English Language

Grammar

We cannot skip it

Every thing has a foundation & the foundation of English Language is ALPHABETS. Each Alphabet has got a name, shape & sound like;

English Language has got 26 Alphabets from A to Z, out of which 21 are consonants and 5 are vowels (a,e,i,o,u,). These basic symbols are further divided in to Letters and Alphabets. If I will write A X L K Y Z T, I will call them letters, but if I will write them in an order; only then I can

call them Alphabets.

Few basic divisions are as;

So from Clauses and Phrases we will switch to the next level that is Parts of Speech;

Nouns

Pronouns

Adjectives

Verbs

Adverbs

Preposition

Conjunction

Interjection

Articles

Adjuncts

Acronyms & Abbreviations

NounNouns are commonly thought of as "naming" words, and specifically as the names of "people,

places, or things". but the class of nouns is much broader than this. Nouns also denote abstract and intangible concepts such as birth, happiness, evolution, technology, management, imagination, revenge, politics, hope, cookery, sport, literacy... Many nouns can be recognized by their endings. Typical noun endings include:

Nouns can be divided in to two classes: Common Nouns & Proper Nouns

. Nouns which name specific people or places are known as PROPER NOUNS John Mary, London, France…Proper nouns may also refer to times or to dates in the calendar: January, February, Monday, Tuesday, Christmas,

All other nouns are COMMON NOUNS

Since proper nouns usually refer to something or someone unique, they do not normally take plurals. However, they may do so, especially when number is being specifically referred to

-er/-or actor, painter, plumber, writer

ism criticism, egotism, magnetism, vandalism

ist artist, capitalist, journalist, scientist

-ment arrangement, development, establishment, government

-tion foundation, organisation, recognition, supposition

Pronoun…

Pronouns are a major subclass of nouns. We call them a subclass of nouns because they can sometimes replace a noun in a sentence:

Types of Pronoun

Pronoun Type Members of the Subclass Example

Possessive mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs The black coat is mine

Reflexive myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

He injured himself playing football

Reciprocal each other, one another They understand each other

Relative that, which, who, whose, whom, where, when

The book that you gave me was really interesting

Demonstrative this, that, these, those This is a new institute

Interrogative who, what, why, where, when, whatever What did he say to you?

Indefinite anything, anybody, anyone, something, somebody, someone, nothing, nobody, none, no one

There's something in my shoe

ADJECTIVE

It is a describing part of the sentence, like, old, long , simple, British, beautiful.

There are 2 basic positions for adjectives: before the noun after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste)

We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun: I like big black dogs She was wearing a beautiful long black coat.

So what is the correct order for two or more adjectives???

Its “OPSHACOM” or it is “OP-SH-A-C-O-M”

Adjective Noun Verb Adjective

1 I like to read great authors

2 The scene is beautiful

OP-Opinion SH- Shape A- Age C- Colour O- Origin M- Material

Beautiful Rectangular Old Black British Wooden

I have a beautiful old black British Table

ADVERBSAn adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. An adverb "qualifies" or

"modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). But adverbs can also modify adjectives (The weather is really beautiful), or even other adverbs (It works very well).

We can usually recognise an adverb by its: Function Form Position

Function

The principal job of an adverb is to modify (give more information about) verbs,

adjectives and other adverbs. E.g.;

John speaks loudly………[How does John speak???] Answer (……………….)

She drives incredibly slowly (it has modified an adjective)

Obviously, I cannot know every thing [It has modified the whole sentence]

FORM

Many adverbs end in -ly. We form such adverbs by adding -ly to the adjective. Here are

few examples: quickly, softly, strongly, honestly, interestingly.

But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs, Some adverbs have no particular form, for

example: well, fast, very, never, always, often, still.

Continued…

POSITION:

Adverbs have three main positions in the sentence:

Front

(before the subject):

Now we will study adverbs

Middle

(between the subject and the main verb):

We often study adverbs.

End

(after the verb or object):

We study adverbs carefully.

Prepositions

Preposition shows the relationship between two nouns e.g.

The newspaper is on the table

Notice we have three types of prepositions, ( Time, Place & Manner )

Prepositions of Time:

When we say last, next, every, this, we do not use at, in, on.

e.g:

I went to London last June. (not in last June)

He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)

I go home every Eid. (not at every Eid)

We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

AT IN ON

Precise Time MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS

DAYS and DATES

at 3 o'clock In May On Sunday

At 10:30 AM In summer or in the summer On March 6

At noon In 1990 or in the 1990’s On Eid’s day

At the moment In the next century On my Birth Day

At sunrise/ sunset In past or future

Notice the use at in the following standard expressions:

Well Preposition in English Language is the most tricky game, we do not have any hard and fast rule for it, we just have to listen to the English speakers the more we will practice the more we will learn. The same in at and on changes its style when we talk about place.

Preposition of Place:

In general we use; AT for a point IN for an enclosed space ON for a surface

Expression Example

At night The stars shine at night

At the weekend I don’t usually work at the weekends

At Eid I stay with my family at Eid

At the same time We finished the test at the same time

At present He is not home at present, Try later.

AT IN ON

POINT ENCLOSED SPACE SURFACE

At the corner In the garden On the wall

At the bus stop In France On the ceiling

At the door In a box On the door

At the top of the page In My pocket On the cover

At the end of the road In My wallet On the floor

At the entrance In a building On the carpet

At the crossroad In a car On the menu , on the page

Examine few examples:

• That shop is at the end of the market• My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.• When will you arrive at the office?• Do you work in the office?• I have a meeting in New York.• Do you live in Japan?• Jupiter is in the solar system• There is “No Smoking” sign on the wall.• I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London

ConjunctionConjunctions are of two types:

Coordinating ConjunctionsThe short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions": and, but, or,

nor, for, yet, so A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or

independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:

I like [tea] and [coffee]. [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].

