, the closure part of the affricate is represented in the phonetic alphabet by the symbol of the appropriate plosive, and the release part, by that of the fricative produced at the same point. Thus an affricate is symbolized by what is called a digraph (Le. a sequence of two letters used in a phonetic transcription to represent a single phoneme), e.g. the symbol /tƒ/ to represent the consonant at the beginning of words such as chess, chain, and choose.

In English there are two affricates, and these are palato-alveolar: /tƒI and /d /. 3

Palato-alveolar affricates /tƒ, d / 3

/tƒ/DESCRIPTION With the soft palate raised to shut off the nasal passage, the obstacle to the airstream is formed by a closure made between the tip and blade of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, the rims of the tongue making a contact with the upper side teeth. At the same time, the front of the tongue is also raised in the direction of the hard palate (see Fig. 30). The closure is released slowly, with the blocked air escaping with friction, which takes place between the blade-to-front section of the tongue and the alveolar ridge-to-hard palate section oft he roof of the mouth. The vocal cords are wide apart. Thus /tƒ/ is a voiceless palato-alveolar affricate.

During the articulation of the affricate, there is a certain amount of protrusion and rounding of lips irrespective of the nature of the following vowel.

Fig. /tƒ/ /d /3

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However, the protrusion is greater if the following vowel is a rounded one as in choose. (Contrast with cheese).

SPELLINGch chair, achieve, orchard, march, churchtch butcher, watch, catch t+eous (pronounced) righteoust+ ion (Pronounced ) t**nl) when t is preceded by s question, suggestiont+ure (pronounced It**I) picture, nature, culture, furniture /t**/) (But mature is pronounced without It*l: Im* 'tj**I.)

Allophones of /t*/

No important variants of /tƒ/ occur, except in the matter of the degree of lip protrusion and rounding. As already stated, such lip-protrusion and rounding is greater when /tƒ/ is followed by a rounded vowel than when it is followed by an unrounded vowel.

OCCURRENCE /tƒ/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

DESCRIPTION /d3/ is articulated in the same way as /tƒ/, except for the state of the vocal cords: whereas for /tƒ/ the vocal cords are wide apart, for /d / they vibrate. Id31 is therefore, a voiced palato-alveolar affricate. 3

As in the case of /tƒ/, there is a certain amount of protrusion and rounding of lips in the articulation of /d /. 3

Also, as in the case of /tƒ/, such protrusion and rounding is greater when the consonant is followed by a rounded vowel than otherwise. Thus it is greater in jaws than in jazz.

SPELLING j Jump, ajar, injure, rejoice g germ, engine, village, George dg budget, ledger, bridge, porridge gg suggest de grandeur di soldier dj adjoin, adjacent

Allophones of /d / 3

Except in the matter of the degree of lip-protrusion and rounding, there are no important variants of Ids/. Nevertheless, in the matter of voicing, the following three allophones of /d / occur as they do in /b, d, g/: 3

1) Partially devoiced /d / /d / is partially de voiced when it occurs initially in a word as in jam, gin, joke. 3 3

In such words, the vocal cord vibration may start only during the release stage. 2) Voiceless /d / /d /is voiceless when it occurs finally in a word as in large, age, huge. 3 3

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3) Fully voiced /d / The fully voiced /d /, that is, voiced through all the stages of its articulation, occurs 3 3

only inter vocalically, or only between voiced sounds, as in adjust, margin, major.

OCCURRENCE /d / occurs in all the three positions in a word.3

10.33 Nasals

Nasals are like plosives in that a complete closure is made in the mouth for their articulation; they are at the same time different from plosives in that the soft palate is in its lowered position, allowing the air to escape freely through the nose. Since the air can escape freely through the nose, nasals can be continued, whereas plosives cannot. In this respect, therefore, they are like fricatives, except that they are not accompanied by any audible friction, which is characteristic of fricatives. Further, since they can be continued, and have no audible friction, they are somewhat like vowels. English has three nasals, which, in respect of the place of articulation, correspond to the three pairs of plosives: the bilabial nasal /m/ corresponds to the plosives /p, b/; the alveolar nasal /n/ to it, d/; and the velar nasal IIJI to /k, g/. They are all voiced.

As nasals are in some respect like vowels, they can perform the syllabic function of vowels. This is particularly true of the English nasal /n/. Thus the words button, cotton, and mutton, for example, which have two syllables each, are pronounced without any vowel in the second syllable: /'bvtn, 'katn, 'matn/. In such cases, /n/ performs the function of a vowel.

Bilabia Nasal

/m/DESCRIPTION For the articulation of 1m!, a closure is formed at the lips (as for /p, b/); the soft palate is lowered to allow a free passage of air through the nose. The vocal cords vibrate. /m/ is thus a voiced bilabial nasal.

Fig. 31 /m/

SPELLING /m/ is regularly spelt m and mm as in mad, amid, sum; summer, dimmer. Other spellings for it are the following:

mb climb, plumber /'plame/comb /kevm/, tomb /tu:m/

mn autumn, damn

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(Note that when the juxtaposing m and n are assigned to two different syllables, neither of them is silent, e g autumnal is pronounced as /c: 'tvmnel/ and damnable as /'d mn bl/.) ae e

Allophones of /m/

1) Labia-dental /m/ /m/ is realized as a labio-dental nasal when it is immediately followed by the labio-dental /ƒ, v/ as in comfort, nymph, come first, same vest, circumvent.

2) Partially de voiced /m/ /m/ is partially devoiced when /s/ precedes it as in small, smooth, science master.

3) Syllabic /m/ /m/ becomes syllabic in words such as prism and rhythm if the vowel /e/ ordinarily occurring in their second syllables is dropped.

OCCURRENCE /m/ occurs in all the three positions ill a word. Alveolar nasal

/n/

DESCRIPTION For the articulation of /n/, a closure is formed in the mouth between (i) the tip of the tongue and the teeth ridge, and (ii) the rims of the tongue and the upper side teeth, exactly as for /t, d/; the soft palate is lowered to allow a free passage of air through the nose. The lip position will depend on the adjacent vowel: eg spread lips when preceded or followed by /i:/, as in seen, niece; neutral lips when preceded or followed by /l:/, as in shunt, nut; and somewhat rounded lips when preceded or followed by /u:/, as in soon, nude. The vocal cords - vibrate. In! is thus a voiced alveolar nasal.

Fig. /n/

SPELLING /n/ is regularly spelt with nand nn as in not, ant, run; running, funny. Other spellings for /n/ are the following:

gn gnat, sign

kn know, knit, knife

pn pneumonia, pneumatic

Note that when the juxtaposing g and n or k and n belong to two different syllables, g and k are not silent. Contrast (i) signature /'S gn tƒe/ and /'s gn l/ with sign /san/, and (ii) acknowledge / k'n l d / with knowledge l l l e e a l 3

/'n l d /. a l 3

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Allophones of /n/

The articulation of /n/ is particularly affected by the following consonant, resulting in the following allophones:

a. Labio-dental /n/ /n/ is realized as a labio-dental nasal when it is immediately followed by If, vi as in infant, inform, in view, invite. Such a labiodental realization is the same as the labio-dental realization of /m/.

b. Dental /n/ When folloed by /θ, ? /, /n/ is realized as a dental nasal as in month, tenth, on them.

c. Post-alveolar In! When followed by /r/, /n/ is realized as a post-alveolar nasal as in sunrise, unrest, enrol.

In addition to these, /n/ has the following allophones:

d. Partially devoiced /n/ /n/ is partially devoiced when it is preceded by /s/ or /t/ as in snack, snow, cotton, button, mutton.

e. Syllabic /n/ /n/ becomes syllabic in words such as button, sudden, often, listen, dozen, vision.

OCCURRENCE /n/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

Velar nasal

/ŋ/

DESCRIPTION For the articulation of /ŋ/, a closure is formed between the back of the tongue and the soft palate in the same way as for /k, g/; the soft palate is lowered to allow a free passage of air through the nose. The lip position will depend on the preceding vowel: e g somewhat spread when preceded by /l/ as in sing; neutral when preceded by /v/ as in sung; and somewhat rounded when preceded by /a/ as in song. The vocal cords vibrate. /a/ is thus a voiced velar nasal.

SPELLING /ŋ/ is regularly spelt ng, or n followed by a letter representing /k/, e g sing, rung; brink; anxious, uncle, anchor. Also note /ŋ/ in anxiety / ŋ' za t / ae le l

The word-final ng in the spelling is always pronounced /ŋ/, never /ŋg/, e g running /'r nŋ/, sing /siŋ/. The a I

medial ng, however, is pronounced

Fig. /ŋ/

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1) /ŋ/ in derivatives of verbs ending in /ŋ/, e g singer /'s n /, ringing /'rŋŋ/, hanger /'haeŋe/; and l e l l

2) /ŋg/ in other words, e g finger /'fŋge/, anger / ŋge/, hunger /'hŋge/. l ae a

(Note: longer /laŋ/:: one who longs for something, but longer /ange/: comparative degree of the adjective e

long.)

Allophones of /ŋ/

Ordinarily, there are no allophonic variants of /ŋ/. However, occasionally, a syllabic /ŋ/ may occur in the final position where /en/ is generally expected in words such as bacon. Thicken, organ.

OCCURRENCE /ŋ/ does not occur in the word-;initial position. Besides, it occurs only after the short vowels /l, ae,a,v/e eg sing slŋ/, sang /saeŋ/, song /sŋ/, sung /saŋ/. a

10.34 Lateral

A lateral consonant is produced when there is a closure, essentially, in the centre of the oral passage, so that the air can escape on one or both sides of such a closure.

English has only one lateral, the alveolar lateral /l/

Alveolar lateral

/l/

DESCRIPTION In the articulation of Ill, the tip of the tongue is in contact with the teeth ridge, with one or both sides of the tongue remaining low so that the lung air can escape freely without friction through the side(s). The soft palate is in its raised position, shutting off the nasal passage, and the vocal cords vibrate. III is thus a voiced alveolar lateral.

RP has two distinct varieties of /I/ : a clear [I] and a dark [t]. (See their distribution under Allophones of /I/.) Whereas the description in the above paragraph applies to both, for clear [I], additionally, the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, while, for dark [t], the back of the tongue is raised in the direction soft palate, the front of the tongue being somewhat depressed (see this figure).

Fig. 34 Clear [I] Fig. 35 Dark [t]

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The lip position, during the articulation of /l/, is determined by the nature of the adjacent vowel, e g lease, fiel are said with spread lips, but loose, fool with somewhat rounded lips.

SPELLING /I/ is regularly spelt l or ll, e g let, halt, seal; killed, hill. The letter I is, however, frequently silent in front of certain other consonants, as in chalk, would, half, balm, salmon, folk.

Allophones of III

As already stated, the two chief allophones of /I/ are the clear [1] and the dark [I]. The other allophones of /I/ (to be discussed now) must also, at the same time, be either clear or dark Ill, depending on the rules given now under Clear [1] and Dark [I].

a. Clear [I] Clear [1] is used only when the lateral is followed by a vowel or the semi-vowel /j/ as in lean, let, lose, flute, ply; billion, lure.

b. Dark [I] Dark [I] is used whenever the lateral is not 'followed by a vowel, e g word-finally as in heal, hell, call, and before consonants other than /j/ as in health, helm, milk, called.

c. Dental [1] /I/ is realized as a dental lateral when it is followed by the dental fricative /a/ as in health, wealthy, stealth.

d. Voiceless /I/ /I/ is rendered voiceless when it is preceded by aspirated /p, k/, e g in play, apply, climb, decline. (Note that /t/ cannot occur before /I/ in a syllable-initial or word-initial position.)

e. Partially de voiced /I/ /I/ becomes partially de voiced when it is preceded by an unaspirated /p, k/ or by /s, f, ƒ, θ/, as inpla' centa, plantation, 'droplet, clan'destine, cli'matic, uncle; slate, flee, flush less, ruthless.

f. Syllabic /I/ /I/ becomes syllabic in words such as bottle, kettle, settle, shackle. Syllabic /1/ is always a dark [t].

OCCURRENCE /1/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

10.35 Fricatives

For the articulation of all the classes of consonants discussed up to now (plosives, affricates, nasals, and laterals), there is a closure made at some point in the mouth. For fricatives, on the other hand, no such closure is required. Instead, the articulating organs need only to be brought sufficiently close to each other so that the air, in passing through the narrow gap between them, produces audible friction, an important characteristic of a fricative consonant.

In RP, there are nine fricatives: /f, v/ labio-dental /θ, ? / dental /s, z/ alveolar /ƒ, / palato-alveolar 3

/h/ glottal

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of these, /f, θ, s, ƒ, h/ are voiceless and /v, ? , z, 3/ voiced. The 'voiced' fricatives, however, are fully voiced only when they occur between voiced sounds as in govern, rather, razor, vision, in vain, all this, a zebra, a genre e'3a:r]. In other positions, they may be only partially voiced or completely voiceless, e g initially (i e following silence as in vet, that, zoo), only the latter part of the fricative may be voiced, and finally (i e before silence as in love, bathe, whose, beige), the fricative is generally voiceless. The 'voiceless' fricatives, on the other hand, with the only exception of /h/, are voiceless in all positions. Generally, /h/ has some voicing when it occurs between voiced sounds as in behave, enhance, a hat, the headmaster.

As for the position of the lips, some RP speakers use slight lip-rounding for /ƒ,3/ in all positions; for other speakers the lip position is determined by the nature of the adjacent vowel, as it is, for all speakers, in the case of the other fricatives, /f, v, θ, ? , s, z, h/. In the articulation of these fricatives, the lips are spread if the adjacent vowel is produced with spread lips; otherwise they will be rounded. Examples of the above fricatives with spread lips are feed, leaf; veal, leave; think, sheath; this, with; see, hiss; zebra, fees; heat; examples with rounded lips are food, roof; voice, move; thought, broth; smooth; sue, loose; zoo, ooze; who.

Labio-dental fricatives If, v/

/f/DESCRIPTION During the articulation of If I, the soft palate is raised, shutting off the nasal passage of air. The inner surface of the lower lip makes a light contact with the front upper teeth, leaving a narrow gap through which the lung air escapes, producing audible friction. The vocal cords are wide apart. If I is thus a voiceless labiodental fricative.

Fig. /f, v/

Spelling f fit, after, leaf, fly, cleft, soften ff offer, affair, gruff, stiff gh laughter, enough, trough ph photo, trophy, graph

Allophones of /f/

No important allophonic variants of /f/ occur except in respect of the position of the lips, which, as stated earlier, depends on the lip position required by an adjacent vowel.

OCCURRENCE /f/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

DESCRIPTION /v/ is articulated in the same way as If I, except that in the articulation of /v/ the vocal cords vibrate. /v/ is thus a voiced labio-dental fricative.

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SPELLING /v/ is regularly spelt v as in vain, invite, love, the only exceptions being the preposition 01 and nephew, where the letters I and ph, respectively, are pronounced /v/.

Allophones of /v/

a. Partially voiced /v/ /v/ is only partially voiced when it occurs initially (i e after silence) as in vain, vine, verse.

b. Devoiced /v/ /v/ may be completely devoiced when it occurs finally (i e before silence) as in leave, prove, calve.

Further, as in the case of /f/, the lip position for /v/ will depend upon the adjacent vowel, ego spread lips for /v/ in veal, vain, and somewhat rounded in move, prove.

OCCURRENCE /v/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

Dental fricatives /θ, ? /

DESCRIPTION In the articulation of /θ/, the soft palate is raised, shutting off the nasal passage; the tip of the tongue makes a light contact with the inner surface of the upper front teeth; the rims of the tongue make a firm contact with the upper side teeth. The lung air escapes through the narrow gap between the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth, causing audible friction. The vocal cords are wide apart. /θ/ is thus a voiceless dental fricative .

Fig. /θ, ? /

SPELLING /θ/ is always spelt th as in thin, atheist, bath. Allophones of /θ/

No important allophonic variants of /θ/ occur except in respect of the lip position, which depends upon the lip position required by an adjacent vowel.

OCCURRENCE /θ/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

DESCRIPTION /? / is articulated in the same way as /θ/, except that in the articulation of /? / the vocal cords vibrate. /? / is thus a voiced dental fricative.

Spelling Like /θ/, /? / is also always spelt th as in that, lather, booth.

a. Partially voiced /? / /? / is only partially voiced when it occurs initially (i e after silence) as in therefore, then, though.

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b. Devoiced /? / /? / may be completely devoiced when it occurs finally (i e before silence) as in bathe, wreathe, bequeath.

Further, as in the case of 10/, the lip position for 101 will depend upon the adjacent vowel.

OCCURRENCE /? / occurs in all the three positions in a word.

The pronunciation of th

In a few proper names, th is pronounced /t/, e g Thames /temz/, Thailand /'ta I nd/, Thomas /'t ma s/, l e a e

Thomson / 't msn/. In all other cases, th is pronounced either /θ/ or /? /, and in each case a learner must a

ascertain whether it is /θ/ or /? /. The position is made even more difficult by the fact that the may be pronounced differently in inflections and derivations. Examples follow.

(i) Inflections In some cases, the suffix - (e)s changes /θ/ in the stem to /? /:

/θ/ /? /

mouth mouths

youth youths

path paths

cloth /kl**/ clothes /kl* * *z/

truth truths

oath oaths

wreath wreaths

sheath sheaths

(ii) Derivations In some cases, while the stems are pronounced with lei, the derivatives are pronounced with /? /:

lei lal

north northern

south southern·

cloth (n) clothe (v)

bath (n) bathe (v)

breath (n) breathe (v)

heath heathen

wreath (n) wreathe (v)

sheath (n) sheathe (v)

mouth (n) mouth (v)

DESCRIPTION For the articulation of /s/, the soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal passage of air; the tip and blade of the tongue make a light contact with the teeth ridge, the side rims of the tongue making, at the

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same time, a finn contact with the upper side teeth. The airstream escapes through a narrow groove along the centre of the tongue, causing audible friction between the tongue and the teeth ridge. The vocal cords are wide apart. Thus Is! is a voiceless alveolar fricative.

Fig. /s, z/

Spelling s see, fast, books ss essay, loss, assesssc scene, science, ascend c cement, fancy, facex extra, axe, lax

(pronounced/ks/)

Allophones of /s/

There are no important allophonic variants of /s/, except in respect of the position of lips, which depends on the lip position required by an adjacent vowel. OCCURRENCE /s/ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

/z/DESCRIPTION /z/ is articulated in the same way as /s/, except that for /z/ the vocal cords vibrate. /z/ is thus a voiced alveolar fricative.

SPELLING s cousin, please, bags

ss scissors, possess, dessert z zeal, crazy, amaze zz dazzle, buzz x exact, examine

(pronounced Igzl

There are some words containing x where this letter can be pronounced either /ks/ or /gz/. Example are: exit /'eks t/ or /'egz t/, exile/'eksa 1/ or /'egza l/, and exigency /'eks d3 ns / or /'egz d3ens /. 1 1 l l l e l l 1

Allophones of /z/

a. Partially voiced /z/ /z/ is only partially voiced when it occurs initially (i e after silence) as in zinc, zebra, zoo.

b. Devoiced /z/ /z/ may be completely devoiced when it occurs finally (i e before silence) as in boys, lose, airlines.

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Further, as in the case of Is!, the position of lips during the articulation of /z/ depends on the position of lips required by an adjacent vowel.

The pronunciation of the suffixes -(e)s, 's, s'

The suffix -s or -es used in the plural-formation of nouns or the third person singular present-tense formation of verbs, and the suffix's or s' for the possessive formation of nouns are pronounced in three different ways, depending upon the ending of the stem (i e the uninflected form of the noun or verb). They are pronounced in the following three ways:

(1) / z/ after /s, z, ƒ, 3, tƒ, d /: l 3

horses crosses lass's roses chooses Dickens's /'d k nz z/ l l l

bushes rushes witch's /'w tƒ z/ l l

garages massages witches' benches fetches judge's /'dZ D3 Z/A l

hedges budges judges' Note: house /has/; houses /'haz z/ (where the /s/ of the stem also changes to /z/). 1

(2) /z/ after a voiced sound (i e all vowels and voiced consonants) other than /Z, ,d /: 3 3

boys goes man's girls stands men's airlines shines boy's bags loves boys' leaves wears. officer's buds sings officers'

employee's employees'

(3) /s/ after a voiceless consonant other than /s/, ƒ, tƒ/:

Taps laughs chiefsCats sniffs chap'sMoths stops Dick'sCloths fits ruth's

Palato-alveolar fricatives /ƒ,3/

/ƒ/

DESCRIPTION The articulation of If I resembles that of /s/ to a good extent: for both, the soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal passage; the tip and blade of the tongue make a light contact with the teeth ridge; and the side rims of the tongue make a firm contact with the upper side teeth. But this is where the similarity ends. For If I (but not for /s/), the front of the tongue is also raised at the same time in the direction of the hard

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palate. As a result of this simultaneous raising of the front of the tongue, the narrowing between the tongue and the roof of the mouth is more diffuse: it spreads from the tip and blade to the front of the tongue. The air escapes through this narrow, but diffuse, gap with audible friction. The vocal cords are wide apart. /ƒ/ I is thus a voiceless palato-alveolar fricative.

