English Phonetics and Phonology

English Phonetics andPhonology

An Introduction

Second Edition

Philip Carr

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

This second edition first published 2013© 2013 Philip Carr

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Carr, Philip, 1953–English phonetics and phonology : an introduction / Philip Carr. — Second edition.

pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-4051-3454-51. English language—Phonology. 2. English language—Phonetics.

PE1133.C34 2013421′.5—dc232012005351

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: Patrick Henry Bruce, Peinture/Nature Morte, c. 1925–6. Corcoran Gallery of Art,Washington, D.C. Photo © SuperStock.

Cover design by Simon Levy.

Set in 10.5/13pt Minion by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong

1 2013

Contents

List of Sound Recordings viiiPrefaces to the First Edition xiPreface to the Second Edition xviAcknowledgements xviiiFigure 1 The organs of speech xxFigure 2 The International Phonetic Alphabet xxi

1 English Phonetics: Consonants (i) 1

1.1 Airstream and Articulation 11.2 Place of Articulation 21.3 Manner of Articulation: Stops, Fricatives and Approximants 5

Exercises 8

2 English Phonetics: Consonants (ii) 10

2.1 Central vs Lateral 102.2 Taps and Trills 102.3 Secondary Articulation 112.4 Affricates 112.5 Aspiration 122.6 Nasal Stops 12

Exercises 14

3 English Phonetics: Vowels (i) 16

3.1 The Primary Cardinal Vowels 163.2 RP and GA Short Vowels 18

Exercises 21

4 English Phonetics: Vowels (ii) 22

4.1 RP and GA Long Vowels 224.2 RP and GA Diphthongs 23

Exercises 27

5 The Phonemic Principle 28

5.1 Introduction: Linguistic Knowledge 285.2 Contrast vs Predictability: The Phoneme 295.3 Phonemes, Allophones and Contexts 365.4 Summing Up 37

Exercises 39

6 English Phonemes 41

6.1 English Consonant Phonemes 416.2 The Phonological Form of Morphemes 436.3 English Vowel Phonemes 47

Exercises 50

7 English Syllable Structure 53

7.1 Introduction 537.2 Constituency in Syllable Structure 537.3 The Sonority Hierarchy, Maximal Onset and Syllable Weight 587.4 Language-Specific Phonotactics 617.5 Syllabic Consonants and Phonotactics 627.6 Syllable-Based Generalizations 647.7 Morphological Structure, Syllable Structure and Resyllabification 657.8 Summing Up 68

Exercises 68

8 Rhythm and Word Stress in English 70

8.1 The Rhythm of English 708.2 English Word Stress: Is It Entirely Random? 718.3 English Word Stress: Some General Principles 748.4 Word Stress Assignment in Morphologically Simple Words 758.5 Word Stress Assignment and Morphological Structure 798.6 Compound Words 848.7 Summing Up 86

Exercises 87

9 Rhythm, Reversal and Reduction 90

9.1 More on the Trochaic Metrical Foot 909.2 Representing Metrical Structure 93

vi Contents

9.3 Phonological Generalizations and Foot Structure 979.4 The Rhythm of English Again: Stress Timing and Eurhythmy 99

Exercises 106

10 English Intonation 107

10.1 Tonic Syllables, Tones and Intonation Phrases 10710.2 Departures from the LLI Rule 10910.3 IPs and Syntactic Units 11410.4 Tonic Placement, IP Boundaries and Syntax 11910.5 Tones and Syntax 12110.6 Tonic Placement and Discourse Context 12210.7 Summing Up 123

Exercises 123

11 Graphophonemics: Spelling–Pronunciation Relations 126

11.1 Introduction 12611.2 Vowel Graphemes and Their Phonemic Values 12711.3 Consonant Graphemes and Their Phonemic Values 132

Exercises 138

12 Variation in English Accents 140

12.1 Introduction 14012.2 Systemic vs Realizational Differences between Accents 14112.3 Perceptual and Articulatory Space 14512.4 Differences in the Lexical Distribution of Phonemes 149