When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction: e.g:I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university. However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not

reallyessential: She is kind so she helps people.

The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials spell:

B O Y ’S F A N

But or yet So For And Nor

Subordinating Conjunctions:

The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating

conjunctions are

after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until,

when, where, whether, while

A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main

(independent) clause:

+

A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can sometimes come after and sometimes before a main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:

Omer went swimming although it was raining.

Although it was raining, Omer went swimming.

Independent clause Dependent clause

Interjections

Hi! That's an interjection. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real

grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written

Interjection Meaning Example

AH!

expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."

expressing realization Ah, now I understand."

expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be hoped."

expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"

alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."

dearexpressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"

expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"

eh

asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."

expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"

expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"

inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"

er expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."

Interjection

.Interjection Meaning Example

Hello,hullo

expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?"

expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"

heycalling attention "Hey! look at that!"

expressing surprise, joy etc

"Hey! What a good idea!"

Hi expressing greeting "Hi! What's new?"

hmm expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement

Hmm. I'm not so sure."

oh, oexpressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"

expressing pain Oh! I've got a toothache."

expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!"

ouch expressing pain "Ouch! That hurts!"

uh expressing hesitation "Uh...I don't know the answer to that."

uh-huh expressing agreement "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."

um, umm expressing hesitation "85 divided by 5 is...um...17."

Wellexpressing surprise Well I never!"

introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"

Article… A, An & The

The three articles — a, an, the — are a kind of adjective. The is called the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified count noun). The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:

The moon circles the earth The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:

The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit

The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text

We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident).

ArticlesThe same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We

would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won).

When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:

"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.

"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Verbs:

The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word. Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". Many verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work all convey action.

But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state. A verb always has a subject. E.g.

In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe: action & state. We divide verbs into two broad classifications:

Helping Verbs:Imagine Some one speaks like this:“I canPeople mustThe earth will”Can you understand any thing?Probably not! That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on

their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb.

Subject Verb Object

John Speaks English

Main Verbs

Now imagine someone says:

I teach

People eat

The earth rotates

I think you can understand him now, because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on their own.

We have two other classes of verbs: Phrasal verbs Multi-word Verbs

Helping verbs Main Verbs

Maha likes Coffee

You lied To me

They are Happy

The children are Playing

I must go Now

I do not need any

Phrasal verbs & Multi-word verbs

Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called "multi-word verbs". Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the English language. Multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, are very common, especially in spoken English. It is like:

“pick up”, “turn on”, “get on with”,

These verbs consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s) can be prepositions and/or adverbs. The two or three words that make up multi-word verbs form a short "phrase"—which is why these verbs are often all called "phrasal verbs".

Now remember that there is a difference between multi-word verbs and verbs, both are not same like; “Get” and “Get up”. Each word has a different meaning.

Single Word verb LookDirect your eyes in a certain direction

You must look before you leap

Multi-WordVerbs.

Prepositional verbs Look after Take care of

Who is looking after the baby?

Phrasal verbs Look upSearch for and find

Information in a reference book

You can look my number in the

telephone directory

Phrasal-prepositional

verbs

Look forward

toAnticipate with

pleasureI look forward to

meeting you

Tenses:

We have 12 basic tenses, and in each tense we will cover two aspects: Structure: How do we make the tense Use: When and why do we use the tense?

Simple Present Tense:Here are few examples with the main verb

We use Simple Present tense when: The action is general The action happens all the time, or habitually in past, present, and future. The statement is always true

Subject Auxiliary verb Main verb

+I, You, We, They like coffee

He, She, It likes coffee

_ I, You, we, They do not like coffee

He, She, It does not like coffee

?Do I, You, We, They like Coffee?

Does He, She, It like Coffee?

Few examples with the main verb

Subject Main Verb

+

I am French

You, We, They are French

He, She, It is French

_

I am not old

You, We, They are not old

He, She, It is not old

?

Am I late?

Are you, we, they late?

Is he, she, it late?

Simple Present tense

The definition of present tense is, we use first form of verb, with the addition of “s” or “es” according to the 1st, 2nd & 3rd person.

Few examples of Present Tense: I live in New York. The Moon goes round the Earth. John drives a taxi. He does not drive a bus. We do not work at night. Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb to be in the present simple tense—some of them are general, some of them are now:

Now case:

Am I right?

Sarah is not at home

You are happy

General Case:

I am not fat.

Why are you so intelligent?

Gebraeel is tall.

Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakers of some languages a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact, the structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense.

Structure of The Tense:

Here are some of the examples of present perfect tense:

Subject Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

Have/ has Past participle (third form of the verb)

Subject Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

+

I have seen It

You Have taken Mine

_ She has not been to Room

We have not played football

? Have you finished the work?

Have they done It?

Present Perfect tense:

There are three uses for Present Perfect tense: Experience Change Continuing Situation

Present perfect tense for experience:We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are

not interested in when you did something. We only want to know if you did it: e.g.He has lied in BangkokHave you been there?We have never eaten caviarIn this case the action was taken in the past but I am memorizing the event now I know

something about the event, I have an experience of it.

Present perfect tense for change:We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new

information:John has broken his legHas the price gone up?The police have arrested the killer.I have bought a car.

British Use present Perfect tense where as Americans use Past tense instead.

Present Perfect Tense:

Present perfect tense for continuing situation:

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure, e.g.

I have worked here since November

She has been ill for 2 days.

How long have you known Moheeb?

For & Since with Present Perfect Tense:

• We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.

• We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.

