Engineering Vol 56 1893-11-17

Nov. 17, 1893.] E N G I N E E R I N G. 593 _.. ----

THE SEVERANCE NAILMAKING MACHINE: WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.

CQN, TRUCTED BY THE SEVERANCE rAIL ~IACHINE 0 01\IPANY, DULUTH, l\liNNESOTA, U.S.A.

(For Description, see Page 602.)

Fig.

THE NATIONAL DANGER. WE may regard it as universally admitted that

the maintenance of the British fleet in a condition of superiority to the combined fleets of any two other Powers, is essential to the national security and well-being, and this being so, it is essential that a careful watch should be at all times kept of the doings of other nations. F or it is evident we ought to consider not merely the present state of the navies of other P owers, but also the rate at which those navies will develop relatively t o our own under the conditions now existing and likely to exist during the next few years in the various countries concerned. Thus at the present time France and Russia are engaged in developing extensive shipbuilding programmes, and their concerted action has naturally attracted considerable attention, although not probably so much as it deserved. The shipbuilding policy of these Powers is now pretty well known, and our present purpose is to endeavour, by the aid of such trustworthy statistical information as can be obtained, to inquire how far, in view of these facts, our own naval policy meets the national requirement. vVe may say at once that we are not concerned with the present position of affairs. The mere fact that the programme of 1889 will be practically completed by the close of this year, whilst the p rogrammes of Russia and France are of later date, may secure us against immediate disadvantage, but it is of great importance that it should be rightly understood how we shall stand when all the programmes in hand have been carried into effect.

A common method of comparison between fleets is "aggregate displacement," but so many other elements must necessarily be considered in determining the relative value of a ship- such , for example, as speed. armour, armament, and system of construction- that we prefer for the present to place before our readers bare statistics, and, subject to certain general comments, to leave them to draw

1.

their own inferences. A tabular statement of the effective armoured fleets of the three Powers will be found on pages 594 and 595. No apology is necessary for prejudging the position, because, if, after careful investigation, it should be proved that our fleet must b e strengthened, immediate action is necessary, considering th e length of time which is necessarily occupied in the construction of the larger warships and of their armaments .

The progress of invention is so rapid that warships soon become u outclassed," so to speak, and it t hus b ecomes a problem to devise some wellunderstood measure of the value of a ship as a fighting machine, with a view of determining the age at which she must be r elegated to an inferior or obsolete classification. Nothing is more delusive or dangerous than t.o include in a superior classification ahips which do not come up t o that standard, and, by way of illustration, it may be asked, by what process of reasoning can the H~ctor or Minotaur be included in the same category of firstclass cruisers with the Imperieuse, Rurik, or Dupuy de Lome 1 F or the present purpose, a classification is preferred which excludes all ships which are obviously obsolete, and which draws a definite line of demarcation between the modern fighting ship and the ship which, by reason of the age of her hull and machinery, faulty design, or armament, can merely be of service as an auxiliary or reserve. And rather than that the strength of other Powers should be underestimated, we have, in our Tables, included in the list of fighting ships new armourclads, which, although modestly described by their own era as coast defence ships, or armoured cruisers, are, to all intents and purposes, battleships.

Carrying this principle into effect, the line must be so drawn as to place the Conqueror and the Marceau classes in the category of '' mod ern ships," and the Ajax and Caiman clasees, and their predecessors, in that of the ''earlier types. ' ' It will t hen be seen from our tabular statement that

0

• a

,, -~

"~C '• I ( I, I 11 I' )I

I I

I I

I ' a I I I I I I

the numbers of the marised as follows :

--

Battleships. Earlier types .. Modocn types : Built . . . . . Building I .. . • • I

Total • • ...

Fast A1 rnoured Crui sers.

Built • • • ... Building ... . ..

f F~ . 2.

f

0 0 c

y-,. ' ) .r!!} .U·

-

various claEsts may be sum-

England. Franre. Russia. - --

1!) 17 2

21 5 7 3 12 8

34 -,--

17 '-- -r _.,

45 51

--9 3 6 2 5 2

----11 8 8

These numbers are exclusive of two powerful armoured, so-called, coast defence ships, building by Russia, the Admiral Ortschakoff and the Admiral Senjavin, each of 4000 tons, and carrying two 9-in. guns, which cannot b e classified as battleships.

A glance through the list of English shi·ps is far from reassuring. Many undoubtedly afford evidence of faulty design- faulty, that is, in the light of modern experience- or armament; mistakes the gravity of which we are now forced to recognif.:e, when at last we are compelled to reckon them, ship by ship, a!) against those of other Powers. The armaments of the English ships are the weakest point. Long after it became obvious that the breechloading gun had superseded the muzzleloader, the latter was forced upon the navy, and we must now rea1ise that, to our serious disadvantage, ships of such importance as the Inflexible, Neptune, Dreadnought, Ajax, ~nd Agamemnon are still armed in this way. It would certainly be but common prudence to proceed immediately with the re-arming of all these ships whilst they can be spared. Such ships as are armed with breechloading guns are also g iving trouble, if those on board the Colossus, the breakdown of which bas recently been reported, are typical of the whole. It seems, too, that we are still far from having perfected our newer heavy ordnance. The French have definitely settled their established type, which has been proved after exhaustive trials to possess superior penetrative power to any in use, whilst we are still to a large extent in the experi· mental stage, and are consequently seriously behind hand.

It would be inconsistent with the immediate object of the present article to enter here into a detailed discussion of the merits and demerits of the various systems of n4 val construction. Much might, no doubt, be said as to the relative advantages of unarmoured ends and complete armoured belts, &c., but the point which we want to specially

•

-

594 E N G I N E E R I N G. [Nov. I J, I 893·

LISTS OF THE BATTLESHIPS AND FAST ARMOURED CRUISER3 OF THE ENGLISH AND OF THE FRENCH AND RUSSIAN FLEETS, vVITH TONNAGE, APPROXIMATE SPEED, AND ARMAMENTS (OVER 3 IN. ).

Year wben Completed.

1366

1868

1869

1870

1870

1s ;o

lf72

1S73

1871

1873

1S76

1877

1877

1 iS

l SH

l 88i)

1830

1883

1881

1886

1887

188)

18SG

1386

18~8

1887

1987

1890

El\OLIS EI SHIPS. FRENCH AND RUSSIAN (R) SHIPS .

• ARMOUR AT

AR~JA)l &~TS. WAU R

Speed. -•

\ N A)IK Ot' Sllll'. bo • . bO ..,.

On Trial c c ·- c '0 ·-CJ and '0 ,.. d c Estimated. 0 CIS

0 Q) ..... ' .....

0 Q) .c CIS - 0 - N c. Ql N CD ::3 Ql ... ·- ~ A ~

tons knots No. No. l Depends upon ~ 1~ ••

Bdl~ophon · • • 7,550 condition of • •

machinery 6 , .. 8

llercules• ••

~loo arch • •

I ron Duke . .

Iodncible • •

Audacious ..

Swif tsure•

Triumph • •

Sult.1n · • •

De\ as 'at' on

Alexandra. . .

Te:n~raira ..

Th•tndner ..

Dr<?adnough t;

Neptune • •

Superb • •

l nfl t xible ••

Ajax ••

Agamemno:1

Conqueror ..

Ilero • •

Colossus • •

Edinburgh ..

Colliogwood

An son • •

Benb:>w ••

Rodoey ••

Camperd">wn

Ho we • •

S ::~.ns Pa.rei 1 .•

Nile .. ••

Trta f<Algu ..

• • 8,650

• • 8,320

~ 6, '110 • •

• • 6,010 I

6,010 \ •

r (i,!)l 0 • • I ' G,6 t0 / ..

. . 9,290

• !) ,3: 0

• 9,490

• 8,5!0

. 9,3'30

• 10,820

• !>,310

• 9,170

. 11,&80

• 8,660

. . B,660

•• 6, 2oo I

• •

• •

• •

• •

•

I 6,200

9,420

0,420

0,500

10 6CO

. . 10,600

. . 10,300

.. 10,600

. . 10,3CO

• . 10,470

• . 11,940

.. 11,940

Empre3S of India .. 14,150

• •

Ita m illies ..

Repul£e ••

ResoluLion ..

-Re,·enge ..

Royal O"k ..

Jtoya.l Sovereign

Barfleur ••

. . 14,150

. . 14,150

. . 14,150

• 11,150

•. 14,150

.. 1-1,150

.. 11,150

. . 10,500

. . 10,500

••

14.4 2 ••

> 4 ••

4 • • 14.75 \ ~ • •

•• (

10 I • •

I ' 4 ·- • • "0>. ea.. 10 oCII •• u C 6 ·- . . c:..C 10 oo • • c. d

I 8 I ::se • •

«- 10 '0 0 ..

1: ::

I 8 ..

Q) I ~~ <1.1~ 10 A .. I

' I I 4 I ••

Under reconst n ct.io!l

13.75

11.75

U .25

13.75

11.25

11.25

13.5

13.75

13.25

13.25

15 5

15.5

15.5

1 ;:;, 5

16.5

16 75

16.75

16.75

1~.75

16.75

16.76

16.5

16.fi

17.5

l7.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

18.5

18.5

I

• •

J .. l 8

( 4 . 4 t ..

• •

4

{ 4 2

pe l •

{.~ ' 4

• •

4 '- ..

• •

• •

••

• •

• •

• •

••

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

••

••

• •

• •

••

• •

• •

• •

••

••

••

4

4 • •

••

• •

6

4

• •

• •

• •

•• 6

••

8

• • 2

• • 2

{; J 2

~ i J 4 l 5

{ ~ { ~

2 10

Ll:SE.

-Year when ..... ' Cll- Thick-~ = Launched. ~o r. o ...-:. oess

0 • (f) .: s.. '-' cu -o<~~ -... _, ..... A ·- 8 - • (f) ·- --o 2 0 -d 0(/) c '"'..._, § ..... (';:.. ~

• • • 10. m 10 . 8 6 I 6 1837 4

10 } I 9 !) 6 1868

7 12

} I 9 7 6 1869 7

9 I 8 6 1870 5 !) I 8 6 1872 4 !)

I 8 ( 1&72 4

9 I 8 6 1873 4

!) I 8 6 1875 5

I S} 6 1873

10 I 12 10 1876

9.2 ·r t2 6 1&70 10 •

H ' 10 I ll & 1879

4

10 I l2 1(• 1881

12. fi I t4 11 18S~

12.5 } I t2 9 1883 9

10 ) I t2 • 1883 4 I I

16 ) I 24t 18S5 4 f 12 5 } c t8 t 1885 6 12.5 } c L8t 18S5 6

NAMB Ot' Stlii'.

peed. s

0 n Trial and

Es timated.

- -------·-·---- --- -

Koniaz Pojarski • • ••

Ocean (wood) .. • • • •

Marengo (wood)* • • ••

Sufiren (wood, •• • •

.Peter Lbe Orea t • • • •

Friedland* • • • • • •

Ricbelieu (wo' d) • • • •

Colbert (wood)" • • • •

Trident (wood)* • • • •

Redoutable •• • • • •

Amiral Duperre • • • •

Devastation • • • • • •

Courbet .. • • • • • •

Terrible .. •• • • • •

Amiral Ba.ud'n .. • • ••

I ndomptable • • • • ..

Formidable • • •• • •

c .. 'ima.n .. • • •• • •

Requin .. • • •• • •

R

•

••

• •

R

• •

• •

• •

••

tons

5,000

7,500

7 000 •

7,600

9,340

8, i 08

8,200

8,320

8,060 I

• • 8,860 )

• . 10,325

• • 9,500

• • 9,500

• • 7,050

.. 11,330

• • 7,070

.. 11,260

.. • •

7,120

7,060

knots

• I>. ... Q)

c ... .c 0 as 8 ..... 0 s: 0 ... """' ·-'0 Q 0 0 s: 0 p. ., CD

't:l s: Ql g. Q)

A

15

15

15

14.5

15.25

U .75

16

U .25

14 25

S li I P S 0 F .M 0 D E R N T Y P E.

12 6

12 6

12 6

1i 6

H 6

13 5 6

16 25 6

I c 't2t If } c 12t

} C L8t

} c t8t

} c t8 t

} C t8 t

C l Et

} c t8t

13·~ } 0 L~t 13.5 I C t8 t

13.5 6

10 c lEt 6

13·5 } 0 20 16 1 4.7 13·5 ~ c 20 16

4. 7 I I 1~5 } c 18 14

1~5 } c 18 14

1~ 5 } c 18 14 1

1~ 5 } c 18 14 1

1~5 } c 18 14

1~5 } c t8 14

1~5 } c 18 141

1~5 } C LS U

10 } C I t2 47

•

1886

18S6

1836

1887

1887

1887

1887

1888

1890

1SOO

1391

1893

Hoche • • • • •• • •

(B.S.) Caterina II. • • • •

{B.S.) Tch,smc .. • • • •

(B.S.) Sioope • • • • • •

Marceau . . • • •• ••

Neptune .. • • • • • •

Alexander 11. . . .. ••

Nicolas I. •• • • • •

Afagenta. .. • • • • ••

(B.S. ) Dvenadsat Ap:>s~ol?fl ..

Na.varin .. •• • • • •

Breonus . . •• • • ..

• 10,4.00

R l 10,150

R 10,150

R 10,150

.. 10,400

.. 10,400

R 8,440

8,440

• 10,400

HI 8,100

R 9.500

• • 1 10,810

17

10

16

16

16

16

16

16

16

16.5

16

17.5

AR~I.Uil~:STS.

• bO c ·-'0 as 0 -.c 0 Q) Q.l J..

~

Nf),

{ 4 2

{ 4 4 4

{ ~ { i

4

{ ~

{ ~ { i l ~ l ~

4 1

>14 4 4 6 4 4

~ 10 f 2 l 4

{! \!

3 4

> 8 2 4 2

' 4

2 2

18

{ ~ f ~ f 6 I 7

{ 1~ f 4 l17

2 4 8 2 4

{ 1~ 4 4 4 8 3

l 10

• tD Q) ... A ... a; 0

• ID .

8 6

10 8 9.45 55

10.8 9.45 5.5

10.8 9 45 5. 5

12

10 8 5.5

10 8 9.45 5.5

10 8 9.45 5.5

10.8 9 45 5.5

10.8 5.6

13.4 6.5 5 5

13 4 10.8 3.9

13.4 ll•.8 5.5

16.54 3.9

14.57 6.5 3.5

16.54 3.9

14. 57 6.5 5.5

16.54 3.~

16 54 3.9

13.4 10.8 5.6

12 6

12 6

12 6

13.4 5.5

13.4 5.5

12 9 6

12 9 6

13.4 5.5

1i 9 12 6

113.4

6.5

AR)!OOR AT W A'fY.B. LtXK

t S I Thick - 0 • ·no,.. ness

0 ~ ~'-" ....,O Q) -_. """' ... s:: • (h

o'!i:~ .. ......., ... .....

I

} I

t I J } I

J I

I

• • JD. lD.

8 7

8 7

8 7

u 8

!) 7

8; 7

S! 7

8.~ 7 -t I H 9 I

} I 21! 10

} I 16 10

} I 15 15

} c 20 13

} s 21! 14 ' I 1 c I 2o 13

'- c 22 14 J } c I 20 14

} c w 12

} 0 I 18 H

} c 1 16

} c 16

} c I 16

' c 18 14

c 18 14

c 14 6

0 14 6

} c 18 14

} c 16

} () 17

} c 17!

1890

1889

1893

1892

1ao3

1893·4

1893

1S93·4

1803 4

1892

1893

1803 I {)enLurion . . 10

I } C 112 4.7 I _ _.:... ____ _ ------ - ------------------------ --- ~·------

------------------~---- 11 1 t Ships with less than 50 per cent. of water-line armoured. .

* One prope elr t.~n y. f tbe French and Russian ships may be taken at from three to four years after launrb1ng. § The dates of comp e ton o

•

Nov. 17, 1893.] E N G I N E E R I N G. 595

LI TS OF THE BATrLESHIPS AND FA T ARl\10 RED CRUISERS OF THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH FLEETS, WITH TONNAGE, SPEED AND ARMAMENTS (0\TER 3 IN) rY t· .1

AND R USSIAN

Ye11.r when Completed

•

NA ~I R O:t Swr. • -c: Ql

8 Ql () CIS -

ENGLISH SHIPS.

Speetl.

On Tril\1 and

Estireatec I.

Q, CD ·-0

• ~ c ..... '0

CIS 0 -• Ql -N N =' ~

' .. -vO?t l?t HC?Ct.

FRENCH AND RUSSIA N (R) SBIPS.

AR~lAMENTS. A R"Ol R AT AR~I.\MEN fS . WA'I'~R

Ll~E.

Speed . -- .. -• t.o c

I .... '0 d 0 -~ () Ql

A RMOt'R. AT li W ATl\R 11 l iNK. 11

--- 1 "i: e Yfa.r when NA liE 0 1-' SJIJl'. ... bO ~ 0 Thi<'k· 1 Launched. :: On Trial c: ] S Thick·

(J} 0 0 ° ~ SS SQI and :0 00 0°...:. n«:SS · ~ ... '-'1 Ql Eitimated. ~ o

Ql - o Cl) : - - I u - ui ""' .. ._. l:; ...... .. I ~ ~ Ql .... ---

Ql • .. ~

d Or,n '- 0 :n' - () ;.:: C ~IDO 0-0 ~ .._, P. ~ ~ § ·- ... cs ~en ~ ... 0

I No. N j 0. knots

- c: "'<no- oE ;;: ~ l:; ....,. o -~ c I .- . . ---- ·- -------------1-o ___ ------ -~- _o_ ......... I ~ ~ 10

• tn. 10· 1 tons knots No. in. I I in . in.

I 1 lons

Commenced

1893

Ordered 1893

Reno" n • •

1 Mngniflc: r.t

Majrs tic • •

I • 12,350

I .. 15,000

. . 15,000

I 18

18

18

• •

• •

• •

BUILDING AND COMPLETI NG AND ORDERED.

10 0

12

12

Commenced about 1890

1890

1890

1890

Bouvines

Jemwapcs

Valmy ••

Trchou:~.rt

• • • • • • •

•• • • • • • •

• • • • • • •

• • • • • • •

6,650

6,450

6,450

6,650

17

17

17

17

f ! r 2 l 4

{ : l !

} s } s } s l s f

18 H

18 14

18 14

18 14

1801 Ja.ur~guiber . y (1.1unchcd 1893) . . 11,600 ] 7. 5 r 2

H

13.4 3.9

13.4 3.9

13.4 3.9

13.4 3.9

11.81 10 8

5.5 11.81 10.8 5.5

} s 18

180 L

1S:I91

1892

1893

Or~ red 1893

Commenc('d about

Charles Martt:l . .

Lazarc·Carr.ot . .

Mass~na. .. • •

Bouvct .. ••

New sh ip .. • •

, ••

.. • •

• • • •

•• • •

• • • •

• • • •

•• • •

• • • •

• • • •

• 11,800

• 11,800

• 11,000

• 12,000

. . 12,000

. . 12,000

.. 12,000

17

17.5

17

1 'j .5

• •

• •

• •

\ ~ r 2 . 2

} ~ 2 8 2 2 8 8

{ &4c. 4

&c. 4

&c .

11.81 10.8 5.5

11.81 10.8 5.5

11.91 10.8 5.5 39

11.81

1181

11.81

I. s J l s J ' s r

s

18

18

18 14

15! 8

l~S!) (B.S) Tri Svyatitelya .. • • n 12,500

R 10,280

R 11,000

R 11,000

R 11,00:>

n 8,440

Il. 10,000 It 10,000

16

16

{ ! 12 9

12 9

12 8

12 8

12 8

12 9

} c 16

16

16

IG

16

16

(B.S.) Oeorgiy Pobedonscetz . 4 4 4: 8 4 8 4 8

\ c

I

1891

1891

189 1

1889

1892 1892

Petropaulovsk . .

Poltava. • • ••

Sevastopol • •

Sizoi Velikij .. (B.S.) New ship ..

, , ••

AU \:O URED CRUISERS OF 15 KNOrS AND UPWARDS.

•• • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • • •

• • ••

• • • •

• •

• •

• •

16 { :

c c c

} c

C >Ill pleltd 1S86

En(Jli~J lt.

' { 4 0.2 6 9.2 6 9. 2 6 9.2 6 9.2 6 9.2 6 9.2 6 9.2 6 9.2 6

I } c I lOt I I c lOt

French. ..1 6,130 I

1887

1887

1887

1887

1887

1887

1888

1888

Impcrieuse ..

Warspite ..

Australia ..

Orlando

Oalatea.

• •

••

Narcissus ..

Undaunted . .

Aurora • •

Immort.a.lit ~ Powerful Terrible

••

••

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

. .

• •

8,400

8,400

5,600

5,600

5,eoo 6, 600

6,600

6,600

5, 600

. . H,COO

. . 14-,000

17.

16.75

18.5

18.5

18.5

18.6

18.5

18.5

18. 5

.. 10 i 4

· · I 10 2

. . . 10 I 2

10 I '~ 2

• •

•• 10

.. { 1~

.. { 1~

.. { 1~

.. { t~

t c

•

l Ot

lOt

l Ot

Completed -1892·93

1 Building · lOt I lOt

l Ot

lOt

I

Com· pleted -1888·4

1889

1889

1S03 ·

, Dupuy de LOme

Bruix • •

Cho.rncr ..

Potbuall ..

••

• •

• •

Latouchc Trcville

Cbanzy .. • •

D'Entrecasteau . .

New ditto • •

Ru s6ian.

• •

• •

••

.. • •

• •

• •

• •

Vladimir :Monomach ..

Dimitri Donskoi • •

Admiral Naoh 'mc.ff . .

Pamyat Azova .. ••

Oangoot .. • • ••

Rurik . . . . • •

Nevr Rurik (larger) • •

, , (larger) • •

••

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

••

• •

• •

~ . • •

••

• •

••

• •

..

. ' •

• •

•

•

4,665

4,6G5

5,238

4,635

4,665

8,Cl00

8,000

20

19

19

20

19

19

19

19

R 5,796 17

R 5,893 15.5

R 7, 782 16.76

R 6,000 17.5

R 6,502

It 10,923

R .. R

16.6

18.5

{ Natu ral I draught

f 2 6 2 6 2 6

{ 1~ { ~ { ~ { ~ { ~ f 4

12 2

14 8 · w 2

14 6 6

r~:

7.64 } c 6.6 7.64 1 1 c 6.5 f 7.6. l c 6.5 J 7.6~ ' c 5.5 f 7.64 ' c 6.E f 7.64 l c 6.5 f 95 6.5 9.5 6.5

8 6 8 6 8 6 8 6 9 6 8 6 I 4. 751

•

c c c c c c

7 6

7 6

10

6 4

l Gt

1

t Ships with less than 50 per cent. of water-line armoured. § The dates of completion of t he French and Russian ships may be taken at from three to lour yee.rs after launching.

urge at present is that, quite apart from any question as to the particular type of construction adopted, it is absolutely essential that early provision should be made for most materially strengthening our navy in the near future.

Referring to the French fleet, it is noticeable that the more important of the completed ship~, and some of those building, have been several years in hand, with the result that their main structures possess some of the defectc;, including low freeboard forward, inherent to the period when they were designed. But they are all fully armoured on the water-line, and their fittings are of recent date .

•

The French have aimed at high platforms for their main armaments, to secure which protection to the guns has been somewhat sacrificed. The advantage of the high platform is, however, considerable.

In the case of the Russian battleships of the Caterina II. class, the arrangement of the armaments is somewhat remarkable. These ships carry six of the heaviest guns (12-in.) in three barbettes placed triangularly, the base being forward. The advantage is an all-round fire from four guns, and , in certain positions, bow fire from all six.

It will be obser\ed that the average displacement of the modern English ships is appreciably greater

than that of the French and Russian ships, but that the armaments of all are about equal. Without doubting ~hat the inc:eased displacement may b 3 accompa_nied by cert~1n ge!leral advantages, it is a q~estlOI_l for cons1de_ratwn ""!het~ er our eight heaVIer shtps are as serVIceable 1n actwn as nine of the lighter ships, the armament of all beina the same; an~ unless this q~estion can .be satisfactorily answered In the affirmative, numerical comparison is the safest standard, especially when the defects in some of our ships, before alluded to, are allowed for. Moreover it must be remembered that our ships are generally subject to greater wear and tear

Nov. 17, 1893.] E N G I N E E R I N G. 597

REFRIGERATOR CAR AT THE WORLD'S COL UMBIAN EXPOSITION. •

CON TRUCTEl> BY THE A~1ERICAN REFRIGERATOR TRANSIT CO.MPANY, ST. LOUIS, U.S.A.

(For Description, see Page 603.)

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than those of the French and Russians. F or example, the Colossus is now returning from the Mediterranean, after three commissions, no doubt more or less in need of extensive repair, and reduced in general efficiency.

For the sake of clearness and brevity we have, in our statement, avoided reference to armoured coast defence ships. \Ve possess several of this class, some being turret ships. They are, however, so slow- they were failures from their inceptionand so badly armed that, with the exception of the Rupert, which has recently been re-engined and re-armed with breechloading guns, they are practically obsolete. The Russians po sess a large number of vessels of this class of early date, and the French a small number, which, however, includes the Tonnerre, Fulminant, and Furieux, of about 5500 tons and 13 knots speed, and each armed with t wo heavy guns. In this connection it is necessary to note that t he French h:we recently completed eight armoured gun-vessels which have been in hand during the last ten years. They are of 13 knots speed, aggregating about 11,000 tons between them, and are each armed with a 10~-in. gun. The Russians have also recently constructed thr~e of these '·essels.

J>erhaps the most serious aspect of the question, because it is of momentous importance to our own mercantile marine, is the growing deficiency of armoured cruisers. The latest additions of this class of ship to the fleet were completed in 1888. On the other hand, Russia has introduced a novel t}T)d powerful type in the shape of the Rurik class,

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denominated et commerce destroyer." In this type of ship coal endurance is an especial fe9.ture, coupled with substantial armour and heavy ordnance. It is remarkable that the nine first-class cruisers built under the Naval Defence Act, as we11 as the Blake and Blenheim, have no side armour. We are now contemplating the construction of two great vessels which are to " lick creation," but in the meantime other Ruriks and Dupuy de L8mes are in hand. Unless steps are speedily taken to construct commerce protectors which can meet this new type of ship on equal terms, the effect upon our mercantile marine in time of war may be as disastrous as that produced by the Alabama.

'\Ve leave it to politicians to divine the aim of France and Russia in so rapidly pushing forward the1r new programmes and in establishing a powerful fleet of no less than seven first-class battleships in the Black Sea, but it is curious that the construction of our ten battleships as an act of naval defence on our part should have been so speedily followed by the laying down of a larger number by the t wo Powers.

The only conclusion that can be arrived at, after critically examining t he list of ships, is that t he naval defence question has in no wise been set at rest by the Act of 1889, but that the concerted action of France and Russia and the comparative weakness of our armoured fleet alone is a source of national danger, and a subj ect which demands the immediate and most earnest consideration of the Government and of Parliament. '\Ye are too near danger point for inquiry to be any longer deferred,

Hmcl CJ.uarter h;:xs .

if, as has been stated on the highest authority, it is accepted that our fleet should equal that of any two foreign Powers.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOUTH AFRICAN RAILWAYS.

(Continued from page 503.) FRoM the engineering point of view, the entry

into the Karoo over the B ex I-tiver range of mountains (in the Cape) is specially worthy of notice. From the town of Worcester (780 ft. above sea level) the n1ain line of the western system proceeds up the beautiful Hex River valley, climbing the range with curves and zigzags, piercing some of the spurs with tunnels, and spanning the gulleys with lofty viaducts, and in 36 miles it attains an altitude of 3193 ft.

Looking from the top, there is a magnificent view of the valley, some 2000 ft. below. For upwards of 20 miles the line here is 1 in 40 to 1 in 45, with 8-chain curves, deep rock cuttings, and steep banks. The highest point is reached at Pieter Meintjes Fontein, 77 miles from the W Qrceater, at 3588 ft. above the sea, a little higher than the top of Table Mountain. Thence the line descends t o 2717 ft. at Buffel's River, and 1537 ft. (lowest point beyond \Vorcester) at the Dwyka River; between Prince Albert and Fraserburg Road it again ascends to 2379 ft., and at Beaufort W est to 2778 ft. The gradients thence on the main lino of the Western system t o Kimberley and Vryburg are very easy. The highest point on the l\:Iidland Pystem (51 ~5 f t.)

E N G I N E E R 1 N G. -in the colony is at B ..,sworth, near N aau wpoort, 164 miles from Porb Elizabeth, whence the high plateau of the Karoo is followed till it merges into the Kalakari. Gradients are all easy on the balance of this system, with the exception of two hilly portions in the Orange Free State of no great length. The eastern system attains its summit (5185 ft. ) on the Stormberg, 207 miles from East London.

wooden ones, both in difficulty of putiting the road together, and in keeping a good running top, as well as in renetvals, where all rails have to be removed. Their cost was fr01n 7s. to Ss. Bince 1887 an improved class of ircn sleeper has been eupplied, and they are gradually superseding wooden sleepers for all extensions and renewals.

Owing t o the nature of the country traversed by this system, a large amount of waterways have had to be provided, and there are eleven bridges of 100 ft. opening and upwards, with a total waterway of 1798 ft., exclusive of the Orange River bridge at Bethulie, which is 1350 ft. long and cost 78,874l. On the Midland there are within the colony fourteen bridges with a waterway of 4229 ft., exclusive of N oval's Point bridge over th e Orange River described in the first section , and which is the longest of the Orange River bridges, costing about 40,000l. On the Western system are twenty-one such bridges, with a waterway of 5743 ft. south of Kimberley, the largest being the " Good Hope " bridge over the Orange River, the t otal length of which is 1230 ft., with nine spans of 130 ft. each ; h eight above low - water level 56 ft. ; weight 95 tons per span, or 855 tons for the whole bridge. '!,he foundations of this bridge were laid in July, 1884, the erection of the girders was completed in June, 1885, and the bridge was opened for traffic on N ovember 28, 1885, at a total cost of about 60,000l.

As to special fastenings, the rule on Cape railways has been to omit them on construction and add them on maintenance in all curves of 10 chains or sharper, and on all gradients of 1 in 40 or steeper, and for 10 chains beyond foot of such gradients. These special fastenings are double dogs on the outside of the high rail on the curves, and on the outside of both rails on the gradients. On gradients of 1 in 50 and steeper it is usual also to dog in the slot at the lower end of each rail where the joint is supported on a sleeper. Fang bolts and clips were at first largely ordered for new works, but were n ever used much on t he maintenance.

The width of formation on single lines has been generally 16 ft. 6 in., the depth of ballast under the sleepers 10 in., with between slopes 12 ft., amount of ballast It cubic yards peT yard forward.

A few of the leading prices for work in the period 1881 to 1887 are the following :

On the Natal railways gradients and curves are exceptionally severe. Out of the first 189 miles there are 43 miles of 1 in 40, 42 miles of gradients between 1 in 39 and 1 in 35, 25 miles with curves of 450 ft. radius, 9 miles with curves of 300 ft., and 13 miles of 1 in 60 combined with 450 ft. radius curves. At 58 miles from Durban the main line reaches 3054 ft. above sea level, deRcends to 1000 ft. before reaching Pietermaritzburg, and rises again 12 miles beyond to 3700 ft. The summit before La.dysmith at 132 miles from Durban is at 5153 ft. Vve have previously given some details as t o the Transvaal Rail way system and the Beira, so we will not r evert to them now.

At first t.he permanent way on the Colonial Government lines was supplied entirely with creosoted Baltic fir sleepers (7 ft. by 9 in. by 4~ in. for light rails, and 7 ft. by 10 in . by 5 in. for heavy rails), at an average cost varying from 4s. 6d. to 5s. 6d., but attention was early turned to utilising some of the many varieties of excellent colonial timber. As early as 1877 twenty-four colonial sleeperd were experimentally creosoted in England and laid in the Western main line. Five of these were taken up for examination in 1883, and were found to be sound, and the remainder (half " upright" and half "outeinqua") in 1887 were still in the ground. In 1883 some exhausive experiments with "yellow wood" were carried out by Bland and Co., of Cardiff, and their success induced the Cape Government to purchase sawmills at Goura, near Knyska., where they erected a creosoting plant, and contracts were entered into for a constant supply, beginning with 50,000 in 1885. The average cost of these sleepers is 53. 5d. to 5s. lOd. The idea of utilising home-grown timber, and keeping the cost of that item of maintenance in the colony, was a laudable one, but, on the whole, it has encountered but a small measure of success. Where these sleepers without creosoting have been laid on the Midland system in large 'quantities, they have invariably stood badly. Several miles originally laid with yellow and stink wood sleepers had to be taken up within six months of laying, owing to dry rot. It was found impossible to spike without previous use of an auger, increasing cost of laying and often damaging the sleeper. Many of the sleepers cut under the Government F orester's supervision, stacked under cover and seasoned for 18 months, h ad t o be hastily put into the road to avoid being condemned before uso, and the contract for their supply had to be cancelled and tho contrador compensated.

Iron sleepers came gradually into use from .1881 in an experimental way. Two types were criedfirst. the 1nverted trough (Livesey's p~tent); second, the double po ~ or terrapin. In. prac.tiCe, both ~hese sleepers were considered to be 1nfen or* to ordinary

* A11ege:f defects of fi rs~ p:1.ttern: (a) Shortnf.SJ o~ ~ra.naverse bea.rin~ (5 ft. 6 in., instead of 7ft.) ; (b) mab1llty to alter gauge round curves (keys being always inside and

•

Earth1vork per Cube Yard. s. d.

Earth, ! rock . . . 4 5 to bank or spoil, average load

" 1 " I " TO" "

" "

" ,, ,, average

Hard rock ...

. . . 2 8

... 1 10~

... 2 8

.. . 7 6 " " to bank or spoil, per cubic yard

Soft , . . . 5 3 , Ballast . . . . . . 2 0 on line " Masonry . .. . .. 35 0 Culverts all found

, . . . . .. 40 0 Bridges , White labour .. . 5s. to Sa. per diem Black , . . . 2s. 6d. ,

Tunnels per lineal yard: Departmental 40l., and contract 30l.

Cement, per cask of six to the ton, 18s. to 25s. Laying t rack, 3s. per yard forward ; permanent way per

mile of the light sectiOn (4G! lb. steel) laid complete, about 1752l.

The cost of the rail ways in South Africa belonging to the Colonial Governments has on the whole been high (see Table, page 325 a1de) considering the character of t he location (see above), which has been undoubtedly economical, and the reasons are not far to seek . The chief reason why the cost of these railways has ranged so high when compared with railways of the same class built at the same time in other countries, appears to have been the fact that Government railways in South Africa have been constructed departmentally, and not under contiract. Railway companies in Great Britain consider the keenest competition for tenders necessary to insure the work being done for the least possible amount, and, although they possess, or could easily engage, a staff of any desired degree of excellence to carry out their works, they rarely do so departmentally if they can help it. .A.. fo,.tiori , it would have been necessary for the railway department of a Colonial Government to invitie keen competition for its works, especially when the fact of so few railways having previously been built, and the real prices of work being so little known or experienced, is taken into consideration, even though, as has been doubtless the case, they possessed well-qualified and capable staffs. It should have been their duty to have invited as much competition as possible in Great Britain and elsewhere, and got people t.o construct their railways who made construction t heir entir e business- that is, con tractors, and n ot engineers. But how was it that contractors in this country did not readily compete for t he construction of these lines, when tenders were asked for through the Crown agents and the agent-general for the respective colonies 7 The reason seems to have been that a condition was imposed with which British contractors did not some years back consider they could profitably comply-e.g., that; the

jaws fixed to gauge), resulting in substitution of wooden sleepers and break of road; (c) difficulty of properly and speedily filling void with soft ballast, causing sleepers to ride badly and injury to sides of trough in packing. And those of the second pattern: (a) Multiplicity of parts; (e) transverse weakness, cottered connecting-rod between pots nob stiff enough to communicate extra or any proportion of load or motion froru one to the other ; (f) mability to equally pack both pots, also defects a and c; (g) inability to stand slewing; but these do not presant defect b, as the keys can be shifted from outside to inside of the pots, and the gauge thus altered round curves.

[Nov. 17, 1893.

security asked for by Government should be deposited in hard cash. It is rather surprising that the Governments concerned should not have realised that this condition would have prevented most British contractors from tenderjng. This want of competition, and the knowledge derivable therefrom, accounts for the high rates at which certain contracts were obtained on the earlier portions of the Midland system, and the exceesi ve cost of the work carried out thereunder. I t is also not surprising that Government should have been discouraged by the results obtained under contract without sufficient competition, and should have almost entirely discarded this system in favour of departmental construction, supplemented by small sub-contracts. The high cost of South African Government Railways-at least, previous to 1887-seems to have been the price paid for turning a Government department; into a rlrm of contractors, and probably, on the older lines, this has amounted to some 3000l. per mile. The above remarks, however, apply more strictly to the Cape than to Natal, as departmental work, plus sub-contracts, has been far more prevalent in the former than the latter.

Considerable adverse colonial criticism was from time to time aroused at what was termed "Government railway extravagance in building costly stone buildings in the desert for the accommodation of officials in caps with gold bands and porters in blue frock-coats, without a passenger frequenting them from one week's end to another, and without an ounce of goods being received or deepatched, " but though probably the criticism contained more than one grain of wheat, the major proportion was simply chaff. The Railway Department had to provide for the future, and did not do so at all unduly, platforms being at all intermediate stations of the simplest description, often without any buildings. Platelayers' cottages, every five miles, were built and used as engineers' quarters during construction, of rough rubble stone set in clay with cement pointing, and iron roofs painted with red mineral paint from East L ondon. The only costly but necessary adjuncts to these simple, double-frontad eight-roomed cottages were the 7000-gallon underground and 400· gallon aboveground tanks to collect the rare and precious rainwater. Passing places (10 chains in length) have been provided every 10 miles (at least) in the neighbourhood of a platelayer's cottage, but for some years their utility was very circumscribed, owing t o lack of telgraphic communication.

Previous to 1883 native wood telegraph posts were almost exclusively used, but subsequently on extension they were entirely given up, on account of the difficulty of obtaining them and their high cost. Iron stands, holding one or two wires, and costing ll. 10s. to 2l. 10s. delivered, were then used with great success.

Previous to 1881, nearly all the rolling stock for the Cape railways was iroported from Great Britain, and was all at first of ordinary British type, but sharp curves soon corn pelled the adoption of the bogie, the four-wheeled truck at one end of the engines being preceded by the two-wheeled "Bissel " bogie, first at one, and then at both ends of the engines. Rail way erecting and repairing shops were erected at Uitenhage and Salt River, for departmental service, of t he most; complete description. These, for the work that they were called upon to do previous to 1887, were certainly rather extravagantly planned, and fiUed up with every kind of laboursaving machinery. The cost of these shops and fittings was charged to t he various railway estimates for the several systems, as well as the cost of maintaining and working them, so theil' economical results are difficult to ascertain, but the general impression is that they have been worked at a loss. Repairs have been from time to time undertaken in these shops for mail steamers and private manufacturers, but these have been as much as possible discouraged by the officials, as, although 25 per cent . above cost price has been charged, they are not considered to pay. The only explanation of this curious statement seems to be that, in the case of outside work, t he actual cost of working t he undertaking becomes clearly apparent, whereas in the ordinary Government work it is hiddPn in a labyrinth of confused accounts, and is never realised.

Among the improvements and rolling stock devised and carried out at these shops may be mentioned a very comfortable adaptation of the Pullman car (in the direction of the Mann car system), and

Nov. 17, 1893·l =

specially long fireboxes and ashpan~, with ~n arrangement of movable bars, for burnmg colomal coal with a high percentage of ash. .

The ordinary chain brake gear, with drums, endless screw or toothed rack appliances, were found t o be uns~tisfactory in their action because of th~ir uncertainty after the wear and tear of very brief use but Smith's vacuum brake, first adopted on the W e'stern system, has given good results. The best results with rigid wheel-base stock have been obtained with the Cleminson (six-wheeled carriage) stock which were longer than the usual pattern, but ride very nearly as easily as the long bogie carriage round the sharp curves.

