ENGLISH PROSODIC MORPHOLOGY

This book has been published in cooperation with the editors of the journalMorphology, also published by Springer. The aim of Morphology is to publish highquality articles that contribute to the understanding of morphological phenomena andto the articulation of morphological theory and linguistic theory in general. The editorsalso function as intermediaries in the publication of monographs sharing the aims andambitions of the journal. This monograph is the first result of this arrangement.

Geert BooijJennifer HayIngo Plag

ENGLISH PROSODICMORPHOLOGY

SABINE LAPPEUniversity of Siegen

Germany

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008920293

ISBN 978-1-4020-6005-2 (HB)ISBN 978-1-4020-6006-9 (ebook)

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This work is a revised version of the author’s doctoral dissertation submitted to theUniversity of Siegen in August 2005 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

of Doctor of Philosophy (Dr. phil.).

CONTENTS

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XIII

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. ENGLISH PROSODIC MORPHOLOGY: MORPHOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 A Phonological Theory of a Morphological Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.1 Prosodic Morphology – The Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.2.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.2.3 English Prosodic Morphological Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.2.4 English y-hypocoristics: Further Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.3 English Prosodic Morphology and Word Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.3.1 The Form of the Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.3.2 The New-word Status of Truncated Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2. ENGLISH PROSODIC MORPHOLOGY: PROSODY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.2 Descriptive Approaches to Name Truncation and Word

Clipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.2.1 Sundén's (1904) Analysis of Name Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322.2.2 Kreidler's (1979) Analysis of Word Clipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342.2.3 Simpson (2001): Truncated Place Names in

Australian English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.3 Recent Accounts with a Focus on Linguistic Modelling:

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.3.1 Output Structure in Unsuffixed Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362.3.2 Output Structure in Suffixed Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.4 The MinWd Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402.4.1 The Central Tenets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402.4.2 Problems with the MinWd Approach:

Quantity-sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442.4.3 Problems with the MinWd Approach:

Extrametricality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472.5 Correspondence: Truncated Words and their Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502.6 Accounting for the Structure of English Truncations:

The Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

v

VI CONTENTS

3. THE PATTERNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3.2.1 The Basic Rationale of the Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593.2.2 The Main Corpus on Name Truncation:

Phillips (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613.2.3 Supplementary Data on Name Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613.2.4 The Corpus on Word Clipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3.3 The Inventory: Name Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663.4 The Inventory: Word Clipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693.5 How many Bases, How many Derivatives? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4. THE STRUCTURE OF MONOSYLLABIC TRUNCATED NAMES . . . . 774.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774.2 Basic Syllable Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4.2.1 Onset, Nucleus, Coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774.2.2 VV or VVC? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.3 Consonant Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804.3.1 General Cluster Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804.3.2 Mixed Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4.3.2.1 [r]-initial Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854.3.2.2 [l]-initial Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874.3.2.3 Nasal-initial Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.3.3 Obstruent Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914.3.3.1 Stop-stop and Fricative-stop Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924.3.3.2 Stop-fricative Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

4.3.4 Intermediate Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954.4 Truncated Forms and Their Bases – Segment Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

4.4.1 Vowel Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974.4.2 Consonant Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

4.5 Truncated Names and Their Bases – the Material Copied . . . . . . . . . . 1014.5.1 The Contiguity of Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014.5.2 Anchoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

4.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

5. THE STRUCTURE OF Y-HYPOCORISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075.2 Basic Syllable Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075.3 Consonant Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

5.3.1 General Cluster Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095.3.2 Mixed Clusters Rising in Sonority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125.3.3 Mixed Clusters Falling in Sonority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

5.3.3.1 [r]-initial Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

CONTENTS VII

5.3.3.2 Nasal-initial Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165.3.3.3 [l]-initial Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

5.3.4 Obstruent Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195.3.4.1 Stop-stop and Fricative-stop Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205.3.4.2 Stop-fricative Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

5.3.5 Intermediate Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235.4 Truncated Forms and Their Bases – Segment Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

5.4.1 Vowel Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1265.4.2 Consonant Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

5.5 y-Hypocoristics and Their Bases – The Material Copied . . . . . . . . . . . 1325.5.1 The Contiguity of Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335.5.2 Anchoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

6. THE STRUCTURE OF CLIPPINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396.2 The Structure of Monosyllabic Clippings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

6.2.1 Basic Syllable Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396.2.2 Consonant Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

6.2.2.1 Mixed Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426.2.2.2 Obstruent Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

6.2.3 s-suffixation: Morphological Effects on Syllable Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