Exercises 150

13 An Outline of Some Accents of English 152

13.1 Some British Accents 15213.2 Two American Accents 16113.3 Two Southern Hemisphere Accents 16413.4 An Overview of Some Common Phenomena Found in

Accent Variation 168Exercises 170

Suggested Further Reading 177Index 179

Contents vii

Sound Recordings

These sound files accompany exercises, the treatment of intonation, and thedescription of some of the varieties of English given here. They are marked in the margins with a headphones symbol (as shown), and are available at:www.wiley.com/go/carrphonetics

Track 1.1: Exercise 4Track 1.2: Exercise 5Track 1.3: Exercise 6

Track 2.1: Exercise 1Track 2.2: Exercise 2Track 2.3: Exercise 3

Track 3.1: Exercise 3

Track 4.1: Exercise 3

Track 5.1: Exercise 4

Track 6.1: Marry Merry Mary (vowel neutralization in GA)Track 6.2: Exercise 3

Track 7.1: Exercise 4

Track 8.1: Exercise 1Track 8.2: Exercise 2Track 8.3: Exercise 3Track 8.4: Exercise 4Track 8.5: Exercise 5Track 8.6: Exercise 6

Listen to soundfiles online

Track 9.1: Exercise 2Track 9.2: Exercise 3Track 9.3: Exercise 4

Track 10.1: Example (1) (falling tone)Track 10.2: Example (2) (rising tone)Track 10.3: Example (3) (rise-fall)Track 10.4: Example (4) (fall-rise)Track 10.5: Example (5) (last lexical item)Track 10.6: Example (6) (last lexical item)Track 10.7: Example (7) (last lexical item)Track 10.8: Example (8) (contrastive intonation)Track 10.9: Example (9) (last lexical item)Track 10.10: Example (10) (contrastive intonation)Track 10.11: Example (11) (contrastive intonation)Track 10.12: Example (13) (given information)Track 10.13: Example (14) (given information)Track 10.14: Example (15) (synonyms and given information)Track 10.15: Example (16) (tonic placement and presupposition)Track 10.16: Example (17) (tonic placement and given information)Track 10.17: Example (18) (final temporal adverbials)Track 10.18: Example (19) (final temporal adverbials and contrastive intonation)Track 10.19: Example (20) (fronted temporal adverbials)Track 10.20: Example (21) (event sentences)Track 10.21: Example (22) (no one, nothing, nowhere, nobody)Track 10.22: Example (23) (someone, something, somewhere, somebody)Track 10.23: Example (24) (pro-forms)Track 10.24: Examples (25), (26), (27) (clefting and focus)Track 10.25: Example (28) (deixis)Track 10.26: Example (29) (deixis)Track 10.27: Example (30) (deixis and contrast)Track 10.28: Examples (31), (32) (non-restrictive and restrictive relative clauses)Track 10.29: Example (33) (noun phrases in apposition)Track 10.30: Example (34) (other parentheicals)Track 10.31: Example (35) (co-ordinated constituents)Track 10.32: Example (36) (short co-ordinated constituents)Track 10.33: Example (37) (lexicalized co-ordination)Track 10.34: Example (38) (more lexicalized co-ordination)Track 10.35: Example (39) (list intonation)Track 10.36: Examples (40), (41) (subordinate clauses)Track 10.37: Example (42) (sentence adverbials)Track 10.38: Example (43) (sentence adverbials)Track 10.39: Example (44) (pseudo-clefts)Track 10.40: Example (45) (the is … is that construction)