The evidence of the Cape Rail way R ates Commission (1883) was strongly in favour of colonial built as aaainst imported car·riages, for the following reaso~s : a, lower cost; b, superior workmanship and design ; c, lon~er life ; and the following figures as to cost were gt ven ;

Actual cost of first-class short oar- £ s. d. riage, colonial built ... ... 368 15 1

Actual cost of first-class short car-riage, imported . . . . . . . . . 494 0 0

Difference in favour of colonial built .. ... ... ... ... 125 4 11

Actual cost of first, second, and third-class bogie carriago, colo-nial built ... ... .. . ... 792 3 0

Actual cost of first, second, and third-class bogie carriage, im-ported . .. . .. . .. . :.. 1000 0 0

Difference m favour of oolomal built... .. . .. . .. . .. . 207 17 0

But notwithstanding this apparent saving in cost, the major proportion of the stock has always been imported, and the colonial-built carriages hav~ been limited to what the shops could turn out without interfering with maintenance of stock in use, or extensions and enlargements of the shops themselves. And this, no doubt, has been a wise policy, if ono considers, first, that no proport ionate amount of interest on cost of buildings, machinery, and of maintenance and renewals of these is included in the statement of cost of colonial-built stock ; and, second, that no charge for a due proportion of superintendence and clerical and official staff is made. Were these charged, the comparative result would probahly be reversed , and this is the only r easonable conclusion, as pr actically all the material used in carriage construction has to be imported; even colonial wood is li ttle used . Thus t he ben efi t to be derived from constructing in the colony is limited to the difference in freight between the raw material and the por tions of t he finished carriage, against which has to be set the extra cost of colonial labour.

In one respect the keen competition which has existed throughout between t he various colonial systems has led to wasteful results in respect to their equipment ; more r olling stock of every kind than was from time to time required to work traffic actually in sight was provided to meet the local clamour of those specially interested in the speedy development of each system ; and in the period before 1887, the amount of surplus locomotives, wagons, and carriages (especially on the Eastern system) laid up in ordinary on open sidings, and rapidly perishing under the action of the heat, was really quite mournful to see. With the opening of cross lines of communication between the three systems this was largely done away with in the Cllpe, but Natal has yet to wait for similar relief.

American engines have been imported and regularly worked on the Cape railways, bu t they have not been found to be so economical in respect to boilers or coal consumpt ion as British-built engines of t he same class and doing the same work, so that the competitive r esults have not been favourable to an increase in their numbers. The original light type of permanent way in both colonies, limiting the weight of t he engines to from 20 to 30 tons, has been also an unfavourable condition for the cheap and efficient equipment of these lines, as a large stock of engines suitable for the light type of permanent way were accumulated, mostly in excess of current requirements, before the change to a h eavier type was definitely decided upon, and a large prop~rtion of these engines have subsequently had to b~ discarded before they had been worn out, as their service became unsatisfactory owin (Y to t he altered conditions in respect t o train loabds which the change in permanent. way from 45i lb. to 60 lb. rails i~troduced. In addition, the attempt to deal w1th these altered conditions of traffic with the lighter type of engine has resulted in rapid de-

E N G I N E E RI N G. 599

· · · · · h ' h d f pt'ons r esemble very much an ordinary terwratwn In ename stock Itself from w tc un ue ew exce 1 ' . 1 ll f work has been ~xacted . The ~bsence of reliable ; injector, the oil and steam t ubes 1n near_ Y a t~ water supply up country in the Cape also forced on

1 them being _concentric. In so~e pulverls;rs .t i~

the adoption of enaines provided with tenders steam tube 1s at the centre, wh1le 1n othe_s. 1

which on heavy gradi~nts and sharp curves cannot I outside. Of course, th e passage t hroug_h th e 1bnn~r b · · 1 h ' l t h t f the outside tu e IS give such econ omical r esult s as t he tank type, where tu e IS Clrcu ar, w I e a 0 . ' th

the proportion of useful adhesive weight is so much annular. But there are nozzle pulverise~~ w_I higher. The more r ecen t type of goods engine is r ound pas_sages bo~h for the steam and the 01 ' Vl Z.,

six-wheeled, coupled with four -wheeled bogie truck th_ose havmg th~ 01l an~ steam tubes, not c;,ncenand tender, weight complete 50 to 55 ton~, and useful tnc, but fitted si~e by ~I~e, .one to t~e other. d weight for t raction about 30 to 32 t one. Electt ic On accoun~ ~f Impurities I~ the 011_, he pre~erre lightina on Cape trains was tentatively i~troduced those of the InJector type, with the 01l tube tn tho on th: vVynberg service in 1888-89 w1th good centre. . . results, th e cost being on th e whole less than for The gen_eral arrangeme?-t ~s With a fee~ tank,_ so the oil illuminat ion. In 1889-90 electric lighting that the 01l flows b:r grav1ty Into a feed pipe, whtch was extended to the mail trains over the various suppli_es _the pulver1sers ~y mean~ of branches. systems. The general r esults of working under ·· Similarly, a steam Pl_Pe havmg_ a branch ap~h: t he special conditions of equipment that have been st~am valve on each boi_ler. run s 1n front o achieved will be dealt with in a subsequent article. bOilers, p~rallel to the 011 pipe, and by mea?s of

With reference to maintenance, the light type c·f bra~lCh p1pes leads the steam to the pulvensers. permanent way, with which three-fourths o_f t he Ma1n_sto_p-valves are fi tted both on the s_team and lines built previous to 1887 were laid, has seriously the 011 pipes to stop all the fires at once In caEe of and unduly increased the cost all r ound, as it has nee~ ; but stopcocks a_re also fitted on each branch been found exceedingly d ifficult to k eep the road leadmg to the pulvensera. .In some ,~ases these in good running order, especially subsequ_ent to the stopcocks are_ also the r egulat_mg cocks. . . increase in weight of t rains which began In 1881. The pu_lvensers are fitt~d, I~ front of the b01lers,

The average unit length for maintenance u~der to the bo1ler_doors, and hi_ngen so that the doors can one aang is four miles and these aanas, on hnes be opened without r emovmg them. with

0full and limited se~vice of trai~s r:spect ively, "~he firebri~k bridge . is r_el!lov~d altogether,

ordinarily consist of the following : and, mstead of It, a firebnck lmmg 1s fitted on the

F ll S · Per Day. back plate of the combustion chamber to protect u e vtce. s. d. this plate from the impinging flam e. Or, be~ter

One ganger (white), at ... ... .. . 8 0 still, the usual bridge is replaced by a vertical ,, second , ... ... . .. 6 0 grating of loose firebricks, through which the

Tbree labourers (black), at .. . .. · 2 6 flame is bound to pass. With thi's arrangement,

21 6 while the back plate is well protected, the air and the unburned gases, by getting well heated and

Total, £ \'e men at .. . .. . =84l. 2s. 4~d. per mile per year.

Limited Ser1:ice.

One ganger (white), ab ... Two labourers (black), at

. ..

... .. . ...

Total, three men at . . . . .. = 50l. 17s. 3d. per mile per year.

P er Day. s. d. 8 0 2 6

13 0

The general cost of maintenance at first starting has been also largely increased by the almost univer aal practice of turning over new lines from construction to maintenancA in an unfinished condition, which has had the effect of charging to the latter or the revenue account much that should have been charged against construction or loan account-the latte r appearing smaller than it ought, at the expense of the former.

In 1891 a return was published by the Cap e Government Railway Department of the relative cost of labour and materials in the Cape and in England, which is interes ting as showing h ow different the conditions of railway working in the two countries are :

Enginemen Mechanics

Cape Colony. .. . l Os . per day

and labourers .. . 10s. per day

J oiners and la-

England. 7s. per day.

5s. 6d. per day.

bourers .. . 10s. per day 5s. 6d. per day. Cost of coal .. . 4ls. 4. ~5d. p. tn. 7s. 4.80d. per ton Materials ... 125 per cent. 100 per cent.

(To be continued.)

mixed in their passage through the perforated brick screen, are put in condition to burn completely in the combustion chamber and to produce a perfect corn bustion. Moreover, the brick screen prevents currents of cold air rushing inside the furnaces to damage the tubes and tube-plates."

When used in locomotive b oilers, the pulverisers the author examined, were fitted outside the boiler in front of the ashpit door, the firegrate b eing entirely removed, and a massive brickwork, forming a reversing hood bridge, replaced it; the latter r eversed the pulverised ignited fu el projected against it into a powerful fan of white smokeless flame. The brickwork lining, the bottom of the ashpit and sides of the furnace up to the t t;p of the bridge was raised to a white heat, and vaporised all the globules of oil not perfectly pulverised. He summed up with the following conclusions on the use of liquid fuel in Russia :

"1. The petroleum refuse, derived from the petroleum industry in the Caucasus, although used there for a ll kinds of industrial and domestic purposes, is far in excess of t he local wants, and the price is comparatively low-say about 3 fr. per t on.

"The output is, however, comparatively small and limited.

THE ENGINEERING CONGRESS OHICAGO.

"2. The petroleum refuse has a high calorific power, which practically amounts to 1.6 times tha.t of good coal. The steam-generating capacity, with boilers as at present in use, appears to be at least

AT equal t o that of coal.

(BY OUR NEW YORK CORRESPONDENT.)

(Continued f rom page 568. ) TnE next paper was on "Liquid Fuel for Marine

Purposes, " by Col. N abor S oliani, of the R oyal Italian Navy. He stated that the present output of the Russian wells was 6,000,000 t ons per annum, and then proceeded to describe the pulverisers as follows :

" These s team pul verisers are all fram ed on the same leading idea, of a. j et of steam issuing from a hole or opening on the side of a small steam box, or at the end of a small steam tube or n ozzle and impinging on the oil issuing from another opening on a similar box or tube. They differ one from the other principally in the form and arrangement of the said apertures, and in tha means of modifying these apertures to r egulate the flow of t he fl uids for perfect combustion, and to suit the intensity of the fire required.

"The box type pulverisers are cylindrical or circular, and have the apertures, which are generally rectangular, long, and very narrow, one above the other, the oil aperture b eing at the top.

'' The pulverisers of the n ozzle type, with very •

'' 3. The petroleum refuse, if pure, i.e. , not mixed with lighter oils, has a high burning point, which exceeds 200 deg. Cent. , therefore there is no danger whatever in its use, whether on land or on board ship. But it is r arely so pure, aud contains more or less of the lighter oils, which may impair its safety.

"However, as a temperature above 100 deg. Cent. is never reached, even on board s hips, it may be admitted that the refuse can be used with confidence, provided the temperature of combustion is above that limit.

'' 4. Owing to its liquid state, petroleum refuse can be easily and quickly delivered on board ship, with pumps or with other mechanical means, and it can be stowed in any part of the ship, whether close to the boilers or n ot, and even in such confined spaces as would be inaccessible or useless for coal.

"5. With petroleum r efuse, the action of the fires b eing automatic, t he work of the firemen is reduced to mere watching.

'' At the same time the fires are under perfect control and easily k ep t regular and uniform, while a perfect combustion is obtained.

"6. '-!'he above advantages make possible a •

•

•

T HE WILL AN S ENGINE AT THE W 0 R L D'S C 0 L U M B I A N EX P 0 SI 'r I 0 N. CONSTRUCTED BY THE M. C. BULLOCK ~lANUFACTURING COi\IPANY, CHICAGO, U. S.A.

( Fm· Description, see Page 603.)

considerable economy of weigh t and space on board and dumpiiTlg ashes overboard is dispensed with, ship, and also of manual labour in the working of I and the boiler rooms are easily kept clean and dry. the ships. " 8. The steam pulverisers are simple instru-

" 7. With petroleum refuse there are no ashes, ments, both as regards construction and working. c linkers, or dust, so that the work of cleaning fi res , They appear to be better the simpler they are.

•

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The consumption of steam for their working may tion of the steam pulverisers has been facilitated be as high as 6 per cent. of the steam produced, by there being little difficulty in supplying the but with proper arrangements and care it may be steamers with fresh water. reduced to the very low figure of 1 per cent. " 10. For the efficiency of the system of corn bus-

" 9. In the Caspian and Volga. region the adop-1 tion with petroleum refuse, it is essential that

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Nov. 17, 1893.] E N G I N E E R I N G.

TENDER OF 12-WHEELED LOCOMOTIVE. CONSTRUCTED AT THE BROOKS LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, DUNKIRK, N.Y.

(For Dcsc1·iption, see Page 603.)

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proper firebrick structures be erected (inside or 1 In this way the combustion becomes smokeless and outside the boilers), within which the flame issuing perfect, and can be kept so at all speeds. from the pulverisers be projected, so that a thorough '' 11. The petroleum refuse appears really so mixing of the air and petroleum vapours be pro- , efficient, both in ordinary marine boilers and in moted, and a high temperature be maintained in the locomotive boilers, that, in my opinion at least, apace where the combustion begins to take place. 1 no improvement need be made in them, nor need

-

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other forms of boiler be Eought, better auapted t o the use of this kind of fue1.." . .

The author then detailed certa1n expEnments with different boats in the I talian Navy, and gave the following c0nclusions :

"The opinion I have formed from the_ fac.ts now set forth on the subject of the use of o1l fuel for marine purposes is as follows : , .

" 1. P etroleum refuse appears to bo the manne fuel ' pwr excellence.

"Other kinds of liquid fuel do not appear so suitable for ordinary use, although they ma.y be used in case of need in lieu of the petroleum fuel, should the supply of this fail.

'' 2. At present, ~n acco~nt of t he high price and of the limited quanhty available, petroleum-refuse fuel notwithstanding the many advantages that could be derived from it, cannot be adopted for general use on board ships, at least in the mercantile navy. In warships its _military_ advantages may lead even now to its partial adopt10n:

"3. In future, with the gradual exhaustion of the coalfields and the opening of new sources of petroleum, th~ scale may turn in favour of petroleum refuse· and should t he sources of petroleum turn out to be so abundant and so widely distributed in all parts of the world as to insure a supply everywhere, t he oil fuel would gradually supersede coal.

•' 4. The corn bustion of co~l and petroleum refuse combined in the same furnaces gives an easy and simple means of securing, to a certain extent, the advantages of power that can be derived from oil fuel, without endangering the supply of fuel to the ships, as the coal arrangements on board are left unaltered.

" The combined combustion will therefore probably be the form in w:hich the_ oil fue_l will ~t first be applied to warshtps durmg thts pertod of transition from coal to liquid fuel.

' ' 5. F or torpedo - boats, which require only a limited quantity of fuel and have a limited range of operation, the petroleum fu_el alone may b~,adopted with advantage, even now, Instead of coal.

Then followed the reading of a portion of Mr. Charles Ward's paper on "Coil and Tubulous Boilers," which was accompanied by supplemental data from Mr. McFarland, from th e standpoint of the experience of t he United States Navy in adopting t his type of boiler in the Monterey. There is no doubt that the navy is highly pleased with its experience in this rE>gard. In concluding his remarks Mr. McFarland (one of the most promising of our Government engineers) eaid that the great question with the tubulous type of boiler is in the life of the tubes, making the general claim that this is but about three years. The following data were presented as the result of tests made by the navy : -- -

Thorn ycroft ••

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"The Problems Confronting the Naval Engineer " was t he title of the paper by Ira N. Hollis, United States Navy. He divided them thus :

"1. All the machinery and boilers in warships must be protected from shot, and must therefore be entirely below t he water-line, or low enough to require only a small amount of armour protection .

"2. The weight of machinery and boilers must be low, in order t o leave sufficient displacement for coal and armour.

'' 3. The space occupied must be small, in order to leave room below for stowage of coal, ammunition, and provisions.

"4. The ship must have very high speed and great manceuvring power, especially if the armour is thin or takes the form of a protective deck.

'' 5. The machinery and boilers must be very economical in coal at crui~ing speeds, in order that the ship may keep the sea for long periods.

'' 6. The machinery and boilers must be entirelY.

•

502 E N G I N E E R I N G. •

reliable for emergencies and sudden changes of speed, and all parts must be well proportioned and constructed to reduce the possibility of bre:1.kdown t) a minimum.

"7. The design must be adapted to ready overhauling and repairs on bO.l.rd ship by the engineer's force.

1\iachinery," by Edwin S. Cramp. This described their u~e, the necessary characteristics, methods of testing, and specifications. It was fully illustra.ted, but cannot be condensed without injury to its subject.

'' 8. The parts mu8t be interchangeable, wherever possible, so that the ship need not carry many duplicate pieces.

'·The Form and Treatment of Tensile Specimens, with reference to the Tests of Iron and Steel," was presented by James E. Howard, of the United S tates Arsenal, Watertown, Mass. He stated :

''Those properties generally regarded as impor-"9. Many emergency connections must be made

to minimise the chance of disablement in action. "10. The pumping arrangements must be far in

excess of that required for the bilges alone, and any compartment must be r eadily drained by any pump.

"11. The transportation of coal and the means of communication between different compartments

tant to observe may be enumerated as follows : '' Elastic limit.

must ha\'e ca.reful attention." · The author then proceeded to discuss these

problems separately, and to show how they had b een met in the new warships r acently added to the American Navy. The di~grams accompanying the paper sh owed the progress of marine architecture in the last forty years, and indicated how the marine engineer had solved some of the problems presented.

"The Strength of V e3sels, " by Herr Fred. L. Middendorf, was a treatise on strains and the methods of r esisting them. The author compared the construction of a ship to that of a bridge, claiming this difference : in a bridge the points of supports are stationary, and the load movable, while in a ship the reverse is usually the cass. He then proceeded to discn ~s and analyse these strains, showing his posi tions by diagrams and formula. He preferred a ship made of the best material, and well built, with moderate engine power.

The next paper ca.n be b est shown by a short extract from the introduction. The title was, " Practical S tability Information, " by Mr. Arthur R. Liddell, Langfuhr bei Dc1.n zig, Germany. "Stability curves are graphic representations of the gl;'eater or smaller tendency of a ve3sel with various quantit.ies and stowage of cargo to return to the upright after b aing careened by the action of wind or waves. They belong to the province of the naval architect, and ought n ot to be put into the hands of seamen.

''To show how by their aid the essential points of a vessel's probable behaviour at sea may be predicted, and how these again may be expressed in terms with which seamen are familiar, are the objects of this paper.

'' To these ends, and taking the case of a sailing vessel a~ that most requiring illustration , the principal means are the following :

'' 1. A ready method of measuring 'initial stiffness,' or stiffness at small angles of heel.

"2. A table giving the gr~atest and least amounts of inifiial stiffness (or greatest and least angles of inclination due to a standard inclining moment) with which she may safely go to sea when loaded to various water-lines.

"3. Another table of the greatest angles of steady heel at which she may safely sail, when loaded to different water lines and with different amounts of initial stiffness."

The author showed mathematically and graphically his vie11s on the subjects, and concluded as follows :

"In discussing problems of this kind, there are three classes of the community who are generally appealed to, vi_z., the shipo_wners, . the sailors, and the naval archttects, but IS 1t not t1me that a fourth party, viz , the underwriters, awoke. t_o its interest and inquired whether or not the capsi:nng of a vessel at sea is due to preventible causes. So long as the insurance companies remain content with the dictum of so-called 'practical experience' that theory is n01nen se, and blindly make good_ the losses of missing vessels, so long must ~e wait for the dissemination of knowledge of the kmd treated in thii paper, and !or the ~nstitut.ion of ~easonable and simple precautwns agamst a hitherto Immeasur-able danger. ''

'~The Diagram of Stability for any Draught and Stowaae" was by Pablo Perez Seoane, of the Spani;h Navy. This gave a simple drawing by which all the geometrical data !nfiuencing the stability of vessels could be ~etermtned . . . ,

" The Coastin~ Sailing Ships of the_A~nabc Sea, by Signor Rodolf_o P?li, ga:re a descrtptw.n of these vessels with the1r d1menswns, and was Illustrated by dra~i~gs showing th?ir general appearance and their details of constructwn.

.Next came '~Steel Castings as Used in Marine

•

n 'l'ensile strength. '' Total elongation. '' Contraction of area at place of rupture. " Character of the ruptured surface."