6.2.4 The Relation Between Clippings and Their Bases: Segment Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

6.2.5 Anchoring in Monosyllabic Clippings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1516.2.6 Intermediate Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

6.3 The Structure of y-suffixed and o-suffixed Clippings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1526.3.1 Basic Syllable Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1526.3.2 Consonant Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

6.3.2.1 Clusters in y-suffixed Clippings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1546.3.2.2 Clusters in o-suffixed Clippings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

6.3.3 Suffixed Clippings and Their Bases: Segment Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

6.3.4 Suffixed Clippings and Their Bases: Anchoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1576.3.5 Intermediate Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

6.4 The Structure of Unsuffixed Disyllabic Clippings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1586.4.1 General Properties of the Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1586.4.2 The Stress Pattern of the Base and the Clipping: Anchoring . . . . 1606.4.3 The Structure of the Final Syllable: Segmental Restrictions . . . . 1626.4.4 Intermediate Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

6.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

VIII CONTENTS

7. CONSTRAINT INTERACTION: WORD STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677.2 The Preservation of Prominent Material: Faithfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

7.2.1 Effects in Truncation and Related Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717.2.2 Formalisation: MAX-P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

7.3 Word Structure Characterised by Prominence: Markedness . . . . . . . . . 1787.4 Unsuffixed Truncation – the Typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807.5 Suffixed Truncation: Prominence and Affix Retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847.6 Further Restrictions: Anchoring in Name Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907.7 Further Restrictions: Stress in Unsuffixed Disyllabic Clipping . . . . . . . 1977.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

8. CONSTRAINT INTERACTION: SYLLABLE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . 2078.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2078.2 Basic Syllable Structure in Monosyllabic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

8.2.1 CONSONANT and Resultant Gaps in Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098.2.2 Syllable-weight and Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2168.2.3 Extrasyllabicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

8.3 Suffixed Disyllabic Forms: Complex Onsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2268.3.1 Mixed-cluster Onsets in the Final Syllable

of y-suffixed Truncation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2278.3.2 Medial Obstruent Clusters in y-suffixed Truncation:

Complex Onsets? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2288.3.3 The Peculiarities of o-suffixed Clippings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

8.4 Restrictions on Syllable Structure in Unsuffixed Disyllabic Clippings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

8.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

9. CONSTRAINT INTERACTION: CLUSTER PHONOTACTICS . . . . . . . . 2419.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2419.2 Mixed Clusters: the General Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

9.2.1 The Generalisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2449.2.2 Analysis: Markedness Hierarchies

and Faithfulness Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2479.3 Mixed Clusters: Additional Constraints on Monosyllables . . . . . . . . . . 250

9.3.1 The Avoidance of Voiced C2s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2519.3.2 The Absence of the Voice Effect in Clipped Words . . . . . . . . . . . 255

9.4 Mixed Clusters: Additional Constraints on Suffixed Disyllables . . . . . . 2559.4.1 The Sonority Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2579.4.2 The Homorganicity Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

9.5 Mixed Clusters with a Special Status: [rC] and Nasal-Stop Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2639.5.1 Exceptional Clusters, Part 1: The Antics of [rC] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

9.5.1.1 The Special Status of [r] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

CONTENTS IX

9.5.1.2 [r]'s Faithfulness to its Structural Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2669.5.2 Exceptional Clusters, Part 2: The Antics of Nasal-stop . . . . . . . . 267

9.5.2.1 The Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2689.5.2.2 Analysis: The Unmarked Status

of Homorganic Nasal-stop Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2719.6 Intermediate Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2749.7 Obstruent Clusters in Monosyllables and Disyllables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2779.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

10. CONSTRAINT INTERACTION: SEGMENTAL CHANGES . . . . . . . . . 28710.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28710.2 Schwa-Deneutralisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28910.3 Avoidance of the Dental Fricative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

10.3.1 Data and Generalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29110.3.2 Analysis: Markedness Versus Featural Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

10.4 Avoidance of Word-final [r] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29510.4.1 Data and Generalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29510.4.2 Analysis: Markedness vs. CONTIGUITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

10.5 Intermediate Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29810.6 Vowel Laxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30010.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

BIBILIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

AUTHOR INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

SUBJECT INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

PREFACE

In the past years I have spent much of my time writing what in the end has becomea very long book about very short words. What has emerged is a complex, but alsoa clear and empirically founded picture of the structural properties of English trun-cated words as well as an optimality-theoretic model of these properties in theresearch tradition of Prosodic Morphology. These will be of use to linguists inter-ested in the structure of English as well as to those interested in phonological and /or morphological theory. I have deliberately kept separate the empirical analysis andthe theoretical account of the data, so that the book can be used by scholars workingwithin OT as well as by those who do not. Finally, the style as well as the structureof the text are such that the book may not only have an academic readership, but mayalso be recommended as supplementary reading in pertinent university courses atboth undergraduate and graduate levels.