Sound Recordings ix

Track 10.41: Example (46) (reporting clauses)Track 10.42: Example (47) (reporting clauses)Track 10.43: Example (48) (subject noun phrases)Track 10.44: Examples (49), (50) (tag questions)Track 10.45: Example (51) (tag questions)Track 10.46: Example (52) (tag questions)Track 10.47: Example (53) (transitive phrasal verbs)Track 10.48: Example (54) (intransitive phrasal verbs)Track 10.49: Example (55) (intransitive phrasal verbs and event sentences)Track 10.50: Examples (56), (57) (degree adverbials)Track 10.51: Example (58) (so as a degree adverb)Track 10.52: Example (59) (so as verb phrase adverbial)Track 10.53: Example (60) (WH questions)Track 10.54: Example (61) (echoic WH questions)Track 10.55: Examples (62), (63) (declaratives as questions)Track 10.56: Example (64) (vocatives)Track 10.57: Example (65) (final non-vocative vs final vocative)Track 10.58: Example (66) (IP boundaries and other meaning differences)Track 10.59: Exercise 3Track 10.60: Exercise 4Track 10.61: Exercise 5Track 10.62: Exercise 7Track 10.63: Exercise 8

Track 11.1: Exercise 1Track 11.2: Exercise 2Track 11.3: Exercise 3Track 11.4: Exercise 4

Track 12.1: Exercise 1Track 12.2: Exercise 1Track 12.3: Exercise 1

Track 13.1: (aspirated, unaspirated, voiced and breathy voiced stops)Track 13.2: (retroflex consonants)Track 13.3: ([v], [;] and [w])Track 13.4: Exercise 1Track 13.5: Exercise 2Track 13.6: Exercise 3Track 13.7: Exercise 4Track 13.8: Exercise 5Track 13.9: Exercise 6Track 13.10: Exercise 7 (RP)Track 13.11: Exercise 7 (GA)

x Sound Recordings

Prefaces to the First Edition

Preface for Teachers

Each year in the Department of English at Newcastle University, I am given eleven50-minute lecture slots in which to introduce English phonetics and phonology toaround a hundred students in the first semester of their first year on a variety ofdifferent undergraduate degree programmes, including English language and liter-ature, linguistics, English language, modern languages, music, history and manyothers. Also included in the student body are European exchange undergraduatesand students taking applied linguistics postgraduate degrees in media technologyand in linguistics for teachers of English as a second language.

Given the range of degree types, this is a daunting task, made even more difficultby the fact that a substantial minority of the students do not have English as theirfirst language. In a typical year, the student cohort will include speakers of Arabic,French, Spanish, German, Greek, Japanese, Korean, Mandarin or Cantonese Chinese,and Thai. Many of the non-native speakers will have been taught RP; others willhave been taught General American. Amongst the native speakers of English, veryfew of the students will be speakers of RP, so that the non-native speakers are morelikely to speak RP than the native speakers.

The vast majority of the student body will take their study of English phoneticsand phonology no further, and the one factor which the majority of this diverseband of students shares is that they have no previous knowledge of phonetics orphonology; the course must therefore be ab initio.

One faces a dilemma in teaching such a course: on the one hand, one wants tocater to the small minority who will go on to study phonology at a more advancedlevel. On the other hand, one wants to introduce the subject without overwhelm-ing the students with a mass of bewildering descriptive detail and an avalanche ofseemingly arcane theoretical constructs. It is a moot point whether this dilemmacan be resolved. However, this textbook was written as an attempt at a solution.

It is arguable that textbooks are harder to write than monographs, and that themore elementary the textbook, the harder it is to write: one can barely write a linewithout being aware of one’s often questionable assumptions, and one has alwaysto resist the temptation to question them in the body of the text. One continuallyhas the sense of one’s peers looking over one’s shoulder and guffawing at the absurdoversimplifications which one is knowingly committing to print. But it has to bedone: students have to learn to walk before they can learn to run; they also haveto learn to crawl before they can learn to walk.

Writing and using textbooks is an empirical matter: it is very often immediatelyapparent when an exercise, chapter or book is simply not working, for a given bodyof students. Almost all of the textbooks which I have used on the first-yearNewcastle course described here have proved to be unsuitable for this type of student cohort in one way or another; mostly, they have contained far too muchdetail. I have therefore set out to write a very short, very simple coursebook whichdeliberately ignores a great many descriptive/theoretical complexities.