For Since

20 minutes 6:15 PM

Three days Monday

A long time I left my college

ever The beginning of a time

Present Continuous Tense:

The structure of the present continuous tense is:

Subject + Auxiliary Verb + Main Verb be base + ing

We use the present continuous tense to talk about:Action happening now e.g. The candle is burning.The pages are turning.The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just

after now, and it is not permanent or habitual like:Gibraeel is learning to driveShe is living with her sister until she finds an apartment.

Subject Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

+

I Am Speaking to you

You Are Reading This

_ She Is Not Staying In London

We Are not Playing Football

? Is He Watching TV?

Are they waiting For John?

Present Continuous tense for future:

We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future—if we add a future word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan before speaking.

I am taking my exams next month

A firm plan exist now and action will be taken in future.

We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table.. They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working. When are you starting your new job?

In these examples, we have a firm plan or program before speaking. The decision and plan were made before speaking

We have four rules for spelling present continuous tense:

Basic:

We simply add “ing” with the base verb.

Present continuous Tense

But if:

the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter:

S T O P consonant stressed vowel again Consonant

Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not stressed like: open and opening

If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y: e.g.

Lie: lying

Die: dying

If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:

Come coming

Mistake mistaking

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

We use Present Perfect tense to talk about an action that started in the past and has stopped recently.The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is:

We have few examples of the tense below:

In spoken English we some times contract Subject and Auxiliary verb. When you are using a verb tense with more than one part such as Present Perfect Continuous (has been studying), adverbs often come between the first part and the second part (has only been studying).

Subject Auxiliary Verb + Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

Has / have been Base + ing

Subject Auxiliary Verb Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

+I have been waiting For one hour

You have been talking Too much

_ It has not been Raining

we have not been playing Football

?Have you been noticing Her?

Have they been Doing Their work?

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSENOW… This tense has further uses:Use 1 Duration from the Past Until Now We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and

has continued up until now. "For five minutes", "for two weeks", and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous.

EXAMPLES:They have been talking for the last hour.She has been working at that company for three years.James has been teaching at the University since June.

USE 2 Recently, Lately:You can use the Present Perfect Continuous WITHOUT a duration such as "for five

minutes", "for two weeks", and "since Tuesday". Without the durations, the this tense gives a more general meaning of "lately". We often use the words "lately" or "recently" in the sentence to strengthen this meaning.

EXAMPLES:Recently, I have been feeling really tired.She has been watching too much television lately.Mary has been feeling a little depressed.incorrectly.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE:

IMPORTANT:

Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous has the meaning of "lately" or "recently." If you use the Present Perfect Continuous in a question such as "Have you been feeling alright?", it suggests that the person looks sick or unhealthy. A question such as "Having you been smoking?" suggests that you can smell the smoke on the person. Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear, or feel the results of the action. It is possible to insult someone by using this tense

IMPORTANT Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. To express the idea of Present Perfect Continuous with these exception verbs, you must use Present Perfect.

EXAMPLES:Sam has been having his car for two years. Not CorrectSam has had his car for two years. Correct

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE:

ACTIVE / PASSIVE Present Perfect Continuous

EXAMPLES:Recently, John has been doing the work. ACTIVERecently, the work has been being done by John. PASSIVE

NOTE: Present Perfect Continuous is rarely used in its passive form

For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only.

PAST TENSE:

The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterit tense. We can use several tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most often. To make the simple past tense, we use:

The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work:

Subject Auxiliary Verb Negative Main Verb (with 2nd form)

I did The job

She did not go With me

Did they work At home?

Subject Auxiliary Verb Negative Sentence

Main Verb

+I went T o Aptech

You worked Hard

_ she did not go With me

we did not work Yesterday

? Did You go To UK?

Did they work At home?

Past Indefinite Tense

Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative and question sentences. To make a question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples:

I was here

They were in London

She was not here

Was I right?

Were you late?

We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation—an event—in the past. The event can be short or long. E.g;

She went to the door.

We did not hear the telephone.

I lived in Bangkok for 10 years.

We did not sing at the concert.

Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when:

the event is in the past the event is completely finished we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event

Past Indefinite Tense:

In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we must use the simple past tense; we cannot use the present perfect.

Here are some more examples: I lived in that house when I was young. He didn't like the movie. What did you eat for dinner? John drove to London on Monday. Mary did not go to work yesterday. Did you play tennis last week? I was at work yesterday. We were not late (for the train). Were you angry?

Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple past tense for the action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story:

"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The door opened and James entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered for a coffee. He sat down at the corner of the window and looked at the long silent road full of dry red leaves..."

Past continuous Tense:

The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to say what we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.

The structure of the past continuous tense is:

The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The action started before that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example, Yesterday I attended a function, the function started at 8:00 PM and I stayed there till 9:30 PM. So I will say,

At 8:00 PM Yesterday, I was enjoying function.

When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Like:

I was preparing my presentation at 11pm last night. They were not playing football at 9am this morning. What were you doing at 10pm last night? What were you doing when he arrived? She was cooking when I telephoned her. We were having dinner when it started to rain. Saim went home early because it was snowing.

Subject Auxiliary Verb (be) Main Verb (first form)

Was, were Base + ing.

Past Continuous Tense:

We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense. We use the past continuous tense to express a long action. And we use the simple past tense to express a short action that happens in the middle of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while.

We use: when + short action (simple past tense) while + long action (past continuous tense)

I was watching TV when you telephoned.

You telephoned while I was watching TV.

Notice that the long action and short action are relative.

"Watching TV" took a few hours. "Telephoned" took a few seconds.

Past Perfect Tense:

The structure of the past perfect tense is:

I had studied a little English when I came to the U.S.They had never met an American until they met John.