•

He then considered these in detail, and recom-mended a careful study of the material and a record of its subsequent behaviour in service.

"Marine Engine Valve Motions, " by N. P. Towne, consulting engineer to William Cramp's Sons, was next considered. After considering various valves under various conditions, the author suggested that for triple-expansion mgines it would be well to use a single or double ported plug piston valve on the high-pressure, and on the intermediate pressure a piston valve whose rings are in one piece, divided at one point in the circumference, and secured by bolts as it wears. A liner can be inserted in the joint sufficient to make the valve tight, forming an adjustable plug; while on the low-pressure cylinder he would use either a doubleparted slide or a Thorn piston valve.

If an eccentric is used, he would line the eccentric strap with white metal, and not be chary in the width of the eccentric. Mr. Towne's position and experience certainly gave his views great weight, and the paper was well received. ·

'' The Construction of Steam boats Navigating the Western \Vaters of the United State~, " by J ohn M 'Sweeny, of Wheeling, \Vest Virginia, was a novel subject to the foreign members, although a similar class of boats is coming into use for explorers in Africa. This paper gave descriptions and illustrations of the various boats on our western watere, showing the cel~brafied wheelbarrow boats of the Ohio and Mississippi, and the fleet packet steamers running to New Orleans. The former class draw sometimes but a few inches, and the writer was shipwrecked in one on the Ohio, and only escaped drowning by rolling up his pantaloons and wading ashore. These boats are sometimes 350 ft. long. Various types were shown and their dimensions given, also dra. wings of their engines.

"Shipbuilding and Engineering on the Great Ll.kes, " by Waiter Miller, of Cleveland, 0., described the commerce of these inland sea~, and the following, extracted from the official report, may prove a surprise to many :

Summ,ary of Lake Tra.ffic for 1890.

Freight carried in the United States coastwise trade . .. ...

Freight carried in the United States foreign trade .. . . ..

Total freight carried to or from United States ports ... ...

Flour and grain .. . . .. ... Iron ore .. . ... . .. ... Coal ... ... ... ... ... Lumber and lumber products All other merchandise ...

...

. ..

Total ... . .. .. . ...

Tons.

28,295,959

2,003,047 - ---30,299,006

4,271,346 9,132,761 5, 735,299 6,860,660 2,286,893

28,295,950 United States T1·affi,c on Detroit R iver.

Tons. Coastwise down ... ... ... 15,344,433

, up ... . .. .. . ... 5, 771,164 Foreign down ... ... ... ... 463,282

, up ... ... .. . .. . 30U,593

Total .. . ... ... ... 21,888,472 Another part of the report makes some very

interesting comparisons with the commerce of the prominent ports of the U nited States and for eign countries ; and a still better knowledge will ~e obtained of the magnitude and importance of the traffic of the Great Lakes. The total tonnage of entrances and clearances, foreign and coastwise trade, of Chicago and Buffalo, for the season of 1890, are thus compared :

Chicago . .. • • •

Buffalo ... . .. .. . London ... .. . ... Liverpool .. . ... Glasgow ... ... Hull . .. • • • . ..

. .. ...

.. . ...

.. ... • • • ... ... . .. ... ...

TonE~. 10,288,868 9,560,590

20,962,534 16,621,421

5,977,860 5,061,882

•

•

The entrances and clearances in the foreign commerce of the following prominent foreign and h ome ports will appear in the following Table :

Tons Havre . .. ... ... ... . .. 4,418,8i6 Maroeilles ... ... .. . . .. 7,~92,556 Antwerp ... ... ... . .. 8,203,990 Hamburg ... • • ... ... 10,417,006 Bremen ... • • • ... .. 3,481, 769 New York . .. ... ... . .. 12,646,555 Boston ... . .. . .. . .. . .. 2,676,3~7 Ph iladel ph ia ... ... . .. • • • 2,585.866 San Francisco . .. • •• • • • 1, 986, 4~3

Mr. Mlller then described the construction of the boats used in the trc1.ffic, their engines, anl gave the dimensions of the various part3. He alluded to the wh~lebacks, and showed by drawings their peculiarities, and closed with a full account of the twin-screw car ferryboat which is · u: ed to transfer a whole train cargo across the Straits of Mackinaw, where in winter the ice is from 3 ft. to 5 ft. thick. Their construction is of oJ.k, and they are very heovy. Their speed is abJut 15 miles an hour. '£he details cannot be given here, but th ey were full of intere~t.

The last paper t o be considered was a '' Cvmparison of the Types of Steamers on the Great Lakes, " by J. R. Oldham, of Cleveland, Ohi •. He described at length the various types, and weighed the advantages of one against another. The paper was illustrat~d, and he gave, a'! a sample, the following account of the operations of an ore steamer :

Operati<ms of Steamer " M anola," 292 Ft. by 40 Ft. by 21~ Ft.

(One of the Minnesota. Fleet of Cleveland, Ohio.) Per cent. uf opera-tions to earnings 58.79 Earnings per ton per mile ... ... .00u78 Operating- expense per ton per mile .00016 Net earnmgs per ton per mile ... .00032 Earnings pAr mile travelled... ... 1. 853 · Operating expense per mile travelled 1. 090 Net earnings per mile travelled ... .763 Total miles travelled ... ... ... 50,58! Average miles travelled per day .. . 227! Tons freight carried ... ... ... 71,170.69

, , one mile ... 3,600,078,861 Average speed per hour light .. . 12.72

, , , loaded .. . 11.85 Gene· al average speed per hour ... 12.25 Total tons fuel used . .. .. . . .. 5528 Average tons fuel used per trip ... 18t.553

, amount fuel per mile light 209 lb. , ,, , loaded 226 ,

General average amount fuel per mile ... ... ... ... ... 218 ,

Average fuel per ton per mile . .. 1! oz. Number of trips ... ... ... 30 Average size cargo . . . . . . . . . 2295. 82 tons

, draught water Sa.ult Canal { 14ft. 7 in. to 14 Jt 9 ,

, time loading ... ... ... 7! hours , , unloading . .. .. . 12 , , , handling cargo . .. 19! , • , tons loaded per hour ... 306.2·14 , , unloaded per hour ... 191.712 ., , handled , ... 235.105

Actual time sailing .. . . .. .. . 175 days , in port .. . .. . . .. 47 , , , , , commmission . . . 222 , ,

!>er cent. of time sailing ... .. . . 7fl8:S , , in port . .. .2117

Average number crew each trip ... 23 , wages , , .. . 334. 05 , length of trip .. . · .. . 7.396 days , mileage per trip .. . .. . 1686

Coa.l, short tons ; cargo, long tons. (To be continued.)

THE SEVERANCE CUT NAIL MACHINE. THE machine which we illustrate on page 593 was

exhibited at the \Vorld 's Fair, Chicago, by the everance Nail Machine Company, of Duluth, :Minne

sota. It is intended for producing nails from metal strips, and is entirely automatic in action. Its con· struction is due to the keen commercial rivalry existing in the States between the makers of cut nails and wire nails, which has at length led to a series of competitive trials of the holding powers of each type carried out at 'Vatertown Arsenal. The cut nail makers use a cheap raw material, but a considerable amount of hand labour is employed to fe~d the machines. In fact, it is said that the mere handling of the plate and placing the nails in the kegs costs about 2:J. 8d . per 100 lb. of eightpenny nails. The wire nail makers, ou the other hand, use an automatic machine which greatly reduces the cost of production, but the raw material, being wire, is expensive. If, therefore, an automatic machine could be devised which would use the cheaper material of the cut nails, a great advant.age would be gained. This it is claimed has been successfully done by :.Mr. ,V, N. Severance, whose machine we are now about to describe. The general appearance of

•

ENGINEERING, NOVEMBER 17, 1893.

D ETAILS OF GREAT N ORTHERN

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the machine is shown in Fig. I, whilst t~e ?ross secti?n, Fig. 2, will make clear the genert~.l prt.hctple ~n ~h1Ch it works. The metal plate to be cut m to natls ts fed iu through the rolls shown in Fi~. 2 till i~ comes between one pair of four sets of .kmves, whtch operate on the materia.l alternately, wtth the result tha t. the st rip is cut a.s shown in F ig. 3. These sets of kmve~ arc marked E E and E 1 E 1 in Fig. 2, and are ca.rried in pairs on the cutter stocks, B a~d C. Of t~esc th~ lower cutter stock is fixed, save tha t 1t can be gt_ven an Oicilla.tory motion, by whic_h either the ~et of k.n~ves E orE' is brought alternately 1nto ~he c~1t~mg posttton. The upper stock, C, is also fitted w1th stmtla.r _ge~;., but io addttion is ca.rried on toggles, as shown m ~ tg. 1, by means of which it is caused to make the st;oke which cuts the material placed between the kmves. The cutter stocks are subjected to heavy stresses, but h we to be made very rigid, or imperfect nc:tils would be produced. This is do~e by ca.stiog braci?g ribs round them, M shown in F1g. 1. The matenal ea~ be cut either hot or cold, as arrangement~ a.re prov1ded for heatina it in its progress to the cutters by gas jets or oil fla~es. By changin~ the knives ~nd the rat~ of feed different sizes of natls can be cut m one machme. The 'cn~ters, if well tempered and kept well oiled, are s1.id to ~ast a l?ng time. For s~ar~,~ning them an ~mery wheel IS provtded , -~s shown ~n F 1g. ~. The nails, ~s will be seen from ] Ig. 2, are dtfferent 10 shape to ordtnary cut nails the head being symmetrica l. The new form was how'ever , shown at competitive tests at the \V aterto~n Arsenal to have greater holding power than either the ordinary cut nail or the w ire na\1. The output of the mach_ines ~s claimed. to be f\normous. 03e skilled mechamc, With the ass1s tance of three or four common labourers, can, it is said, look after six to ten machines, and produce the nails at the rate of ne1.rly 5000 per wiaute. Of the third size each machine will cut sixteen per stroke, and makes l OO strokes per minute. Of the letrger sizes fewer are cut at each stroke, and the production is correspond ingly reduced.

REFRIGERATOR CAR AT THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.

OuR recent issues have shown the g reat care exercised by shippers . and rail way ?o.mpa:nies in America to carry pen shable commodtt1es 10 good condition. Cars bringing fruits anj vegetables in winter from the warm south to the freezing climate of the north are fitted with stoves which automatically maintain a moderate temperature, while in the a lmost tropical summer weather which p~evails all over t~e States in summer, thousands of refngera.tor cars are m use, carrying meat, fish, poultry, and other foods ~h~t rapidly spoil in a heat~d atmosphere. . N atura~ly 1t 1s a difficult matter to bt11ld a car that Will carry 1ts load safely with the small amount of attention that it ?ar' receive on a railway, and at a moderate cost. It IS a matter that every large firm of car-builders pays great attention to, and each has its own pattern, differing in detail , though not. usually in principle, from those of other mll.kers. Thts week, on pages 596 and 597, we illustrate a car of the American Refrigerator Transit Company, of t. Louis, which was shown at the " rorld's Columbian Exposition. The ice is carried in two compartments, one at each end of the car, and is inserted through a trap door in the roof {Fig. 2). It is supported on a grate of bars {Fig . 3, 4 and 10), and is contained within a crate of galvanised iron. The water from the melting ice drips into a basin {Fig. 11), from which it flows into a narrow perforated tank with a trapped delivery beneath the ca,r (Fig. 12). The air which passed over the p rovisions, and so becomes heated, rises into a trunk in the double roof of the car {Fig. 3), and finds its way into the ice receptacle. Here it passes over and around the ice and its metal container, parting with its heat and moisture, and gradually sinks, until it passes, with the drip, into and through the bottom vessel, and finally enters the car again at the bottom, ready to absorb more heat and carry it round to the ice.

Great care is spent in rendering the walls and roof of the car as nearly non-conducting· as possible. Evidently, if the heat of the sun could find admittance with any facility, it would rapidly use up the most liberal supply of ice that could be carried. The insulation adopted on the sides and floor is shown in Fig. 7, and that of the roof in Fig. 8. A very liberal use is made of asbestos paper. ' Vherever two sets of planking cross each other, paper is placed between them, and diaphragms of paper, separated by distance pieces, are used in all the walls. This is well shown in the section of the door ( Fig. 13), in which there are six partitions of paper, between two sets of pla.nking. The floor (Fig. 7) consists of the following layers : ~ in. boards, paper, i in. boards, paper, i in. air space, paper, i in. air space, paper, i in. air space, paper, j in. board, 1 in. air space, paper, and ! in. board. The roof (Fig. 8) is very similarly constructed. Below the roof come a number of racks (Fig. 14), on which carcases can be hung by means of hooks {Fig. 15). The engravings give the dimensions of the principal parts of the car.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

THE WILLANS ENGINE AT THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.

TuE engines which we illustrate on pa:ge 600 will have a familiar appearance to our E oghsh readers, though they may be puzzled by the name·p~ate. In fact the engines are 'Villans central valve engmes, built by the M. C. Bullock :Manufacturing Comp any, of Chicago, and exhibited by them at .the Cbicaao Exhibition. 'Ye have long been surpnsed that the manufacture of the 'Villans engine had not been taken up in the United States ere this, but, judging from some remarks in an. Am~rica~ co.ntempor<Lry it appears that the automatic expansiOn Idea has beco~e a perfect fad there, and the belief ha~ arisen that no engine without such gear can possibly be economical. In actual fact, however, so far as we can learn, no automatic expansion high-speed engine has approached the Willans engine.in economy, and i~ w?uld certainly seem that the worsh1p of the automat1c 1~ea h:ts retarded the development of the compound engme iu the United States, where even at the present day they seem to build simple automatic engines whe~e British engineers would put in a compoun~. No doubt, ~f initial condensation could be doue away With, automatiC gear would be economical, and it is still in those cases in which this condensation can be reduced to a small amount. E xperiments made by .Mr .. D . K. Clark o_n one of the Scotch rail ways showed, If our memory IS

correct, no ad vantage in a locomotive in working the sten.m expansively by the li~k motio~, r?-ther than by throttling. Of course the ltnk mot10n IS but a c~ude form of expansion gear, and better results are obt~I.ned with more perfect apparatus,. but under. conditiOns peculiarly favourable to the vanable expans10n system , Mr. \iVillans found that in a compound high· speed engine this system might have an advantage over the throttling system of 7 per cent. at three-quarter load as a maximum, dimiuishing as the power was fur·ther reduced, so that at half power it became \'ery small and in most engines of the automatic expansion type 'would probably have become a loss, as in very few of them is the initial condensation solo"· as in the Willans type. One of the engines represented is, we understand, a compound engine of 120 horse-power, and was shown driving direct a 125 arc-light dynamo, built by the Brush E lectric Company, of Cleveland, Ohio. The other engine is r epresented driving an incandescent lighting dynamo, built by the General Electric Company. The two views give a goo? idea of the compactness of the plant. In addit ion to this exhibit, the builders of the engine had a fine display of underground haulage plant, and a very large variety of rock drills, specially designed for the use of prospectors for the precious metals. Air-compressing plant was also shown by the firm.

BROOKS LOCOMOTIVE AT THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.

WE conclude this week our illustrations of the details of a r~presentative simple locomotive constructed at the Brooks ' Vorks, of whose engines there was an interesting collection at the Exposition at Chicago. P erspective views of the principal engines were g i\·en in previous issues. On the two·page plate which accompanied our issue of the 3rd inst. , there were g iven sections of the locomoth-e and details of the boiler, and on this week's two-page plate there are further details of the framing, working parts of the engine, and of the axles and wheels. The tender is illustrated on page 601. The engine was constructed for the Great Northern Railway of the United States.

Dealing first with the boiler, as illustrated on Figs. I to 7, it may be stated that it is of the Belpaire type, and is constructed of steel throughout, for a working pressure of 180 lb. to the square inch. The length over all is 28 ft. 9£ in., and between tubeplates 13 ft. 10t1~r in., and the inside diameter is 68 in. The barrel plates are of %-in. steel, and lagged with wood covered with planished iron. The tubes are of No. 11 B. W.G., and of 2i in. outside diameter. Of these there are 250 in all, the length being 13 ft. 10 in. The tubes are spaced at a pitch of 3r\ in. in a. i-in. tubeplate at the firebox end, and a !-in. plate at the smoke-box end . The firebox, which is of 1\-in. sheets, is 9 ft. 6 in . long by 2ft. 8 in. w ide, braced with g- in. and 1-in. stay bolts of " Brown iron. " The grate (Figs. 10 to 16) is of cast-iron rocking bars, and the ashpan has front and back dampers. 'fhe water space around the firebox varies from 3i in. to 4 in. The smok ebox is 62 in. long by 69 in. in diameter, and is fitted with adjustable diaphragm and with netting constructed by the Tyler V\' ire Works Company. The surfaces are as follows:

is 20 in., and the stroke 28 in. The valves are of the Richardson balanced type (Figs. 21 and 25), the steam port being I8i in. by I g i~., a nd the ex_haust ports 18~ in. by 3 in. The eccentr1~ and ecce~tnc straps are shown by F igs. 36 to 38, the hnks by F1gs. ~9 and ~0, and the reversing lever by Fig. 41.. Metalhc packmg is used for piston and valve rods (Ftgs. 30 to 32). The moving parts of the engine are of wroug.ht s teel. The crosehead and crosshead pin, shown on Figs. 27 and 28, are the former of cast steel and the other of forged ste~l, and the guides {Fig. 29) of wrought iron ca:sehardened. The details of the connecting and coupling rods and brasses are shown by Figs. 33 to 35. The connecting-rod journals a re 3! in. and 6 in. lo~g, the diameters being 4! in. and 6 in., while t~e c~mp~1Dg-rod journals are 4! in., 5 in., 7 in., and 4i m. lD diam~ter by 4! in., 5 in., 5 in., and 4i in. long. These vanous rods are of wrought iron. The_driv_ing 'Yheels, shown on Figs. 44 and 45, are 55 m. In d iamet er, and they are constructed of cast iron. The tyres are of Krupp crucible steeJ, and the axles are of wrought steel. The driving axle journals are 7~ in. in diameter .. The main framing of the locom~tive is of wro_ugh~ tron, forged solid, and is shown m two parts m F1g. 19. The lengths of wheel base are a,s fo1low :

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•• •

Pounds. 156,000 136,000 20,000

Before departing from the subject of the engine, it may be said that the cab is, as is usual in American locomotives, of large size, as will be seen from the perspective view {F1g. 4 on the two-page plate in the issue of October 20, page 479 ante). The throttle valve or regulator is of the cast-iron balance type {Figs. 42 and 43), with a 7-in. dry pipe of wrought iron, the steam gauge is of 6i in. back, and there are two safety valves. The brake for driver, tender, and train is by the New York Air Brake Company, and the arrangement will be appreciated on reference to Fig. 20.

The tender is illustrated in detail on page 601. It is carried on two centre bearing trucks of the diamond pattern, with floating bolster (Fig. 51). The wheels are 33 in. in diameter, and the axles, the journals of which are 5 in. in diameter, are of wrought iron. The frame is of 10-in. channels. The tank, which is 19 ft. 6 in. long, has a capacity of 4000 gallons. Eight t ons of coal may be carried. The tender in working order weighs 82,000 lb.

NOTES FROM THE UNITED STATES. PHILADELPHIA, November 7, 1893.

STEEL rails have been offered at 27 dols., but this figure does not bring much business. The Pennsyl· vania Steel Company started up this week with two or three good orders. Business is of small proportions, because of the expected reduction in steel rail duties. A large amount of business could be transacted at this time, if confidence existed ; but there is uncertainty as to what steel rails will be worth in January, when large orders are usually placed. Large orders for girder rails are being given out, and work of this character will be quite abundant during the winter. All kinds of crude iron are st i ll pointi·ng downward in price. No. l foundry at tide-water has been freely offered at 14 dols. ; No. 2, 13 dols. ; and forge a t 12 dols. Large lots of steel billets are offered at 20 dols. ; bridge iron, 32 dols. ; beams and channels are quoted at l. 75 cents per lb. While there is a general satisfaction over t he vote on the Repeal Bill, no improvement in business is observable. Manufacturers are concerned over the coming reduction of tariff duties.