My aim has not been to introduce students to phonological theory; rather, I have sought to introduce some of the bare essentials of English phonetics and phonology in a manner that is as theory-neutral as possible. This is fundamentallyproblematic, of course, since there is no such thing as theory-neutral description.I have therefore decided to adopt various theoretical /descriptive views, such as thetongue-arch/cardinal vowel approach to articulatory description, the phonemicapproach to segmental phonology, the trochaic approach to English foot structure,and so on, on the purely pragmatic basis of what I have found to be easiest to con-vey to the students.

I have ignored acoustic phonetics for the very simple reason that our depart-ment lacks a phonetics lab, and I have not included distinctive features, since themere sight of arrays of features marked with ‘+’ and ‘−’ symbols seems to renderlarge numbers of my first-year students dizzy (particularly those majoring inEnglish literature). I have also excluded feature geometry, the mora, under-specification and a great many other theoretical /descriptive notions, in an attemptto pare the subject down to a bare minimum of these.

The first four chapters are deliberately very short indeed, and contain only themost elementary introduction to articulatory phonetics. My aim there is to offerthe student a gentle introduction to the course. I have spread the introduction ofthe phonemic principle over two chapters, since, in my experience, students findtheir first encounter with these ideas something of a quantum leap. The chapterson word stress, rhythm, connected speech phenomena and accent variation con-tain a very stripped-down, minimal, account of those subjects; I hope that there isenough there to act as a foundation for those students who wish to study thesematters in more depth. In the chapter on syllable structure, I have been a little moreambitious in introducing analytical complexity, on the assumption that syllable struc-ture is something that beginning students seem to be able to get the hang of moreeasily than, say, rhythm or intonation.

xii Prefaces to the First Edition

I believe that one of the most important duties of a university teacher is to inducein the student a sense of critical awareness, a grasp of argumentation and the roleof evidence. On the other hand, one has to be very wary of introducing studentsat the most elementary stage to the idea of competing analyses: they find it difficultenough to get the hang of one sort of analysis, without being asked to assess themerits and demerits of competing analyses (even at the post-elementary stage, mostundergraduates are very resistant to the idea of critically comparing different ana-lyses). I have tried to overcome this dilemma by introducing competing analysesand assumptions at one or two points, while consciously ignoring them elsewhere.

The exercises are meant to be discussed at weekly seminar/tutorial meetings; myexperience is that, if phonetics/phonology students are not made to do exercises,they easily come to believe that they have grasped the subject when in fact theyhave not. It is my hope that students who have completed this course would findit possible to tackle more advanced textbook treatments of these topics, such as thosegiven by Giegerich (1992) and Spencer (1996). Whether that hope is fulfilled is, ofcourse, very much an empirical matter.

Preface for Students

This is an elementary introduction to English phonetics and phonology, designedfor those who have no previous knowledge whatsoever of the subject. It begins witha very elementary introduction to articulatory phonetics, and then proceeds to intro-duce the student to a very simplified account of some of the main aspects of thephonological structure of present-day English.

It is arguable that there are two main questions one might ask in studying theEnglish language: what is it about English that makes it a language (as opposed to,say, a non-human communication system), and what is it about English thatmakes it English (as opposed to, say, French or Korean)? This book attempts toprovide the beginnings of an answer to both of those questions, with respect toone aspect of English: its phonology.

Thus, although the subject matter of this book is English, there is reference tothe phonology of other languages at several points, often in contrastive exerciseswhich are designed to bring out one or more differences between English and anotherlanguage. These contrastive exercises are included because native speakers ofEnglish, who often have little or no detailed knowledge of other languages, tend toassume that the phonology of English is the way it is as a matter of natural fact, amatter of necessity. For many such speakers, it will seem somehow natural, for instance,that the presence of the sound [f] as opposed to [v] functions to signal a differ-ence in meaning (as in fan vs van). To the English speaker, [f] and [v] will there-fore seem easily distinguishable, and that too will appear to be a natural fact. Butthe fact that these sounds have that function in English is a conventional, not anecessary or natural fact: English need not have been that way, and may not always