Some RP speakers use sight lip-rounding for /ƒ, 3/ in all positions; others do so only when a rounded vowel precedes or follows them.

Fig. /ƒ,3/

SPELLING sh shell, marshal, harsh ch chute, machine, moustachesch schedules (followed by u) sure, sugarss (followed by u) assureti ration, initial, essential si mansion, Asiassi mission, submissionsci consciousci special, official, electriciance ocean

Also note x pronounced /kƒ/ in luxury.

Allophones of /ƒ/

There are no allophonic variants of /ƒ/

OCCURRENCE ƒfƒ occurs in all the three positions in a word.

DESCRIPTION /z/ is articulated in the same way as /ƒ/ with the only difference

that for /3/ the vocal cords vibrate. /3/ is thus a voiced palato-alveolar fricative.

si decision, vision, revisions (followed by u) measure, treasure, leisure, usualz (followed by u) azure, seizure ge (in French loan words) garage, espionage, sabotage, rouge

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Allophones of 131

Devoiced /3/ /3/ may be devoiced when it occurs finally as in prestige, barrage, beige.

OCCURRENCE /3/ does not occur initially, except in genre /3a;r/, a French loan word sometimes used in English Studies.

DESCRIPTION For the articulation of /h/, the air from the lungs escapes through a narrow glottis with audible friction. The soft palate is raised. As for the positions of the tongue and the lips, they are determined by the vowel following /h/. Thus, for the articulation of /h/ in he /hi:/, the front of the tongue is raised to the close position of vowels and the lips are spread. As against this, for the articulation of /h/ in who /hu:/, the back of the tongue is raised to the close position and the lips are rounded. What is common to all such types of English /hi is, however, the passage of a strong, voiceless airstream through the open glottis. /h/ is therefore referred to as a voiceless glottal fricative.

Spelling h he, hat, heed, hard, behavewh who, whose, whom

The letter h is silent in words such as hour, honest, and heir. It is also silent in the sequence gh in ghost /g st/, ev

aghast / 'g :st/, ghastly /'g :stl /. e a a l

Allophones of /h/

Voiced /h/ Between voiced sounds, /h/ is realised as a voiced glottal fricative as in behind, behave, aha.

OCCURRENCE /h/ occurs in syllable-initial positions only. It does not occur in any consonant clusters, in groups of two or more consonants without any vowel(s) between them.

Frictionless Continuant

/r/

In RP, there are many varieties of /r/ (see under Allophones of /r/). The one we are choosing for description here is the commonest variety, the post-alveolar frictionless continuant [J].

DESCRIPTION The soft palate being raised, and therefore the nasal passage shut off, the tip of the tongue is held near to the rear part of the teeth ridge, the rims of the tongue touching the upper side teeth. The gap between the tongue and the roof of the mouth is still wide enough for the airstream to escape through freely, without causing any audible friction. The vocal cords vibrate. This variety of /r/ is therefore a voiced post-alveolar frictionless continuant.

The lip position is determined largely by the following vowel, e g the /r/ in read is said with spread lips, and that in rude with rounded lips.

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Fig. /r/ (the post-alveolar frictionless continuant)

Spelling r race, arouse, drive rr 'worry, sorry, carry rh rhyme, rhythm wr write, wreath, wrap

Pronunciation of the letter r

In RP, the letter r is pronounced only when it occurs immediately before vowels; elsewhere it is silent. Thus it is silent before consonants and word-finally, unless the word is immediately followed by another, beginning with a vowel. Such

a car /e'ka:/my father /ma 'fa? e/l

come here /'k m 'h /A le

or (ii) followed by silence as in :

a car mechanic /e 'ka: m 'k n k/l ae l

my father came / Ma 'Fa: 'ke m/l ? e l

come here now /' k m h * 'na/A le

But, they are pronounced with /r/, if they are followed by another word beginning with a vowel. For example,

a car arrived /e 'ka:re 'ra vd/l

my father entered the room /mal 'fa:? er 'ented e 'ru:m/come here at once /' k m 'hler et 'W ns/.A A

Allophones of /r/: Post- alveolar fricative

1) Voiced post-alveolar fricative [i] /r/ is realized as a voiced post-alveolar fricative when it is preceded by Id/ as in dry, drain, drift, bedroom, good rain.

2) Partially devoiced post-alveolar fricative [i] /r/ becomes a partially devoiced post-alveolar fricative when it is preceded by voiceless consonants other than the aspirated /p, t, k/, and lei, e g infree, shrimp, apron, spring, strong, screw.

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3) De voiced post-alveolar fricative [i] /r/ becomes a devoiced post-alveolar fricative when it is preceded by an aspirated /p/, /t/, or /k/, as in print, apprise, tree, betray, crowd, decry.

Allphones of /r/ : Alveolar tap

1) Voiced alveolar tap [r] /r/ is realized as a voiced alveolar tap when it occurs between two vowels as in bury, merry, sharing, sure enough; and after 161 as in with respect.

2) Partially devoiced alveolar tap [r] /r/ is realized as partially devoiced alveolar tap when it occurs after 101 as in three, threat, thrive, forthright.

Thus we see that, in quite a few contexts, a variety of /r/ other than the one described here (viz voiced post-alveolar frictionless continuant [1]) occurs. Nevertheless, the variety of /r/ described here still remains the most frequent variety in RP because the contexts in which it occurs are the most frequent. These contexts are:

(l) Initially before vowels as in rain, red, root

(2) After voiced consonants other than /d/ as in brain, great, all right

(3) In the word-final positions when followed by another word beginning with a vowel as in

mother is, far off, butter and jam.

OCCURRENCE In words said in isolation, /r/ occurs only in the initial and medial positions, in both cases immediately before vowels. Across word boundaries, it occurs only when a word ending in r or re is followed by another beginning with a vowel. (For details, see Pronunciation of the letter r discussed above.)

Semi-vowels

Semi-vowels are rapid vowel glides within the same syllable in much the same way as diphthongs are. The glide in the case of semi-vowels is from a less prominent to a more prominent sound in the same syllable. Therefore semivowels closely resemble rising diphthongs (see under /ie/). Nevertheless, they are treated as consonants because, in English, they function as consonants. This is illustrated by the fact that we use a, not an, before the words beginning with the semi-vowels /j, w/, e g a yacht, a yard; a wedding-hall, a wasp.

DESCRIPTION /w/ is articulated by the back of the tongue assuming the position for a back half-close to close vowel (depending upon the degree of openness of the following vowel) and then moving away immediately to the position of the following sound. The lips are rounded-more so when followed by a rounded vowel than otherwise. There is thus a much greater lip-rounding in words like woo, wool, and war than in words such as we, well, and wait. The soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal passage, and the vocal cords vibrate. /w/ is thus a voiced labio-velar semi-vowel.

SPELLING w west, awake, sweetwh which, where, whenu (after g) language, linguist u (after q) queen, quality, request

Also note /w/ in one /W n/, choir /'kwale}/, suite /swit/. A

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The letter w is silent in the word-final and certain medial positions as in smv, draw; awful, awkward (the first w).

Allophones of /w/

1) Devoiced /w/ After aspirated /t, k/, /w/ is devoiced [M.] as in twice, tweed: quite, queen. (/w/ does not occur after /p/.) The devoiced /w/ becomes a voiceless labio-velar fricative.

2) Partially devoiced /w/ After unaspirated /t, k/ and other voiceless consonants, /w/ is partially devoiced as in at once /et 'w ns/, squeeze /skwi:z/, thwart, sweet. A

Occurrence /w/w occurs only initially and medially in words.

DESCRIPTION /j/ is articulated by the front of the tongue assuming the position for a front half-close to close vowel (depending on the degree of openness of the following vowel) and then moving away immediately to the position of the following sound. The lips are generally spread or neutral, but may become rounded if a rounded vowel follows as in use, yacht, you. The soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal passage, and the vocal cords vibrate. Ij/ is thus a voiced palatal semi-vowel.

SPELLING Y yet, yeast, beyondI onion, bullion, spanieleau (pronounced /ju:/) beauty eu (pronounced /ju:/) feud ew (pronounced /ju:/) ewe, new, seweriew (pronounced /ju:/) view u (pronounced /ju:/) unit, refuse, hugeue (pronounced /ju:/) due, value, argueui (pronounced /ju:/) suit

(suit is also pronounced /su:t/ )

1) Voiceless palatal fricative /j/ /j/ is realized as a voiceless palatal fricative [c] when it is preceded by aspirated, /p, t, k/ and /h/, and followed by /u:, e/ as in pupil, tube, cute, huge; pure, cure.

2) Partially devoiced /j/ /j/ is partially devoiced [j] when it is preceded by unaspirated /p, t, k/ as in spurious, stew, skew. -

OCCURRENCE Like /w/, /j/ too does not occur word-finally. Also, it does not occur after the following:

(1) /tƒ, d , r/. The words chew, juice, rule are pronounced /tƒu;/, /d :s/, /ru;l/. 3 3U

(2) /I/ preceded by a consonant. For example, Mue /blu;/, flew /flu:/, glue /glu:/. But when /I/ is preceded by an accented vowel, /j/ regularly occurs as in failure /'fe lje"/, value 'vaelju;/. l

After /s, z, θ/, /j/ occurs in the speech of some people, but more and more people are now using the forms without /j/. Thus suit, presume, enthuse are pronounced both with /j/ and without /j/, the latter forms being commoner now.

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In RP, there are 24 consonants, which can be described in terms of (i) the presence or absence of voice, (ii) the place of articulation, and (iii) the manner of articulation. These are classified, according to the place of articulation, as bilabial: /p, b, m, w/,- labio-dental: /f, v/; dental: /θ, ? /; alveolar: /t, d, n, I, s, z/; post-alveolar: /r/; palato-alveolar: /itƒ, d , ƒ,3/ palatal: /j/; velar: /k, g, ŋ/; and glottal: /n/. According to the manner of 3

articulation, these are classified as plosives: /p, b, t, d, k, 9; affricates: /tƒ, d3/; nasals: /m, n, ŋ/; lateral: /l/; fricatives /f, v, θ, ? , s, z, ƒ, 3, h/; frictionless continuant: /r/; and semi-vowels: /w, j/. The plosives, affricates, and nasals require, for a short duration, a complete closure at some point in the mouth while the lateral requires a closure only in the centre of the oral passage. The fricatives are produced with a fair degree of narrowing in the mouth, while the frictionless continuant and semivowels are produced, like vowels, with a fair degree of opening in the mouth.

With regard to voice, the following constitute pairs of voiceless-voiced consonants: /p, b/, /t, d/, /k, 9/, /tƒ, d3/, /f, v/ /θ, ? /, /s, z/, and /ƒ, 3/; /h/ is voiceless and the rest are all voiced. The voicing of consonants is, however, subject to certain modifications. All voiced consonants, except /ŋ/, become devoiced, or partially devoiced, in certain specifiable contexts: the plosives /b, d, q/, the affricate Id3/, and the fricatives /v, 6, z, 3/ word-initially and finally; and /m, n, /, r, w, j/ after voiceless consonants that can precede them (i.e. /m/ after /s/; /n/ after /s, t/; /I/ after /p, k,ƒ,θ, s, ƒ/; /r/ after /p, t, k, θ/; /w/ after /t, k, a, s/; and /ŋ/ after /p, t, k, h/). (/ŋ/ does not occur in consonant clusters.) As against such devoicing of voiced consonants, the glottal fricative /hi becomes voiced when it occurs between vowels.

The voiceless plosives /p, t, k/ are aspirated when they occur initially in accented syllables. Most of the consonants have allophones. These may be arranged along the following parameters:

(1) Aspiration in /p, t, k/ (2) The nature of release affecting ail plosives (3) (partial) devoicing of all voiced consonants except IIJI, and the voicing of /h/ (4) Retractedness or 'advancedness' affecting /t, d, k, 9, m, n, I/ according to the place

of articulation of a neighbouring consonant (5) Syllabicity in /m, n, l/ (i e their becoming syllabic) (6) Vehirization of Ill, turning it into dark /I/ pre-consonantally and word finally (7) The lip position in the fricatives determined by an adjacent vowel.

The case of /r/ is rather peculiar: in addition to its commonest variety-the voiced post-alveolar frictionless continuant [i]-there also occur the voiced post-alveolar fricative [i] and the alveolar flap [r], both of which may become (partially) devoiced in certain contexts.

In regard to occurrence, with the exception of /f/, 3, h, r,j, w/, all consonants occur initially, medially, and finally in words. /f/, 31 do not occur word-initially (except in loan-words) and /h, r,j, w/ do not occur word-finally.

As in vowels, the relationship between sound and spelling is poor in consonants, although in most cases it is possible to name one or two letters that represent a given consonant most regularly. The pronunciations of suffixes -(e)s (as also of -' sand -s') and -(e)d are governed by regular rules. So too is the pronunciation of the medial ng. The letter r is silent except when followed by a vowel in the same word or the next word.

Consonant Cluster

Consonant Cluster means a sequence of two or more consonants used in the beginning as well as in the end of syllable. In other words, a sequence of two consonants will form a part of the same syllable. For example -

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the sequence of I b I and Ill. In the word 'Blue', there is a consonant cluster, because all three consonants in the starting of the syllable form a cluster.

Consonant cluster can be divided into 2 parts-

1) Initial consonant cluster 2) Final consonant cluster

1. Initial Consonant Cluster: In English if two or more consonants are used in initial or starting of syllable. It is known as initial consonant cluster. For ex. - school, scale, stream, screen etc.

2. Final Consonant Cluster: Two or three consonants used in the last of a syllable are known as Final consonant cluster. For ex. - tent, tenths, tempt, texts, etc.

VOWELS Those sounds whose articulation is the speech tract, the air stream freely passes through the mouth without any audible friction vowel sounds depend largely on very slight variation of tongue position. Those are generally voiced having no noise component. During the articulation of vowel sounds the lung air escapes through the mouth without any friction because there is neither any obstruction nor narrowing in the mouth. The vocal cords are normally vibrating so vowels are voiced. The acute articulation i.e. the tongue is raised in the direction of the passive articulator i.e., the palate. For this purpose the tongue is divided into 3 parts:

a. Front b. Central c. Back

The palates are hard palate, central palate and soft palate. In the formation of the vowels there is no contact of the tongue with the roof of the mouth & soft palate is in the raised position so that the nasal cavity is shut of and so the vowels are oral not nasalised.

Vowels can be divided into two parts :

11 Pure Vowel 2) Dipthongs

1) Pure Vowel (12) / i: / = seen /I/ = sit /e/ = set /æ/ = sat

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/A/ = cup /a:/ = calm /a/ = pot /c: / = all // = look /u:/ = boon /3:/ = girl /e/ = account

2) dipthongs (8) / el / = late /ci/ = boy /e/ = woo / a / = now / Ia / = dears /ea/ = pair /aI/ = buy / e/ = buy lual poor

Classification of Vowels

Vowels can be divided into 3 parts

1) Front Vowels: The vowels produced with front of the tongue raised in the direction of hard palate are called front vowels.

/i:/ = seat /i/ = sit /e/ = set /ae/ = sat

2) Back Vowels: These are produced when the lack of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate. In such a way that there is a sufficiently wide gap between them for the air to escape without friction.

/ u: / = fool

/u/ = full

/>: / = caught

/>/ = cot

/a: / = cart

Central Vowels: The vowels which are produced by raising the centre of the tongue in the direction of that part of the roof of the mouth where the hard and soft palate meet, are called central vowel. /e/ = about/e:/ = earth// = but

The quality of the vowels depends not only on the part of the tongue raised but also on the height of the

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tongue. Any part of the tongue can be raised only upto certain point in order to produce vowels. Similarly any part of the tongue can be lowered but only upto certain point in order to produce vowels. The vowels produced when any part of the tongue is raised to the height point or nearly so, are called close vowels and those produced with any part ofthe tongue near the lowest point are called open vowels.

The close open distinction does not enable us to distinguish between all the vowels. So we mark two positions of the tongue between close and open. The distance between these extreme positions are divided into three equal parts. The tongue is closer to the close position is called 1/2 close and when it is closer to open position it is called 1/2 open.

By combining these 2 criterias, the part of the tongue raised and height to which it is raised we can describe the vowel in English word 'seat' as front close and the vowel in 'sit' as front 1/2 close central vowels are between open and 1/2 open and between 1/2 close and 1/2 open.

Yet another principle for the classification of vowel is the position of lips. According to this, vowels are divided into 2 categories:

a) rounded b) unrounded

Rounded vowels are those during the articulation of which the lips are rounded. Unrounded vowels are those during the articulation of which the lips are spread.

Description of Vowels

1) /i:/ = Sheep It is a close front unrounded vowel. In forming this vowel the front of the tongue is raised to a height. The lips are spread and the tongue is tense.

2) / i / - Sit It is a short unrounded vowel between dose and 1/2 close. In forming it the general position of the tongue and lip is like / i: / but the tongue is in a lower end position. It is raised just above the 1/2 close position.

3) /c/ - deadThis vowel is a front unrounded vowel wit height of the tongue between 1/2 close and 1/2 open, and the lips in a spread or neutral position.

4) /ae/ - Sat/bagThis vowel is intermediate between 1/2 open and open front unrounded. To form it, the tongue below the 1/2 open position. !he lips are in a spread or neutral position. The s0ft palate is,mised and the vocal codes are vibrating.

5) /a:/-CardIt is a long vowel found with the mouth wide open nearer to back then front, with lips in a neutral position informing this vowel. The tip of the tongue is often restracted from the lower teeth. The jaws are separated.

6) />/- Caught

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This vowel is intermediate between open and 1/2 open, backround. It is produced by raising the back of the tongue to opposition between half open and half close and with medium lip rounding.

7) / > / - Cot This is an almost open, short back vowel with slight rounding of lips and the tongue held in the lowest & most backward position. The tip of the tongue is in most cases, retracted from the lower teeth and the lip rounding is of the open type.

8) /u/ - Full This vowel is between close and 1/2 close back with fairly close lip rounding the tongue is lay is back is raised to a position between close and 1/2 close.

9) /u:/ - Fool This vowel is almost close, back end rounde. In pronouncing it tongue and lips are closely rounded.

10) /A/ - But It is a 1/2 open, central unrounded vowel. This vowel does not occur in the final position in a word. It is formed with jaw quite separate and lips neutrally open and the centre of the tongue raised just above the fully open position.

11) / e: / - Earth The vowel is between 1/2 close and 1/2 open central unrounded. It is a long vowel which occurs only in acented syllables. In pronouncing it the centre of the tongue is raised between 1/2 close to 1/2 open and the lips are neutrally spread.

12) /e:/-AboutThis vowel is between 1/2 close and 1/2 open, central and unrounded. It is a central vowel with a neutral lip position in non-final position. It involves the raising of the tongue between 1/2, close and 1/2 open but in the final position we pronounce the vowel in the 1/2 open central position.

ORGANS OF SPEECH The air which flows out from our mouth is modified into speak sound by the action of certain organs of our body. These organs are called organs of speech.

Speech Mechanism and Organs of Speech The linguistic message conveyed to the organs of speech by the nervous system which activates the lungs, Larynx and Cavities, in such a way that they perform a series of moment to produce sounds for the production of speech and we need an air stream mechanism.

We, as human being posess the ability to produce sounds by using in certain body mechanism. This mechanism has other functions also to perform such as breathing, smelling, swallowing and these are the primal functions of the organs of speech.

Our body from head to feet is needed for the production of spoken language. There are three groups of bodily organs which are used to produce sounds. One group lies in trunk, one in the throat and one in the head. These are usually known as

a) Respiratory system

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b) Phonatory system

c) Articulatory system

1) Respiratory System: This system consists the lungs, bronchites tubes, trachea or a wind pipe. The most usual source of energy for our vocal activity is provided by an air extinct expelled from the lungs. There are some languages which have sounds not requiring'\aggressive lung air for their articulation but all the essential sounds of English need pulmonic air for their production. Generally, all spoken sounds are made by an aggressive pulmonic air stream or outgoing breath.