The project had its origins in a small analysis of a few structural aspects ofEnglish truncated names that I did as part of the requirements for a graduate semi-nar on Prosodic Morphology at the University of Marburg, taught by Ingo Plag andBirgit Alber. Back then, truncated names to me were more or less just 'short', and Ithought I could describe them in terms of their number of syllables and, in the rarecases in which there happened to be more than one, in terms of stress assignment.This has changed over the past few years. In this book, which is a revised (andabridged) version of my doctoral dissertation, not much is left of the original analy-sis. Instead, thousands of truncated words have taught me that, as everywhere in life,things are not as simple as they may seem. Working with the data has left me inamazement at the richness of the story that short words are able to tell us about theirexistence, about the nature of the language that they come from, about the intrica-cies of research in language, and, last but not least, about linguistic theory.

Although only my name is given as the author's name on the front cover, thisbook would not have been written without the support and encouragement of a lotof people who deserve a whole-hearted thank-you. I was very lucky to have learntfeeling enthusiastic about English linguistics from Rüdiger Zimmermann, and to bedragged into phonological and morphological theory by Birgit Alber and Ingo Plag.To Ingo and Birgit I owe a lot for constant encouragement, patience, and a tremen-dous amount of time and care spent on reading and discussing my drafts. Ingo hasbeen an awsome supervisor and friend, from whom I have learnt a lot. ChristianGrau, Christina Kellenter, Gero Kunter, Henner Metz, Taivi Rüüberg, MareileSchramm, Ute Wagner, Josephine Thomschke and Linda Zirkel, all from our Siegenteam, have carefully proofread and discussed various draft versions. I would espe-cially like to thank Taivi for the amount of time and care spent on the manuscript,much beyond the call of duty, as well as for her insightful comments on many of thepassages, which have helped improve the text both in form and in content.

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XII PREFACE

Furthermore, I am grateful for the constructive feedback I have received from par-ticipants of various linguistic colloquia and conferences both at home and abroad,especially from Geert Booij, Armin Mester, Iggy Roca, Christian Uffmann, andRichard Wiese, as well as from the members of my dissertation committee, RüdigerZimmermann, Gerhard Augst, and Franz-Josef Klein. Needless to say, all remainingerrors are my own. Finally, I would like to thank those people who have provided mewith loads of moral support, helping me to keep my chin up in rough times as wellas sharing moments of joy, always showing an interest in (or at least patiently lis-tening to) stuff that other people may consider completely abstract: Ute, Mareile,Gero, Maria, Sabine, Christian, Holger, Jörg, Martin, Hartwig, Taivi, Robert, and thewhole 'lunch gang', as well as my family, who have always known that this will takelong, but also that everything will go well in the end. Last but not least, Lutz, whostarted out as my boyfriend and is now my husband, was always there, was incredi-bly patient, and is now half a linguist himself. This is his book, too.

Sabine Arndt-Lappe

Siegen, December 2006

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

A. General Terms and Symbols

BT (correspondence) Base – Truncation (correspondence)CHAID Chi-squared Automatic Interaction Detector

(a model used to build classification trees for nominaldata, implemented in the SPSS Answer Tree®

software package)IO (correspondence) Input – Output (correspondence)IT (correspondence) Input – Truncation (correspondence)OED Oxford English DictionaryOT Optimality Theorythe Prosodic Hierarchy:

- Wd prosodic word- MinWd minimal prosodic word- ft foot- � syllable- � mora

UR Underlying RepresentationYate’s �2 Yate’s correction for continuity, applied in �2 tests

with less than 2 degrees of freedom

B. Transcription Symbols for Segmental and Suprasegmental Structure

[�l] phonetic transcription['�l] stressed syllable�i� orthographic representation(�) metrical foot��� extrametrical syllableH, L heavy, light syllableS, w phonetically strong, weak syllableC consonantC1, C2 first, second consonant in a clusterV lax vowelVV tense vowel or diphthong

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