When you are using a verb tense with more than one part such as Past Perfect (had met), adverbs often come between the first part and the second part (had never met).

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in Past The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.EXAMPLES:I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 1992?Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before in 1988.

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-continuous Verbs) With Non-progressive Verbs and some non-progressive uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.

Subject Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

had Past participle (third form)

Past Perfect Tense:

By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.We had had that painting for ten years before it broke down.By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect

Unlike the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary.

She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when before or after is used in the sentence. The words before and after actually tell you what happens first so the Past Perfect is optional. Both sentences below are correct.

She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.If the Past Perfect action did not happen at a specific time, Past Perfect MUST be used at all

times. Compare the two sentences below.

EXAMPLE:She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. CorrectShe never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct

Past Perfect Tense:

So, The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This is the past in the past.

We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told, asked, thought, wondered:

Look at these examples: He told us that the train had left. I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong. He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain. I wondered if I had been there before. I asked them why they had not finished.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:

John was very tired. He had been running.

I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking.

You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the present perfect continuous tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.

"I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours." Present

"Roha was angry. She had been waiting for two hours." Past

Hence the structure of the sentence is:

When you are using a verb tense with more than one part such as Past Perfect Continuous (had been studying), adverbs often come between the first part and the second part (had only been studying).

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past:

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous

Subject Auxiliary Verb Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

had been Base + ing

Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business

James had been teaching at the University for more than a year before he left for Asia.

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Past :

Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and effect.

Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.

IMPORTANT

If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday", many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous. There is also a difference in meaning. Compare the examples below.

I was reading when my roommate returned.The reading will be interrupted.

I had been reading for an hour when my roommate returned.

The reading stopped just before my roommate returned

Future Tense:

The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple future tense with the modal auxiliary will.

The structure of the simple future tense is:

Subject Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

Will Base

Subject Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

+I will open The door.

You will finish Your work

_ She will not be In office tomorrow

we will not leave It yet

? will you arrive On time?

will they stay Till night?

How do we use the Simple Future Tense?

No Plan:

We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking.

Hold on. I'll get a pen. We will see what we can do to help you. Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.

We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it: I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow. I think I will have a holiday next year. I don't think I'll buy that car.

Prediction:

We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen.

It will rain tomorrow. People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century. Who do you think will get the job?

Be:

When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firm plan or decision before speaking. Examples:

I'll be in London tomorrow. I'm going shopping. I won't be very long. Will you be at work tomorrow?

Future Continuous Tense:

The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm:

At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working.

Hence The structure of the future continuous tense is:

I will be working at 10:00 Am.

We will not be having dinner at home.

Will they be watching TV?

We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.

When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about

I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow. They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight. What will you be doing at 10pm tonight? What will you be doing when I arrive? She will not be sleeping when you telephone her. We 'll be having dinner when the film starts. Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.

Subject Auxiliary Verb Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

will be Base + ing

Future Perfect Tense:

The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The future perfect tense talks about the past in the future.

The structure of the future perfect tense is:

I will have finished by 10:00 AM

You will have forgotten me by then.

She will not have left

Will you have arrived?

Will they have received it?

The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future. This is the past in the future. For example:

The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.

You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8. They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time. "Mary won't be at home when you arrive."

"Really? Where will she have gone?"

You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of your viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future:

I shall have returned from the market by 3’o clock.

Subject Auxiliary Verb Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

will have Past participle

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Like all future forms, the Future Perfect Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with "when," "while," "before," "after," "by the time," "as soon as," "until," "if" and "unless".

I won't tell the student the answer until he has been working on the math problem for more than an hour. Correct

I won't tell the student the answer until he will have been working on the math problem for more than an hour. Not Correct

We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point in the future. The structure of the tense is:

For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert not between will and have. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. E.g.

I will have been working for four hours. I will not have been working for four hours Will I have been working for four hours?

It is possible to use either "will" or "going to" to create the Future Perfect Continuous with little or no difference in meaning.

Subject Auxiliary verb Auxiliary verb Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

will have been Base + ing.

Future Perfect Continuous Tense:

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Future

We use the Future Perfect Continuous to show that something will continue up until a particular event or time in the future. "For five minutes," "for two weeks" and "since Friday" are all durations which can be used with the Future Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous, however the duration stops in the future.

They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Tony arrives.

James will have been teaching at the University for more than a year by the time he leaves for Asia.

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Future

Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action in the future is a good way to show cause and effect.

EXAMPLES: Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an

hour. Claudia's English will be perfect when she returns to Germany because she is going

to have been studying English in the United States for over two years.

ADJUNCTSCertain parts of a sentence may convey information about how, when, or where

something happened: He ate his meal quickly (how) David gave blood last week (when) Susan went to school in New York (where)

The highlighted constituents here are ADJUNCTS. From a syntactic point of view, Adjuncts are optional elements, since their omission still leaves a complete sentence.

Realisations of Adjuncts :

Noun Phrases functioning as Adjuncts: David gave blood last week Next summer, we're going to Spain We've agreed to meet the day after tomorrow

Noun Phases as Adjuncts generally refer to time.