2) Phonatory System: It is found by laynx or voice box, the front part of which can be seen in adult males as an Adam's apple. The larynx contains the vocal cords all known as vocal folds. The opening between the vocal cords is known as Glottis.

3) Articulatory System: It consists the lips, nose and mouth and its content including specially the teeth and tongue. Although the ear is not the part of the speech producing mechanism but we must include them among the vocal organs because speech is not just produced but it also has to be received and the main organ of the reception is the ear.

Pharyngeal Cavity It is extended from the top of Larynx, the position of the tongue in the mouth, whether it is advanced or retracted ill effect the size of Pharyngeal Cavity. The modification in the shape of this cavity should be included in the description of a vowel. It is a characteristic of some kind of English pronounciation. That certain vowels are articulated with a straight pharyngeal contraction. A contraction may be betweem lower part of the tongue and the an of Pharynx. So that friction with or without voice is produced.

Soft Palate

The roof of the mouth has three parts. The hard convex surface just behind the upper front teeth is called the alveolar or teeth ridge. The hard concave surface behind it is called the hard palate and soft palate is at the back with the alvedar at its end. The soft palate also called the volume can be moved upto block the passes into the nose. The air from the lung that bas to come out through the mouth produces the sound and the sound produced in this way is called oral sound. All English sounds except m/m/h are oral sounds. If the soft palate is lowered and the passage through the mouth is closed, the air from the lungs comes out from the nose only. The sound produced in this manner is called Nasal sound.

For e.g. : /m/n/ŋ

Tongue It can assume a large no. of different positions for the articulation of different vowels and consonant sounds. For the purpose of description it can be divided into 4 parts:

1. The tip or point

2. The blade which is just behind this point

3. The front which lies below the hard palate

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4. The back which lies below the soft palate Lips

These are the moveable parts of speech mechanism. The lips whenever the Nasal passes shut off continue the final orifice (The opening of tube) of mouth cavity. The shape which they assume will : affect very considerable the shape of the throatle cavity. They may be held apart in various ways when they are held tightly shut, the form of a complete obstruction to the air stream which may either be movementarely prevented from escaping at all as in the initial sound of pat, bat or may be the nose by the lowering of the soft palate. As in the initial sound of Hat. If the lips are held apart the position they assume can be summarised uncler 6 headings:

1. Held sufficiently far apart so that no friction is heard, yet in a spread position as in the vowel of "See". 2. Held in a national position i.e., a relaxed position with a medium lowering of lower jaw as in the

vowel of "Get". 3. Held in an open position i.e., a position in which lips are held relatively wide apart without any mark

rounding as in the vowel in "Car, Part". 4. Held in a close rounded position as in the vowel of "Do". 5. Held in an open rounded position as in the vowel of "Got".

Larynx, Glottis

It is used for the production of the sounds. The pulmonic air stream on its way into or out from the lungs has to pass through the wind pipe or trachea. At the top which is Larynx inside of the larynx from back to from are vocal cords to folds of ligament and elastic tissues which may be brought together or parted. The opening between the vocal cords by their action bring about a no of different stages of the Glottis. It is enough at this point to distinguish four stages of Glottis are as follows:

1) Open Glottis

2) Glottis in vibration

3) Closed Glottis

4) Narrowed Glottis

Open Glottis: When we say that the Glottis is open it means that the vocal cords are drawn wide apart so that an air stream can pass through them quite freely. This is the state of Glottis for normal breathing segment of speech which is produced with the Glottis is said to be voiceless. In English word like Pen, ten, kit, chit, thin, sheet, seat, heat. For ego /P/, /t/, /K/, /ts/, /F/, /0/, /S/, ISI, /hi etc.

I consonant out of 24 are voiceless. These consonant

Vocal cords kept closely together for the production of voiced sound.

Glottis in Vibration: The Glottis may be in vibration so that the vocal cords are alternately brought into contact and blown apart by the force of the pumonic air stream. Though the Glottis, the vocal cords open and close regularly many times in a second. This opening and closing action is repeated between 100 and one thirty in a second in a male voice and between 200 or 300 and 25 times in a women voice.

Closed Glottis The Glottis may be entirely closed so that the vocal cords are together with sufficient firmness to prevent the

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air stream from forcing them apart. The Glottis assumes this position for cough, hi cups and for the glottel. Narrow Glottis The Glottis may be well narrowed so that the vocal cords are brought together but not so closed that they are set in the vibration. The air stream is embedded by this narrowing as passes through the glottis. This cuts down the force of air stream and produces a soft hissing noise called whisper. Biologically, the vocal cords act as a valve, which is able to prevent the entry in the trachea in the lungs. The air stream having passed through the Larynx is now subjected to further no dification. According to shape assumed by the upper cavities of mouth and according to weather the nasal cavities are brought into use or not.

DIPHTHONGS: CONSTANT CLUSTER In phonetics, the soul of diphthongs is introducing as most prominent part, which makes a vital image to understand the process of pronunciation. We should remember that a vowel which remains constant and does not glide is called as pure vowel and one of the most common pronunciation mistakes that result in a leanner of English having a foreign accent is the production of pure vowel where a diphthong should be pronounced. No doubts diphthongs are like the long vowels described above. The diphthongs is that the first part is much longer and stronger than the second part for example3, most of the diphthongs or consists of the vowel "a" and only in about the last quarter of the diphthong does the glide to "I" become noticeable.

DIPHTHONG

Diphthongs (schwa) vowel, shows symbols indicate.

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(I) /e/ diphthong

/ei/ as 'ay' in 'day'

To pronounce the diphthong sound leII, you see that:

a) the lips are spread;

b) the lower jaw is in slight closing movement;

c) the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate to a position just below half close;

d) the front of the tongue moves in the direction of the sound III which is a centralised front vowel just above the half-close position; and

e) the starting point is and the ending point is /I/.

The sound becomes less loud as the glide progresses. It occurs in the initial, medial and final position of the word.

Phonetic Spelling that represents Examples Phonetic Symbol the sound or words transcription

/ei/ (i) a late /lelt/

(ii) ai rain /rem/

(iii) ay gay /gei/

(iv) ei eight /eit/

(v) ey they /er/

(vi) au guage /gerd3)

(vii) ao goal /d3eil/

(ii) /eI diphthong

/e/ as 'o' in 'nose' and 'go'

To pronounce the diphthong sound /e/, you see that L;

I. the lips are spread;

II. the lower jaw is in slight closing movement;

III. the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate to a position just below half

close;

IV. the front of the tongue moves in the direction of the sound /l/ which is a centralised front

vowel just above the half-close position; and

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V. the starting point is and the ending point is //. The sound becomes less loud as the glide

progresses. It occurs in the initial, medially and final position of the word.


/e/ (i) o no /ne/

(ii) oa road /red/

(iii) oe toe /te/

(iv) ou soul /sel/

(v) ow know /ne/

(vi) oo broach /bretƒ)

(vii) au mauve /mev/

(viii) ew sew /se/

(ix) eau beau /be/

(iii) /ai/ (Diphthong)

/al/ as 'y' in 'cry'

To pronounce the diphthong sound /ai/, you see that:

i) to lips are neutral at first and then are loosely spread;

ii) the glide, i.e., the movement beings from the front open position to just above half-close

position of /I/.

The sound becomes less loud as the glide progresses.

It occurs initially, medially and finally in a word.


(i) i time

(ii) Y my

(iii) igh high

(iv) eigh height

(v) ie die

(vi) ye dye

(vii) ais aisle

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(viii) eye eye

(ix) uy buy

(x) ei eider

(iv) /a/ (Dophtong)

/a/ as 'ou' in 'mouth'

To pronounce the diphthong sound /au/, you see that:

1. the lips change from a neutral open to a weakly rounded position;

2. the glide begins at the back open position and moves in the direction of a centralized

back above the half closed position of /u/

it occurs initially, medially and finally in a word.


/a/ (i) ou house /has/

(ii) ow town /tan/

(v) /ci/ (Diphthong)

/ci/ as 'oi' in 'void' and 'noise'

To pronounce the diphthong sound /ci/ you see that:

i) the lips are slightly rounded at the beginning and are loosely spread at the end;

ii) the tongue movement extends from back to centralised front; and

iii) the glide begins at a point between the back open and half-open position and

moves in the direction of /i/, i.e. just above the half-close position.

The sound becomes less loud as the glide progresses.



/ci/ (i) oi noise /nciz/

(ii) oy boy /bci/

(iii) uoy buoy /bci/

(vi) /ee/ (CEntring Diphthong)

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/ee/ as /ai/ in 'hair' and 'chair'

To pronounce the diphthong leal, you see that:

i) the lips are neutrally open throughout;

ii) the glide of /ee/ begins in the half-open position and moves in the direction of the more open

between half-close and half-open.

The sound becomes less loud and faint as the glide progresses.



/ee/ (i) are care /kee/

(ii) air pair /pee/

(iii) ear bear /bee/

(vi) ere there /ee/

(vii) eir heir /ee/

(viii) ar scarce /'skees/

(vii) /ie/ (Centering Diphthong)/ie/ as 'ea' in 'near'

To pronounce the diphthong sound !t';)/, you see that:

i) the lips are neutral throughout with a slight movement from spread to open; and

ii) the glide begins with a tongue position of centralised front half-close position and moves in

the direction of a central half-close and half-open position.

The sound becomes less loud and faint as the glide progresses. It occurs initially, medially and finally in a

word.


/ie/ (i) eer beer /bie/

(ii) ear tear /tie/

(iii) ere here /hie/

(iv) eir weird /wied/

(v) ier fierce /fies/

(vi) ir fakir /feikie/

(vii) ei korein /ke 'rien/

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(viii) ea really /rieli/

(ix) /e/ Examples of words

/e/ as 'oo' in 'poor;

To pronounce the diphthong sound /e/, you see that:

i)the lips are weakly rounded at the beginning of the glide and later it becomes neutrally spread;

ii) the tongue position which is above the half-close position moves between half-close and

half-open.

The sound becomes less loud and faint as the glid progresses. It does not occur initially in a word. Phonetic Spelling that represents Examples Phonetic Symbol the sound or words transcription

/e/ (i) oor poor /po/

(ii) our tour /te/

(iii) ewe jewel /d3el/

(iv) ua truant /'trent/

TRIPHONES (Diphthongs + Vowel)

A triphone represents three vowel sounds. They are the vowel sequences of diphthongs followed by /e/ or /I/

or //. There need not be three vowel letters in the word. Triphones are related to sounds only. The most

common sequences are formed by adding /e/ to a diphthoong, especially to /ai/ and /a/. The less common

sequences are /ei/, and /a/ and /c/e/. They should be pronounced with the normal diphthong smoothly

followed by /e/. The added /1/ and // to a diphthong need not be weakened at all. The time required to

pronounce the triphones is equal to the time required for both one long and one short vowel. The triphones

are as follows:

Triphone Spelling that represents Examples Phonetic In Symbol the sound or words transcription

/aie/ (i) yre tyre /,taie/

(ii) ie quiet /,kwait/

(iii) uyer buyer /,baie/

(iv) yer flyer /'flale/

(v) ire fire /'faie/

(vi) iro Iron /'alen/

(vii) ia liable /'lal'ebl/

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(viii) io riot /'raia/

(ix) oir choir /,kwaIe/

/cie/ (i) oya royal /'rciel/

(ii) awyer lawyers /'lcie3/

(iii) oyer employer /Im'pleie/

/aa/ (i) our ours /'aez/

(ii) ower flower /'flae/

(iii) owe towel /,tael/

(iv) owar coward /'kaed/

/ela/ (i) eyer greyer /'greia/

(ii) ayer player /'pleie/

(iii) aya betrayal /bI'trelel/

/ee1 ower grower /,graa/

/aia/ io biography /bai'agreit/' ografI/

/eia/ ao chaos /kieas/

/aa/ oo cooperate /ka' apereiy apereit op:lrert/

/ai/ owi allowing /e'laiŋ/

/ai/ oi going /gaiŋ/

/ciiL/ oyee employee /, emplol' i:/

The following are the triphones with semi-vowel diphongs :

/je/ (i) ewer fewer /,fje/

(ii) uou ingenuous /in'dzenjes/

(iii) u urns /jeres/

(iv) ure pure /pje/

/ju:ii/ (i) ewa sewage /,sju:idz/

(ii) ui annuity /e'nju:ti/

/jeI/ ua attenuate /e' tenjert/

We find some rare words with the triphones of semi-vowel dipthongs such as – aje/, /eje/, /cje/, /awe/ and

/ewe/.

THE SYLLABLE

Many attempts have been made in recent times to define the term 'syllable', but no agreed definition is yet

available. Although it is very difficult to define the syllable, it is not so to identify syllables in a given word.

And for our purpose here, we do not need to do more than be able to identify them and divide words into

syllables.

Division of Words into Syllables: A word consists of one or more than one syllable. In the case of most

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words, it should be comparatively easy to point out how many syllables a given word has. For example, it is

not difficult to identify the syllables in the English words rat, redeem, humanist, degenrate, electricity, and

characterization, and say that they contain one, two, three, four, five and six syllables, respectively. The

pronunciations of these words in phonemic transcription are: raet/, /ri-dl:m/, /hju:-memist/, /di-d3e-n-reit/,

/i-lek-tri-Si-ti/, /kae-rik rai-zei-ƒen. It will be clear from these words (the syllable division is marked with a

hyphen in each case) that the number of syllables in each corresponds to the number of vowel sounds (i.e.

vowel phonemes) it contains. (It must be remembered here that the digraph - i.e. a sequence of two letters -

e.g. el in the words degenerate and characterization, represents a single vowel phoneme.) This rough and

ready 'rule' of dividing words into syllables will apply to most words in English.

Another not-so-easy way of identifying syllables in a word could be to count the distinguishable postures

(or movements) of a set of speech organs, assumed in the articulation of a given word. To each of these

postures, in most cases, would correspond a syllable. If we listen to the pronunciations of the six words

given above, or pronounce them ourselves, carefully and properly, we shall notice that the articulatory

organs assume as many distinguishable postures as there are syllables in each of these words. Thus, either

way, it is easy to determine the number of syllables in a word.

However, it may be sometimes difficult to decide where to draw the syllable boundary. The difficulty is

generally of two kinds: The first is to do with the English spelling, and the second with the consonant

clusters. In respect of spelling, there are many words in English having (i) double letters, and (ii) the letter x,

in their spelling. In words containing double letters, ifthe syllable boundary is to be marked where the

double letters occur, it is marked by putting a hyphen between the double letters:

ac-ccount, ag-grieve, com-mand

a-fect, aI-lot, as-sume

As, in each of these words, the two letters stand for a single sound, the hyphen between them obviously does

not reflect the true division. The case with words having x in their spelling is however just the reverse in that

the single letter x in such words stands for two sounds. For instance, in the words exit, exempt, and luxury,

the letter x represents the sounds /ks/, /gz/, and /k/, respectively. If we go by the spelling, it will not be

possible to decide whether to divide these words as ex-it, ex-empt, and lux-u-ry, or as e-xit, e-xempt, and lu-

xu-ry. Now, if we write down both these kinds of words (i.e. words having double letters and x in their

spelling) in phonemic transcription, there will be no difficulty at all in dividing them into syllables. The

phonemic transcription of these two sets of words with their syllable division marked will be:

1) /e-kant/, /e-griv/, /ke-ma:nd/, /e-fekt/, /e-lat/. /e-sju:m/: and

2) /ek-sit/, /ig-zempt/. /iak-ƒe-ri/

It is clear from the transcription that the difficulty posed by these two kinds of words is more apparent than

real. In their phonemic transcription, they easily lend themselves to syllable division. It would therefore be

advisable to identify syllables in such words, and even in other words, after they have been reduced to their

phonemic transcription.

The second difficulty in respect of syllable division is to do with words containing consonant clusters. Let

us, in this connection, consider the English words astray /estrei/, estrange istrange/istreind3/, escape

/lskerp/, and extra /ekstra/. The question arises whether to syllabify these words as /e-strei/, /i-streind3/, /i-

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skerp/, and /ek-stre/, or as /es-trel/, /is-treindz/, /Is-keip/, and /eks-tre/. There is no fixed rule regarding this

apart from the constraint that the division should not violate any rules of the phonology of the language.

English admits of certain consonant clusters. and does not admit of certain others, in the beginning and the

end of its syllables. Both the above divisions are possible because English allows of /sk-/, /str-/, and /tr-/ in

the beginning of its syllables, and /-ks/ in the end. We may break up the word astray /estrel/ even into /est-

rer/ because the cluster I-st! can occur in the final position of an English word. For the same reason, the

remaining three words, namely, estrange, escape and extra, can be divided in more than two ways:

estrange /istreind3/:/i-streind3/ or /is-treind3/ or /ist-remd3/ escape /iskclp/:/i-skerp/ or /is-kelp/ or /isk-eip/ extra /ekstre/:/ek-stre/ or /eks-tre/ or /ckst-re/

Thus, while dividing English words containing consonant clusters into their constituent syllables, what we

should bear in mind is that the rules of English phonology relating to the occurrence of these clusters are not

violated.

The Structure of the Syllable: Being the next higher unit than the speech sound (i.e. the phoneme), the

syllable is made up of one or more than one speech sound. Speech sounds are either vowels or consonants.

The vowel element is essential to the structure of a syllable; that is a syllable is not possible without the

vowel element. Now, the vowel element being obligatory, if a syllable consists of only one sound, the sound

will be a vowel. For example, the English syllables oh /e/, eh /ei/. and a /ei/ consist of one vowel each. And if

a syllable consists of more than one sound, one of them must be a vowel and the remaining one(s)

consonant(s), as in the syllables go /ge/, on /on/, and sit. The vowel obviously is the obligatory element in a

syllable and is called its nucleus. The consonant, on the other hand, occupies a marginal place and is

optional, as is clear from the above examples. The consonant which begins a syllable is called the releasing

consonant, and that which occurs at the end of a syllable is called the arresting consonant. In the syllable bad

/bred/, for instance, /h/ is the releasing consonant and /d/ the arresting consonant. Now, if we represent the

vowel in this syllable by the syllable V and the consonant by the symbol C, the syllable bad /bred/, will be

represented by C V C, in which V is the nuclear element, and C's are the marginal elements.

Syllabic Consonants: In the foregoing account, we have seen that the vowel is the nucleus of a syllable, and

the consonant occupies a marginal place in its structure. It might be argued that this is not always the case.

There are syllables, of course, in which the nuclear place is occupied by certain consonants, but then, these

consonants function like vowels. To give an example, let us look at the English words button /bAtn/, bottle

/boti/, and rhythm /riom/. It is generally agreed that each of these words has two syllables, and not one. Their

syllable division is shown as /bA-tn/, /bo-tl/, and /ri? m/. in spite of the fact that the second syllable in each

word has apparently no vowel. Here /-tn/, /-tI/, and /? m/ constitute independents syllables by themselves,

without any intervening vowel. In such cases, the sounds /n/, /i/, and Iml are said to form the nucleus, and are

called syllabic consonants (i.e. they represent the V element in the syllable structure). The explanation

generally given is that the nasal sounds [m] and [n] and the lateral sound [1] have the inherent sonority (i.e.

their loudness relative to other consonant sounds) comparable to that of some vowels, and can therefore, like

vowels, combine with consonants to form syllables. There are several other words of this kind and English in

which /m/, /n/, and /I/ are syllabic. Some examples are:

prism /pri-zm/

sudden /sA-dn/

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mutton /mA-tn/

brittle /bri-tl/

subtle /sA-tl/

When /m/, /n/ and /1/ function as syllabic consonants, they are generally marked, in a slightly narrower

transcription, with the diacritic [,] as in [prizm], [sAdn] and [briti].

Types of the Syllable: With the help of the symbols V and C, representing the vowel and the consonant

element, respectively, we can analyse the structure of different kinds of syllable. Analysed below are the

types of syllable that we have in English.