Railroad traffic continues rather light . Merchants are unwilling to order goods for spring delivery. Manufacturers have not yet begun to book orders for winter requirements. The banks are in better condition tban for many months ; but this is owing to the fact that commercial requirements do not call for as much assistance as usual.

Grate surface .. . .. .

I n a general way, the t endency of prices is still in the wrong direction. Throughout the west, business men are afraid to purchase beyond immediate neces

Square Feet. sities. Stocks of merchandise and material of all ... ··· 25.3 kinds are very low.

Firebox heating surface .. . Tube , , .. . .. . ··· 2~~~ The coal trade is exceptionally active. The anthra.-Total ... .. . 2227 cite production this year is 1,000,000 tons ahead of

" " ... ··· · ·· I the production for the same time last year. All the The cylinders, illustrated by Figs. 21 and 21, are coaloelds of the Allegheny Mountain region, except

reversible and interchangeable. The diameter of each ' ing ont-, are ahead of last year in productiOn.

E N G I N E E R I N G. [Nov. 17, 1893.

MILL FOR THE ORlON GOLD-MINING COMPANY.

TuE Orion Company's gold mine is the firs t of the Transvaal mines which the t raveller passes on his ~ay up from the c~ast to J ohannesburg. The mine is s1t ua ted on what 1s known as the Black Reef and is a~ou_t eight miles south of Johannesburg. Th~ formatlOn 1s very flat , ancl the workings will nowhere be more than about lOO ft. in dep th. The company, having ~horo~ghly proved th~ir property by h iring an adjoinmg mlll, recent ly dec1ded to put up a firs t-class mill of their own.

Several d ifficulties presented themselves one amongst t hem being t he flatness of t he ground, and anoth~r the Cape Railway line, which cuts t he prop~rty ID t wo. The first was overcome by raising the m1ll by means of masonry foundations for t he piles instead of set ting them in the ground as usual, thus securing sufficien t fall for the t ailings for some t ime without using any elevating appliances. T he second was met by the const ruction of an inclined bridge over the railway and wagon road, up which the trucks are hauled by a n automatic rope haulage. This haulag~ will he extended along t he whole length of the prop er ty, and power will also be t aken from i t at various points for winding and pumping, so that t here will only b e one engine and boiler st ation on the property.

1,he mill consists of 40 heads of stamps, and an interesting feature is that 20 of t hem will be of En glish (Sandycroft) and 20 of American (Fraser and Chalmers) manufacture. One half of t he mill will be fitted wit h a utomatic feeds, and the remainder will be, for t he present , fed by hand. There a re two Blake s tonebreakers, 15 in. by 10 in. , and the ore bin capacity is about 600 tons. The engine is equal t o giving off abou t 120 actual horse-power, and there will be t wo Babcock and \Vilcox boilers. P rovision has been made for the addit ion of a condenser, and also for a fuel economiser, and t he whole will be l ighted by electric light . The crush ing capacit y of t he mill will be about 160 t ons of ore per 24 hours. T he total cost of the mill will be about 16,000l. This mill was erected from t he designs of 1Ir. C. T. Rober ts, Commercial Buildings, Joha nnesburg, S. A. R.

THE PASSENGER SCREW STEAMER "FAIRY QUEEN."

T n E illustrat ion on p age 605 represents the s. s. Fairy Queen, a little passenger vessel buil t by Mr. John H. Gilmour, of I r vine, for passenger service on t he Forth a nd Clyde Canal. The vessel is 63 ft. long between perpendiculars, with a beam of 14 ft ., and draws 4 ft. with a full complement of passengers. The machinery, which is placed a midships, only occupies 11 ft. in. of the length of t he vessel, the remainder being occupied by t wo cabins of good proportion. The passenger accommodation is t herefore very extensive for t he size of the vessel, the Board of Trade having given a cer t ificate for 231 passengers. With this complement on deck the lit t le vessel is perfectly steady, and glides smoothly through the wat er.

The engines, illustrated on page 608, have been designed and constructed by Messrs. Hall - Brown, B uttery, and Co., Helen-street Engine Works, Govan, Glasgow. They are diagonal engines of the compound surface-condensing type; the cylinders are 8 in. and 16 in. in diameter , with a stroke of 12 in. ; the diagonal type was adopted because of the saving in fore and aft space, and t he low centre of gravity obtainable. All t he bear ings throughout the engines a re of ample proportions. The . crankshaft is of t he buil~ t ype, having balance we1ghts forged a nd slotted w1th the crank checks. .Both connecting-rods are upon the same crankpin, t he conne:ting-ro? bushes being of sol id g un-metal. The mam beanng bushes a re of cast iron lined with tone's N a\·y bronze, and are adjustable both horizontally and vertically. A separa te thrust-block of the horseshoe type is _provided, and, as is shown on one of the engr~wmga, is bolt ed to the a ft end of the soleplate, thus causinCY the thrus t of t he screw to be distributed

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Fig . 1 . l.IJn.giH Sec/Ion thro' B~iler !louse Si iflyine Hoom.

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Fig. J . Sec" t11ro' £n!J e Room. Fig . 4 . Sec ':' thro' Battery House 14'8 8

over the whole of the seat. The surface condenser is of the usual mercantile t ype, with the water circulating t hrough solid drawn brass tubes packed at the ends by means of screwed ferrules and cotton packing. 1'he arrangement of the engine allows of t he condenser being placed under the low-pressure guide, so that a very short copper exhaust pipe serves to convey the steam from the cylinder to t he condenser . The air, circulating, feed, and bilge pumps are placed at the back of the condenser, and are worked on a. rocking shaft and levers, operated, as shown on the engraving, by a link from a pin in the forward eccentric pulley. From the illustration it will be noted tba.t the engine does not take up any more space than would be occupied by a non-condensing engine of the same type, aud very much less fore and aft soace than would be occupied by a. vertical compound engine. The reversing gear is of the ordinary link motion type, one pair of eccentrics serving for both cylinders. A large donkey engine is provided for pumping out the bilge, washing decks, and feeding

the boiler . The boiler, which works at a pressure of l OO lb. per square inch, is of the vertical type, with Field tubes suspending from the crown of the combustion chamber.

It is interesting to add that the time occupied in the construction of the bull aod engines of t his vessel, from t he date of the order t ill the trial trip, was only 7~ weeks, and the engines were fitted on board and the vessel steamed out for trial wit hin five days of the time she went under the crane to receive her machinery. On trial, the vessel steamed 40 nautical miles against wind and tide, the average speed slightly exceeding 8 knots.

F BENCII R AILWAY T R.tH'FIC.- The age-regate revenue of the six great French railway compames for the fi rst six months of this year shows an increase of 654,600/., as compared with the corresponding period of 1892. The largest pr~portiona.te increase noted this year occurred upon the Southern of France system. All the other fi. ve companies have also, however, done more or less well.

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Nov. r7, 1893.] ENGINEERING. 6o5 &S ••• 0

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THE FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL PASSENGER STEAMER "FAIRY QUEEN.''

CON TRUCTED BY MR. JOHN H. GIL1-10UR, IRYINE, N.B.

(For Description, see opposite Page.)

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THE PHYSICAL SOCIETY. senting the progress of distillation could be constructed AT the meeting of the Phyeical Society, November 10, from the very complete experiments made, and so test

1893, Professor A. W. Rticker, M.A., F.R.S., President, the assumed law. in the chair, Mr. R. S. Cola was elected a member of the Professor Young thought this not possible from the society. numbers obtained. To test the law in this way would he

A paper " On the Separation of Thlrce Liquicls by very laborious. Fractional Distillation,"by Professor F. R. Barrett, M. A., A" Note on the Ge?leralisations of Van der Waals reB.Sc., Mr. G. L. Thomas, B.Sc., and Professor ~ydney ga'rding 'Corresponding' Temperatures, Pressures, and Young, D.Sc., F.R.S., was read by Professor Youn~. Volumes," was read by Professor S. Young. In NovemAooepting the results obtained by Mr. F. D. Brown in bts her, 1891, the author read a. paper on the same subject experiments on the variation in the composition of the (Phil. Mag., February, 1892), and gave the critical moledistillate from a mixture of two liquids- viz., that the cular volumes of some twelve substances, as calculated relative quantities of the two substances in the vapour by !vi. Mathias. Since then a few small errors had been at any instant are proportional to the weights of the found in the calculation, and the author's corrected substances in the still, multiplied by the ratio of their values are now given. The vapour pressures, molecular vapour pressures, the authors write Brown's equation in volumes, and critical constants of ten esters (methyl

the form : ~ = c J, where l: and 'l't are the weiahts of the formate, acetate, propionate, butyrate and isobutyrate; '11 '11 c; .., ., ,.. ethyl formate, acetate and propionate; and propyl for-

two liquids in the still, and c the ratio of their vapour mate and acetate), have recently been determined pressures. Taking c as confitant, the above equation is (Trans. Cbem. Soc.i lxiii., page 1191). In the premtegrated, and from the resulting expressions curves are sent paper the a.bso ute temperatures and volumes of plotted, showing the changes in composition that take the tw~lve substances are given in terms of their critical place during the distillation. Assuming that a similar constants, and tables given showing respectivsly the

1 d ~ ratios of boiling points (absolute temperatures), at corre-law holds for three liquids, A, B, and C-viz., = sponding pressures, to absolute critical temperatures, the

a ~ ratios of volumes of liquid at corresponding pressures to 1 d '11 = 1 d <". the composition of the distillate at any the critical volumes, and ratios of volumes of saturated b 1J c .<" vapour at corresponding pressures to critical volumes, for instant is calculated. the halogen derivatives of benzene, carbon tetrachloridP.,

Taking a= 4, b =: 2, and c = 1 (numbers nearly propor- stannic chloridE', and ether; methyl, ethyl, and propyl tional to the vapour pressures of methyl, ethyl, and alcobols, and acetic acid; and the extreme values for the propyl acetates), numerous curves are plotted showing ten esters previously mentioned. Whilst showing fair the progress of the separation at various stages of frac- agreement with each other, the differences between them tionation. These curves show distinctly that although exceed errors of experiment. The ratios also indicate that fraction A containing large proportions of the liquids A and the substances can be arranged in four groups, thus C, of lowest and highest boiling points respectively, can tending to show that molecular weight and chemical conbe easily separated, the middle substance, B, is much stitution have some influence on the results. The differmore difficult to obtain in a state of purity. Consider&· ences found would probably result from the pre~ence of tion of these curves led the authors to see that by carry- complex molecules such as are known to exist in acetic ing out the fractiona.tion in a particular way, it was possible acid. to sep:~.ute the mixture into two portions, one containing If Van der Waals' generalisations were strictly true, only A and B, and the other B and C. These mixtur~s p V of two liquids could then be fractiona.ted in the usual the ratios -T- at the critical point should be constant manner. This process was carried out on a mixture of methyl, bthyl, and propyl acetates, tb~ results of which for all substances, as also the ratio ~ of the actual to the are given in considerable detail in the paper. The re- D1

markable agreement between the densities of the ethyl theoretical density (for a perfect gas) at the critical point. acetates obtained respectively from th~ mixtures (A and On comparing these quantities, only a rough a.pproxima· B) and (Band C), as well as the facb that the densities tion is found, but the grouping of the compounds is again of the separated liquids were the same as before the well marked. mixin~, shows conclusively that the method employed Professor Ramsa.y was not sure that the existence of was h1ghly successful. . complexes would alter the molecular volume in the liquid

Professor Ra.msay satd the paper was a most valuable state, for liquids seem very compact. Experiments on one, and would b~ a. great aid to chemists. Distillations the surface energy of liquids bad proved that complex were usually carr1ed out by mere." r':lle of thumb," with molecules do exist in the alcobols and acetic acid. Dr. the ~esult that abso.lutely_ pu~e ltqUtds could rarely be Young's conclusions were, therefore, confirmed by experiobta.med, The Pres1dent IDqutred whether curves repre- 1 ments of an entirely different nature.

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Professor Herscbell was gratified to see Van der Waals' theory so well borne out in liquids, and bopE'd to see it exteoded to solids. The rec3nt researches of Professor Roberts-Austen on alloys seem to point in this direction.

1\'Ir. Rogers said molecular complexes do exert an influence on the properties of substances, as ba.d been shown by Profesor Tborpe's viscosity experiments, Van der W aals' generalisations r:~hould therefore be looked at from a. chemical as well as a. physical point of view.

The P resident thought the numbers brought forward showed fair agreement. especially when it was remembered that Van der W aals took no account of complex molecules. Contrary to Professor Ra.msay, be would rather ex:pect aggregation to affecb the molecular volumes in the hquid state, for only about one-fifth the space was supposed to be occupied by matter. On the other band, the relatively small contraction of liquids on cooling did not support this view.

"An I nstrument for Drawing Conic Secf;i,(yns, was exhibited and described by Mr. J. Gillett, B.Sc. This consists of a spindle inclined to a plane board, and a tube fixed to the spindle at an angle. A pencil which passes through the tube traces out a cone in space as the spindle is turned, and on sliding the pencil through the tube so as to keep its point against the plane, the point traces out a conic, the section of the cone made by the plane of the board. A circle, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola. can be drawn, according to the inc:lination of the spindle to the board.

Professor Henrici faid a similar instrument bad been described in an Arabian manuscript one thousand years old, and had been independently re-invented by a German and an Italian mathematician. H e thought the fact of the angle between the spindle and the tube in Mr. Gillett's instrument not being adjustable was a dieadvantagE'.

Mr. In wards and Professor Herscbell also took part in the discussion, to which Mr. Gillett replied.

NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE NORTHERN COUNTIES.

MIDDLESBROUGH, Wednesday. Th_e Cleveland Iron Trade.-Yesterday there was only

a. tbm attendance on 'Change, and little business was transacted. No. 3 g.m.b. Cleveland pig iron was sold at 34s. 4~d. for prompt f.o .b. delivery, and that was regarded as the general quotation, though aome of the makers mentione~ ~4s. 6d. for the ruling quality. The lower classes of p1g 1ron were steady, No. 4 foundry being quoted 33s. Gd. and grey forge 32s. 6d., both for prompt delivery. Hema.tite pig iron was in fair request, and few sellers were prepared to accept less than 43s. for early deliv~ry of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 makers' east coast brands. Spamsh ore was steady, and was unaltered in price Middlesbrough warrants were 34s. 4~d. cash buyers but the quotation wa~:J almo13t nomin~l. To-day the m~rket

6o6

wa.s rather stronger, hub buyers reported that they were still able to purchase No. 3 Cleveland pig at 34s. 4~d. Middlesbrough warrants at one time of the day realised 3·!3. 6d., and they closed 3ts. 5~d. cash buyers. It is likely that a. few more furnaces will go out of operation shortly, as some firms consider the present unprofitable time a. suitable occ"-sion f~>r effecting repairs, and, in addition to thi&, coke is SQ dear that one or two makers, whose contracts on old terms are about run out, may damp down, as they say they cannot afford to pn.y present quotations for coke.

J.lfanujactured b·on and Steel.-In these two important industries there is very little alteration. Some firms are 1\ little better employed than they were, but most establishments are only badly off for work, and new orders are by no means easily secured. Quotations are low. Common iron bars are 4l. 15s. ; iron ship plates, 4l. 12s. 6d. ; steel ship-plates, 41. 17s. 6d. ; iron shipangles, 41. 12s. 6d. ; and stee 1 shi p -a.ngles, 4l. 15s., all less the usual discount.

Engineering and Shipbuilding.-Engineers and shipbuilders are slack, but in the latter industry affairs are not so gloomy a.s they were, one or two firms whose establishments might have been closed over the winter, having secured a few orders.

The F uel Trade.-There is a large d€mand for fuel, but it is one for immediate delivery only. On Newcastle Exchange best Northumbrian steam coal is quoted 18s. f. o b, and second qualities la. 6d. per ton lower. Small st~am is somewhat irregular in price, and from 7a. 6d. to Ss. 6d. is quoted. Gas coal is very difficult to {>rocure, so much being d elivered on 0ld contracts. As h1gh as 14s. f .o. b. at Newcastle has been quoted. Bunker coal is fairly steady. Coke is firm in price, the output having been considerably reduced of late, as producers prefer selling their coal to making coke of it. At Middlesbrough 15s. is mentioned for blast-furnace qualities delivered.

1.'he Palmer Shipbuilding and I ron Company, Limited.The committee of consultation, appointed at the ordinary general meeting of this company, advise to the shareh olders that the resignation of his seat on the board t endered by Sir Charles M ark Palmar, Bart., M.P., be accepted, and that he be invited to hold the podition of h onorary president of the company, and that for such special services as he may from time to time render, he should be remunerated in such manner as may be arranged between himself and the directors. The committee advise that the board should be strengthened by the appointment of three gentlemen living on Tyneside, and that consultation meetings should be held in Newcastle or J arrow, if it be found nece!?sary to bold the meeting.s of the board in L ondon. They also advise that the financial operations of the company be separated from the industr!e.l. They think the charges for management in the p3.st have been, as a whole, excessive, and that in some cases they require curtailment, and add that, while certain departments of the company's bu~iness leave a fair profit, other departments have been carried on at a loss. 'fhe committee recommend a thorough investigation into the departments where they think the loss may have arisen, and they also suggest an inquiry into the value of the assets of the company, with the view of ascertaining whether the amount that stands in the books is not in excess of their value to the company for its purposes as a going concern.

NO'fES FROM SOUTH YORKSHIRE. SHEFFIELD, Wednesday.

Boring Experiments in the Unstone Valley.-For some some months past a committee has been busy obtaining sub3criptiona for the purpose of conducting boring operations with a. view to ascertaining whether there are any work~ble seams beneath the ~ilkstone, which in this district is nearly exhausted. The working classes have been considerable subscribera, and are very enthusiastic in the matter. Operations have been commenced at the bottom of a shaft which reaches to the Silks tone bed, and, in the opinion of those con versant with the district, undeveloped seams of coal will be found at no great distance. If successful, prosperity would return to this part of the country from which trade has gradually drifted during the past ten years. The large landholders of the locality are also assisting the project.

Dore and Chinley Railway.-The running on this line, now open for goods traffic, i~ described as very smooth and satisfactory, and the engmeers are so_far thoroughly satisfied with the success of the underta.kmg. The completion of the variou~ station~ and other works is be~ng r apidly proceeded wtth, and I~ a few months the lme will be ready for passenger serviCe.

Iron, Steel, and Engineering Trades.- The effects ?f the fuel famine are n owhere more marked than m this distric t. On all sides the iro:n a~d steel mil!s and large establishments . are s tat?-dmg_ Idle, and thts week owing to the contmuous rtses m the value of stea~ coal and engine slack, a large number of those engaged in the lighter bran?he~ have had ~o suspend o,Perations. Prices of Y orkshtre Irons are nom mal quotat10ns, a.g the output is so restricted that they cannot be called market rates of staple products. Very large ? rders for bar and sheet that would have been placed m the district and have kept the mills fairly busy this y~a~, have been lost and it is feared that the permanent mJury to local business will be very great. The large steel works are doing next to nothing, a.s, t~ough ther~ are some g9od orders on the books for man ne and ratl wa.y_ m~tertal, scarcely any coke is obtai'?a.ble. What there. IS, 1s poor in quality and commandmg outrageously high prtces. B essemer houses a. re delivering mos~ly fro~ st?ck at 5t. 17s. 6d. to 6l. for billets, but the busmess domg IS very


restricted. All the engineering establishments are ~;uffering severely, and there can be no improvement in trade here until fuel is in full supply at reasonable prices.

..4. Concession to Ironworkers.-It is stated that the Butterley Iron Company, a.t the solicitation of the local relief committee, have consented to reopen their great iron works at Codnor Park to those men who are willing to return at a reduction of 10 per cent. until the lock-out of colliers is ended. Thei r own pits being idle, the company will purchase coal in the market, and they will themselves bear the increased cost, less the temporary 10 per cent. reduction which the men have conceded. A majority of the men had decided not to accept the terms, but the company consented, on a pressing request being made, to reopen to the minority, which is composed of the oldest workmen. During the prolonged stoppage, the company have lent to their ironworkers lOOOl., have given them coal, and have not charged house-rent. The coal which the company will have to purchase will cost 50 per cent. above ordinary prices.