Adverb Phrases functioning as Adjuncts They ate their meal too quickly She walked very gracefully down the steps Suddenly, the door opened

Prepositional Phrases functioning as Adjuncts Susan went to school in New York I work late on Mondays After work, I go to a local restaurant

PPs as Adjuncts generally refer to time or to place -- they tell us when or where something happens

Adjuncts

Clauses functioning as Adjuncts Examples

Finite While we were crossing the park, we heard a loud explosion I was late for the interview because the train broke down

If you want tickets for the concert, you have to apply early

My car broke down, so I had to walk

InfiniteTo-infinitive clause

Bare infinitive clause

ing clause

-ed clause

Small clause

To open the window, you have to climb a ladder Rather than leave the child alone, I brought him to work with meBeing a qualified plumber, Paul had no difficulty in finding the leakLeft to himself, he usually gets the job done quicklyHis face red with rage, John stormed out of the room

Abbreviations & Acronyms

Abbreviations are titles before names or after names like:Mrs., Mr., Ms., Prof., Dr., Gen., Rep., Sen., St. (for Saint)Now Miss is not an abbreviation, so we don't put a period after it. Ms. is not an

abbreviation, either, but we do use a period after it — probably to keep it consistent with Mr. and Mrs.

The plural of Mr. is Messrs. (We invited Messrs. Carter, Lincoln, and Ford.) The plural of Dr. is Drs. (We consulted Drs. Carter, Lincoln, and Ford.) The plural of Mrs. is Mmes or Mmes. (with or without the period). The abbreviations Rev. and Hon. (for Reverend and Honorable) are not, strictly speaking, titles; they are adjectives. In informal language or when we're trying to save space or make a list, we can write Rev. Alan B. Darling and Hon. Francisco Gonzales. In formal text, we would write "the Reverend Alan B. Darling" and "the Honorable Francisco Gonzales" (i.e., it's not a good idea to abbreviate either Reverend or Honorable when these words are preceded by "the").

Titles after names:Sr., Jr., Ph.D., M.D., B.A., M.A., D.D.S.These are standard abbreviations, with periods. we do not abbreviate a title that isn't

attached to a name: "We went to see the doctor (not dr.) yesterday.“ Notice that U.S.A. can also be written USA, but U.S. is better with the periods. Also, we

can use U.S. as a modifier (the U.S. policy on immigration) but not as a noun (He left the U.S. U.S.A.).

Terms of mathematical units: 15 in., 15 ft, 15 kg, 15 m, 15 lbGenerally, you would use these abbreviations only in technical writing. There is a space

between the number and the abbreviation. Notice that we do not put an s after such abbreviations even when the plural is indicated. Also, we do not use a period with such abbreviations except for in. when it might be confused with the preposition in.

Long, common phrases, such as IQ (Intelligence Quotient), rpm (revolutions per minute), mph (miles per hour), and mpg (miles per gallon).

Such abbreviations are acceptable even in formal academic text and may be used without periods.

Words used with numbers: He left at 2:00 a.m. She was born in 1520 B.C.

Either lower or upper case letters can be used with A.M., a.m., P.M., p.m. The abbreviation B.C. (before Christ) is used after the date; A.D. (anno domini, "in the year of the Lord") appears before the date. The abbreviations B.C. and A.D. are sometimes replaced with B.C.E. (before the common era) and C.E. (common era), both used after the date

Sometimes you will see 790 BC and AD 78 written without periods and written in SMALL CAPS. Note that many style books are now recommending SMALL CAPS for all appearances of acronyms, such as NAACP or NCAA. The effect of this practice is to allow the acronym to blend more smoothly with the rest of the text.

The abbreviation i.e. (i.e., that is) is often confused with other abbreviations (e.g., e.g.). The i.e. generally is used to introduce matter that is explanatory as opposed to being the name of an example or list of examples. If you can say for example as a substitute for the abbreviation, you want to use e.g., not i.e. Do not italicize or underline these abbreviations.

(In formal academic prose it is considered bad form to abbreviate words simply to save space, time, or energy.)

Do Not Abbreviate the following:

Words such as through (thru), night (nite).

Days of the week or months of the year (in the normal flow of text).

Words at the beginning of a sentence.

People's names such as Chas. (for Charles) or Jas. (for James), unless those abbreviations have come to be accepted as nicknames for those particular individuals.

States' names such as Pak. (for Pakistan) or Ind. (for India). When appropriate (as in the addresses for envelopes), use the U.S. postal service's approved two-letter abbreviations Courses such as econ (for economics) or poli sci (for political science).

AcronymsThere is a difference between acronyms and abbreviations. An acronym is usually

formed by taking the first initials of a phrase or compounded-word and using those initials to form a word that stands for something. Thus NATO, is an acronym, for North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and LASER (which we pronounce "lazer"), is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. FBI, then, is not really an acronym for the Federal Bureau of Investigation; it is an abbreviation

Using articles with abbreviations and acronyms:

Do we say an FBI agent or a FBI agent? Although "F" is obviously a consonant and we would precede any word that begins with "F" with "a," we precede FBI with "an" because the first sound we make when we say FBI is not an "f-sound," it is an "eff-sound." Thus we say we're going to a PTO meeting where an NCO will address us. We say we saw a UFO because, although the abbreviation begins with a 'U," we pronounce the "U" as if it were spelled "yoo."

British & American English: British American

cancelled canceled

Centre center

Cheque check

Colour Color

criticise Criticize

grey Gray

humour Humor

judgement judgment

labour labor

licence license

realise realize

theatre theater

tyre tire

valour valor

Few Spelling Rules:

Rule #1: “I before E except after C”;

This rule, designed to help us remember how to spell words such as receive and chief, seems so promising in its simplicity at first.

achieve, believe, bier, brief, hygiene, grief, thief, friend, grieve, chief, fiend, patience, pierce, priest

ceiling, conceive, deceive, perceive, receipt, receive, deceit, conceit

But then things get complicated: it doesn't work with words pronounced "ay" as in neighbor, freight, beige, sleigh, weight, vein, and weigh and there are many exceptions to the rule: either, neither, feint, foreign, forfeit, height, leisure, weird, seize, and seizure.

Still, the rule is relatively simple and worth remembering.