Type I Word V (Structure in terms of C and V)

I /al/ a /e/ or /el/ah /a:/ heir /ee/

Type 2 Word VCan /en/ or /aen/ ass /aes/ all /c:1/ ice /als/

Type 3 Word CVno /ne/law /ic:/ saw /sc: / sea /si:/

Type 4 Word CVCcan /kaen/l boss /bas/girl /3:1let /let:

Type 5 Word CCVplay /plei/ crow /kre/slay /slei/cry /krai/

Type 6 Word CCCVstraw /strc:/spray /sprei/spree /spri:/screw /skru:/

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Type7 Word CCCVCstream /stri:m/street /stro:t/spruce /spru:s/sprawl /sprc:l/

Type 8 Word CCCVCC /strange stremd3/strand /strrend/sprained /spremd/screamed /skri:md/

Type 9 Word CCCVCCCstrands /strrendz/strengths /streŋθs/

Type 10 Word VCCCCPre-empts /-emptsj

(second syllable)

Type 11 Word CVCCCCtempts /tempts/texts /teksts/

Type 12 Word CCVCCCC twelfths /twelfθs/

Type 13 Word CCVCCC stunts /stAnts/brands /brrendz/trunks /trA1Jks/stands /strendz/

Type 14 Word CCVCC brats /brrets/crates /krelts/spans /sprenz/snacks /snreks/

Type 15 Word CVCC tent /tent/once /WAns/rains /remz/

Type 16 Word VCC

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and /rend/ask /o:.sk/ilk /Ilk/earls /3:lz/

A careful look at these sixteen types of English syllable will show that at the most three consonants can occur in the beginning of a syllable and four in the end. It will also be clear that the V element is obligatory and the· C element optional. Using parentheses to indicate the optional elements, we can deduce (from the above types) the structure of a typical English syllable, which is of the kind (CCC) V (CCCC) or C VC ' This 0-3 0-4

means that in an English syllable there can be zero to three consonants in the beginning and zero to four in the end.

Consonant Clusters: We have seen that English pennits up to three consonants to begin a syllable and up to four to end it. Such sequences of consonants at the beginning or the end of a syllable, occurring together, are called consonant clusters. For example, /-nd/ in the word send /send/ is a consonant cluster because it fonns part of the same syllable, whereas /-mb-/ in the word number /nAm-be/ is not a cluster since /-m/ and /b-/ belong to two different syllables: I-ml is the arresting consonant of the first syllable, and /b-/ the releasing consonant of the second. Now, consonants, like /m/ and /b/, which occur together in a word but fonn part of two different syllables, are called abutting consonants.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.l. Discuss the meaning of Phonetics. Find out how a simple coordination of Phonetics can make us assured to understand the depth of Linguistics.

Q.2. The initial p in the word prepare (which is accented on the second syllable) is aspirated?

Q.3. Give a list of the Phonetic symbols for the English consonants nd vowels as suggested by the International Phonetic Association (IPA) alongwith two examples for each sound.

Q.4. What are the new methods of English speech? Q.5. Discuss the different organs of speech.

Q.6. Find out the meaning of Diphthong.

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UNIT - II

STRESS AND INTONATION

WORD STRESS, SENTENCE STRESS, PAUSE

In phonetics stress has been mentioned several times but what are the characteristics of stressed syllables that enable us to identify them? First it is important to understand that there are two major different ways of approaching this question. One is to consider what the speaker does in producing stressed syllables and the other is to consider what characteristics of sound make a syllable seem to a listener to be stressed. In other words we can study from the point of view of production and of perception; the two are obviously closely related, but are not identical.

In the production of stress it is generally believed to depend on the speaker using more muscular energy than is used for unstressed syllables. Now the question is here can one select the correct syllable or syllables to stress in an English word? As is well known, English is not one of those languages where word stress can be decided simply in relation to the syllables of the word, as can be done in "French" (where the last syllable is usually stressed) but many writers have said that English word stress is so difficult to predict that it is best to treat stress placement as a property of the individual word to be learned when the word itself is learned. When English speakers come across an unfamiliar word they can pronounce it with the correct stress; in principle. it should be possible to discover what it is that the English speaker knows and to \\rite it in the form of rules.

Elements of Speaking (i) (Short Vowel)

/A/ as 'u' in 'run' and 'sun

To pronounce the sound / A/, you see that : i) the lips are neutrally open; i) the jaws are separated; ii) the centre of the tongue is raised just above the fully open position; and iv) no contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars.

It is a central unrounded vowel between open and half-open position. It occurs initially and medially and it does not occur finally in a word.

Phonetic Spelling that represents Examples Phonetic In Symbol the sound or words transcription

/A/ (i) o come /kam/

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(ii) u tub /tAb/(iii) ou country /'kAntri/(iv) oo blood /blAd/(v) oe does /dAz/

(ii) /a:/ (Long Vowel)/a:/ as 'a' in 'arm' and 'fast'

To pronounce the sound /a:/ you see that; 1) the lips are neutrally open without rounding or spreading; 2) the jaws are considerably separated; 3) the back of the tongue is in the fully open position; and 4) no contact is made between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars. It is a back open

surrounded long vowel. It occurs initially, medially and finally in a word.

Phonetic Spelling that represents Examples Phonetic In Symbol the sound or words transcription

/a:/ (i) a father /fa:? e(r)/ (ii) ar car /ka:(r)/(iii) al calm /ka:m/(iv) au aunt /a:nt/(v) er clerk /kl:k/(vi) ear heart /ha:t/

(iii) /i/ (Short Vowel)/i/ as 'I' in 'sit'

To pronounce the sound /II you see that: i) The lips are loosely spread; ii) the front part of the tongue nearer the center is raised in the direction of the hard palate; iii) the tongue is lax, with the side rim making a slight contact with the upper molars.

It is a front surrounded short vowel between close and half-close position. It occurs initially, medially and finally in a word.

Phonetic Spelling that represents Examples Phonetic Symbol the sound of words transcription

/i/ (i) i, it, ink /it/ iŋk/ (ii) y city /siti/ (Hi) a village /vilid3/ (iv) o women /wiimm/ (v) e economy /I'konemi/ (vi) u minute /minit/ (vii) ui building /bildiŋ/

(iv) /i:1 Long Vowel

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/i:/ as 'ee' in 'tree' and 'see' To pronounce the sound /h/ you see that:

1. the lips are spread; 2. the front part of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate; 3. the tongue is tense, with the side rims making firm contact with the upper molars.

It is a front close surrounded long vowel. It occurs initially, medially and finally in a word.


/i:/ (i) ee green /gri:n/(ii) e these /? i:z/(iii) ea each /i:tƒ/(iv) ei receive /ri'si:v/(v) eo people /'pi'pl/(vi) ey key /ki:/(vii) i police /pe'li:s/(viii) ie field /fi:ld/(x) uay quay /ki:/

(v) // Short Vowel// as 'u' in 'put'

To pronounce the sound // , you see that: 1. the lips are closely but loosely rounded by slightly pushing forward; 2. the back of the tongue nearer the center is raised in the direction of the hard palate; 3. the tongue is lax, no firm contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars.

It is a centralized back rounded vowel between close and half-close position. It does not occur initially. It occurs medially. In the final position, it occurs only in the weak forms like ''to, do, you, etc."


// (i) u put /pt/(ii) o wolf /plf/(iii) oo book /bk/(iv) ou should /ƒd/

(vi) /u:/ long Vowel /u: as 'oo' 'moon'

To pronounce the sound /u:/, you see that: 1. the lips are closely rounded and protruded forward; 2. the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate; 3. the articulation of the sound is tense though no firm contact is made between the tongue and the

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upper molars.

It is a back close rounded long vowel. It occurs initially, medially and finally in a word.


/u:/ (i) 00 ooze /u:z/(ii) 0 lose /lu:z/(iii) ou group /gru:p/(iv) u june /d3u:n/(v) ew chew /tƒu:/(vi) ue blue /blue:/(vii) ui juice /dzuis/(viii) oe shoe /ƒu:/

(vii) /e/ (Short Vowel)/e/ as 'e' in 'bed'

To pronounce the sound /e/, you see that;

i) the lips are loosely spread and are slightly wider; ii) the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate; ill) the tongue may have tension and the side rims make a light contact with the upper molars.

It is a front unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open position. It occurs initially and medially. It does not occur finally in a word.


/e/e (i) e pen /pen(ii) ea head /hed/(iii) a many /'meni/(iv) ai said /sed/(v) ay says /sez/(vi) u bury /beri/

(viii) /ae/) (Short Vowel) /ae/ as 'a' in 'apple', and 'man'

To pronounce the sound /ae/ , you see that : i) the lips are neutrally open; ii) the mouth is considerably open; iii) the front of the tongue is raised just below the half-open position, with side rims making a very slight

contact with the back upper molars.

It is a front unrounded vowel between open and half-open. It occurs initially and medially and does not occur

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finally in a word.


/ae/ (i) a ass /aes/(ii) ai plait /plaet/

(ix) /a/ (Short Vowel)/a/ as 'a' in 'hot' and 'clock'To pronounce the sound /a/ , you see that:

1. the lips are rounded with slightly opening; 2. the jaws are wide open; 3. the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate and it is in the fully open position;

and 4. no contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars.

It is a back, open, rounded vowel. It occurs initially and medially and it does not occur finally.


/a/ (i) a was /waz/(ii) o odd /ad/(iii) au because /bi'kaz/(iv) ou cough /kaf/(v) ow knowledge /'nalid3/(vi) ach yacht /jat/

(x) /c:/ (Long Vowel)/c:/ as 'a' in 'ball and 'draw'

To pronounce the sound /0:/, you see that: 1. the lips are rounded medium; 2. the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate to a height between half-close and

halfopen; and 3. no contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars.

It is a back rounded vowel between half-close and half-open. It occurs initially, medially and finally in a word.


/c:/ (i) a all /c:l/ (ii) aw sam /sc:/

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(iii) au daughter /dc:te(r)/(iv) oa broad /brc:d/ (v) ou bought /bc:t/ (vi) or cord /kc:d/(vii) ore before /bi'fc(r)/(viii) oor door /dc(r)/ (ix) oar board /bc:d/(x) our court /kc:t/

(xi) /3:/ ,(Long Vowel)

/3:/ as 'ir' in 'girl' and 'bird'

To pronounce the sound /3:/, you see that: 1. the lips are neutrally spread; 2. the centre of the tongue is raised in the direction of the roof of the mouth between half-close

and half. open; and 3. no firm contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars.

It is a central unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open. It occurs initially, medially and finally in a word


/3:/ (i) ir first /f3:st/(ii) er serve /s3:v/(ii) err err /3:/(iv) ear earth /3:θ/(v) ur turn /t3:n/(vi) urr purr /p3:/(vii) our journey /dz3:ni/(viii) yr myrtle /'m3:tl/

(xii) /e/ Short Vowel

/e/ as 'a' in 'ago'

To pronounce the sound hi you see that: a. the lips are neutral; b. the centre of the tongue is raised to a position between half-close and half-open.

It is a central unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open. It has a very high frequency of occurrence in unaccented syllables. This sound is almost not clearly audible. It occurs initially, medially and finally in a word.


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/e/ (i) a again /e'gen/(ii) i possible /'pasebl/(iii) e gentlemen /'dzentlmen/(iv) o oblige /e'blaidz/(v) u possum /pasem/(vi) ar particular /pe'tikjule(r)/(vii) er mother /ma? e®/(viii) or doctor /dckte/r)/(ix) au famous /'fimes/(x) our colour /'kAle(r)/(xi) ure figure /'fige(r)/

INTONATION OR PITCH

In linguistics, there are two main elements of linguistic prorody intonation and stress.

When the vocal codes are loosely together, they vibrate and the vibration produces a musi9al note which is called Voice. The rate at which the vocal cord vibrates is called the frequency of vibration, and this vibration determines the pitch of voice. The more rapidly vocal cordes vibrate, the higher will be the pitch. When we hear someone speaking, we realize that he/she does not always be on the same note. We notice constant variation in the level at which his/her voice is pitched. Sometimes the pitch rises high and 'sometimes it falls. At other times it remains constant. So, it can be said that "the pattern of variation of pitch of voice is known as intonation.

A syllable on which a pitch change takes place is usually marked with one of the following change:

1. High Fall: The pitch falls from very high to low. [\]

2. Low Fall: The pitch from mid to very low. [\]

3. High Rise: The pitch rises from very low to very high. [I]

4. Low Rise: The pitch rises from low to medium. [I]

5. Fall Rise: The pitch falls from medium to low and then again rises to medium. [V]

6. Rise Fall: The pitch rises from low to medium and then again falls to low. [1\]

Intonation is part and parcel of suprasegmental phonology of English. What is intonation and where we can get an accurate order of intonation is always in doubt. But in the definition of intonation we have to accept the importance of "Pitch", which is concerned to voice. We should observe that only in very unusual situations do we speak with fixed, unvarying\ pitch and when we speak normally the pitch of our voice is constantly changing. One of the most important tasks in analysing intonation is to listen to the speaker's pitch and recognise what it is doing. This is not an easy thing to do, and it seems to be a quite different skill from that acquired in studying segmental phonetics. We describe pitch in term of:

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We should remember that "high pitch" and "low pitch" both are based upon arbitrary choice. It would be perfectly reasonable to think of pitch as ranging instead from light to heavy. Similarly, if we take two speakers at random we will almost certainly find that one speaker typically speaks with lower pitch than the other, the difference between the two speakers is not linguistically significant because their habitual pitch level is determined by their physical structure, but an individual speaker does not have control over his or her own pitch and may choose to speak with a higher than normal pitch this is something which is potentially oflinguistic significance. Normally few people are used to find differences between pitch and tone, but tones or pitch differences used for other purposes. English is one of the language that do not use tone in this way, such language are sometimes called intonation languages. In tone specially languages linked to the phonological unit that we call the syllable. Here are some examples:

Diphthong is a union of two vowel sounds in one syllable. It is a smooth glide or movement from one vowel position to another, the whole glide acting like one of the long, single vowels. The quality of the sound changes between the beginning and the end. The sound becomes less loud as the glid progresses.

Diphthong is considered to be one phoneme. It occupies one syllable though it is represented by two symbols of vowels in transcription. It takes the same time of long vowel syllable in utterance. It is mixture of the sound by starting with one vowel sound and ending with another. There are eight diphthong sounds in English.

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VARIATION IN TONE AND MANNER

In phonetics, we should remember that the pitch of the voice is determined by the frequency (i.e. number of cycles pee second) of vibration of the vocal codes. In normal speech, the pitch of the voice goes on changing all the time. Different pitches of the voice combine to form certain patterns of pitch variation called "Tones".

A stretch of speech over which one tone extends III called a tone group. A short utterance quite often forms a single tone group :whereas longer utterances may be divided into two or more groups. Every tone group has one major tonic Falling Tone syllable, which stands out from amongst the rest of the accented syllables in that tone group, by initiating on itself a change in pitch direction.

Complete Statements Master of Fact Commands

Falling Tone Invitations Exclamation Tag Questions

Yes/No Type Question Statement intended to be Q Non Terminal group

Rising Tone Terminal groups Wh-Question Requests Commands sounds Repetitional Questions

Incomplete Statement Information Received Statement

Falling Rising Tone Pleading Request Reservation

Enthusiastic Statement Suspicious Indignation

Rising Falling Tone Imperatives Exclamation, Irony etc.

We shall discuss the intonation of English in relation to both its form and function. Under the form of intonation, we shall study in some detail the nature of pitch variations in English; under the function of intonation.

A stretch of speech over which one pattern of pitch variations, or contour of pitch, extends is called a tone group (or a tone unit). A tone group may thus consist of one syllable or more than one syllable. A short

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utterance quite often forms a single tone group, while a longer one is made up of two or more. While speaking, we divide long utterances into small, manageable groups of words, between which we pause. So a tone group may also be defined as a stretch of speech between any two pauses. Very often, punctuation also helps in determining tone groups in a particular utterance, though it is not always a reliable guide. A few examples given below should make the concept of the tone group clear. The tone group boundary is indicated by an oblique sign.

1. Yes.

2. I'll come tomorrow.

3. Why don't you help me?

4. I'm not afraid of them.

5. The door has been opened.

6. I want to finish this work I before he returns.

7. Please do it now I if you have time.

8. If he comes back by tomorrow, I we can manage the show.

9. Do you know I that he is planning to write a book I on the controversial subject of higher education?

10. They have plenty of time, I but we haven't I in spite of the holidays.

Sentences 1-5 consist of one tone group each. There is no pause anywhere between them, and they are all said with one pattern of pitch changes coterminous (that is, beginning and ending) with each tone group. Sentences 6-8 contain two tone groups each and sentences 9 and 10 contain three each, since in all of them we pause at the point indicated by the oblique bar, and each of these word groups separated by the bars form a compact unit, marked off from the next by a particular intonation pattern. Sentence 8, for example, has two contours of pitch, clearly dividing it into two tone groups:

Tonic Syllable: Within a tone group comprising more than one syllable, there is one syllable that stands out from amongst the rest of the syllables because it initiates a major change in pitch direction. This kind of syllable is called the nucleus of the tone group, or the tonic syllable. Letus look at the following sentences:

11. The 'postman 'didn't come' yesterday. 12. 'Have you 'met my 'brother before?

In sentence 11, the syllable yes- is more prominent than post- and did-,and in sentence 12, the syllable -fore stands out from Have, met and bro-, because both (i.e. yes- and -fore) initiate on themselves a major change in the direction of the already varying pitch. These two syllables are said with moving or kinetic tones. The other accented syllables in these two sentences are said with level (unmoving) or static tones. In other words, a tonic syllable is one that carries the kinetic tone in the tone group. Incidentally, the kinetic tone is also sometimes called the nuclear tone, as its placement determines the location of the nucleus of the tone group.

We know now that each tone group has one tonic syllable, or nucleus, on which a major pitch movement is initiated. It is not arbitrarily, however, that a particular syllable in a tone group is made its nucleus. Generally, the choice (of the nucleus) is determined by the meaning that the speaker wants to convey. Only that syllable is made the nucleus, or carries the nuclear tone, which the speaker may wish to make most prominent. The examples that follow illustrate this (the nucleus being italicized in each case).

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13a 'John' generally 'leaves at' seven in the 'morning. (morn- is the nucleus here. The speaker possibly wants to emphasize that John leaves at seven in the morning, and not in the evening.)

13b 'John 'generally 'leaves at 'seven in the 'morning. (se- is the nucleus here. The speaker wants to say that John leaves at seven o'clock, and not earlier or later than seven.)

13c 'John 'generally 'leaves at seven in the 'morning. (By placing the nuclear tone on leaves, the speaker wants to say that he is talking about John's leaving, and not getting up, etc.)

13d 'John 'generally 'leaves at 'seven in the 'morning. (Here gen- is the nucleus. What the speaker wants to convey is that there may be occasions when John fails to leave at seven.)

13e 'John 'generally 'leaves at 'seven in the 'morning. (John is made the nucleus here, because the speaker wants to say this about John, and not Tom or Mary.)

In the above one tone-group utterance, the speaker can make any part of it prominent, depending upon what he intends to say. The tonic syllable in each case is the focus of the information which is being conveyed. As the focus shifts from one syllable to another, a different kind of information is conveyed. It is made specially prominent. Sometimes there is no contrast involved, such as we find in sentence 13, and therefore on particular part of the tone group carries 'new' information (or focus of information): the entire tone group carries new information. In such cases, the last important word (or the last accented syllable in the last important word) in the tone group is made the nucleus. Let us look at the following utterances (nucleus italicized):

14. It may 'rain to 'morrow. (-mo-, in the accented syllable in the last important word, is the nucleus. 15. I 'can't 'do it. (do, the last important word, is the nucleus.) 16. I 'think it's 'quite 'fair. 17. In 'spring it 'rains a 'lot. 18. She 'lunches 'rather 'early. (ear-, the accented syllable in the last important word, is the nucleus.) 19. 'Nothing can 'save him 'now. 20. I don't under'stand it at 'all. 21. Do you 'want me to 'stay? 22. 'This is 'not the way to 'work for a 'living. (liv-, the accented syllable in living, is the nucleus.) 23. I 'doubt if he'll a'gree to 'come.

Structure of the Tone Group: We have so far studied the nature of pitch variations, of the form of intonation. In order to examine the function of intonation, it will be necessary first to look at the structure of the tone group, that is, the units that constitute it. The first accented syllable (viz the syllable said on a level pitch, high or low) in a tone group, if any, is called the head; the tonic syllable is called the nucleus; the syllable or syllables occurring between the head and the nucleus, if any, make up the body; the syllable or syllables before the head, if any, constitute the pre-head; and the syllable or syllables coming after the nucleus, if any, are called the tail. For the purpose of illustration, nine tone groups are analysed in Table in terms of their structure.