NOTES FROM THE SOUTH-WEST. .,. Barry R1ilu:ay.-The directors of the Barry Dock and Railways Company have decided to commence the construction of a second dock at Barry towards the close of this year. The new dock will, of course, comprise several new tips, and will afford generally increased shipping facilities at Ba.rry. The plans will be prepared by the chief engineer of the company, Mr. J . Wolfe-Barry.

The" Eclipse. "-The second-class cruiser E clipse has just been laid down at Portsmouth. She is to be a cruiser of the improved Fox typA, of 5500 tons displacement, and she will be fitted with engin es working up to 9600 horse-power. She will be 1140 tons larger than the Fox. She will carry five 6-in., six 4.7-in., and nine smaller qnick-fi ring guns.

The "Hermione."- T his second-class cruiser, just launched at Devonport, was laid down in December, 1891, from designs by Mr. W . H. White, C.B. She is expected to be ready for sea within twelve months. Her principal dimensions are: L ength, 320ft. ;-breadth, 49 ft. 6 in.; mean load draught, 19ft. The weight of her hull, armour, and backing will be 2460 tons, and of her engines and machinery 780 tons; her displacement will be 4360 tons. Her coal cap3.city, although stated at 400 tons, can be increased on an emergency to 1000 tons by utilis ing the space between the main and protective decks. Iler armament, which will cost 50,429l. , will consist of two G-in. and eight 4.7-in. quick-firing guns, eight 6-pounder and one 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns, and four :Maxim machine guns. She will be fitted in addition with four 18-in. Whitehead torpedo tubes -viz , one stem, one stern, and two broadside tubes, all above water. The total cost of the Hermione, including her armament, is estimated ab 244,625[. The engines and other machinery are being supplied by Messrs .• J . and G. Thomson, of Glasgow. The proi_>elling machinery will consist of two sets of triple-expa.ns10n surface-condensing vertical engines, capable of developing a. collective force of 9000 horse-power with the forced draught, and 7000 horse-power with the natural draught. The propellers are of the three-bladed type, and will make 140 revolutions per minute. This will give a speed of 19~ knots per hour with the forced draught, and 18:f knots per hour with the natural draught. The boilers, which are eight in number, are of the single-ended return-tube type ; they are constructed entirely of steel, and they will work at a pressure of 150 lb. per square inch.

Card(O:-There has been an active demand for all descriptions of steam coal ; the best descriptions have made 14s. 9d. to 15s. per ton, while secondary qualities have brought 14s. to 14s. 6d. per ton. The demand for household coal has also been extremely brisk, and the local pits are in full work; No. 3Rhondda large has been making 14s. per ton. Patent fuel has continued in good request. Foundry coke has been making 20d. 6d. to 2J s., and furnace ditto 18:1. to 19s. per ton. Iron ore has shown little chang-e. In the iron and steel trades prices have also remained stationary.

Boilers for the " Spanker. "- The Spanker. torpE>do gunboat, is to be fitted at Devon port with a set of tubulous boilers similar in character to those in course of construction for the Sharpshooter. The uoilers are being made by the Societe Anonyme du Temple, of Cherbourg, and they are to be in readiness for placing on board in February, 1894. They will be subjected to a forced draught trial at the works of the contractors in the presence of a. representative of the Admiralty.

NOTES FROM THE NORTH. GLASGOW, Wednesday.

Glasgow P ig-Iron Market.-La.st ThurRday's _pig Iron warrant market was inacti\' e in the forenoon. The tone was firm for Scotch iron, 5000 tons of which were sold, including 2000 tons at 42$. 6~d. one month, with 1s. forfelt in buyer's option ; one lot at 42s. 3~d. cash same day, with a ' 'plant;" and a lot a.t 42s. 3!d. cash on the following day, also with a "plant " One or two lots of Cleveland and hemati te iron changed hands. In the afternoon the market was quiet, but steady, at about 42s. 4d. cash for Scotch iron. S omewhere about 8000 tons of Scotch were done. At the close the settlement prices wAre-Scotch iron, 42~. 4~d. per ton; Cleveland, 34s. 4~d.; Cumberland and Middlesbrough hematite iron, respectively, 44s. 3d. and 43s. 3d. per ton. On Friday forenoon the market was very idle. Nob more than 3000 tons of Scotch warrants were dealt in, one portion at 42s. 5d. per ton cash. In the afternoon business was still idle, nob a s ingle transac-

tion having been recorded up till within a short time of the close. Sellers were offering Scotch iron at 42~. 4~d. ca.sh on Monday. Just bofore the close two lots changed hands at that price. One lot was also done at 42e. 3d. Monday, with a "plant" for a month. Of C!t;,veland iron 150() tons were sold a.t 34s. 4~d. per ton cash, with sellers at 34s. 5d., or ld. back from the morning. The closing settlement prices were-Scotch iron, 42s. 4! d. per ton ; Cleveland, 34s. 4~d.; Cumber land and ~[iddlesbrou~h bematite iron, respectively, 44s. 3d. and 43s. 3d. Busmess was very inactive on Monday forenoon. Not more than 2000 tons of Scotch iron were dealt in, at various prices. The market in the afternoon was steady for Scotch iron at 42s. 4~d. per ton cash, but there was little business doing, only 2000 tons of out-and out business being done at that price. Some forfeit business was also done, some 3000 tons of Scotch changing bands. The cash _price was up ~d. per ton from the torenoon market. Two lots of Cumberla.nd bematite iron also changed hands-one of them at 44s. 4d. per ton cash, and one at 44s. 6d. seventeen days. At the close the settlement prices were Scotch iron, 42s. 4~d. per ton; Cleveland, 34s. 4!d.; Cumber land and Middlesbrough hema.tite iron respectively, 44s. 4~d. and 43s. 3d. per ton. There was no dealing in Cleveland iron. Ratter more activity was shown in the market on TuPsda.y forenoon. About 8000 tons of Scotch iron changed hands, including some lots at 42s. 7~d. per ton one month, with 1s. forfeit in buyer's option. The market was fi rm in the afternoon, and the cash price closed ~d. up from the morning. Not a. single out-and-out transa-ction was recorded, but 1000 tons of Scotch warrants were done ab 42~. 4d. one month, with l s. power to t ake it back, and 500 tons at 42s. 7~d. a month, with 1s. forfeit in buyer's option. The settlement prices at the close of the market were-Scotch iron, 42s. 4~d. per ton; Cleveland, 34 ... 4!d.; Cumberlsnd and 1-Iiddleabrougb hema.tite iron, 4~s. 4!d. and 43s. 3d. per ton respecti\'ely. The market was firm this forenoon, when business was done in Scotch warrants at !d. to ld. per ton advance. Cleveland warrants were l~d. dea.rer. In the afternoon business was done in Scotch warrants at former prices, t he tone being quite steady. Cleveland was also done at the improved rates of the forenoon. The following a!'e a few quotations for No. 1 special brands of makers' iron : Gartsherrie and Summerlee, 403. per ton; Calder, 50s. ; Coltness, 55s. 6d. ; L1.ngloan, 56s.-the foregoing all shipped at Glasgow; Glengarnock (shipped at Ardro san), 493.; Shotts (shipped at L eith), 5l s ; Carron (shipped at Grangemouth), 53s. Gd. per ton. There are still 53 blast furnaC<.s in actual operation, as compared with 77 at this time last year. Last week's shipments of pig iron from all Scotch ports amounted to 3028 tons, against 5363 tons in the corresponding week of last year. They included 140 tons for South America, 100 t ons for India, 388 tons for Australia, 255 tons for FrancP, l OO tons for Italy, 850 tons for Germany, 410 tons for H olland, smaller quantities for other countries, and 1205 tons coastwise. The stock of pig iron in Messrs. Connal and Co.'s public warrant stores yesterday afternoon stood at 328,032 tons, as compared with 328,611 tons yesterday week, thus showing a decrease for the week amounting to 579 tons.

Fin ished Iron and Steel Trades.-Tbe demand for finished iron has slackened considerably, and on that account makers have hesitated to follow the example of the steel makers in advancing prices, a.l though it is thought that they may soon have to do so on account of the high prices of fuel. There is a good demand for sheets and tubes a.t steady prices . The demand for steel for shipbuilding purposes is only moderate, but a large amount of steel will shortly be required at some of the shipyards. In the meantime prices are steady on the basis of 5/. 7s. 6d. per tQn for ship-plates, less 5 per cent. discount.

Glasgow Copper Market.-Prices of copper fluctuated a little in the latter part of last week, but no business was done till ~1onday of this WPek, wh~n 42l. 17s. 6d. per ton three months was done, thus showing an improvement of 2s. Gd. on the buyers' closing price for last week; and in the afternoon the metal was 1s. 3d. per ton dearer. Prices made a decided decline on Tuesday, but no business was reported. There was a. fur ther decline of price3 this afternoon to the extent of 2s. 6d. per ton, of which one-half, however, was an advance in the forenoon.

Coal Trade.-The we~t of Scotland coal trade has been very erratic during the past week, and the trade done, as for some time past now, is almost entirely of a day-to-day order. Nearly the whole of the fresh business effected outside of local requirements has still been on E nglish account, and the activity, excitement, and inflated prices going are due solely to this exceptional demand. Those who have had any coal to sell have not scrupled to exact the utmost penny obtainable, as they know too well that probably never again will they be dealing with the same customers. At least they have no fear of losing future trade in this connection, as purchasing in this market can only be brought about by the .English buyers being forced to deal here under similar circumstances to the present, should they ever unfortunately again exist, and pay practically what is demanded for supplies. With regard to the question of wages in Lanarkshire, it has now been definitely announced that at the conference of miners' representati vc·s on Friday, a motion asking for an advance of another ls. per day will be made. Whethe~ there is any chance of their getting it or not depends entirely on the result of the negotiations going on towards an arrangement of the dispute in the south ; but in any case the Scotch miners had better act cautiously.

Shipbuilding Contracts.-Tbe orders which were men· tioned last week as ha.vinv been placed with a Clyde fi rm

and a P aisley firm for three and two torpedo-destroyers have been taken by Messrs. J ames and George Tho~son, Clydebank, and M e3srs. H anna, Donald, and '\Vtlson re3peotively.-Messrs. Bla<'kwood and Gordon, P ort Glasgow. have contracted to bnild a steel screw stea.~er for the City of D ublin Steam Packet Company, of Dubh?, for ser vice in their cross-Channel trade between Dubhn and L iverpool. The builders will supply her with tri ~leexl?aosion engines of about 3000 horse-power .-The Atlsa Shtpbuilding Company, Troon. have booked a:n order for Messra Browne and Watson, Glasgow, for an uon barque of similar dimensions to those of the Dalrympl~, recently built at Troon.-The Fairfield Shipbuild_ing and Eng:ineering Companv have contracted to build for Capta.m },f'C .. lmont, of L ondon, a twin - ~crew s team yacht of about 400 tons, and about 250ft. long. They have al!to ~ecured an order for a second paddle steamer for Belfast service. - M essrs. M'Knight and Co. , Ayr have booked an order to build for Messrs. J . ~nd P. Hutchison, of G lasgow, a screw s teamer of about 1000 ton~, of high speed, for their French trad~. The machinery is to be supplied by M essrs. Muir and H ouston Gla.sgow.-M essrs. John Scott and Co. , Kingborn ha~e contracted to build for a Spanish firm a screw stea.~er of 1650 tons for ser vice in the wine trade ; and a ferry s teamer for the M ersey, to ply bet ween Birkenhea.d and Liverpool, and carry up t o about 1200 passengers.

Recon$truction of Brvomiela?o Bridge, Glaspow. -At an extraordinary meeting of the Glasgow P olice Commissioner.:~ held on Monday, the proposal to re-erect Glasgow Bridg~ in accordance with the plan sketched by Mr. Mason' a t a cost of 80, OOOl. was unanimously agreed to, and the Statute Labour Committee were authorised to apt>lY to. ~arliament for the necass~ry powers. . The practicabthty of. the proposal has, wtth so!lle modtfi~at ions, approved 1t~elf to Mr. Blyth, the engmeer. yYtth the view of securmg that the proposal to erect a br1dge at Govan-street should not be lost sight of, it was proposed that Parliamentary p owers should b e a-sked for that purpose. Mr. L~ng ruled, however, that bhis was unnecessary, a.s the commissioners could erect a bridge under the provisions of the Roads a.nrl Bridges Act .

Scientific Society Meeti~s.-Last Friday evening ~Ir. E. J. Duff, Whit. Sch. , A ssoc. M. Inst. C.E.).. read a. papt"r on ' ' Electric W elding " to the West of ~cotland Iron and S teel Institute, in the course of which he gave m~ch interesting ~~formation 'Yhich he ob tained durmg a. recent VISlt to A mertc-.a.. On the following evening, at a meeting of the T echnical Colle~e Scientific Society, a very valuable paper was read by Mr. J ,>hn Anderson, Associate of the T eohni<'.a.l College, on "Some Steam En~ine ~rob_lems. " He dealt chie~y with the results of the mvest1gat10ns of Mr. James W e1r, whom be has for some time served as assistant.

SftreetExplosions.-Two sub-pavement explosions of gas have t aken place in Glasgow within the pa.st few days, caused by escapes of gas from the mains in vicinity or electric hghting conductors. They have excited a considerable amount of scientific and practical interest, but have done very little damage, and no injury to life of peraon.

MISCELLANEA. TDE November meeting of the Birmingham Association

of Engineers was held on Saturday, November 4, at the Grand Hotel, Birmingham, when a. paper on ' ' Aluminium " was read by the president (Mr. A. Driver ). The chair was t aken by Mr. J. Floyd (vice-president).

The first ordinary meeting of the present session of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne A ssociation of Students of the Institution of Civil Engineers, was held at the Durham College of Science on the 8th inst., when the president, Mr. J. Watt S andema.n, M. Inst. C.E., delivered an address upon u Concrete and Portland Cement." A vote of thanks to the president concluded the meeting, and the members afterwards held a. reunion at the Grand H otel.

The contract for the 5000 horse-power dynamos for the Cataract Construction Company, Niagara., has been awarded to the Westinghouse Electric Uompany. The dynamos in question wiJl provide a two-phase alternating curr~nt, having a frequency of 25 alternations per second, and the voltage is to be 2000. We understand that there was difficulty in finding an American firm prepared to undertake the building of dynamos to give a higher voltage, and hence the voltage is lower than was desired, necessitating step-up and s tep-down tra.nsformera to o~ta~n the pressure required for the long-distance transmtssion of the current.

We note that the owners of Winby's express locomotiv~, the "J ames Toleman," which was described in our issue ?f April 28 last, and ha.s been ex~ibited ~t Chicago, have u~sued a. challenge to run th1s engme against the American type of locomotives. They wish to make a match for 1000[. a side, to go to the owners of the engine that does the best work at high speeds, with heavy loads and which proves the most economical. They suggest ~ train load of 200 tons, exclusive of engine and tender, and that this load ehould be hauled 200 miles, making ten stops. The same tender should be used for both engines. It is further suggested that the 1000l. won should be devoted to some charitable or public jnstitution.

:r'he traffic receipts for the week ending October 29 on thuty-three of the principal lines of the U nited Kingdom amounte~ to 1,396,655l., which, having been earned on 18,388 mtles, gave an average of 75l. 19a. per mile. For t~e corresponding week in 1892, the recdipts of the same It~~ amounted to 1,474,98Sl., with 18,199 miled open, gw10g an average of 81l. la. There was thus a decrease


of 78,333l. in the receipts, an increase of 189 in _the mileage, and a. decrease of 5l. 2s. in the weekly re<'etpts per mile. The aggregate receipts for seventeen weeks to date amounted on the same thirty-three lines to 25,658,145l. , in comparison with 27,620,825l. for the corresponding period last year; decrease, 1,962,680l.

M essrs. Ernest S cotb and Mountain, Limited, Newcastle have received an order from the Coltness Iron Company, N ewmains, Lanarkshire, for an electric installat ion which will be one of the most complete plants of the kind in existence. The plant consist s of a. com plete electric light installation for the colliery, consistmg of dynamo to run 200 16 candle-power lamps, and about 180 lamp!i throughout the pit, both above ground and under ground. The second is an installation for the lighting of 34 workmen's cottages, which are about 700 yards from the colliery, there being three lights placed in each cottage, or a total of 102 lamps in al_L The third installation con sists of a complete electrtc pumping plant, capable of d el ivering 100 gallons of water per minute from the river to the colliery. The dynamos for the lighting of the pit and workmen's cottages are bei~g specially constructed so tha t either. dyna~o can be utiltsed for e1ther purpose, both machmes bemg overcompounded so that the electromotive force will remain constant at the cottaieS under variations of load. This installation is probably one of the first in which complete plant for pumping, lighting Ci>f a colliery, and the lighting of workman's cottages has been adopted .

In a reporl' on " Power House Ene-ines," read before the American Street Railway A ssociation by Mr. E. G. Con nett~, it is stated that a suitable subdivision of p ower units in suoh cases is as follows :

Maximum Horae-P ower R equired to

Operate Ro:l.d. 200 400 600

1000 1500 2000

Number of Engines

R equired.

2 3 3 3 4 4

H orse-P ower of each Engine.

200 200 300 500 500 750

If arranged thus, there will always be one engine in reserve. '!~he maximum horse-power required to op erate the road is not, however, the same thing as the sum of the power required by each car, unless the plant is small. Thus in a 10-ca.r plant cases may occasionally arise where all the oar~ will require their full power at one and the same time, but in a. 100-ca.r plant the maximum power provided need only be from 60 to 75 per cent. of the total horse-power of the cars.

At the recent meeting of the West€'rn Foundrymen's Ass0ciation at Chicago, Mr. Thomas D. West read a paper in which a new form of cupola is described, which is deemed to have proved very successful in reducing the amount of fuel used p er hundredweight of m etal melted. The principal feature of the cupola in question is the central blast, which is arranged for by cutting a. hole in the drop bottom of the cupola, and p lssing a. tuyere through. Inside the cupola the tuyere is protected by surrounding it with firecla.y, and a. clay cap is supported a short distance above the open to~ of the tuyere, and serves to prevent m asses falling mto the blast pi pe, whils t the air escapes through the annular spac~ left between the cap and the end of the tuyere. A great reduction of the fuel required to melt a given weight of iron was fonnd to result from the new arrangement, and the wear of the cupola lining is also said to have been greatly reduced. The latter point, if confirmed, seems very important, as previous attempts to greatly reduce the amount of fuel used have too often resulted in the saving in coke being swallowed up by an increased outlav in repairs. Incidentally, it would ap~ear from Mr. W est 's paper that the practice of employmg a foundry chemist is becoming fairly common in the United States, and has led to greatly improved practice.

The S€C)nd meeting of the Liverl?ool Engineering S cciety was held on Wednesday evenmg, N ovember 8, when a paper entitled, "Some English '\Vater ways," was read by Mr. J. A . Sauer, A .M. I .C.E., who is engineer to the River Weaver Trustees. The author, after giving a short historical account of the formatiotl of canals and canalisation of rivers in the United Kingdom, gave the following as being the essential p oints for the consideration of an engineer when called upon to execJte such works: 1. What watersheds hls the proposed canal to pass through, and where can he obtain water m ost economically ? 2. What route, having regard to existing towns, will give the least number of changes of levAl, and minimum cost of cutting tunnels, &c. ? 3. What is the most convenient size of boat to be provided for ? 4. What size the locks or lifts should be made, and what sectional area the waterway should be. 5. What method, wheth~r locks, lifts, or inclines, he will adopt to overcome the changes of level. 6. What system of towage should be provided for. 7. The cost of construction and the cost of maintenance. 8. Floods. He also laid down that any standard dimensions of future canals in England should not be less than 36ft. bottom width, 60ft. top width, and depth of 8 ft., with locks 150ft. long, 18 ft. wide, and 7 ft . water on the sills. Such a canal should have the slo~e paved with stone, to enable steam and other m echamcal traction to be used, a.nd while ordinary locks might be used in places, every opportunity should be taken of increasing the height passed through a.t each change of level by the adoption of lifts similar to those a.t Anderton on the Weaver, and L ea Fontinettes, in France.