Rule #2: “Dropping Final E”:

When adding an ending to a word that ends with a silent e, drop the final e if the ending begins with a vowel:

advancing surprising However, if the ending begins with a consonant, keep the final e:

advancement likeness (However, if the silent e is preceded by another vowel, drop the e when adding any

ending: argument, argued, truly.)

Exceptions: to avoid confusion and mispronunciation, the final e is kept in words such as mileage and words where the final e is preceded by a soft g or c: changeable, courageous, manageable, management, noticeable. (The word management, for example, without that e after the g, would be pronounced with a hard g sound.)

Rule #3: “Dropping Final Y”:

When adding an ending to a word that ends with y, change the y to i when it is preceded by a consonant.

supply becomes supplies worry becomes worried merry becomes merrier

This does not apply to the ending -ing, however. crying , studying Nor does it apply when the final y is preceded by a vowel.Obeyed, saying Rule #4: “Doubling Final Consonants”:

When adding an ending to a word that ends in a consonant, we double that consonant in many situations. First, we have to determine the number of syllables in the word. Double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins with a vowel when the last syllable of the word is accented and that syllable ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.

submit is accented on the last syllable and the final consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we double the t before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: submitting, submitted.

flap contains only one syllable which means that it is always accented. Again, the last consonant is preceded by a vowel, so we double it before adding, for instance, an -ing or -ed: flapping, flapped. This rule does not apply to verbs that end with "x," "w," "v," and "y," consonants that cannot be doubled (such as "box" [boxing] and "snow" [snowing]).

open contains two syllables and the last syllable is preceded by a single vowel, but the accent falls on the first syllable, not the last syllable, so we don't double the n before adding an ending: opening, opened.

refer contains two syllables and the accent falls on the last syllable and a single vowel precedes the final consonant, so we will double the r before adding an ending, as in referring, referral. The same would apply to begin, as in beginner, beginning.

relent contains two syllables, but the final consonant is preceded by another consonant, not a vowel, so we do not double the t before adding an ending: relented, relenting.

deal looks like flap (above), but the syllable ends in a consonant preceded not by a single vowel, but by two vowels, so we do not double the final l as in dealer and dealing. The same would apply, then, to despair: despairing, despaired

Rule #5: “Adding Prefixes”:Generally, adding a prefix to a word does not change its spelling. For some

reason, the word misspelling is one of the most often misspelled words in English.

unnecessary, dissatisfied, disinterested, misinform

Difference between American and British English

Past-time adverbs, such as just, ever, already and yet are often used with the past simple in American English, whereas in British English they would normally be used with the present perfect.

Did you phone her yet? Have you phoned her yet?

Did you eat already? Have you already eaten?

Garry? You missed him. He just left. Garry? You've missed him. He's just left.

Did you ever go to Canada? Have you ever been to Canada?

Do you have...? / Have you got...?

In all varieties of English, the 'do' forms of have are used to express habit or repetition:

Do you always have fruit and cereal for breakfast? Do you sometimes have a shower in the morning when you wake up? In American English, the 'do' forms of have are commonly used when referring

to particular situations. In British English, we often prefer have with got in these contexts.

Do you have time to finish this report before you leave? Have you got time to finish this report before you leave?

Do you have a problem with this? Have you got a problem with this? In American English, got and do forms are often mixed. In British English,

they would not be:

We've got a new car! ~ You do? We've got a new car! ~ You have?

regular and irregular past tenses and past participles

The following verbs are regular in American English, but are often irregular with -t rather than -ed in British English:

burndream learn smell spill spoil

The kitchen smelled of roast chicken. Dinner was ready. The kitchen smelt of roast chicken, Dinner was ready. I have learned that it is better to be safe than sorry. I have learnt that it is better to be safe than sorry. He had spoiled his paper by ticking rather than circling the right answers. He had spoilt his paper by ticking rather than circling the answers.

The following verbs are regular in British English, but irregular in American English:

divefitwet

All her clothes fit into the suitcase. All her clothes fitted into the suitcase.

She wet her long blond hair before pushing it under her bathing cap. She wetted her long hair before pushing it under her bathing cap.

Then she dove into the pool with all her clothes on. Then she dived into the pool with all her clothes on.

Can / could with verbs of perception

In British English, we normally use can or could with verbs of perception such as see, hear, taste, feel, smell, when American English will often use these verbs independently of can or could.

When I went into the garden, I could smell the cherry wood burning on the camp fire.

When I went into the garden, I smelled the cherry wood burning on the camp fire.

I could hear Caroline approaching through the long grass. I heard Caroline approaching through the long grass.

going to / gonna

In talking about plans and intentions, going to is often replaced by gonna in informal speech, especially in American English.

We'll see you at the game. You're gonna play, right? We'll see you at the game. You're going to play, aren't you? And as they say in American English, and now increasingly in British English:

Use of Can & Could:

Can and Could both are auxiliary verbs, We use them to talk about what is or was possible, what we are / were able to do:

Use of Can:

Possibility and Ability She can drive a car. John can speak Spanish. I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.) Can you hear me?

Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about future ability.

Can you help me with my homework? (present) Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)

can: Requests and OrdersWe often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real

question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal

Subject Auxiliary Verb Main Verb

She Can (Present) Drive the car

I Could (past) Swim at the age of 5.

(mainly between friends and family): Can you make a cup of coffee, please. Can you put the TV on. Can you come here a minute. Can you be quiet!

can: PermissionWe sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something: Can I smoke in this room? You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden. (Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is

informal.)

Use of Could:We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able or free to

do: I could swim when I was 5 years old. My grandmother could speak seven languages. When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't open the door.) Could you understand what he was saying?

could: RequestsWe often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of could in

this way is fairly polite (formal): Could you tell me where the bank is, please? Could you send me a catalogue, please?