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Serial Pre-head Head Body Nucleus TailNumber

1. We 'went to 'stay with 'Lon- -don.Our 'cousins in

2. But he's 'not 'really in- -terested in it3. What a stupid mi stake!4. Can you tell me o- -pens?

the time it5. Do sit down6. I am wait- -ing7. Do you like it?8. Does -n't he?9. When?

It will be clear from this table that the nucleus is the only obligatory unit, all the rest being optional. This means that there cannot be a tone group without the nucleus.

The Function (or Role) of Intonation: Intonation is not a mere melody (i.e. pattern or contour) of pitch variations, superadded to an utterance already complete in all respects and ready to yield its full meaning without this addition; it is complementary to it. In other words, it does not playa mere decorative role, but performs a linguistic function. It is part of English grammar in very much the same way as tense, or mood, or different types of subordinate clause, which we are accustomed to regarding as parts of grammar, and conveys distinctions of 'meaning' in the same way.

VARIETY OF THE USE OF ENGLISH: REGISTER, STRUCTURE, SITUATION, STYLE

Register: When we refer to a language by labels, such as 'English', 'German', 'Arabic', or 'Hindu', we unwittingly suggest that it has only one speech from, which is uniform throughout. This, however, is far from the truth. In reality, most languages of the world have more than one clearly distinguishable form, or variety. Such varieties, when they differ from one another in respect of vocabulary, grammar, usage, and pronunciation, are called dialects. When, on the other hand, they differ in respect of pronunciation alone, they are called accents. Also, when only the pronunciation differences of different varieties of a language are being discussed, the varieties may be referred to as 'accents'. The word 'accent' is also used to speak about the relative prominence of a syllable in a word. In this chapter, however, 'accent' refers to a variety ofa language in relation to pronunciation.

A language acquires a number of accents if it is spoken by large sections of people separated from one another geographically, socially, and/or educationally. This aptly applies to a language such as English, which is spoken so widely all over the world not only by those for whom it is the mother tongue, but also by many others, who use it for a variety of purposes (such as education, business, administration, and travel). It is meaningful, therefore, to distinguish between the native and non-native accents of English.

Structure: As the mother tongue, English is spoken by the British, the Americans, the Canadians, the Australians, the New Zealanders, and the South Africans. All the various accents with which these people speak English are, by definition, native accents of English. There are, in some cases, wide variations within

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each of such regional accents. Thus there are very many accents of English within Britain, some of which are regional and others based on class or level of education. Generally, the accents of well-educated people are regarded as 'standard', and those of the uneducated as 'non-standard'. Non-standard native accents are also usually accompanied by nonstandard grammar. Examples of such non-standard accents in Britain are the popular forms of pronunciation used in large cities such as London, Liverpool, and Birmingham, and certain regional accents such as the Yorkshire accent. Such non-standard accents are not formally taught at school; they are only imbibed from the older people in the family or community.

Educated South-eastern British

Educated Scottish

General American

Educated Canadian

Educated Australian

South African The Education Australian ascent is supposed to subsume the Educated New Zealand accent as well.

These standard native accents enjoy, understandably, a much higher social status than non-native accents in their respective countries. But the degree of social status enjoyed by the educated South-eastern British accent in England is far greater than that enjoyed by any other standard native accent in the country where it is spoken. It is the accent known variously as the King's (or Queen's) English, the BBC English, the Oxford English, or the Public School English. British phoneticians call it the 'Received Pronunciation' (RP) of England, and we shall refer to it as such. At present, we shall state an important characteristic of all native English accents: They differ from one another chiefly (almost exclusively) in their vowel systems. Their consonant systems are the same (except for an additional consonant in Scottish English), although the distribution of such consonants may vary. (Witness, in General American, the use of [d3] in the final position in the English words camouflage, sabotage, espionage where RP uses [3] instead.) What is of an even greater significance is the fact that all native accents of English evince almost complete identity in respect of word accentuation. This is one chief reason why there exists a fairly high degree of mutual intelligibility between speakers of various native accents of English, and also why any deviation from the standard accentual patterns causes greater problems of intelligibility than any other single factor.

NON-NATIVE ACCENTS OF ENGLISH

Since English is used as an international language of trade, commerce, travel and tourism across many countries, and as a second language for administration, higher education, inter-state communication in a number of countries such as India and Pakistan, it has developed a large number of non-native accents as well. Thus in Germany, it is spoken with a distinct German accent, in India with clearly identifiable Indian accents, and in Ghana with a Ghanian accent. These non-native accents of English are marked by certain features of the mother tongues of the speakers. It is possible to discern in German speakers' English, for example, a good many phonological features of the German language. In India, an average Hindi speaker may pronounce the English word school as [isku:l], an average Punjabi speaker may pronounce it as [s?ku:l], and an average Tamil speaker may pronounce egg as [jeg], all these deviant pronunciations stemming mainly from the phonological characteristics of their respective mother tongues.

In India, for the last three decades or so, there have been attempts to establish, and institutionalize, an Indian

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accent of English, sometimes called General Indian English (GIE) or Standard Indian English. We share the concern underlying such moves, but we do not believe that there exists a single accent that could be called General Indian English. The 'Englishes' that the Indians with different linguistic and regional backgrounds speak bear distinctive marks of their respective mother tongues. As a result, Assamese speakers' English and Malayalam speakers' English, for example, are no less different from each other than are any two native accents of English. Punjabi speakers' English and Tamil speakers' English differ vastly in any features, including the crucial feature of word accentuation, in respect of which the various native accents of English hardly differ. Indeed, some Indian accents are so different from one another that they are "sometimes not even mutually intelligible". And this should not surprise anyone, for the various mother tongues of which these varieties of English bear distinct marks are themselves quite different. (Indeed, some even belong t? different language families!). In such a situation, the existence of one common accent of English in India cannot even be expected.

Situation and Content Style: The question to ask now is: which accent of English should we choose as a model? We have already stated that there is no pan-Indian model, and to choose a regional Indian accent would just not do. We learn English for communication not so much with the people of our own state or region (with whom we can, anyway, communicate in our mother tongue or a regional language), but with people from other regions and other countries. The obvious choice therefore would be a native accent-a widely understood native accent-rather than any non-native accent or any particular accent employed in any particular state or region of India.

There is yet another reason why we should choose a native accent for teaching English pronunciation of India. Those recognized as 'good' speakers of English in India, namely, those who are easily understood nationally-and internationally (for example, AIR and Doordarshan newsreaders) are recognized as such only by virtue of their attempt to use a native accent of English, i.e. RP. Most native speakers of English hear their pronunciation as a kind of approximation to RP-that is, an attempt in the direction of RP-rather than as good examples of 'Indian' English.

We take the stand, therefore, that for the teaching of English pronunciation in India, we must choose a native accent as a model This does not mean, though, that we expect to turn all Indian speakers of English into native speakers of the language. There is no such expectation, and there is no such need either. Individual learners will, no doubt, remain at varying distances from the model presented to them, but ambitious learners will at least know in which direction to keep relentlessly moving for continuous improvement of their pronunciation and international intelligibility.

Received Pronunciation (RP), initially no more than an educated South-eastern British English accent, is today more of a social than regional accent, the word 'Received' in its label implying social acceptance. It acquired such acceptance largely because the public schools in England adopted it in the nineteenth century, and the products of such schools held positions of authority. Moreover, its dissemination as a class pronunciation throughout England led to its recognition as a marker of high social status, rather than just another regional accent. It is, therefore, used all over England by educated upper classes, and its prestige in England is such that people seeking social advancement (or sometimes even career advancement) learn it through conscious effort and training. The flower girl in Shaw's Pygmalion is a case in point. The BBC used it in its announcements and newscasts, and its attempts to use announcers who have even a mild regional accent have provoked protests even from the regions whose accent was used. This situation is constantly changing, though. Today, many Englishmen with high education, but without public school background, not only retain their regional accents, but also claim a place for them. In a democratic set-up, therefore, RP speakers, who constitute a minority, cannot openly assert their superiority

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any more. Nonetheless, RP still retains a position, which it may no longer afford to openly display.

It is, however, not for this reason that we choose RP as a model for teaching English pronunciation in India (and many other countries similarly placed). Our choice of this model is for practical reasons. As English came to India from Britain, rather than the USA, Australia, or any other English-speaking country, we understand British English and in particular RP, more easily than we do any other accent of native English, the influence of American movies notwithstanding. Indeed, we understand RP more readily than even an Indian accent of English from a distant region of the country. And, most curiously, in some cases, the people of a particular region in India are found to comprehend RP better than their own regional accent of English. (This may, however, be due to the fact that RP maintains more distinctions in its vowel and consonant inventories than do most Indian accents of English).

Another good reason for choosing RP as a teaching model is that the best speakers of English in India (some newsreaders, for example) model their speech on RP. And since many of such speakers come from good social and educational background, their accent enjoys a certain degree of prestige in India, which other native accents do not. Furthermore, in all known teacher-training programmes in English language teaching in India, the accent described, and given practice in, is RP. This is understandably so, because most of the teacher-trainers themselves have been trained in this, rather than in any other, accent. Another reason for the choice of this accent in teachertraining programmes is the ready availability of descriptions ofRP, practice books and recordings in RP.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1. How can we evaluate the importance of stress in Phonetics? Q.2. Discuss the importance of register in your words.Q.3. Define 'structure'. Illustrate the structure of basic English sentences with the help of sentences of

your own. Q.4. How can you consider he importance of content style? Discuss the major ground for the progress of

structure and situation?

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UNIT -III

NOTE-MAKING AND NOTE-TAKING

Communication is made through conversation, speaking and writing. One way that you will often use your writing skills is by taking a message. A message is any kind of communication, either written or spoken.

Note-taking means noting down the most important facts, ideas and arguments given by a speaker. While listening to a talk, lecture or speech we take notes. It is possible for us to be good note-takers only if we are attentive and active listeners.

Note-making, on the other hand, means listing out in brief the most important facts, ideas and arguments contained in a book, in a chapter or in a passage. Note-making is a means of recording information from the written or printed material that we are reading. Note-making is the most important and useful skill for recording information from what we read. It has several uses. It develops an acute and appreciative mind and a capacity to understand the essentials quickly. It also helps us when we have to participate in a discussion or give a speech or write an essay. Hence, it is one of the best ways of helping our memory.

Note-taking while listening and note-make while reading are useful skills. The purposes for which we need to make notes are :

1) to convey telephonic messages, without missing any point; 2) to present the important points or ideas of a text to someone else; 3) to record important points of a text or a lecture; 4) to plan a discussion; 5) to plan a lecture, a speech, etc., 6) to record information for future reference; 7) to revise lessons easily before examination; and 8) to prepare the text of communication in letter form basing on the taken notes to convey the whole

content.

Moreover, while making notes, your will be able to organize your own thoughts better. You will be not merely reading or listening passively, but you will be considering the points made by the writer or speaker and judging their importance and drawing your own conclusions about what is being presented.

The characteristics of good notes

1) Notes are brief

2) Only the relevant facts are given

3) Only words or phrases are used

4) There is no concern for grammatical accuracy

5) Information is presented in a logical sequence, usually in a tabular form

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6) It is divided and sub-divided. Acupuncture is a system of treatment of diseases which has been practised in China for nearly 5000 years. It consists in the rapid insertion of fine steel needles, about 6 centimetres long, on particular spots on the body of the patient. After inserting the needle the doctor twirls the needle between his thumb and forefinger. There are hundreds of acupuncture points on the body. When a puncture is made on a spot on the body, energy flows from there along lines known as meridrians to the disease organs. This flow of energy helps to restore the balance of the system and thus correct the disorder. The points of treatment may be far from the seat of the disease. For example, to cure a toothache, the acupuncturist may insert a needle on the palm of the patient.

Although China is considered to be the country where acupuncture originated, some forms of treatment resembling it has been reported from other parts of the world by anthropologists. Among some ancient tribes, stones and arrows were needed to prick the skin. In another form of treatment, the skin on particular spots of the body was burnt to effect a cure for certain diseases.

For long acupuncture was dismissed by the west as a form of superstition like witchcraft and magic cure. Even in China admiration for the western system of medicine was so great that the native systems of treatment were neglected or mistrusted. Moreover, the theoretical basis for acupuncture that was propounded in China was mixture of spirituality, philosophy and physiology. This stood in the way of its acceptance by Chinese scientists.

During the 1960's acupuncture came to the notice of western scientists. They not only witnessed the curing of diseases but even operations were performed after administering anaesthesia by acupuncture. Doctors in other parts of the world trained themselves and set up practice in their countries. In China Mao officially ranked acupuncturists with the physicians.

Notes: Acupuncture gains recognition

A) Treatment through acupuncture 1) 5000 years old in China 2) applying fine steel needles 3) hundreds of acupuncture points 4) flow of energy to point of disease 5) balance restored

B) The procedure of acupuncture in ancient societies 1) stones and arrows 2) burning the skin

C) The acupuncture was not recognized as 1) Considered superstitious 2) Chinese neglected it under the admiration of the western system of medicine 3) Theoretical basis not sound

D) Acupuncture gains recognition as a system of treatment.

Note-Taking

Note-taking is the practise of recording information captured from a transient (temporary) source such as an

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oral discussion at a meeting or a lecture. The format of an initial record may often be informal or unstructured. Notes may be taken in such forms :

a. by making charts

b. by out-lining

c. short hand

d. by using heading or sub-heading

e. electronic media

Rules for effective note taking :

S : select C : categorise 0 : organise R : rephrase E : elaborate

When we are taking notes we should ask these questions to test our skills:

1) Did I use complete sentences?

2) Did I use any form at all? Are notes clear or confusing?

3) Did I capture main points and all sub-points?

4) Did I use abbreviations and symbols? Reasons or Need to take Notes

Reasons or Need to take notes

1) It triggers basic lecturing process and help you to remember information.

2) It helps to concentrate in class.

3) It helps for the preparation for exams.

4) It is a source of valuable dues for what information the instructor or the speaker thinks most

important.

5) Notes often contain information that can not be found elsewhere.

Guidelines for Note-taking

1) Concentrate on your lectures

2) Take notes consistently

3) Take notes selectively

4) Translate the idea in your own words

5) Organise the notes in logical form

6) Be brief

7) Use some symbols and signs

Academic success requires various competencies. Among them is ability to now and use a variety of tools

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and techniques to generate the organized information and ideas. Note-taking and note-making are two of such techniques.

Note-taking means noting down the most important facts, ideas and arguments given by a speaker.

Importance of note-making

Effective note-making helps is to organize our ideas and keep as focused on our reading. Through this we can keep a record of our reading and maintain the record of the information. Sometimes, we waste time in tracking down the record or information we have already read. If we jot down note while reading and highlighting important sections, it can help us during exams, tests or assignments.

How to make effective Notes:

1) We must note down all the bibliographic details such as name of the author, title of book or article or journal, the publisher, page number, internet site details etc.

2) We can divide our page into three parts. In the first part or column we can write paraphrased information from the original text. In second part or column we can write the page numbers of particular information. The third column can be used for the comments on the text. This section helps to think critically about the text and examine the strengths and weaknesses of the author's ideas.

DICTIONARY

A dictionary is a collection of words in one or more specific languages. The words are listed alphabetically. In dictionary there are usage information, definitions, phonetics, pronounciations ec. A book of words in one language with their equivalents in another is called 'lexicon'. Each word may have multiple meanings.

Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book, but some newer dictionaries, like Stardict and the New Oxford American Dictionary are dictionary software running on PDAs or computers. There are also many online dictionaries accessible via the internet.

Though there were so many dictionaries in many other languages but the first purely English alphabetical dictionary was "A Table Alphabetically" written by English school teacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604. The only surviving copy is found at the Bodlian Library in Oxford. Samuel Johnson's 'A Dictionary of the English Language' (1755) a truly noteworthy reliable English Dictionary remained the English-language standard for over 150 years, until the Oxford

University Press began writing and releasing the Oxford English Dictionary from 1884 on words. It took mearly 50 years to finally complete the huge work and they finally released the complete OED in twelve volumes in 1928. It remains the most comprehensive and trusted English language dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates added by a dedicated team every three months.

Some Major English Dictionaries

- A dictionary of the English language by Samuel Johnson Black's Law Dictionary, a law dictionary

- Chambers Dictionary

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- Canadian Oxford Dictionary - Oxford Dictionary of English - Webster's New World Dictionary

Kinds of Dictionaries

1) Bilingual Dictionary

2) Monolingual Dictionary

3) Etymological Dictionary

4) Crossword Dictionary

5) Rhyming Dictionary

6) Mini Dictionary

7) Pocket Dictionary

8) Glossary

Importance of Dictionary

Dictionary is very important for us as we can take the help of ditionary in finding meanings of difficult words of any language. If we want to learn English, we can learn different and difficult words from it. It helps us to improve or English. Dictionary improves our communication as it helps us to pronounce, respell and the grammars we Deed in an effective communication. In this book not only pronounciation or another deeper meanings (synonyms) .-e given but it gives the syllabication and use of the word into sentences also. In this way, dictionaries are important for a person's learning and communication. It is easy use dictionary, just see the first letter of the word you want to know, then look for the first two letters, then first three letters and so on until you find the desired word and its meaning.

Consulting Dictionaries

1. Judicious - adj. - Judging wisely showing good sense

2. Krugerrrand - n - a south African gold coin

3. Pugnacious - adj. - eager to fight, aggressive

4. Proximate - adj. - nearest

5. Schism - n - division into opposing groups through a difference in belief or opinion.

6. Surreptitious - adj. - acting stealthily

7. Terrain - n. - land with regard to its natural features

8. Venerate - v. - respect deeply

9. Wiseacre - n. - a person who pretends to have great wisdom

10. Yardstick - n. - a standard of comparison Exercise: Suppliant, roundel, pronouncement, mandate, hank, goal, engender

ENCYCLOPEDIA

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Encyclopedia means a comprehensive reference work containing articles on a wide range of subjects or on numerous aspects of a particular field, usually arranged alphabetically. This word has been taken from Greek phrase 'enkuklios paideia' made up of 'inkuklios' (cyclical, periodic, ordinary) and 'paideia' (education) - meaning 'general education'. Latin manuscripts took this phrase to be a single Greek word 'enkukliospaedia' with the same meaning and this spurious Greek word became the New Latin word 'encyclopaedia' coming into English with the sense 'general course of instruction', first recorded in 1531. In New Latin the word was chosen as the title of a reference work covering all knowledge. The first such use in English is recorded in 1644.

An Encyclopedia is a type of reference work holding information from either all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge. Encyclopedias are divided into articles. The articles in an encyclopedia are usually accessed alphabetically by particle name or sometimes by theme. Encyclopedias have existed for around 2,000 years; the oldest still in existence Naturalis Historia, was written in Roman times by PIing the Elder. The modem encyclopedia evolved out of dictionaries around the 17th century. Historically, some encyclopedias were contained in one volume but some, such as the encyclopedia Britannica became huge multi-volume works. Some modem encyclopedias are electronic. Popular and affordable encyclopedias such as Harmsworth's Universal Encyclopedia and the Children's Encyclopaedia appeared in the early 1920s. The second half of the 20th century also saw the publication of several encyclopedias that were notable for synthesizing important topics in specific fields by significant researchers. By the late 20th century, encyclopedias were being published on CD-ROMs for use with personal computers. Microsoft's Encarta, launched in 1993, was a landmark example as it had no printed equivalent. After sixteen years, Microsoft discontinued the Encarta line of products in 2009.

Elements of Encyclopaedia The subject matter, scope, method of organization and method of production of encyclopaedia can be defined through the following elements:

1. Encyclopaedias can be general, containing articles on topics in every field. These often contain guides on how to do a variety of things. There are also encyclopaedias that cover a wide variety of topics but from a particular cultural, ethnic or national perspective such as the Greet Soviet Encyclopedia.

2. Works of encyclopedic scope aim to convey the important accumulated knowledge for their subject domain such as an encyclopaedia of medicine, philosophy or law. Works vary in the breadth of material and the depth of dicussion, depending on the target audience.

3. Some systematic method of organization is essential to make an encyclopaedia usable as a work of reference. There are two main methods of it : 1) alphabetical 2) hierarchical. The former method is today the most common by far, especially for general works. Horace writes about the importance of the structure of an encyclopaedia, "What grace may be added to commonplace matters by the power of order and connection.

4. Encyclopaedias have an ever increasing effect on the collection, verification, summation and presentation of information of all kinds. Projects such as Everything 2, Encarta, h2g2 and Wikipedia are the examples of new forms of the encyclopaedia.