Prefaces to the First Edition xiii

be that way. Just as one can gain a new perspective on one’s own culture by learn-ing about other cultures, so one can gain a fresh perspective on one’s native lan-guage by learning a little about other languages. One can also, in learning aboutother cultures, gain some sense of what human cultures are like. Similarly, one canbegin to get a sense of what human language phonologies are like by learning in what respects they resemble each other. Those points of resemblance concerngeneral organizational properties of human language phonologies, such as thephonemic principle and the principles of syllable structure.

Reading a textbook on linguistic analysis is not like reading a novel. It is vitalthat the student complete the exercises at the end of each chapter before proceed-ing to the next chapter: they are designed to get the student to apply the ideas introduced in the chapter. The reader will not have properly grasped the ideas contained in this, or any other, textbook on phonology by simply sitting back in an armchair and reading the text, even if the student is under the impression of having understood the ideas. Vast numbers of students who have attempted tomaster linguistic analysis without actually doing it have ended up with disastrous exam results: no one ever became any good at linguistic analysis without actuallydoing it.

Like most linguistics textbooks, this book is cumulative in nature: what has beenintroduced in earlier chapters is presupposed in later chapters. It is fatal, therefore,to let several weeks go by without doing the reading and the exercises, in the hopeof catching up later: the result is very likely to be that you will simply find your-self out of your depth, even though this is an elementary textbook. It is simply notpossible to dip in and out of a linguistic analysis textbook, no matter how basic,in the way that one might dip in and out of a dictionary or an encyclopedia.

This book is designed to cater for students who, in all probability, will not pursue their studies in English phonetics and phonology any further. However, students who will be proceeding to a more advanced level should be able to tackle more advanced textbook treatments of these topics, such as those given byGiegerich and by Spencer (see Suggested Further Reading at the end of the book).Those students should also find it easier to tackle one of the many introduc-tions to general phonological theory which are not focused on English (again, seeSuggested Further Reading). In order to prepare such students for more advancedstudy, I have introduced, at some points, an indication of some of the difficultieswith some of the assumptions made in this textbook, or a brief discussion of com-peting analyses. Although this textbook merely scratches the surface of the subjectmatter, I hope that there is enough here to make the subject of phonology seemintriguing to the student who intends to pursue his or her studies.

It is my hope that this book will be of some use to teachers of English as a for-eign language, although it is not designed specifically for such readers. I am alwayssurprised to discover how little in the way of knowledge of English phonetics andphonology such teachers often have. I have no experience of such teaching, andwhile I make no suggestions as to how the notions introduced in this book mightbe put to use in the TEFL classroom, I find it hard to believe that a knowledge of

xiv Prefaces to the First Edition

the basics of English phonetics and phonology could fail to be useful to the TEFLteacher in some way, even if only as background knowledge which extends the teacher’sknowledge of English. I also hope that some of the contrastive exercises might helpsuggest ways in which one’s native language phonology can interfere with one’s attemptto acquire English as a second language.

Newcastle, February 1999

Prefaces to the First Edition xv

Preface to the Second Edition

The first edition of this book was written while I was teaching in an English university. Since then, I have moved to the English department at MontpellierUniversity, in France. While I always had non-native speakers of English in my classesat Newcastle University, most of my students were native speakers of English; now,the vast majority of my students are not native speakers of English. Most are French,but there are also Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, German, Dutch, Polish, Russian andBulgarian students, among others. The book has changed as a result: it is more orientated towards learners of English as a foreign language, but it is still useful fornative speakers, I believe.

The main changes to the text concern the later chapters: chapters 8, 9 and 10 have been entirely rewritten, and there is a new chapter (chapter 11) on the relationship between spelling and pronunciation, known as grapho-phonemics.Teachers whose students are native speakers of English may choose to skip this chap-ter, but it could prove useful for students who wish to go on to teach English as aforeign language. I have expanded the appendix (renamed as chapter 13) to coveradditional varieties of English. There are now sound files which accompany exer-cises, the treatment of intonation, and the description of some of the varieties ofEnglish given here: these are marked in the margins with a headphones symbol.