We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be able to (positive) and couldn't (negative).

Past

General Specific

+ My grandmother could speak Spanish. A man fell into the river yesterday. The police were able to save him.

_ My grandmother couldn't speak Spanish A man fell into the river yesterday. The police couldn't save him.

May or Might:

May and might both express the idea of possibility: We may go to Rhodes next year; We might go to Rhodes next year.

To a large extent these overlap in meaning, but the smaller the possibility, the more appropriate it is to use might:

We might go to Rhodes next year, although my wife's not too keen.

May and might can both refer to present and future possibilities: They may/might prefer to stay here. But only might can be used with reference to the past:

She said they might go to Rhodes next year.

In standard English, may have and might have have different meanings.May have means that you don't yet know whether something has happened – the possibility is still open:

There's been no news of the climbers, and there are fears that they may have been killed.

Might have means that there was a possibility of something but that it no longer exists: You were lucky the gun didn't go off – you might have been killed.

There is an increasing tendency to use may have in place of might have: You were lucky the gun didn't go off – you may have been killed. In most cases the meaning will be perfectly clear from the context, but occasionally

ambiguity may arise, and the may have/might have distinction is a useful one to keep.

Must / Must not:

We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary, for example:

I must go.

In general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary

I must stop smoking. You must visit us soon. He must work harder.

In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from outside.

It is sometimes possible to use must for real obligation, for example a rule or a law. But generally we use have to for this.

We can use must to talk about the present or the future. Look at these examples: I must go now. (present) I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)

We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to to talk about the past.

We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed, for example:

You mustn't arrive late. I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective) You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective) Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective) Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)

Few Confusables:

As and like:

As and like are used in a number of different ways and can be different parts of speech.

As refers to something or someone's appearance or function. 'I'm going to the fancy dress party as Superman.' 'The sea can be used as a source of energy.'Like has the meaning 'similar to' and is used when comparing things. 'She looks a bit like her brother.' 'Just like you, I’m always a bit wary of large dogs.' Note that we can use adverbs of degree, such as just, very, quite, not

much, not at all, a bit, etc, to modify like: 'He’s very serious – not at all like his father, perhaps more like his

mother at times. As and like can also be used as conjunctions: 'I always drink tea without milk, just as they do on the continent.' 'Try to keep your balance on the tightrope, as I do, by spreading out

your fingers like this.' 'The first ten days of July were very wet this year, as they were last

year and the year before.' In informal English, like is used in the same way. This is particularly

common in American English. 'I hope you’re not going to be sick again, like you were when we went

to Brighton. 'Nobody else would look after you like I do,

House & Home:

House describes a particular type of building.Home is the place where you live and feel that you belong to. Compare the following: 'Most people in Britain live in semi-detached houses.' 'We’re going to buy Emma a doll’s house 'The Houses of Parliament in London are visited by 50,000 people each year.' 'I’ve enjoyed living abroad for the last six years, but it’s time for me to go back

home now!' 'We were at home in bed when our car was stolen from outside the house.' 'These children need a good home and we are in a position to give them one.' Note also the differences in meaning and use between 'houseproud', 'housework'

and 'homework', 'homesick' and 'homeless'. Study the following: 'I did my housework (i.e. cleaning the house) this morning and my

homework (work given to me by my school to do at home) this afternoon.' 'People say that I’m houseproud because I spend so much time cleaning the

house so that others will admire it.' 'She said that she was missing her home and family so much. She sounded

really homesick.' 'I am homeless. I have no home to go to.

In front of & Before / Across & Opposite.

Before is not normally used to refer to place. We normally use in front of to specify place the opposite of which is behind. •Sam was sitting in front of my friend in the college but behind my brother.

•I was waiting patiently in the queue. In front of me there were about two hundred people and behind me a further three hundred.

Before is normally used as a preposition to indicate time. Its opposite of which is after:•Your brother arrived at the church shortly after three, but I distinctly remember saying to everyone: "You must be in your seats at or before three o' clock".

•Excuse me, I was here before you. I should therefore be in front of you in the queue.

However, before is used to refer to place when it indicates position in a list or when it means in the presence of somebody important:

•K comes before L in the alphabet, but after J.•He had behaved so badly in school that he was brought before the headmistress.

•I was accused of dangerous driving but rather than pay the fine, I elected to appear before the local magistrates.

Before (conjunction or adverb)

Before is often used as a conjunction linking two clauses or as an adverb of time, meaning at some time before now.

Give me a ring to let me know you are on your way before you leave the house. Make sure you get to the church before the bride arrives. He was certain we had met before, but I was equally sure we hadn't, for I had never

been there before.

Across (preposition)

In American English, across from as in across the road from me or across the table from me is expressed in British English by the prepositions opposite or facing:

She sat facing me across the table. (She sat across the table from me.) They live directly opposite us in the green house. (They live across the road from us

in the green house.)

In British English, across means from one side to the other, expressing movement, or on the other side of an imaginary line, expressing position:

My older sister lives just across the road, but Jenny, my baby sister, lives right across the city, 60 minutes by Tube or two hours in the car.

Across or through?

the difference in use between across and through. Across suggests flat or open space, whereas through suggests a space which is closed with things on all sides:

Although it was dark, I was not afraid of walking home through the forest. The ice was quite thick and he experienced no difficulty in skating right across the

lake. We cycled across Bodmin moor and through a number of small villages.

Though/ As though/ Like 'though' as conjunctionWe normally think of though as a conjunction introducing a contrastive statement,

and as the less formal and less forceful equivalent of although and even though.

Even though it was suffocatingly hot, she was wearing a thick woollen sweater.

We could try to phone her before we go, though we might miss the train if we do.