On Tu'3~day, November 7, the tenth seseion of the

N orth-E ast Coast Ins titution of Engineers and Shipbuilders was inaugurated in the L ecture Theatre of the Durham College of Science, Newcastle. Mr. _Ro~ert Thompson, of Sunder]and, president of the Instytutlon, was in the chair. The secretary, Mr. J ohn Duck~tt, presen ted the report of the counc il of the ninth sess10n. It stated that the gold meda ls for the eighth session had been awarded as follows: The engineering medaJ to Mr. J. J enning!J Campbell for his paper on "Engmes for Ships of War;" the shipbuilding m edal to Mr. ~· C. J ames for his pal?er on 11 Tonnage M easurement. In the graduate sectton a still further improvement bad taken p1ace, and the meetings had been ~etter . attend~d. The prizes for the best papers read m thts section during the eighth session we; e awarde~ as follows: First award to Mr. J . Kmg for his paper on " S ome Notes on the Propulsion of Paddle Steamers ;'' the second award was divided between M essrs. E. T owers and R. L . Gaine, the former for his paper, "Hsd raulics and Hydraulic Machinery," and the latter for his paper on " S teamship Trials." During the p ast year the following additions ,_have ~een made t~ the list of members: 67 members, 1 assoctates, and 3o gradua tes; and 18 graduates had been raised to the rank of members. The total number of m embers was now 894. The balance-sheet was also presented, showing that the receipts, including a balance of 730l. 2s. 8d. from the previous session, had been 2394l. 15s. 1d. ; and the expenditure 1455l. 7s. 2d ., leaving a credit balance of 949l. 7s. lld. It was intimated tha t 27 new members, 13 associates, a.nd 12 graduates, had just been elected.

The twentieth annual repo.rt of the Cambridge U Diversity E xtension L ectures, covering the work d one during the session 1892-3, has just been published. About 220 courses of lectures and classe~, on the well known University E xtension _Plan, have been given a.t ~early 200 places, varying in s1ze from large towns like L eteester and Newcastle-on -Tyne, to small; villages of a few hundred inhabitants in Cambridgeshire or K ent. The aggrega•e of the average number of students attending the courses was n early 16,000, of whom nearly half attended, in addition to the conversational class held before or after the lecture, and intended for the more earnest s tudents. The average number of weekly papers written by students was about 2600 and moro than 1700 passed the examination held at the end of the various coursel. The lectures covered a wide range of subjects of general interest in various d epartments of science, history, literature, and art. The most important event of the year has been the foundation of the U niversity E xtem;ion and 'l'ecbnical College at Exeter, organised by the co-op eration of the town council, the local University E xtension Committee, and the Cambridge authorities. The collf'ge has a. t echnical d ep artment and a literary and historical side, the former subsidised by the technical instruction funds of the city. '£hree courseR of regular University E xtension lectures, as well as a. large number of science and other classes, are already in activity. The city of N orwich has, during the year, adopted the sch eme of affiliation to the U niversity, whereby students who go through a. certain course of lectures at Norwich can obtain a. degree at Cambridge after two year~' residence instead of the usual three y~ars. Another notable feature of the year's work was the summer meeting, held during the month of August, and attended by about 650 students, all qualified by some previous study m their own centres for the more advanced work provided at Cambridge. It is evident that the students who attended thoroughly enjoyed their month at Cambridge, and the University authorities speak highly of the serious nature of the work done.

On Friday, N ovember 10, a.t the Westminster Palace Hotel, the inaugural m eeting of the thirteenth session of the Junior Engineering S ociety t ook place, and was largely attended. The retiring president, Dr. John Hopkinson. F.R.S ., took the chair at the commencem ent of the proceedings, and after some formal business had t een disposed of, presented the Society's premium to Mr. R . W. Newman for his papor on "The Sanitary Engineer~ng of Dwellings." A yote of th~nks ~aving been cord tally passed to Dr. Hopkmson for hts servtces as pre~ident: the new president ~fr. J. W olfe- Barry, ViccPrAstdent Inst. C.E.. was then introduced and proceeded to deliver his presidential addre~s. In it 1\[r. B a.rry cl_a~med f_or the engineering profession an equal p os1t10n Wlth that of other professional bodies, and suggested means whereby its status might be improved, He referred to the r emarkable progress of en~neering during the past forty or fifty years, and to 1ts ben eficent influence on the condition of mankind, concluding with a review of the directions in which it would doubtless achieve fresh triumphs. The tha.nks_of the Socie~y having been heartily expr~ssed to _the pres1dent for his address, the meeting ~ermmated w1th the_announcement of the ensuing meetmg, when a. paper wtll be read by Mr. S . Cutler jun. on "Coal Gas Manufacture, and Recent Improve~ent~ in the Plant Employed therein. '' Other pa.Pers in the session's programme are "Boiler Incrus tat10ns and Deposi~~.,:' by Professor V. B. Lewes; "The Construction and working of Electro-MotorCJ," by Mr. A. H. Dykes · "T~e Design and Construction of B oilers for Locomotiv~ Engmes," by Mr. G. F. Burtt; "Lubricants their U se Testing, a.nd Analysis," by Mr. W. F. E~ Seymour ~ "The In1,ustri~s of D evon and Cornwall," by Mr. F. R~ Taylor; M9:r1_ne Engineering Repairs," by Mr. T. P. ;Hosegood. VIstts to works t ak e place b etween the meetm~s, th~ papers ~ea~ and accounts of the visits being prmted m tb~ So01ety_s record of transactions. We may add, for the mformat10n of any of our readers desiring particulars of membership, that the address of the secretary is 47, Fentima.n-roa.d, S. W, .

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6o8 E N G I N E E R I N G. [Nov. 17, 1893.

DIAGONAL C0~1POUND SURFACE-CONDENSING ENGINES OF S.S. "FAIRY QUEEN."

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CONSTRUCTED BY 11ESSRS. HALL-BRO\VN, BUTTERY, AND CO., EN<HNEERS, GOVAN, GLASGOW.

(For Desc'ription, see Page 604. )

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CONTENTS. PAGE ' PAGE

The National Danger . . . . . . 693 The Attendance at the The Development of South Columbian Exposition ( l l-

Alrica.n Rail ways . . . . . . . . 597 lust rated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 612 The Engineering Congress Literature ...... ......•.•• 614

at Chicago .. . . . . . . .. . . . . 599 Books Received .. .... .... 614 7 he Severance Cut Nail Notes ... . .............. .. 614

Machine (Illustrated) .. . . 602 The Late Mr. Anlhony Rt-frigerator Car at tbe Reckenzaun . . • • . . . . . . . . 615

World's Columbian Expo- Royal Meteorological So· ~ition (Illustrated) ... . .. 603 ciety .. .. .. . .. . . .. • . . . . . 615

The Willans Eo,eine at the The Institution of Ci" il En-Wo:ld's Columbian Ex- gineus ...... .... ........ 615 pc si.tion llUmtrated) .... C0.3 The Loss of H.M.S. cc Vie-

Brooks Locomotive a.t the toria" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 World's Columbian Expo- Tbe Stability of Armour-sition (l llmtrated) . . .. . 603 Clads ......... . ........ 616

Notes from the United States 6()3 The Atlantic Record : Mill for the Orion Ot>ld- Qurenstown v. South·

Mining Company (lllus- a.mpton ............ .... 616 trated) .. ................ 604 Ball Bearings for Thrust

The Pas:enger Screw Block-J .......... .... .. .. 616 Steamer " Fairy Que en" Twin Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 (lllustrated) . . . . . . . . . . . . GO~ Lathe Centre Grinder (Illus-

The Ph rE ical Society . . . . . . t05 trated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 ~otes from Ol!!veland at.d Edwards' Automatic Sprink-

the Northern Counti('s .. 605 ler (l llust,·ated) ...• ..... 617 Notes from South Yorkshire 606 Indudtrial Notes .... . . .. . 617 Notes from tbe South-West t('6 Transition Curves (lllus· Notes from the North.. .. .. 606 trated) .. . . ... . ....... . .. 618 Miscellanea .... ...... . ..... 607 Ports on Sandy Coasts (n. Presideo tial Add re· ses at lmtrated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

the Institution of Ch•il Boiler Explosions at Congle-Eo~ioeers .............. 609 ton and Netherton ...... 623

The Torpedt> Gunboats .... 610 Launchts and Trial Trips . . 624 Technical Education .. . ... 611 " Engineering" Patent Re·

cord (Jllugtra&ed) . . . . . . . . 625 Jr ith a Two-Page F.ng1·aving of D ET A I LS 0 F G RE A. 'l'

.NORTIIBRN (U.S.) R.dlLW.dl~ TWELVE-WHEELED LOCOiJfOTll"E .dT THE WORLD'S COLUMBI.dN EXPOSITI ON.


NOTICE. The New Cunarders "CAMPANIA" and "LU

CANIA ;" and the WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION OF 1893.

The Publtsher begs to announce that a Reprint is now ready of the Descriptive Matter and Illustrations contained ID the issue of ENGINEERING of Aprll 21st, comprising over 130 pages, wtth ntne two -page and four single- page Plates, printed throughout on special Plate paper. bound ID cloth. gUt lettered. Price 6&. Post free, 6s. 6d. The ord.l· nary edition of the issue of AprU 21st ls out of print. -=:-=====-==- - --

The attention drawn to the Publisher.

N 0 TIC E. of Readers and Advertisers is a lteratlon Jn the name of the

Owlng to the retirement of Mr. Cha r les Gilbert, communications for the Publishfng Department should now be addre.ssed to Mr. C. R. JOBNSON, Publisher and Manager.

~--

NOTICES OF MEETINGS. TnE lxSTITUTIO~ OF Ct\'lL EN'OlX&ERS.-0 dinary meelinga :

November 2L, papers to be read with a. d ew to discussion: 1. " Tile Tansa Work~ for the Water Supply or Dombay," by Mr. William J. B. Clerke, B.A. , U.I.E., M. l ost. U.E. 2. "Tne Baroda Water Works, " by Mr. Ja.ga.nn:lth ~adasewjee, Assoc. M. Inst. C. E. 3. ''The Water :supply of Jeypor~ , R!ljputana," by Colonel S. S. J Mob. C. I. E., Assoc. Inst. ().E. 4. " Ou the Design of Mason ry Dams," by Mr. Franz l{reuter (Professor of Civil Engineerin~ a.t the .Royal Technical Acad emy of Munich). November 28, di'luuesion on Lhe above paper~. At a subsequent meeting the following paper will be takeu: "The M.a.nur~~.cture of Casks and Ba.rr('ls by Machinery," by Mr. Lewis H. H.~nsome, Asaoc. M. I~..st. C.E. - Student s' meeting, Fnday, November 17, at 7.30 p.m. Paper to be read: "The Filtration cf PotalJle Water, " by Messr8. J .unes and Richard Goodma.n, Students Inst. C.E. Mr. M. W. Ilervey, M. Inst. C. E., in the cbair.-Students' visit, Thursday, !'lo,·ember 23, at, 2.20 p.m., to tbe Kent Water Works, Deptford. (Train leaves Cbating Uross at 1. 50, Water loo Junction at 1. 52, and Loo don Bridge at 1. 58. Book for St. John's).

SoctRTY OF ARTS.-John-street, Adelphi, London W.C. We inesday, No\'ember 22. at 8 p.m. Second ordinary meeting. " Con· fo rmation of the Horse from th ' Artislic Point of View," by Captain M. H. llayes.

PBYSIOAL SOClETY. -November 24. 1. " r be Mag net.ic Shield· ing of Concentric Spherical Shells," by P rofessor A. W. RUcke r , M. A. F. R.S., President 2. " The Action of ~lectro- }tagoetic R~di~tion on FJ!ms containing Metallic Powders," by Profe~sor Q. M. Minchin, .M.A.

TOE SOUTH STAFFOIU>SlllR.E INSTITUTE OF IRON AND STEEL WORKS MANAOER.S.-Saturday, November 25, at the Institute, Dndley. Paper to be read: "The C.1lorific Effi ciency of the Reverberatory Furnace," by Major L. Cubillo (Prubia).

THE l NSTI't UTION OF ELECTRlCAL ~NOINBERS.-Meeting at the I nstitution of Civil Engineers, 25, Great George·street Westminster, S. W. Thurs::iay, November 23, ordinary general meet· ing a~ 8 p. m. Discussion on the paper : "The Elec trical T ransmission of Power from .Niagara Falls," by Professor Oeorge Forbes, F.R.S., Member .

THE LtvF.n.POOL ENOINRE>RINO Soo1FJrY.-On Wednesday evening, NoYem ber 22, 1893. at the Royal Institution, Colquitt-street, l,i\•erpool, at 8 o'clock , when a. paper will be read by .M r. l van C. Barling, Assoc. M. lost. C. E., en t i!led '' Tbe Adjustment of Surveying Instruments."

-

ENGINEERING. FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 17, 1893.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESSES AT TfiE INSTITUTION OF CI VIL ENGINEERS.

609

better opportunity is afforded . of emphasisin~ the points to which the altentwn ?f the aud~ence is directed. Year by year this ground IS trodden in numerous societies until it becomes bare as the desert., obliging each successive p~esident to explore diligently in search of some httle patch of verdure from which he may gather a ft3w 11reen leaves to deck the specimens he borrows from the lt ort~ls sicc1cs of encyclopredias and yearbooks.

Occasionally a strong man arises who, out of the fulness of personal experience, ''speaks with ~uth~~ rity of what he knows, and not as one of the sc_nbes. His facts have not seen the light before, and Instead of being strung together like beads, or thrown out ~11 disconnected, like marbles, they are arrang~d In symmettical courses to serve as the foundatwn of weighty opinions, the result of a life's experience. To listen to such an address is no longer an act of courtesy- a wearisome episode in an . otherw~se hearty greeting to a new leader-~ut a ~11gh g!ahfication. There are many moot p01nts In engmecring practice upon which diverge!lt vi~ws are h~ld by men of eminence, each of whiCh mtght furntsh the theme of a presidential address. W hat we mean is an explanation of, or-to use an ol~fashioned word which has dropped out of vogue 1n this particular sense- an 4

' apology" for, the leading features of the speaker's practice. I t is often quite possible, upon viewing a piece of engineering work, to name the author from mere inspection . It displays certain characteristics, either of principle or detail, that are peculiar to some individual engineer. These have been adopted by him for certain reasons, which apparent1y do not carry the same weight with his contemporaries, since they follow other methodP. A presidential addre~ s offers a capital opportunity, sometimes- but, abs ! very seldom--taken advantage of, to enlighten the world as to the causes that led to the adoption oi certain views. The growth of engineering science in the mind of one of its leading exponents must always present a fascinating picture, whether the audience accept the conclusions in their entirety or not.

Unfortunately it falls to the lot of few men to discourse in an interesting manner on any one branch of the vast range of Rcience that finds its home in the Institution. Many have not had the opportunities of becoming specialists, and more have not the art of translating the resultant of the thousand h&.lf-forgotten impressions in their minds into a connected chain of reasoning and illustration. They cannot display their know ledge to their friends. Like Cassim, they are surrounded by piles of wealth, but it is in a ca\e, and they know not the "Open, Sesame," which would enable them to bring it into the light. They are, therefore, confined as to material to the historical retrospect that ranges from China to Peru, finding nothing but dry bones. Some day, we hope, courage- or will it be despair ?- will nerve a president to break the fetters of custom, and to regulate the length of his address by the amount he has in his heart to say. Thanks for his election, worcs of appreciation of the work and objects of the Institution, a tribute of admiration to the council

T HE opening meeting of the session at t he Insti- and secretary, with possibly a paesing reference Lution of Civil Engineers is always an important to some one or two notable events-if such there occasion from a ceremonial point of view. The new were- would often fulfi l the requirements of the prP.sident takes the ch!l.ir for the first time, and after occasion. Not unfrequently the rest is but'' leather thanking the members for the honour of his elec- or prunello. " tion, delivers his inaugural address. Probab1y the We would not advocate any r evolutionary policy pleasure and just pride inspired by holding such in relation to so dignified, and withal so appropriate, a distinguished post are m uch marred, in nine a ceremony as a presidential address. It is befitcases out of ten , by the impossibility of saying ting that the year's leader should address his conanything worthy of so dignified an occasion. The stituents, and it is natural that t hey should gather room is crowded with the leaders of the pro- to hear him. But it is a distinct disadvantage that fession- men whose names are known all over the the length of his remarks should be determined by world- who have gathered to do honour to their reasons outside his subj ect. Whether he have to temporary chief, and to lis ten to what he has to compress them or to extend them to fit a convensay on attaining t he summit of an engineer's pro- tional standard, the result must be aloEs of interest. fessional ambition. Custom- too strong to be dis- All that is absolutely necessary can be said in ten obeyed- requires him to speak for a considerable minutes, while an hour may be all too short both t ime, and almost prescribes his subject. The pro- for speak~r a~d listener.s. The initial gathering gress of engineering is the text th~t is laid down of a sesswn Is not subJect to the ~ame limit s for him, and-theoretical1y, at lea<lt-it is the last of convenience as those that occur later . Members year's progress that he should review. B ut there encounter each other for the first time for month~ are limits to human capacity, even in the case of a and can occ~py leisur~ time. in making acquain t~ President of the Institution, and to discour.:~e for ances, renewmg old fnendshtps, comparing notes an hour in an interesting manner upon the ad- about summer tours, and discussing t he prospects vances achieved during one twelvemonth often of the future. The chats t hat occur over t he coffee exceeds those limits. Hence it has at isen that a in the rooms of the Institution are by no means the longer period is U3ually selected- ten years, fifty least valuable part of the proceedinO's and the years, or the speaker's lifetime- and thus a . opportunity of extending them for h:lf an hour

'

610

•

In c~nseq uence of the brevity of the official pro-ceedmgs, would not be felt to ba a. arieva.nce. . The subject o.f in1ugura.l a.ddress~s was brought Into . st~ong rehef last Tuesday evening at the Inshtu~wn. Mr. ~lfred Giles, the new president, was ~Ievented by Ill-he1lth from being present, and hts speech had to ~e read by proxy. lt was of the usual pattern, neither strikingly better nor worse than many that have preceded it as will be seen by reference to the official a.bstra.dt published on pag~ 615.. But it suffered from the absence of the wnter ; It ~a.cked the ,warm glow of p ersonality that a.ccompantes a mans words from his own ~outh ; a~d it prov~~e.d, instead of curiosity and In~ulgent Inte~est, criticism as to its substance and ObJ~ct: ~ m1scellane?us. collection of incomplete sta.ttsttes lS very unsatisfying fare, and we believe w~ are approaching the time when men of eminence w1ll cease to inflict them upon the Institution. Those who have but little t o say will honestly ~cknowledge the fact, and will gain in popularity, hke the clergymen who preach short sermons · while th.o3e with abundant stores of unwritten kno~ledge w1ll .d~aw upon them freely, untrammelled by the trad1t10n that they are to compile an account of the progress of engineering science throuah its entire range. o

THE TORPEDO GUNBOATS. . THE smaller classes of war vessels are very often, 1f not generallr, more interesting than those of la~g~r prop ortt?ns. . Pr.lbably there is more origmahty and Inventt?n required in the design of a torpedo-.boat of the highest speed, than in that of a battleshtp or cruiser ; certainly there are areater risks to be run by the contractor and the v

0

entur~ generc~.lly is of a more sporting 'character. The t orpedo g.1nboats are not such flyer3 as the torpedobolts prop er, still le3s than the new "destroyers; '' the first of a new .type. of the latter cla~s having recently run her trtal with the most satisfactory results, as already narrated in these columns.* Almo.)t simultaneously the final trial of one of the present series of torpedo cruisers was run as s ~atel in our issue of la~ t week in a brief '· note " wh erein we simply recorded the fact of the Speedy\; trial havi.ng t1.ke.n pl<1ce, and of a very successful r~sult be111g achleved. There are altoaeth er in the Navy List thirty of these torp:do gunboats, a~d as the majority of them cost about fifty to sixty thousand pounls each- without guns, ammunition, &c.--it will b a seen that a good deal of money has been spent on the class.