Difference between Encyclopedia and Dictionary In an encyclopedia the titles are used as nouns whether they are common noun, proper noun or noun phrases

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whereas dictionaries cover all types of words. Besides, in, an encyclopedia article's name is only used to refer to the topic. So, it can take many synonymous forms, even in different languages. But a dictionary entry cannot be translated to a synonymous term is it is in one particular language.

ENCYCLOPEDIA - Book of information about every branch of knowledge. Examples: Example

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

A 'Bibliography' is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from 'works cited' lists at the end of books and articles to complete, independent publications. As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right or computerised bibliographic database. A library catalog is bibliographic in nature.

Bibliographic works can be divided into two categories:

a) Enumerative Bibliography: It is a list of writings that shares a common factor whether it is a topic, a language, a period or some other subject. This contains the following information - author/writer, title, publisher, date of publication. A journal or periodical article contains - author (writer), articletitle, journal title, volume, pages, date of publication.

b) Analytical Bibliography: It means a critical study of bibliography. It can be divided into three sub-parts:

a. Descriptive: It is the close examination of a book as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding etc.

b. Historical: It takes a broader aspect in the context in which the book is produced, specially in printing, publishing and bookselling.

c. Textual : It is, actually, a criticism of the text.

How to Prepare Bibliography

1. Book having one writer (author) : Last name, First name, The Title Underlined. Place of Publication, Publisher, Copyright data.

2. Encyclopedia Article: Last name, First name (if given), Title of Article, Name of Encyclopedia Underlined, Edition (Year)

3. MagazinelNewspaper Article: Last name, First name (if given 'Title of Article'), Name of Magazine Underlined, Day, Month, Year, Page Numbers.

Some Examples 1. Archer, Steven, The Future, Toronto: Spottiswoode and Sons Limited, 1987. 2. Health, World Bak Encyclopedia, 1992 ed. 3. Johnson, Cynthia 'Communication' Time 23 May, 1992, 72-78 4. Maltin, Leonard, ed. Movie & Video Guide 2002 Edition New York : New American, 2001. 5. Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, New York: Scholastic, 1999.

Importance of Bibliography

Bibliography is important as it gives us the information about the books and articles that we' have used. If some other person is reading our work and he wants to know some more information about what we have written then if we have given an accurate bibliography, it will help him to find it into that book and avoid all the excessive search and save him time. The system of preparing bibliography directs the reader to look at certain entries in the bibliography and avoids the whole issue of typing footnotes separately.

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THESAURUS

The word 'thesaurus' is derived from ancient Greek thesauros meaning a collection of things which are of big importance or value. This meaning has been largely supplanted by Roget's usage of the term.

A 'thesaurus' is a book that lists words grouped together according to similarity of meaning in contrast to a dictionary, which contains definitions and pronounciations. Although including synonyms, a theseurus should not be taken as a complete list of all the synonyms for a particular word.

In Sanskrit, the Amarkosha, is a thesaurus in verse form, written in the 4th century. The first example of the modern genre, Roget's Thesaurus was compiled in 1805 by Peter Mark Roget, and published in 1852. Entries in Roget's Thesaurus are listed conceptually rather than alphabetically.

A thesaurus presents conceptually similar, broader, narrower, related and contrasteed terms. There are two types of thesaurus - one for general use and another for the use in specific area such as medicine, arts, music and others.

Some examples: a) General

- Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (ed. P. Roget) ISBN 0-06-272037-6.- Oxford American Desk Thesaurus (ed. C. Lindberg) ISBN 0-19-512674-2.

b) Special - NAL Agricultural Thesaurus, (United States National Agricultural Library, United

States Department of Agriculture) - Evaluation Thesaurus (by M. Scriven) ISBN 0-8039-4364-4 - Art and Architecture Thesaurus (Getty Institute)

Examples: Lexicon; a collection of Words, Phrases, or Selected Passage.Abduct : capture, kidnap, seize, shanghaiAbecedarian : beginner, noviceAbhorrent: abominable, despicable, detestable, disgusting, loathsome, offensive, nauseating, odious, repugnant, repulsive, revolting, shocking, vile Abidance :Compliance, continuanceAbjuration: abnegation,denial, disavowal, rejection,renouncement, renunciationBan : taboo, prohibition, limitation, refusalBarrel: cask, keg, vat, receptacle, container, vessel Barter: trade, bargain, swap, buy, sell Bauble: ornament, trifle, trinket Beguile : charm, deceive Benevolence: Altruism, charity, kidness Cardinal: Primary, foremost Caress : touch, love, embrace, cuddle, pat Carol: song, hymn, ballad Cavil: criticize, object Cesation: ending, stopping

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Clumsy: ungainly, gawky, inexpert, awkward Dangle: hand, droop, sway, suspend Daze: stupor, bewilderment, distraction, confusion Debar: exclude, prohibit, restrict Defer: postpone, shelve, delay, suspend Defiant: resistant, obstinate, rebellious Deft: skillful, dexterous Dowdy: shabby, untidy, slovenly, plain Elevated : Towering, tall, high, raised Enigma: problem, riddle, parable, puzzle Envious: covetous, resentful, desiring, wishful, greedy, jealous Expedient: convenient, profitable, useful, practical Explicit: clear, express, sure, plain, definite, understandable Fallow: unplowed, unplanted, unproductive Famine: starvation, want, misery, hunger Farce: satire, travesty, burlesque Fatigue: weariness, exhaustion, lassitude Feasible: expedient, worthwhile, convenient, practicable, possible, attainableFlaunt: display, vaunt, brandish, boast Flaw: defect, imperfection, stain, blemish Flimsy: thin, weak, slight, infirm, frail, insubstantial, fragile, decrepit Fluster; Flutter: flap, ripple, wiggle, wave Foible: Failing, weakness Glee: joy, gaiety, joviality, merriment, mirth Gnarled: knotted, twisted, contorted, bent Gory: blood-soaked, bloodstained, offensive Gratify: please, satisfy Hatred: dislike, abhorrence, loathing, rancor, repugnance, repulsion, disgust, contempt, displeasure, bitterness, antagonism, animosity, pique, grudge, malice, malevolence, spleen, hostility, alienation Haze: fog, mist, smog, cloudiness Heist: rob, steal Heresy: dissent, nonconformity, dissidence, sectarianism, schism, unorthodoxy, secularism Hiatus: break, pause Hinge: joint, pivot, juncture, articulation, link Hodgepodge: mixture, jumble, combination, mess Hokum: nonsense, trickery, chicanery Homespun: hand-crafted, domestic, homemade Honk: blare, trumpet, bellow, sound Immune: exempt, free, unsusceptible, privileged, excused, safe Impasse: deadlock, standstill, cessation, pause Impel: drive, force, urge Impetus: force, momentum, stimulus, incentive, purpose, reason Impious: sinful, profane, blasphemous, bad Indebted: obligated, grateful, appreciative Indecisive: irresolute, unstable Indoctrinate: instruct, implant, influence, teach Indomitable: invincible, unconquerable Inevitable: unavoidable, irresistible, fated, sure, inescapable, destined, unalterable, ordained Inkling: hint, indication, notion, innuendo, suspicion, suggestion Insane: crazed, frenzied, lunatic, balmy, psychotic, raving, deluded, possessed, obsessed Inscribe: address, carve, dedicate, engrave, write Intermix: mix, mingle

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Irreparable: incurable, hopeless, irreversible, destroyed, ruined Jab: poke, punch, hit, blow Jaunt: excursion, trip, tour, journey, walk Jester: comedian, buffoon, joker, actor, clown, fool Jog: canter, lope, nudge, run Jovial: affable, amiable, merry, happy Juicy: succulent, moist, watery, syrupyJunk: abandon, discardJut: extend, bulge, projectThe list is indicative. It is complete.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.l. What do you understand by note-taking and note-making and how can you develop these notes into a summary?

Q.2. Describe the skills required for note-taking and note-making. Give the examples of reduction device for the sentences for note-taking.

Q.3. In what order will you write the name of the author, the title of the book, the year of publication etc. in a bibliography? Explain with examples.

Q.4. Explain the difference between Dictionary and Thesaurus by giving examples.

Q.5. Discuss Encyclopedia.

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UNIT -IV

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

MEANING, PROCESS, MAIN FORMS, PURPOSE

We should remember that all communication is by nature conversation. All communication is essentially sharing of information or some message. The word "communicate" comes from the Latin verb "communicare" that means to impart, to participate, to share or to make common. By virtue of its Latin origin it is also the sourced English word "common". Whatever is common is shared by all. Hence, the sense of "sharing" is inherent in the very origin and nature of communication. What is it that we share in communication? The one word answer is "Information" .

Features of Communication: In the first place it is important to note that all communication is conversational and to a large extent tradition-bound. The relationship in communication provides a context for interaction. In almost all cases over time the relationship between people expansively spreads beyond the function of all interaction, encompassing other areas of their behaviour.

Thirdly, All communication is interactional. It is the use of language to keep open the channel of communication, between people and to establish suitable rapport.

Fourthly, Communication is always supposed to be appropriate.

Fifthly, It must be noted that all communication is structured. Recent studies in communication regard every piece of communication, whether spoken or written, as a genre. Look into the pattern of its information structuring or logical organisation and come up with useful interference for the consumption of the corporate world.

Business Communication

If we communicate in order to transact some commercial activity i.e., providing goods or services, with the intention of generating profits, it is called Business Communication. It is nothing but, the communication between the people in the organization for the purpose of carrying out the business activities.

Our business progresses if communication channel in the organisation is working properly. All the people within and outside the organisation should communicate properly to work effectively. So, it can be said that the exchange of ideas, understanding, within and outside the organisation to achieve the business goals is know as Business Communication.

Process of Communication: Basically, in the organisation, the communication occurs among people (within or outside the organisation). We must understand how communication occurs among people. There is a proper process for it. This process can be understood in this way:

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The Beginning,(Message sent) - entry in sensory world - detection by the senses - filtering processformation and sending

We imaging that there are two persons A and B. In the beginning, A communicates a message to B. His message may be in any form-written, spoken, gesture, facial expression etc. In second phase, the message enters the sensory world of B. means all that surrounds person which the senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch) can detect. The sensory world of B contains more than the message of A. In third phase, from his sensory world B picks up message through his senses. This detection depends on a number of factors such as ability of his senses, mental alertness, cultural background. Then, senses pick up the message and relay it to his brain. In next process, the message is filtered through the contents of B. These contents include all his experience, knowledge, biases, emotions, cultural background. Now, B decides to communicate a response, through his mind he determines the general meaning that the response takes. Then B forms a message and converts meanings into symbols and then , sends these symbols to A. The symbols include spoken words, written words, gestures, facial expressions etc.

When B sends his message to A, one cycle of communication ends. Now a second cycle begins.

Main forms of Communication In an organization communication may fall into three categories

1) Internal Communication: All the communication that occurs among the workers of a business and that is done for the implementation of plans of business is called Internal communication. There are so many functions of this kind of communication:

a. establishing the goals of an enterprise b. co-ordinating different departments c. promoting a spirit of understanding between management and the employees d. developing plans for the achievement of the goals of the enterprise e. reducing the complexity of business activities f. controlling the performance g. maintaining the growth of business in size

2) External Communication: Enternal communication includes the work related communication which is done with people outside the business such as: suppliers, service companies, customers and general' public etc. This communication includes all the efforts at direct selling like brochures, telephone calls follow-up service calls, advertising etc. It is done to improve its public relations, planned publicity, community service and courtesy of its employees. This public relations category includes a very important thing and that is business messages which do more than communicate information. The positiveness of such message contributes greatly to a company's good image and good business. Like internal communication, external communication is also important to business success.

3) Personal Communication: The communication in business that is not operational and is done without purpose as far as concerned with business is called Personal communication. It is the exchange of information and feelings in which we human beings engage whenever we come together. Though it is not a part of the business's plan of operation, yet personal communication has a significant effect on the success of that plan. Absolute denial of personal communication can lead to emotional upset. On the other hand, excessive personal communication can interfere with the work done. So, the middle position is the best position.

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Purpose of Communication The purpose of communication is:

1) transmission of information from a source to target. 2) to give the feedback to the employees (their achievement, performance) 3) to control the mechanism. 4) to influence people 5) to solve the problems 6) decision-making 7) helps in recognising the difficulties in the different changes in the planning 8) building relationship 9) motivation and praise

Principles of Communication To make different forms of communication effective we should follow some principles such as :

1) Clarity of thought and expression 2) Use simple words, single words for long phrases, use verbs for noun (ex. make a decision - decide),

avoid double entry, use concrete expression 3) Avoid excessive use of the infinitive, avoid ambiguity and avoid jargon 4) Use short sentences 5) Completeness of facts is absolutely necessary 6) Be as brief as possible

VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION We are living in the age of mega-organizations. Modem organizations are indeed stupendous in size as compared to the enterprises of yester years. Moreover it is in the very nature of an enterprise to grow in size with the passage of time. In this the role of communication, plays an important/prominent role.

Non-verbal Communication: Non-verbal communication involves not only body language and paralanguage but also the space around us, time and our physical environment or surroundings. Here paralanguage is like language, but not language. It is non-verbal part of communication. It therefore cannot be fully relied upon. The other important factors of non-verbal communication are given below:

1. Paralanguage (Non-verbal) means like language, concerned with the manner in which a speaker conveys his meaning through words.

2. Pitch variation is necessary to make speech effective. 3. Easy information is generally conveyed at a fast speed and difficult information is conveyed slowly. 4. One cannot go on speaking continuously, pauses are very important for emphasis. 5. Volume variation makes speech convincing. 6. Proper word stress gives words the intended meanings. 7. Non-verbal tells us a lot about the speaker's background. 8. No oral message is complete without paralanguage. 9. We must beware of "mixed signals".

Verbal or written communication: The word "write" has been derived from the old English word "written" that meant to scratch, draw or inscribe. Written communication is essentially a creative activity. It is an activity that requires conscious and creative effort. The creativity of this effort comes from the stimuli produced by the mind. As an example, let us take up the writing out or production of a report that we want to

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present or that we have been asked to write, for this purpose we gather all the necessary information or data. We, then, process it through our logical thought process and encode our communication. The second important feature of written communication is the time factor it involves. While in a face to face communication situation, the sender's encoded messages are instantaneously decoded by the receiver, in written communication some delay necessarily takes place.

Advantages of Verbal Communication

1. Providing records 2. It is quite variable to offence, both from within and from outside. 3. It promotes uniformity in policy and procedure. 4. It builds up the organization's image. 5. This communication facilities for proper assignation of responsibilities.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Generally, we think that communication is easy as it is that we have done all the time in our lives and to some extend it is true. But, sometimes, our communication is not good or we can say effective. So many things interrupt our communication. This interruption may be called Barriers to communication. A number of such factors can be described as follows :

1) Physical Barriers: Physical barriers include time, distance, noise, marked out territories (for strangers), closed office doors, separate areas for people of different status, large working areas. The distance between the transmitter and the receiver becomes a big barrier. Besides, different working shifts, faulty seating arrangement in the room, different type of noise at the transmission level.

2) Semantic Barriers: The barriers which occur in the process of receiving or understanding message are called Semantic Barriers Linguistic capacity of the two sides may have limitations. There are so many words which have many meanings. If such words are used in the communication, this may lead to misunderstanding or miscommunication. Semantic barrier may occur if the messanger and the receiver assign different meanings to the same word or use different words for the same meaning. To reduce these barriers we should use familiar words and words with positive connotations as well as should clarify the shades.

3) Emotional Barriers: Our emotional states of mind play an important role in communication. So emotional barrier is one of the main barriers to open and free communication. It is comprised of worry anger -excitement, fear, nervousness, mistrust and suspicion. If the sender or the receiver is having one of them, he will not, be able to communicate well.

4) Cultural Barriers: The culture and atmosphere in which a person works, plays an important role in his communication. When a person joins a group, sooner or later, he has to adopt the culture and behavioural patterns of that group. If you respond positively or happily there begins a mutuality of interest and a good communication.

5) Socio-Psychological Barriers: There are so many social and Psychological factors which work as barrier to the communication. Personal attitude and opinions mental level, status consciousness, attentiveness, gender, poor retention, poor handwriting also work as barriers to communication.

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GROUP DISCUSSION

The word discuss has been derived from the Latin root "discutere" that means ''to shake" or strike; from the same root, the word "discussion" stands for an activity in which a theme or subject matter is thoroughly shaken to reach a conclusion or decide upon a course of actions.

Ingredients of Discussions:a. Purpose is the first ingredient of an effective discussion.b. Planning in advance is an absolute must for a successful discussion.c. Participation is the very life of a good discussion.

Most of the time we communicate through speaking because it is so natural and spontaneous, but public speaking, or speaking before an audience, is an art that has to be learnt with great care rind serious effort. That is why so much has been written about the art of public speaking which is a secondary substitute of presentation. There may be many occasions for a presentation, such as

1. Launching a new product

2. Starting a training

3. Presenting a new business plan

4. Diversification of a business

5. Making a contribution to a conference

In order to make a successful presentation one has to take the following steps.

1. Be clear about the occasion

2. Make audience analysis

3. Have an idea of the location

4. Decide upon the method of presentation

5. Rehearse the presentation

6. Consider personal aspect

7. Overcoming nervousness

8. Using visual aids

Plant out the Presentation

Beginning 1. Introductory remarks 2. Statement of the objectives 3. Draw the outlines of the presentation

Middle

1) Break the main body of the presentation into short, clearly stated points

2) Illustrate the points End End

1. Give a summary of the whole

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2. If need be, refer to the points made in the beginning or in the middle

3. Make final remarks; end on a positive note

INTERVIEW Meaning and purpose: The term "interview" has been derived from the French word "entre voir" that means "to glimpse" or see each other. In this way an interview is a classical example of communication.

Purposes for an Interview:

1. Interview is held by some companies for periodic evaluation of workers.

2. It is conducted by company personnel to gather information on various matters.

3. Exit interview that is held to determine a person's reasons for leaving the organization.

4. Admission interview of a candidate for admission to a course in higher education/professional

training.

5. For periodic evaluation of workers.

The structure of an Interview Opening

1. Introduction

2. Statement of the purpose

3. Making the other person comfortable

4. Creating an atmosphere of relaxed open minded approach Middle Body

1. Keep eye to eye contact

2. Make sure to cover the agenda

3. Seek classification, if needed

4. Listen attentively and patiently

5. Aim at exchange of information

Closing

1. Summing up the discussion

2. Describing the action

3. Closing on a positive note

4. Exchanging feelings of gratitude

5. Avoiding abrupt ending There are uncounted/innumerable instances of miscommunication. Speakers often complain about communication breakdowns as one of their most important problems. No doubt that effective communication is the life blood of an organisation, but unfortunately many barriers and breakdowns in communication arise. The other points related to barriers in communication are given below:

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A thorough understanding of the .process of communication is necessary in order to deal with those barriers and breakdowns.

Problem in communication may arise at the level of the sender, the transmission to the receiver and the feedback coming from the receiver.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.l. "Business Communication is a prominent statutory to understand a difference between informal and business communication." Do you agree with the statement?

Q.2. Discuss differences between Verbal and Non-verbal communication. Q.3. Communication in business is a real art of Oral communication, Justify. Q.4. What do you understand by communication? What are the barriers in the way of healthy

communication.

Q.5. What are the essentials for an effective communication?Q.6. What do you mean by ' Interview'? Discuss the basis ideology of formal interview skills. Q.7. How would you prepare a 'presentation'?

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UNIT - V

STUDY OF LITERARY TEXT SHORT STORIES BY EMINENT WRITERS

1) The Gift of the Magi - O. Henry

About the Author: O. Henry was the pen name of American writer William Sydney Porter. He was born on Sept. 11, 1862 in Greensboro, North Carolina. His mother was Mary Jane Virginia and father was Dr. Algernon Sidney Porter, a physician. When he was three, his mother died, and he was raiseed by his parental grandmother and paternal aunt. He left school at the age of 15 and then he had a number of jobs, including that of a bank clerk. He married to Athol Estes on July 5, 1887 and had two children, one daughter and one son.

In 1896 he was falsely accused of embezzlement. He absconded from the law enforcement to New Orleans and later fled to Honduras. But when he learned that his wife was dying, he returned to USA and surrendered to police. Although there has been much debate over his actual guilt, he was sentenced to 5 years in jail. In 1898, he was put in prison at Columbus Ohio.