I have insisted on retaining practice at phonetic transcription, for two reasons.Firstly, I believe that it reinforces the distinction between phonetic transcrip-tion, based on listening to speech sounds, and phonological analysis, in whichphonemes (as conceived of here) are not speech sounds, and cannot be heard.Secondly, I hope that some readers of this book will go on to engage in the empir-ical study of varieties of English, which typically involves both listening carefullyto, and phonetically transcribing, recordings of speakers of various accents, and alsoengaging with theoretical issues in the analysis of those accents. The phonetic tran-scription exercises are now based on audio recordings.

The book is not intended as an introduction to phonological theory; some books of that sort are listed in the Suggested Further Reading. Inevitably, I havehad to draw on notions proposed in various theoretical frameworks. Any proposeddistinction between theory and description is fraught with difficulties: there can be no description without theoretical assumptions, as the philosopher of science Karl Popper pointed out. However, in my view, some kind of distinction betweentheory and description must be upheld. My aims here are primarily descriptive.

Any queries and/or corrections can be sent to: philip.carr@univ-montp3.fr

Montpellier, December 2011

Preface to the Second Edition xvii

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements, First Edition

I am grateful to several cohorts of students in the Department of English Literaryand Linguistic Studies at Newcastle University whose feedback has been valuable.I am also indebted to Patrick Honeybone, Maria Maza, Irenie Rowley and CharlesPrescott, who acted as tutors to my students, and whose comments on several draftshave proved most helpful. Thanks too to my colleague Karen Corrigan, who com-mented on an early draft. Many years ago, in a small mud house on an island on theWhite Nile, I introduced James Dickins to the elements of phonetic description.He has kindly reciprocated by supplying me with the Arabic data on p. 40, for whichI thank him. I also owe a debt of gratitude to the seven anonymous reviewers ofmy original proposal for their comments, and to Steve Smith, Mary Riso and Beth Remmes at Blackwell for their patience and encouragement. They may wellbe surprised that it took so long to write such a short book; I can, however, consolemyself with the fact that I do not have to offer the (perhaps apocryphal) apology:‘I am sorry this book is so long; I did not have the time to write a shorter one.’Finally, many thanks to Blackwell’s reader, Andrew Spencer, whose intelligent,informed and insightful comments on the pre-final draft were immensely helpful.He is not, of course, responsible for any remaining inadequacies in the text.

Acknowledgements, Second Edition

I am grateful to Jacques Durand and Anne Przewozny, fellow co-directors of thePAC project (La Phonologie de l’anglais contemporain), and to Raphaël Dommangefor permission to use some of their PAC recordings.

Thanks to my ex-Masters student Cécile Montforte for allowing me to use some of her PAC data from her dissertation ‘Accent change and language attitudes

in Scotland: a socio-linguistic investigation of Glasgow middle-class speakers’(Université Montpellier II, 2011).

I am grateful to Francis Nolan, professor of phonetics at Cambridge Universityand principal investigator of the IViE project (Intonational Variation in English),for permission to use, for educational purposes, two sound files from the IViE cor-pus, collected as part of the ESRC project R000237145 ‘English Intonation in theBritish Isles’.

Many thanks to my friend and colleague Nick Myers, of the Université Paul Valéryhere in Montpellier, to Inès Brulard and to my Masters student Alison Gilbreathfor taking the time and trouble to record exercise material for me.

I thank two anonymous readers of the draft chapters for their detailed comments.I thank Danielle Descoteaux and Julia Kirk at Wiley-Blackwell for their patience

and encouragement. I also thank Colleen Fitzgerald for permission to use the written passage which she constructed for the recordings of Texan English, my copy-editor Fiona Sewell for her help with the draft text and Leah Morin for herhelp with the proofs.

Acknowledgements xix