'though' as adverbWe use though and however when we want to add a comment that seems to

contradict or contrasts with what has already been said. I performed so well at interview I thought I would get the job. However, it was

not to be. The economic outlook is not very good. However, I can assure you that

nobody will lose his job. I’m sorry, I can’t stay for lunch. I’ll have a coffee, though. What a lovely sunny day! ~ There’s a chilly wind, though, isn’t there? as though / as if / likeLike though, as though and as if are subordinating conjunctions. We use as if or

as though when we want to give an explanation for something which may not be correct:

She looked at me as if / as though I were mad. Take an umbrella. It looks as if / as though it’s going to rain. I can’t understand why she’s so keen on him. It’s not as if / as though he’s

good-looking or anything.

In spoken informal English, particularly American English, we sometimes substitute like for as if and as though:

She looked at me like I was stupid. It looks like it’s gonna rain.

Strictly speaking, like, meaning similar to, is a preposition which can only be followed by a pronoun, noun or noun phrase. So, if you want to be grammatically correct, make sure you use like in this way:

Like all good curries, it was served with fresh coriander and nan bread. Like me, she refuses to work after six o’ clock in the evening. On the phone you sound just like your mother. In fact, I always think it is your

mother.

Told or Asked?

there is very little difference in usage and both are, of course, correct. You might argue that ask is more polite as asking for something is the same as

requesting it, whereas telling someone to do something is the same as instructing or ordering them, but in this example either is appropriate.

Why don't you come round at about eight for a bite to eat?~ I told them to come round at eight for something to eat.~ I asked them to come round at eight for something to eat

But sometimes we need to use tell when the meaning is more explicitly instruct and ask when the meaning is more explicitly request.

Be careful not to dive too close to the rocks.~ I told them not to dive too close to the rocks.

Don't drink water from the stream. It's polluted.~ I told her not to drink water from the stream. It's not clean.

Can you show me how to operate this computer?~ I asked her to show me how to operate the office computer.

Would you let me know when Tony arrives?~ I've asked him to let me know when Tony arrives.

Verb + object + to + infinitiveIn English, there are a wide variety of verbs that have to do with requests, advice and instructions

that follow the verb + object + to + infinitive pattern:

Note the difference in meaning I always advise my students to have a good night's sleep before an exam.

I begged her to let me see John before he left, but she refused.

He's got a keyboard exam coming up soon, so I try to encourage him to practice for half an hour every day.

She's not in the office at the moment, but I'll get her to phone you as soon as she gets in.

When I instructed them to stop writing and put their pencils down, they just carried on as if they hadn't heard me.

I'm going to invite my Chinese friend to spend Christmas with us.

The gunman ordered the women to get out of the car.

I can't persuade my son to have regular dental check-ups and dental care is so important.

She reminded me to cancel the newspapers before I left on holiday.

I have warned them not to swim in the sea when the red flag is flying, but they take no notice.

advise beg encourage get Instruct

invite order persuade remind warn

tell + object + that-clause Note that we also use tell with a that-clause as well as with the to-

infinitive pattern. Note the difference usage I've told my wife that I shan't be home for dinner this evening.

I've told my wife not to expect me home for dinner this evening.

ask + if-clause / wh-clause

we also use ask with an if- or a wh-clause when we are reporting yes/no-questions and wh-questions:

Can I go home now? I've finished all the work you've given me.~ I asked my boss if I could go home as I had finished all the work he had given me. But he said, no, I couldn't!

What sort of food would you like me to prepare for the party on Saturday?~ I asked them what sort of food they wanted for the party on Saturday

When would you like to have it delivered?~ I asked them when they wanted to have it delivered.Let me know by lunchtime on Friday.~ I asked them to let me know by midday on Friday.

Where do you keep your jewellery?~ I asked where she kept her jewellery, but she wouldn't tell me where.

Words we should avoid to use:

We should avoid language that refers to a particular gender, A good writer never uses such words, there is a list of words that should be taken care of:

Avoid Use Instead…

Actress Actor

anchorman Anchor

businessman Businessperson

chairman Chairperson

coed Student

forefathers Ancestors

foreman Supervisor

Fresh-men First years students

Mail man Mail carrier

Male nurse Nurse

Man ( meaning as human being)

Person

Mankind Humanity

poetess Poet

Policeman Police officer

salesman Sales representative

stewardess flight attendant

Waiter / waitress server

Writing Concise Sentences:

Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tell.

Avoid saying the same thing twice. Many uneducated citizens, who have never attended school continue to vote for

better schools.

Redundant phrases are bad habits just waiting to take control of your writing. Beware of the following.

Redundancy The lean Version Redundancy The lean Version

12 midnight Midnight Completely unanimous

Unanimous

3 am in the morning 3 am Consensus of opinion

Consensus

A person who is honest

An honest person Cooperate together cooperate

A total of 14 birds 14 birds each and every each

Biography of her life

Biography enclosed herewith enclosed

circle circle End result result

Redundancy The lean Version Redundancy The lean Version

Exactly the same The Same Period of four days Four days

Final completion Completion Personally I think I think

Frank and honest exchange

Frank exchange or honest exchange

Personal opinion Opinion

Free gift Gift Puzzling in nature Puzzling

Basic essentials Essentials Refer back refer

In spite of the fact that

although Repeat again Repeat

In the field of economics

In economics Return again Return

New innovations Innovations Revert back Revert

One and the same Same Shorter in length Shorter

Particular interest Interest Small in size small

Square in shape square Summarize briefly Summarize

Surrounded on all sides

surrounded Surrounding circumstances

Circumstances

The future to come future There is no doubt but that

No doubt

Habitual custom custom Close proximity proximity

ByAsima Sadia

Year 2003