While in Prison he began writing short stories in order to support his young daughter Margeret. He used a pseudosym Olivier Henry only once and changed his pen-name to O. Henry, not wanting his readers to know he was in jail. He published 12 stories while in prison. After doing 3 years of the 5 years sentence, he was released for good behaviour. He moved to New York in 1902 and wrote a story a week for the New York World and also for other publishers. In his lifetime O. Henry was able to see the silent film adaptations of his stories. His second marriage lasted 2 years and his wife left him in 1909. He died of cirrhosis of the liver, on June 5, 1910, in New York.

WorksShort Stories: After Twenty Years, An Apology, Babes in the Jungle, Buried Treasure, The Cactus, The City of Dreadful Night, Dickey, Early Parable, Extradited from Bohemia, Gift of the Magi, Hearts and Hands, The Last Leaf, Money Maze, Shoes, Two Recalls Plays: Sound and Fury

Poems: Drop a Tear in this Slot, Hand to Forget, Murdered, The Old Farm, Two Portraits, Vanity

Summary of Story : (The Gift of the Magi)James Dillingham Young and his wife Della are a young couple who are very much in love with each other, but can barely afford their one-room apartment due to their very bad economic situation. For Christmas, Della decides to buy Jim a chain which costs twenty-one dollars for his prized pocket watch given to him by his father. To raise the funds, she has her long hair cut off and sold to make a wig. Meanwhile, Jim decides to

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sell his watch to buy Della a beautiful set of combs made out of Tortoise shell for her lovely, knee-length brown hair. Although each is disappointed to find the gift they choose rendered useless, each is pleased with the gift they received because it represents their love for each other.

The story ends with a comparison of the pair's mutually sacrificial gifts of love with the gifts given by the magi in Bible - "The Magi, as you know, were wise men - wonderfully wisemen - who brought gifts to the babe in the manger. They invented the art of giving Christmas presents. Being wise, their gifts were no doubt wise ones, possibly bearing the privilege of exchange in case of duplication. And here I have lonely related to you the . uneventful chronicle of two foolish children in a flat who most unwisely sacrificed for each other the greatest treasures of their house. But in the last word to the wise of these days let it be said that of all who give gifts these two were the wisest, of all who give and receive gifts, such as they are wisest. Everywhere they are wisest. They are the magi."

Questions – Answers :-

Q.l.) What is the significance of the title 'The Gift of the Magi'?

Answer: The story is written by o. Henry. In this story, the writer has used various themes such as love, generosity and verious definitions of wealth and poverty. The writer has used this title because the main characters of the story James and Della are compared to the three magi (wise person) who presented their gifts to baby Jesus when he was born (after that the tradition of presenting one with gifts on christmas day) however, these gifts were of no use to baby Jesus as he was the son of God and he already had all those gifts. Similarly, Della and James gave each other gifts that were of no use to either of them as they both had sacrificed their priced possessions for which their gifts were meant for. James presented Della with a set of combs which she had always wanted by selling of this watch and Della had sold off her hair to buy a platinum job chain for James' watch. In this way, they both are compared to the Magi. So, this can be said that the title is apt, just and appropriate.

Q.2.) What are the main themes which have been used in the story 'The Gift of the Magi'? Answer: In the story, the main themes which have been used are love, generosity, wealth and poverty. Love is the main theme in the story. It was just because of love between them that James and Della sacrificed their most precious possession for each other. At seeing the gifts James remarks, "They're too nice to use just as present Jim's remark is also a comment on the value of the gifts. They are too nice not only because of the money they represent but also because of the sacrificial love they represent. Self sacrifice in the name of love is the wisest gift. Generosity is an another major theme in the story. The writer is interested in something deeper than superficial generosity of giving of a gift that comes easily. He is interested in generosity born out of a love so deep it transcends reason or wisdom.

Wealth and Poverty are also another themes to discuss. The writer contrasts of poverty of the youngs to the vast wealth and riches of king Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. He shares with the readers the two small treasures of the household and contrasts the value of these treasured objects to the vast storehouses of wealth that solomon and the Queen of Sheba have. Yet despite the obvious poverty and meagerness of these treasures, the writer soon shows us what Jim and Della have is of more value than any priceless treasure locked up in a storehouse.

Q.3. Write a character sketch of Della.

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Answer: Della is the loving, warm, selfless and occasionally hysterical heroine of the story. Della is financially poor. She lives in a cramped flat as mistress of the home. She basically lives for one thing or we can say person Jim, her husband. She spends a lot of time thinking of what to get him at Christmas. Della throws just about every bit of energy she has into being good to Jim. She has been saving money for months to buy her husband his Christmas present. She has even endures the humiliation of pinching pennies at stores.

She is a beautiful woman. She is slim having long brown hair and pretty face. The writer says that Della beautiful hair are her best possession and her hair would be envied by the Queen of Sheba herself.

She is a devoted wife. It is difficult to think or define Della apart from Jim. She lives for her husband. In fact, the thing that seems to bother Della most about losing her hair is that Jim likes it so much. She is worried he would not find her pretty anymore. She barely seems to think of herself at all. That is the devotion of Della.

Until Jim returns from his work, Della experiences insecurity. She worries that Jim might no longer find her beautiful though, she has curled her hair and looking attractive. Della shows her courage, resilience and maturity when Jim comes and is shocked by her appearance. She says that her hair grows quickly and she loves him. She asks him to be happy as it is Christmas eve.

Sometimes, she seems unrealistically emotional. Sometimes she sobs in the couch and at another time seeing Jim's present, she shrieks in ecstasy. Della is sacrificing woman. She sacrifices her most precious possession - her hair - to buy, for her husband, a beautiful watch chain.

Q.4.) Write a character sketch of Jim

Answer: James Dillingham Young is the breadwinner for the young family, that is for him and Della. He is twenty two years old. He is Della's husband. He is grave by nature. He is a hard working young man. He works long hours but his salary is low. His condition becomes from bad to worse when his income is reduced from $30 a week to $20 a week. He alongwith his wife is struggling just to meet the expenses of their small flat. That is why, Jim happens to seem tired, serious and overworked.

The one thing that makes Jim really happy is his wife Della's love. He is as devoted to her as she is to him. Just like Della, Jim gives up his most precious possession to find a perfect gift for his wife. When Della becomes worried about her looks he says, "Don't make any mistake Della about me? Don't think there's anything in the way of a haircut or a shave or a bhampoo that could make me like my girl any less."

Jim is a sacrificing person. His most precious possession is the gold watch handed down to him from his grandfather and his father. The writer says that watch is so much beautiful that king Soloman himself would have envied Jim's watch. But he sells it to buy her wife a set of beautiful, tortoiseshell combs for her long hair because he values his wife more than his watch. It shows that he can sacrifice anything for his love.

Jim is grave and patient by nature. When both of them see the gifts, he reacts in a very silent way. He smiles and says, "Let's put our presents away and keep them a while. They are too nice to use just at present."

2) THE EYES ARE NOT HERE - RUSKIN BOND

About the Author Ruskin Bond is an Indian author of British descent. He is considered to be an icon among Indian writers and

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children's authors and a top novelist. He was born at Kasauli in Himachal Pradesh. His father was Hubray

Alexander Bond who served in the RAF during World War II. He had one sister and one brother, Ellen and William Bond. When the writer was four years old, his mother separated from his father and married a Punjabi Hindu Mr. Hari who himself was married once. At the age often Ruskin went to his grandmother's in Dehra because of his father's sudden death due to frequent bouts of malarial and jaundice. He was brought up at different places that included Jamnagar, Dehradun, Shimla and London. Although Bond was studying in England, his mind rested in India.

His first novel was 'The Room on the Roof', published when he was 21 and partly based on the experiences at Dehra in his small rented room on the roof and his friends. The book made him win prestigious John Lowellyn Rhys' prize that is awarded to British Commonwealth writers who are under the age of30. Ruskin has now been writing for than 5 decades. His writings have won him tremendous critical acclaim as well as a long list of fans throughout the literary world. He received the Sahitya Akadenni Award for English writing in India for 'Our Tree Still grows in Dehra' in 1992. He has also been conferred with Padma Shri, one of the most prestigious civil awards in India. His works have inspired several generations of writers, authors and scriptwriters. A lot has been said about him, "When the last page is read, the reader longs for some more of the spooky company. Bond's spooks are a class apart." - The Statesman

"Delightful mix of mean and kind spirits. Nice and spicy." - Outlook

'Works of Ruskin Bond. Short Stories The Woman on Platform 8The Eyes Have It Cricket for the Crocodile Dust on the MountainAngry River The Kite Maker The WindowChachi's FuneralThe Story of Madhu The Blue Umbrella

Essays Life at My Own Pace The Old Gramophone Adventures of a Book Lover A Town Called Dehra Travel Writings Tales of the Open Road Beautiful Mandakoni On the Road to BadrinathThe Road to Bazaar

Songs and Love poems Lost Love Lyric for Binya Devi Grandma Climbs Tree

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Summary of the story 'The Eyes are Not Here'

The story 'The Eyes are Not Here' is also known as 'The Eyes Have It' and 'The Girl on the Train'. The narrator was going to Dehra. Up to Rohana, the narrator was alone in the compartment. A girl boarded the compartment from there. The couple who bid her goodbye at the station was anxious about her well being and advised her a lot regarding where to keep her belongings, not to lean out of the windows and to avoid talking to strangers.

Once the train left the station, the narrator started a conversation asking if she too was going to Dehra. The voice startled her as she thought her to be alone in the compartment. The girl told him that she was going to Saharanpur where her aunt would come to take her home. She also envied the narrator as the hills of Musso or ie, where he was headed to, presented a lovely sight in October (the present month).

After some more chit-chats, the narrator told her, guite daringly (as he was blind and could not have known her face for sure) that she had an interesting face. She laughed at this and replied that it was indeed a welcome deviation from the oft repeated phrase: 'You have a pretty face." Soon it was time for the girl to bid goodbye as the train arrived at her destination. After her departure, a man entered the compartment and apologized as a matter affect, for not being as attractive a travelling companion as his predecessor. When the narrator asked him if the girl had her hair long or short, he replied that he had noticed only her eyes, which were beautiful but of no use, as she was completely blind.

Questions – Answers

Q.l.) What is the significance of the title 'The Eyes are not Here'?

Answer: The story 'The eyes are not here' written by Riskin Bond was originally published in Contemporary Indian English Stories. In the story, there was a blind man who was the narrator too in the story. His eyes were sensitive only to light and darkness. He was going to Dehradun by train. In the train he met a girl and had a chitchat with her. After some time she left and another passenger came into the compartment. When the narrator talked to him, he came to know that the girl was blind. The title is apt and justified as the title gives a glimpse of the story. The title is short and attractive.

Through the title, the writer suggests that both the main characters sitting in the train are blind and can not see properly but they use their ears as well as wit to give each other the impression that they are able to see. Both of them used their senses to hide their blindness and decieve one another. They want to conceal the truth from one another and it forces them into hypocrisy and pretence. The blindman feels happy and satisfied as he thinks that he has hidden his blindness from the girl but when the girl has left the compartment and another passenger comes in and tells that the girl was blind, the blindman is shocked and surprised. So, here comes an interesting twist in the story and the title justifies itself.

Q.2.) Write the character sketch of the girl in the story 'The Eyes are not here'.

Answer: The girl in an important character in the story. Though the main hero of the story is the narrator of the story but the another character, the blind girl dominates the whole story. Before the arrival of the girl, the man is all alone in the compartment. It was only after the arrival of the girl that story proceeds. She is an attractive girl with pretty face.

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She is very intelligent and clever. She knows how to manage with the problems and situation. She is completely successful in concealing her blindness. The writer, who was thinking himself intelligent and clever, is completely surprised at the intelligence and smartness at the end of the story. He was so much conscious to conceal his own blindness from the girl that he could not pay attention or think about the blindness of the girl and the girl outwits him in the end.

The girl is sharp-minded and confident. She manages to answer all the questions asked by the narrator in such a way that he even could not think about her blindness. She is bold and courageous enough to travel all alone inspite of her blindness. She doesn't need help from others. She is very smart. She manages to conceal her ignorance about the presence of the man. Secondly, when the man asks what it is like, she says he can see for himself. At another place when the man wants to know about the trees seem to be moving she cleverly changes the topic.

She is friendly and social at behaviour. She talks to the narrator in a comfortable and good manner.

3) THE LEMANT - ANTON P. CHEKHOV

About the Author

Antono P. Chekhov is considered to be one of the greatest short story writers in world literature. He was a Russian short story writer, playwright and physician. In his work Chekhov combined the dispassionate attitude of a scientist and doctor with the sensitivity and psychological understanding of an artist. Antonn P. Chekov was born on 17 Jan. 1860 in a small report ofTaganrog, Southern Russia. His early years were shadowed by his father's tyranny, religious fanaticism and long nights in the store. The family was forced to move to Moscow following his father's bankruptcy. At the age of 16, Chekhov became independent and remained for sometime alone in his native town, supporting himself through private tutoring.

While in the school, he began to publish hundreds of comic short stories to support himself and his family. his first book of stories (1886) was an success and he gradually became a full time writer. He was awarded the Pushkin Prize in 1888. Next year he was elected a member of the society of Lovers of Russian Literature. In 1900, he became a member of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, but resigned his post two years later as a protest against the cancellation by the authorities of Gorky's election to the Academy. He married the theater actress Olga Knipper in 1901.

He died on July 14/15, 1904 in Badenweiler, Germany. He was buried in the cemetery of Movodemiche Monastery in Moscow. Though a celebrated figure by the Russian literary public at the time of his death Chekhov remained rather unknown internationally until the years after World War I, when his works were translated into English.

Summary of the Story

The story 'The Lament' leaves a great impression on our minds due to its emotional and psychological touch. In the story, Iona Potapov is a cab driver. He has lost his son, Kuzma Isonitch recently. Iona wants to share his grief with others to get some emotional relief. He wants to tell others about his son's death but gets nobody ready to listen such things. Iona sits on his cab on a fairly crowded street. It is very cold evening and Iona is not able to find a single person who can spend a few minutes with him. An officer hires lona's cab. On the way lona tries to begin the story of his son but the officer's response is not the least encouraging. He is in a hurry to reach his destination. lona has to give up the attempt of having his lamentation made.

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After some time, lona gets three another passengers. They are three young quarrelling person. lona gets up some relief in their company though he puts up with insults. He tries to tell them the tale of his son's death but they do not pay any attention and ask him to drive faster. lona becomes sad and at reaching his destination he tries to tell to another cab driver that his son died last week. But lona finds that the driver has fallen asleep before he actually starts his story. Sona becomes helpless. All of his efforts have failed. Nobody has time for him.

But in the end of the story, there comes a sudden turn. We see a psychological touch when Sona goes to his horse and is obliged to turn to her for audience. She shows sympathy and touches his hand with her mouth as he tells her about the death of his son recently and shares his grief with her. The horse responds to lona's need and lona gets a lot of relief By the end of the story, the writer wants to suggest that animals are more human than the so-called human beings.


Q.l.) What is the theme of the story 'The Lament'? or What does the writer want to convey through the character of Iona in the story 'The Lament'?

Answer: The story 'The Lament' is written by A.P. Chekhov. The writer has written this story to show the human condition and helplessness through the creation of emotions. The writer wants to show the human nature and psychological behaviour of the people. Sometimes, animals and beasts behave better than the human beings. They understand us and our feelings better than anybody else can.

Undeniably, it can be said that an exclusive and most unique quality of a human is his ability to express emotions and the writer of the story is expert in it. We see in the story, lona, the protagonist in the story, whose son has died just a week ago is desperately looking for someone who can share his grief.

It is believed when we express our emotions we share our sorrows and pains and b:,- doing so we relieve ourselves as our pain is divided and we feel relieved of carrying the entire load of agony and pain all by ourselves. lona feels very lonely and dejected after the death of his son. His thoughts torment him with every moment of silence and he eagerly waits for his fares and hopes that they would share his grief but he finds nobody willing to share his burden of pain and sorrow.

At this moment, we see a turning point in the story. When at night he turns to his faithful horse who not only listens him patiently but consoles him and offers whatever comfort she can give to the lamenting lona.

The writer wants to convey that today people have become selfish and emotionless. Sometimes, they behave in very rude and strange manner. On the other hand, perhaps animals understand us better and are rather ready to listen to our grief and this is true at least in the case oflona who ultimately finds his own horse to share his pain with. It does not surprise us that the horse listens. It does surprise us, though, that we can't do what an animal can - to listen and we understand the importance of listening and sharing pain.

Q.2.) Write through this story character sketch of Iona Potapov in the story 'The Lament'.

Answer: lona is the main character in the story 'The Lament'. He is a cab driver. He is a sensitive and emotional person. He has lost his son just before a week. He is filled with so much despair that his physical body also has been affected by it. He is an old, thin and weak fellow. He is bent as double as the living body

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can be bent. The falling snow covers him and he even doesn't bother to brush it of.

Though he is not physically fit yet he is sincere to his duty. As a cab driver he performs his duty well. When a military officer calls him, he awakes from his trance-like state. he is treading the line of insanity because of his mannerisms. lona turning his back while driving to talk to the officer is another due to what he is experiencing. These descriptions given by the writer regarding lona's actions tell us that Sona is feeling intense grief and misery over the death of his son.

He is a lonely man. After the death of his son there is nobody to listen him. He yearns to tell the story of his misery to others. Unfortunately, no one is interested in his story. The officer doesn't care about his story and he closed his eyes while 10{la attempted to start a conversation. His next fares, the three young men, also do not care about his story. They insult him and even cheat him with the fare. They taunt him regarding his ugly hat and his driving. Any other person would be angry at this but lona remains silent and replies simply as, "Hi, gay young gentlemen!".

lona's grief is too much for him that he yearns to unburden himself by sharing his grief with others. Later, he finds an another young cab driver. He offers the youngman a drink to quench his thirst. He takes water and without any consideration for lona, covers his head and falls to sleep.

At last, he finds his little white mare not any human beings, ready to listen him. Unlike all the others the horse listens and lona is relieved to some extent. lona's search for a listener concludes with an animal rather than a human being.

4) THE ROCKING HORSE WINNER - D.H. LAWRENCE

David Herbert Lawrence was one of the greatest figures in 20th century English Literature. He was a novelist, story writer, critic, poet and painter. He was born in the mining town of Eastwood, Not tinghamshire, in Central England. His father A J. Lawrence was a coal miner and heavy drinker. His mother Lydia, nee Beardsall was a formal school teacher and greatly superior in education to her husband. Lawrence's childhood was dominated by poverty and friction between his parents.

After studies at Nottingham University, he briefly pursued a teaching career. In 1914, he married Frieda Von Richthofen and travelled with her in several countries. One of his novels 'The Rainbow' was banned for its alleged obscenity. This banning created further difficulties for him in getting anything published. During the First World War Lawrence and his wife were unable to obtain passports and were target of constant harassment from the authorities. He published so many novels and short stories. He was of the opinion that instincts are more important than the reason. Between ] 922 and 1926 he and Frieda left Italy to live intermittentty in Ceylon, Australia and Maxico. After severe illness in Maxico - Lawrence contracted malaria and it was found that he was suffering from tuberculosis. From 1925, the Lawrences confined their travels to Europe. He died at Villa Robermond in Venice, France on March 2, 1930.

His Works: Some of his important writings are Sons and Lovers Love Poems and Others, 1913 The Rainbow Women in LoveThe Lost GirlEngland, My England

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Mornings in Mexico Last Poems The Plays The First Lady Chatterley A Prelude Posthumous Papers The Paintings of D.H. Lawrence Lady Chatterley's Lover Interviews and Recollections Letters

Summary of the Story In the story, Hester has three children, a son and two daughters. She feels crushed under the burden of her children - Paul and his two sisters. She is under the realisation that her husband is an unlucky man who can't bring enough money into the family. So, the children who have been brought up in this atmosphere, were of the minds shaped by a whisper haunting their house, "There must be more money. There must be more money!" Paul Thinks that he should do something to improve the conditions. Paul had got it into his mind that he was' lucky' . He felt as if God had whispered this intuition into his spirit. Paul had a big rocking horse. He would sit on it and rock madly. This rocking of the horse by Paul seems to facilitate his communion with some mysterious, forces. Paul used to say, "Now take me to where there is luck. Now take me!"

Oscar Cresswell, uncle of Paul, also liked horse races very much. Bassett, the gardener, used to guide Paul about the horse races. Oscar comes to know about the interest and capabilities of Paul in this field. He comes together with Paul. Paul starts bring money to his uncle and the gardener. But sometimes he is confused about the winning horse.

Paul proves to be unnaturally talented at divining the winners of the races, and before too long he has saved a considerable sum of money. When his uncle asks him what he plans to do with the money, he reveals that he wants to give it to his mother. He hopes that his contribution will bring her luck and make the house stop whispering. Oscar, his mother's brother advises him to deposit the money with the family lawyer. It will be paid to his mother - one thousand pounds every year on her birthday. Paul is eager to read the expression of joy on the face of his mother, on receiving an anonymous gift. Later he is told by uncle that Hester had asked for the whole amount at once and she got it. The money is soon spent. The mysterious voices still haunted the house and shouted, "There must be more money."

Now Paul has his hopes fixed on the Derby horse-race. One day when his mother returns home, she is shocked by the sight of the boy 'madly surging on the rockinghorse'. He puts his bet on Malabar. Malabar wins the Derby but Paul lies in bed, seriously ill and ultimately dies.


Q.1. ) What is the main theme of the short story 'The Rocking Horse Winner'?

Answer: There are so many themes in the story 'The Rocking Horse Winner'. The first important theme is responsibility. Paul, a young boy is brought in a family which always was in the need of money. He feels his own responsibility towards his family. He sets out to find a way to get money through luck. He finds that he is lucky and when he rides his rocking horse fast enough, he somehow comes to know the name of the winning horse in the next race. He beins to make money and secretly provides this money to his mother. One day he

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rides his rocking horse so furiously that he falls seriously ill and ultimately dies. Through this story the writer wants to say that it is the responsibility of the parents to spend money wisely and look after their children in the best possible manner. In the story, the parents of Paul are not responsible parents and that is why, Paul has to suffer. Even when Paul gives his mother five thousand rupees from his earnings, she spends all the money unwisely rather than paying off debts and saving it for the future.

Next another important themes are generosity and greed. Paul is generous enough to help his family so that the family members might be relieved. He doesn't think about himself and doesn't spend money on himself inspite of winning handsome amount. He works according to the suggestion given by his uncle. His generosity and humanity can be seen when he sends a lawyer to his mother who tells her that she has inherited five thousand pounds from a long-lost relative which will be paid to her in yearly increments of one thousand pounds. On the other hand, the greed of Paul's mother can be seen when she even doesn't tell the family of their good fortune and asks the lawyer to give her the entire amount. Paul agrees for that but his mother spends the money foolishly on the material things. Other themes are innocence and unconscious desire of Paul to take the place of the head of the family. Materialism is also an another theme. Paul's mother finally had the money she desperately wanted, but lost her son for ever in getting it.

Q.2.) Write a character sketch of Paul in the story 'The Rocking Horse Winner' or Who is the real hero in the story 'The Rocking Horse Winner'?

Answer: Paul is the most important character in the story 'The Rocking Horse Winner'. Paul is the young boy in the story who tries desperately to find a way to have 'luck' means money for his family. He is a responsible boy. He cares for his family and works very hard for the welfare of the family. He was brought up in a family where there always was a lack of money. So, he understands the value of money and aspires for that. He not only aspires but works hard also to get it. He is a caring and loving son. He cares his mother too much. And when he earns money by riding his rocking horse he gives all the money secretly to his mother without keeping anything for himself. His mother doesn't care him so much and demands more money. He works too hard and on account of that ultimately he dies. He sacrifices his life for the sake of his mother and her comforts.

He believes in luck. He finds a way to have luck. He begins to ride his rocking horse furiously. By doing so he comes to know the name of the winner horse of the next race. He makes a hug amount of money through this an with the help of the gardener and his uncle. For the final big race, the Derby, he rides himself even having temperature. He is sure of his win and his uncle places a large bet for him. But when his uncle goes to him to tell what fortune he has made, Paul dies from the high fever.

Paul is not Mature enough as he could not know that he has oveburdened himself with the responsibilities which must be taken by his parents. He is too much concerned with the problems of his family specially, the problem of money. He asks his mother why they do not have money. She replies that his father had no luck. Paul directly associates luck with money and due to immaturity starts gambling with Bassett. Even his uncle does not stop him. It is just because of his immaturity that he sacrifices his life for his mother who is careless cold and indifferent towards him.

5) THE BARBER'S TRADE UNION - MULK RAJ ANAND About the Author Mulk Raj Anand was an Indian writer in English known for his depiction of the lives of the poor castes in

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traditional Indian society. He is a realist, critic and humanist. He exposes the evils prevailing and calls for revolt and reform. He was born on 12th Dec. 1905 at Peshawar. His father's name was Lal Chand who was a coppersmith and a soldier and his mother was Ishwar Kaur. Anand rebelled against his father's subservience to the British authorities. He wrote his first text as a reaction to the trauma of the suicide of an aunt, who had been excommunicated for dining with Muslim woman.

Anand attended Khalsa college, Amritsar and entered the University of Punjab in 1921, graduating with honors in 1924. Thereafter Anand did his additional studies at Cambridge and at London University, receiving his Ph.D. in 1929. He studied and later lectured at League of Nations School of Intellectual Cooperation in Geneva. Between 1932 and 1945 Anand lectured, on and off, at worker's Educational Association in London.

After the World War II, Anand returned permanently to India, making Bombay his hometown and center of activity. In 1946 he founded the fine-arts magazine 'Marg'. He also became a director of Kutub Publishers. From 1948 to 1966 Anand taught at Indian universities. Between the year 1965 and 1970 Anand was fine art Chairman at Lalit Kala Akademi In 1970 he was appointed president of Lokayata Trust, for creating a community and cultural center in the village of Hauz Khas, New Delhi. Anand married the actress Kathleen Van Gelder in 1939. After divorce in 1948, her married Shirin Vajibdar a famous dancer. He has written a seven-volume autobiography, entitled 'Seven Ages of Man' . He died at Pune on Sept. 28, 2004.

His Selected Works

UntouchableCoolieTwo Leaves and a Bud The VillageLetters on IndiaThe Barber's Trade Union, and Other Stories The Indian TheatreSeven SummersThe Private Life of An Indian PrinceThe Story of Man Death of a Hero The Story of Chacha NehruBetween Tears and Laughter Homage to Jaipur Tales from Tolstoy Golden Goa Madhubani Painting Poet-Painter, Paintings and Rabindranath Tagore Summary of the Story

The story 'The Barber's Trade Union' is a story of a boy named Chandu. He was the barber boy of his village. The writer says that he always liked the boy but his mother did not like his mixing up with a low caste boy. When Chandu's father died of plague, he had to do his father's work. Chandu was attracted towards the town-life. He is impressed by the wonderful English styles in clothes. As he is more educated than the other barbers, he thinks that he is made fora better class.

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One day Chandu surprises everybody by appearing dressed in a white turban, a white rubber coat, and a pair of pumps. The landlord, Bijay Chand, doesn't like this change. He abuses Chandu and threatens him. When Chandu went to the shop of the Sahukar, the moneylender Thanu Ram, he too abused Chandu and refused a haircut unless he got into his old clothes. Pandit Parmanand also condemns Chandu. Thus, Chandu's dress creates an uproar in the village.

Now, Chandu thinks that he can earn more money by practising his profession in the town. He decides to go on strike as far as his work in the village is concerned and purchases a bicycle and then he will be able to go to the town daily. In this way, he will not be concerned with the people in village. He buys a second-hand bicycle, learns to ride it and proclaims his independence. In the meantime, the beards and the hair of the men in the village keep growing. Chandu notices the sad and shabby faces of the villagers. He asks the narrator to mock the landlord and others by calling them 'beavers'.

The village elders threaten to go to the police. They approach the mother of Chandu too but nothing helps. Even they are not able to find a barber from the nearby village because Chandu collects all the barbers from the neighbouring places. He opens a shop in the village and names it 'Rajkot District Barber Brothers' Hair Dressing and Shaving Saloon. In this way, this trade union of working man starts its work.

Questions - Answers

Q.l.) Discuss 'The Barber's Trade Union' as a realistic picture of our social environment. Answer: After reading Mulk Raj Anand we come to know that he was a real socialist with progressive thinking and believed in the equality of all people of all castes. He did not like caste distinction and social injustice. His stories reflect the contemporary reality. They are the true picture of social realism.

The story 'The Barber's Trade Union' is one of such examples. It depicts the real picture of our social environment. IN the story, the narrator belongs to an upper caste while Chandu, the hero of the story belongs to barber tribe means a low caste. Chandu adopts the hereditary profession after the death of his father. Mulk Raj Anand hated the people of higher castes who treated people of low caste with hatred, dishonour and discrimination. He makes Chandu his mouthpiece. Chandu is a person in the story who stands against oppression and caste distinction. He loves freedom. He has an infatuation for the stylish clothes and aspires to dre~s himself in them and simply for that reason he is censured by the society - a society which is dominated by upper caste people in the village. This gods his innerself and individual respect. So, he leaves the village and makes 'Barber's Trade Union'.

Anand always regarded caste distinction between the rich and the poor as a social curse on the Indian society. He criticises such kind of social evils in his stories. Through the character of Chandu he shows the enthusiasm of the younger generation for new things. He plans a strategy to fight against the injustice. He uses a practical and professional approach to deal with the problems.

Q.2.) Write a Character sketch of Chandu.

Answer: Chandu is the main figure in the story 'The Barber's trade Union'. He is a low-caste boy. He is the only barber ofthe village. After the death of his father he has to adopt the profession of his father (barber). He gives up his education and goes to the houses of his father's clients to dress their hair or to shave them.

Chandu is a progressive boy. He is called by the writer 'one of the makers of Modem India'. Though he is working and serving the villagers just like his father but internally he wanted progress for himself. That is

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why, he goes to the city and adopts fashion and style.

He is not conventional. He likes to do unconventional things. He doesn't shy of wearing stylish or modern clothes. Once he comes to the village wearing, the clothes of a doctor and carrying a leather bag though he is criticized for that.

He is modern by thinking. He is ready to learn new things which are helpful in his progress. He learns cycling and after sometime buys a cycle for him because he thinks that it would save time and energy and he would be able to serve more people with the help of cycle.

Chandu is a courageous boy. he is not feared by the threats given by the people of upper caste. He even plans a strategy to fight against this injustice. He ignores the sharp criticism ofthe people. He wants to show the light of progress to the villagers and later because a role model for the people when he starts his own saloon.

He is a practical and professional person. He adopts all new methods, style and attitude useful in his business and progress. He purchases as old bicycle and unites all the barbers of the neighbourhood to clear his view and strategy. At last, his strategy works. In this way, it can be said that Chandu is a courageous, practical, progressive and professional person and the real hero of the story.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1. What is the significance of the title 'The Gift of the Magi'?

Q.2. Write a character sketch of Dell.

Q.3. Discuss the role of the girl in the story 'The eyes are not here'.

Q.4. What is the theme of the story 'The Lament'?

Q.5. Who is the real hero in the story 'The Rocking Horse Winner'?

Q.6. 'The Barber's Trade Union' is a realise picture of our social environment. Discuss.

Q.7. Write a character sketch of Chandu.

SUGGESTED READING

1. Studies in Phonetics and Linguistics, David, Oxford University Press

2. A Text Book of English Phonetics for Indian Students, T. Balasubramaniam, Macmillan

3. An English Phonetics Course, P. Christophersen, Longman, London

4. Principles of the international Phonetics Association, Revised ed. London.

5. A Handbook of Pro no unci at ion of English, 1. Sethi, Prentice - Hall of India

6. Practice Material for the English sounds, Cambridge University, E.L. Tribbitts

7. Classic Note Book of European Encyclopedia, 1. Williams, Horton University

8. The Standard of Asian Encyclopedia, Dr. Rameshy Bhandari, Navyug Publisher

9. Comparative Encyclopedia, Dr. Zaus Willson, Cambridge University

10. Art of Business Communication, S.K. Sinha

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11. Skills of Business Communication, Dr. Morman

12. Presentation, Interview and Debate, Dr. Moris Wilson

13. An Anthology of English Short Stories, R.P. Singh

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ASSIGNMENT

ASSIGNMENT· 1 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Akriti Tyagi LL.B. 5 yr. (3rd 8em.)

Meaning Process, Main Forms Purpose

We should remember that all communication is by nature conversation. All communication is essentially sharing of information or some message. The world "communicate" comes from the Latin word "communicate" that means to impart, to participate, to share or to make common. By nature of its Latin origin it is also the sourced English word "common'. Whatever is common in shared by all. Hence the sense of "sharing" in inherent is the very origin and nature of communication. What is it that we share is communication? The one word answer is "Information".

Business Communication

If we communicate in order to transact some commercial activity i.e. providing goods or services, with the intention of generating profits, it is called Business Communication between the people in the organisation for the purpose of carrying out the business activities.

Our business progress if communication channel in the organisation is working properly. All the people within and outside the organisation should communiate properly to work effectively so, it can be said that the exchange of ideas, understanding, within and outside the organisation to achieve the business goals is known as Business Commnication.

Features

In the first place it is important to mote that all communication in conversational and to large extent tradition-bound. The relationship in communication provides a contract for interaction. In almost all cases over times the relationship between people expansively spreads beyond the function of all interaction, encompassing other areas of their behaviour.

Secondly, Communication is meaning based. We must be able to link words together so as to make propositions.

Thirdly, All Communication is inter-actionable. It is the use of language to keep open the channel of communication between people and to establish suitable rapport.

Forthly, Communication in always supposed to be appropriate.

Fifthly. It must be muted that all communication in structured Recent studies in communication regard every price of communication, whether spoken or written, as grew. Look into the pattern of its information

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structuring or logical organisation and come up with useful interference for the consumption of the corporate world.

Process Process of Communication

Basically in the organisation, the communication occurs among people (within or outside the organisation). We must understand how communication occurs among people. There is a proper process for it. This process can be understand in this way-

The Beginning (Message sent)

Entry in Sensory word

Detection by the senses

Filtering process

Formation and sendingForms of CommunicationMain Forms of CommunicationIn an organisation communication may fall into three categories.

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

Internal External Personal

External Communication The communication includes the work related communication which is done with people outside the business such as: suppliers, services companies, customers and general public etc. This communication includes all the efforts at direct selling like brochures, telephone calls, follow-up services calls, advertising etc. It is done to improve its public relations, planned publicity, community services and courtesy of its employees. This public relations category includes a very important thing and message contributes greatly to an company's goods image and good business like internal communication, external communication is also important to business success.

Internal Communication of plans of business is called Internal communication. There are so many functions of this kind of communication; establishing the goals of an enterprise

a) establishing the goals of an enterprise b) co-ordinating different departments c) promoting a spirit and the employees d) developing plans for the achievement of the goals of the enterprise e) reducing the complexity of business activity f) controlling the performance g) maintaining the growth of business in size

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Personal Communication The communication in business that is not operational and is done without purpose as far as concerned with business is called personal communication. It is exchange of information and feelings in which we human beings engage whenever, we come together. Though it is not a part of business plan of operation, yet personal communication has a significant effect on the success of that plan: Absolute denial of personal communication can lead to emotional upset. On the other hand, excessive personal communication can interfere with the work done. So the middle position is best.

Purpose Purpose of Communication The purpose of communication is: - transmission of information from a source to target - to give the feedback to the employees (their achievement, performance) - to control mechanism - to influence people - solve problems - decision making - helps in recognising the difficulties in the different changes in the planning - building relationship - motivation and praise

Principles Principles of Communication

To make different forms of communication effective we should follow some principles such as: - Varity of thought and expression - Use simple word, single words for long phrase, use verbs for upon (ex. make a decision--decide),

avoid double entry, use concrete expression - Avoid excessive use of the inflictive, avoid amsiguity and avoid forgone - Use short sentences - Completeness of facts in absolutely necessary. - Be as brief as possible

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ASSIGNMENT- 2

PHONETICS

Rohit Saharawat B.A. LL.B. 5 yr. (3rd Sem.)

Phonetics is the scientific study of the production, transmission & reception of speech sounds. It studies the Medium of spoken language. Touching upon physiology & physics, Phonetics is now pure science. That studies speech processes, including the anatomy, neurology & pathology of speech, as well as the articulation, description, classification, production & perception of speech sounds.

Phonetics studies the defining characteristics of all human vocal noise and concentrates its attention on those sounds which occur is the languages of the world.

History of Phonetics

The ancient Hindu Richis who composed the Vedas, most have been in the knowledge of phonetic. The Vedas were to be chaned and pronounced very accurately. To mispronounce a Vedic mantra or richa was regarded as a sin of the first order.

Branches of Phonetics

There are three branches of Phonetics.

Acoustic Phonetics: It is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds such as frequency in their transsion. It has achieved a good deal of success in matters of the study of the sound of vowels, but regarding consonants it has not reached final conclusion. Auditory Phonetics: It is the study of hearing the perception of each sound. It studies different auditory impressions of quality, pitch & loudness of sounds. The auditory classification of speech sounds has not yet-been carried to a decisive phase. At the present time, phonetics can be regarded as being made up of two main branches: participatory and acoustic phonetics.

Articulatory Phonetics: It recognizes that speech is produced by some kind of sound making apparatus inside the human body & that specific sounds may be related to specific movement of the apparatus. The knowledge of the organs of speech, their relation to each other, & the way is which they are used while speaking, produced a sound basis for the classification of sounds of human languages.

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ASSIGNMENT- 3 COMMUNICATION

Priyanka B.A. LL.B. 5 yr. (3rd Sem.)

What do you understand by 'Communication'? Discuss the importance of business communication?

Thus, communication means sharing of ideas, opinions, facts and information in common, communication means "the imparting, conveying or exchange of ideas, knowledge, etc whether by speech, writing or signs."

In words of Newman & summer, "It is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more indication as, "the sum of all the things one person does when he wants without understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.

Characteristics of Communication

Communication involves at least two persons, a sender and receiver. The sender is called communicator and the receiver of the message is known as communicate. A person who speaks, writes or issues some instructors is the sender and the person for whom the communication is meant or who receives the message is the receiver.

Message is Must

A message is the subject matter of communication, e.g., the contents of the letter or speech, order, instructions or the suggestions. If there is no message there is no communication.

Communication may be written, oral gestural communication may be written, oral or gestural & is generally understood as spoken of written words. But in reality, it is more than that e.g., movement of lips, or the wink an eye on the wave of hands may convey more meaning than even written or spoken words.

Communication may be formal or informal formal communication follows the formal channels provided in the organisation structure. e.g., the Managing Director communicates with the departmental heads, say Finance Manager, finance manager will communicate to deputy Finance Manager, the deputy finance manager with accounts officer & so on. Informal communication flows from informal channels of communication which are not provided in an organisation structure,

It flows up & down & also from side to side :

Communication flows downward from a superior to sub-ordinate and upward from sub-ordinate to superior.

Importance of Communication In the opinion of chester Bernard, "the first executive function is to develop and maintain a system of communication" he called communication as the foundation of all groups activities. In the words of G.R. Terry. "it serves as the lubricant fostering for the smooth operations of management process." The

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importance of communication can be judges from the following:

Basis of Decision-making and Planning

Communication is essential for decision-making & planning. It enables the management to secure information without which it may not be possible to take any decisions.

Smooth and Efficient Working of an org. In the words of G.R. Terry, as operations of management process.

Facilitates Co-ordination management is the art of getting things done through others and this objective of management cannot be achieved unless there is unity of purpose and harmony of effort. It binds the people together & facilitates co-ordination.

Effective Communication increases managerial efficiency. It is rightly said that nothing happens in management until communication takes place. The efficiency of a manager depends upon his ability to communicate effectively with the members of his organization.

Promotes Co-operation and Industrial Peace Effective communication creates mutual understanding and trust among the members of the organisation. It promotes between the employer and the employees without communication, there cannot be sound industrial relation & industrial peace.

Helps in establishing effective leadership communication is the bases of effective leadership. There cannot be any leadership action without the effective communication between the leader and the led.

Motivation & Morale

Communication is the means by which the behavior of the subordinates is modified and change is effected in their actions.

Effective Control Managerial function of control implied the measurement of actual performance, comparing it with standards set by plane and taking corrective actions of deviations, if any. To ensure attainment of enterprise objective according to preconceived planned acts.

Job Satisfaction Effective communication creates job satisfaction among employees as it increases mutual trust & confidence between management and the employees.

Public Relation In the present business world, every business enterprise has to create and business enterprise has to create and maintain a good corporate image in the society. It is only through communication that management can present a good corporate image to the outside world.

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