The torp~ 1 > gt;~nboJ.t3 are designed to keep the sea and crutse Wlth the fl eet in home watera and the Mediterranean. Their function in war time will be to fight the smaller craft of a hostile fleet, or to pop in and pick off the cripples when chance arises during the progress of an engaaement. They will als J prove valuable as scouts ~nd despatchb oats. The R'l.ttlesnake was the parent boat of the clas 3. She was built at Laird 's, and doubtless many of our readera will remember seeing her at the Birkenhead yard when the Institution of Naval Architects held their summer meeting in Liverpool in 1886. The Rattlesnake and her five sister ships had raised poops and forecastles, with a sunken well between, the rail being made continuous, with bu l warki in the midship part. The Rattlesnake is 200 ft. long, 23 ft. wide, and 8ft. draught of water. The design was for a displacement of 550 tons, and the hor3e-power of 2700 indicated was estimated to drive the vessel 18.5 knots. The armament consisted of one 4-in. gun and six 3-pounder quick-firing guns. For torpedoes there were two fixed tubes and two launching carriages. On her trial with 136 lb. steam, 311 revolutions with the starboard and 308 revolutions with the port engines, the collective indicated horse-power was 2718, and the mean of six runs gave a speed of 18.779 knots On a consumption tria.l at 11 knots, 373 indicated horse-power was required, the coal burnt being 2 lb. per indicated horse-power p er hour. This would give a radius of action of 2800 miles. In the course of the naval manreuvres the Rattlesnake class was put to something like a practical test, and though they were found safe, provided they were handled with care, they shipped a good ~eal of water, and their light draught made them thQicult to steer. The Rattlesnake subsequently snaut through very heavy weather in a satisfactory test mer· . .


duly utilised by those responsible for the newer vessels, the consequence being that the Sharpshooter design was got ouL, and twenty-five vessel~ have been Luilt from it. To enable emaller vessels to steam with th~ fleet requires that they shall be able to do somethmg more than merely live through bad weather ; they must be capable of being forced at speed through heavy seas, so as not to check their larger sisters directly they meet a bit of a popple. The sunken well of the Rattlesnake wa~ against this, so the Sharpshooter was aiven a high forecastle, the whole of the rest of the boat being of less freeboard and having n') bulwarks to hold water shipped ; deck-houses, with a foreand-aft bridge a~ove, were placed inboard for access to machinery spaces, &c. The size was also increise?:-the inevitable fate of all new typesanti addibonal power was g iven.

[Nov. 17, 1893 .

Forced Draught Trials of Ten Torpedo G'unloots. * -

Name of Ship.

Jason •• • • Jaseur . . •• Niger •• • •

Ci rce • • • • Alarm • • • • Led a. •• • • He be •• • • Ooyx • • •• RetJa.rd .. Speedy ..

Built at Engined l y Ho re el PO\\ er .

Sreed . ll1

Krots. --·-- ------ ---

• • Barrow J:arrow • • " ', • • " " • Sheernees relJn . .

" " • " " • • ,, Dockyard • Birkeohead Laird • • t t • •

. . (hiswkk IThornycroft

3552 371 1 3786 3508 3886 3597 3566 3518 3962 4674 1

19 19 19.3 19k 19. 2 J8 a 19 19 19. 4 ~0

contractors for this vessel, Messrs. Laird, are to te congratulated upon their success. We believe the power recorded for one half-hour was as much as 4228. It may be noted that this trial v. as made without the tubes being fitted with the Admiralty ferrule, and that there were no leaky tubes. Orders have been given that the tubes shall now be ferruled, so it is not probable the ship will do the same power again. These boilers are of the locomotive wet-bottom type, with two furnaces. In the case of the Hebe-the ship was built and engined at Sheerness Dockyard- the tubes were ferruled and so eomething was taken from the steaming capacity of the boiler. Whether the Hebe would have done as well as the Renard without ferrules is a matter that has not been subjected to proof but there is every reason to suppose she would . '

. The Sharpshooten are 230 ft. long and 27 ft. w.Ide ; they draw 8 ft. to 8 ft. 6 in. , and the displa~ement at designed load drauaht is 735 tons. They have two 4. 7 -in. gun:, and four 3-pounder.3. ?-'here are .four torped o dischargers. In the latest sh1ps, the dtsplacement was increased to 810 tons, the length ~nd ~readth being the same, b~t the draught b emg mcreased about 6 in. Elghteen of these vessels were built under the Naval Defe!lce Act, two being for India, and t wo for Austraha. The contract power for the enoines in. the newest ships was 2500 indicated horse · p~wer wtth natural draught, and 3500 indicated horsepower. with forced draught. The Speedy was an exceptwn, her contract power being 4500 indicated horse-power with forced drauoht or a thousand indicated horse-power more tha~ a~y of her sisters. This is due to the fact that she has water-tube boilers. ~he additional power required with the newer shtps naturally tutailed more weioht of machinery. The estimated weiaht of the Sharp· shooter's machinery was at firs~ 170 tons for 4500 indicated horse-power, but it was found that in some .. of ~he . later vessels 210 tons were required for 3o00 mdiCated horse-power. In regard to this que3tion, it may be p ointed out that, roughly, the de3troyer Havock- ship and m!l.chinery-is not very much heavier than the machinery of the torpedo. gunboats, but the power developed is approximately the same. There are of course reasons for this, many of them una~oidable but somG whic'h need not exist. vVithout referri~ a to these more explicitly, we may express a \vish that a vessel of this class should ha built and engined '?Y contrac~, the contractor having as free a hand m the destgn of the machinery as was formerly usual in the case of torpedo. boats.

The majority of these Sharpshooters have each four locomotive-type marine boilers and these boilers, as stated, have never done the work that was expected from them. A first-class torpedo? oa.t's machinery with one boiler will develop 1500 Indicated horse-power, whereas it takes four boilers of ab~ut .the same size in a torpedo gunboat to get 4000 Indicated horse-power. Of course there is a g~eat diff~rence in t)le conditions of running. The atr pressure for draught in a torpedo-boat is not r estrictAd to the same extent as in the larger craft, and, above all, the torpedo-boat's trials are run with the co~tractor '.s own stoker~, who are picked men, and highly skilled experts m their work. The ordinary navy stokers do the firin g in the torpedo gunboat trials. It has, however, always been found impossible to get such high results with g roups of boilers as with single boilers. The one boiler, one man system will always answer best where possible. We were able through the courtesy of the Sheerness Dockyard officials and the contractors to have an opportunity of being in the stokehold through the greater part of one of the forced draught trials of the Speedy, and we have nu hesitation in saying that with a moderate amount of practice-drill it might be called-cor~siderably more power could have been got from the machinery of this vessel. In saying this it is but fair that we should bear testimony to the zeal of the navy stokers and the engine-room staff- perhaps more especially to an engineer officer, who showed the coolness and pluck characteristic of his class in a very trying moment. The Table in the next column gives the results of trials of ten of the most recent torpedo gunboats.

!he Hebe, as already pointed out, is a dockyard sh1p throughout, the hull, engines, and fittinas being all constructed at Sheerness. Whatever m;y be ~ne's views as to the policy of dockyard-built eng•nes, there can be no question that the Hebe's machinery is an excellent job, both in design and workmanship; furthermore, the general arranaement shows that the designer had a thorouah ar:sp of w~a~ was r equ.ired in the working of th~ v:ssel, and ~t IS surprtsmg how much space there is for movmg about, considering the quantity of machinery that has to be pack~d between the engine-room bulkheads. The cylmders of the H ebe's engines are the same sizes as those of other vessels of hf r class, namely, 22 in., 34 in., and 51 in. in diameter the stroke b~in~ 21 i~. The weight of engines and spare gear, with m engme-r oom bulkheads, is betwefn ?4 and 55 tons, the engines being of the ordinary Inverted. three- stage compound 1 ype. On < nte1 in!T the engme-room, one finds all auxiliaries placed together on a flat at the after part, so that there is good access all round tho main engines. The arrangement undoubtedly lends itself to £ase of working in a sea-way, and might be inya.Juable in case of damage or breakdown in action · at the sa~e time it do~s not appear that ~ore space 1s ta.~en up In the ship. When ona compare~ th1s comfortable arrangement in the Hebe with the plan followed with vessels of t he Med ea ~nd Meduea type, one realises that. the naval engmeer has made some gain durina the last fe.w y~a1s. . The engines of the R e be are

0yery

accessibl~ 1n their own design-irres~ective of their surroundmg~-the n~w general steel columns being used, but w1t.hout di~gonal bracing fore and aft. In place of th1s. there IS a horizontal crot!S·stay near the bottom. The weigh shafts are at the back of the en~ines-that is, on the inside as they stand in th~ sh1p. ~here are four wet-bottcm locomotive boiler~, havmg a total tube surface of 5518 square feet, and a total heating surface of 6163 Equare fe.et. There are two fireboxes to each boiler, wtth a water space between them. The total grate surface is 163 square foot. The propellers a~e each 8 ft. 3 in .. in diameter by 9 ft. 4 in. pitch. ~he total we1ght. of the H e be's machinery, all told, Is 210 tons, whiCh, we believe, is below th~t of ot her vessels of the class. The boilers weigh 96 tone, and contain ahout 30 tons of water

The trials of the H ebe were ccmmencrd with ·a. preliminary run on October 13, when the engines were worked. up t? 2700 indi?ated horse-power, and after h~vmg gtven every thmg a good grind in for about SIX hours, the. ship re~urned to prepare for her natural-draught tr1al. This was carried out on October 17, and the for ced· draught t rial took place. on ~ctoter !4. The < hief results obtain< d are g1ven m the Table on the next page.

The ~ebe, though dockyard .b~ilt and engincd , was subJected to the same con dthons of trial as the contract built or engined ships, and the engineer-

the,'he exper1ence ga1ned was valuable, and was

de;- * See trial of the Ha vock, page 545 ante. r

The Speedy's trial waa run in a heavy sea- for trial purposes-otherwi~e a much higher speed would have been register ed.

Next to the Speedy it will be seen that the Renard got the highest result in power ; and the

* Th~ engines of the three Barrow boats were iJJustra.t.ed 1~ ENGINEERING, vol. lv., page 132, and the P enn engmes m vol. 1 v., page 280.

Nov. 17, 1893.] = ina staff were determined th1t if ~ossible the tr~als sh~uld go thro'Jgh without a h1tch. The atm, therefore was that the contract power , and n o more sh~uld be reached, so as not to run unne.::essary ~isks. I t will be seen by the. records h ow nearly those in charge of the ma?hmery on the forced-draught trial were able to ~1t off t_he ex~ct. power r equired ; in fact, the ser~es of tnals w1t_h these vessels show one or two 1nst_ances of ~h1s nature, the Circe, it will be seen, be1ng only e1~ht units over the r equired 3500. The H eb e havmg duly fulfilled her contr~ct, it ~as ~otermined to try her higher, and with t~1s end 1n v1ew the vessel was brought into the basm at Sheerneas to open out,

Trials of H.JJI.S. " H ebe 11

Date . . · · · · · · t {

forward . . 1 Dra.ugbt of wa er aft . .

s ~am in bo' lers . . . . Air pressurt . . · · ..

Vacuum .. Revolutions

•• • •

• • • •

• • • •

Mean pressures . . . . I. {

R.

Indicltcd borS2· p:>wer

(...

{

H. I. I l..

Total iodil.}ated horse-) power . . . . (

Speed . . . . • . knots

Na.tur .ll Dra.ught.

Ol t )b~r 17 7 f t. 10 in.

11 lt t! , 144 lb. . 77 in.

S. I P. 28. 4 28.4

22L.3 221.9 46.8 48 8 20.7 20.7 10.3 9.8

417.4 437.0 4H .2 4l3.6 492.8 I 470.5

1351.4 1351.1 2702.1)

17.8

F .Jrced Draught.

0 .1tober 24 7 ft. 10 in.

11 .. 7i , 148.7 lb.

2. 0 io . S. P.

28.0 27.9 244.9 2 t6 3

59.9 6 1 5 24.2 25.0 11.3 11 0

593.4 607.G 578.2 690.9 6.>5. 6 685.5

178 2.2 11784.0 3566. 2

19

and above all, to fill her boiler-3 with distilled wd.t~r · as, for some reason which has hitherto baffi~d' the philosophies of both engineer and chemi3t Sheerness natural water is the most primina' water that these islands produca. I t is the custom

0 of all engineer contractors who are old

ata.aers to brina down River Lea water by barge 0 0

when trials are frum Sheerness. vVhether bargee fills up on the ebb in Northfteet Hope- as has been augaested - is not to the point. I t is an undisputed fl\ct~ that Sheerness water is not usable when hiahest results have to be obtained.

flavin(/ been duly tuned up to concert pitch, the Hebe wa~ sent out a~ain on November 1, when the following result was obtained:

O.lt e . . ..

Draught of wa ter

~team in boilers • Air pre!ssure ..

Vacuum .. Revolutions

• • • •

)[ea'"l pressures . .

• •

• •

• • • •

• •

••

• •

JndicatPd horae p"ver . .

Total • •

• •

• •

••

• •

•• ••

••

••

••

. . November 1, 1893

{Forward, 8 ft.

· · Aft, 11 ft. 7 in . . . H2 lb. . . 3 7 in.

S tarbo \rd. .. 27.8 . . 252.2

{

H. 62.4 I. 26.1 L. 12.3

{

H. 635. 5 I. 640 9 L. 673.2

. . 19 19.6

Port. 27.6

250. 1 66.6 27.3 12.1

668.6 658.5 e59.5

1986.6

Tot~l of starboard and por t . . . . 3936.2 Maximum indicated horse-power . . 42l4. 7

P erhaps the most instructive part of this latter triill is the great additional air pressure for draught required to give another 400 indicated horse-power. On the official trial, it will be seen, the air pressure was but 2 in., but on the later trial no le3s than a mean of 3. 7 in. was required. The r eason is instructive. The tubes of the Hebe's boilers were, as already mentioned, fitted with the Admiral ty ferrule . This, as our readers well know, is a device in which the joint of the tube end with the tubeplate is protected by a trumpet mouth, which projects out of the tube and turns back on the plate. As there is an air space between the tubeplate and the turned-over end of the ferrule, the ld.tter naturally must get red-hot, at anyratewhenthe boiler is forced to any extent. However this may be, there is no doubt that ferrules of this type conduce to that very unpleasl.nt b oiler disease known as "bird's-nesting. " A" bird's nest, 11 it may be stated for the benefit of those who have not had experience in this direction, consists of a built-up obstruction of small particles of coke or coal. 'fhe first thing that happens is that a ring of these particles forms round the crown of the trumpet-mouthed ferrule. This annulu3 gradual1y grow-3 inwards across until, ia extreme cd.ses, the ferrule mouth becomes entirely closed by a disc of coke-like substance. ~he mass does not grow up inside the tube, but a1mply extends across it, forming, not a lining, but a lid. In the case of t he Hebe, after her extra. forced-draught trial, in one boiler 10 per cent. of her tubes were, we believe, prc~.ctically entirely closed. The bird's nest is of so firm a texture that

•

E N G I N E E R I N G. 61I

Trials of H . M.S. "Speedy."

j N.4tural

it may be r emoved bodily., and t~e various ~tages of formation are extremely 1nterestmg. J udgmg from examples of bird's nests taken from the Hebe, we doubt very much if she could have continued run- _ ning at the power she did fo~ ~uch longer. T.hat, Date of tri~l . . . .

I Draught. -----

Forced Draught.

• •

however is a m'l.tter of opmwn, but the botlers Duration of trial .. were w~rking with 6 in. air pressure at the. finish.. Draugh t forward · ·

• •

October 3 8 bouts

7 f t. 9 in. 11 " g ..

18S. 6 lb. . 57 in.

November 7 :3 hours

7 ft. 6 in. 11 •• 9 "

193.6 lb.

• •

h ,, aft .. ..

Of course bird's-nesting is no new t mg, 1t Steam in boiler · .. •

havina been a m~tter with which t orpedo-boat Air pressure · · · ·

build;rs have lona been acquainted. The forma.- Revolutions per minute tion of the founlation ring of the nest in bell- Vacuum . . . . . .

• • 1.7 in . S. P. S. P.

• • 209 7 203.2 t47 243 • • 27 ~ 27.1 27! 27

mouthed ferruled boilers, is generally attributed Mean dfective pressure to the fact tha.t the ferrule gets r ed-hot, and it i~ a curious speculation how near the tubepla.tes and

H. 1. L.

{

fl .

6 l 5 o7.7 75.6 76.9 26.3 26 33 4 32.5 12.1 10.4 15.6 14.4

521.7 4 ;2.6 74S.5 759 2

tube-ends of t orpedo-boats' boilers-on which bird's Iudicated hors e-power ·

ne3ts have formed- may have arrived to that state. Doubtless a tubepla.te cannot get red-hot when ~ne side of it is in contact with water, but the questwn is, actually, how near is the water 7

I . L.

532.9 609 6 795. 1 762.7 55<'. 6 6o8 6 846.7 762.5

In r egard to the Hebe's trial, it should be stated that a bit of bad luck occurred in the second hc~.lfhour when one of the fan-engine crankpins heated up, ~nd necessitated stopping th.e fan and slacking out bearina3. This rather sp01lt the programme laid down,

0

which was to get the maximum power whilst the tubes were clean. For the first halfhour this was done, but when the one fa.n was stopped the figures dropped back to 377 4 indicated horse-power. In the third half-hour the fan was put right aaain, and 4012 indicated horae-power was reached. Of course the ship must stand by her mishaps-just as th e Valkyrie had _ to put up with her torn spinnaker- but the fan engmes of the H ebe are of more than ordinary propor tions, and the crankpin journal is Cbrtainly of ample length.

The H e be, during her trials, was in charge of Commander A. D,mgla~ , of the D ockyard R eserve, Mr. W. W. Chilcott, H . N., chi~f engineer of the dockyard, being in ch1.rge of the machin~ry, assisted by lVIr. A. R. Pattison, the second eng1neer at Sheerness.

The trials of the Speedy possess even more interest t han those of the H ebe, as in this vessel the attempt ha3 been first made, on any _conb!derable scale, to introduce the water· tube bo1ler 1nto the Navy. Considering the vast amount of anxiety and labour that ha~ fallen on the engineering brc~.n ch of the Navy during the last few years-to say nothing of the d d.nger to life and property- one can hardly help wondering why the authorities did n ot earlier have recourse to so very promising a way out of their difficulties. Rash haste in adopting new ideas has, however, never been a besetting sin at Whitehall · probably we are not sufficiently thankful we have' a steam navy at all. Movement is, h owever, now being made, and the destroyers are largely fitted with water-tube boilers, whilst, as already annvunced by Mr. \Vhite at Cardiff, two other vessels are to have respectively Belleville and Du Temple boilers. Probably the success of the Speedy's trials will lead to the tide setting still more strongly this way, so that in the course of four or five years we may r each the position occupied by the French at the present time.

We ful ly described the Speedy at the time of her launch at Chiswick, * so that we need not repeat the aeneral particulars here . She is liko the other ships ~f h er class in all main features ; her boilers, and those details governed by them, constituting the only difference. There are eight of these watertube boilers, each having 1840 square feet of h eating surface and 25! square feet of grate area. The t ubes are of steel, and are from lk in. to 1! in . in diameter, the largest being nearest the fire. The eight boilers of the Speedy probably weigh about 20 tons less than the four boilers of each of the other ships, water and fittings included, and yet the Speedy gave steam for 700 indicated~ horse-power more than the best of the other ships, whilst it was over 1000 indicated horsepower more than the lowest, and that with an unorganised staff working on a new system. On the other hand, the Speedy's engines are naturally h eavier than those of the other ships. \Ve have s 1.id the He be's engines, with spare gear, weigh about 54: to 55 tons ; whilst the corresponding fiaures for the Speedy would be from 72 to 73 tons.

0

The records of the two official trials of the Speedy are given in the next column.

The forced draught trial was run on a day when it was blowing hard from the N.E., and Captain D ouglas, who took charge of the ship, very wisely determined not to go out into deep water b eyond

* See ENGINEERING, vol. lv., pages 709, 872, and 881.

1605.2 14-10 8 3046 18.5

2390.3 2284.4 4074.7

20

Total indicated h orse-po A"H . Ditto p ort and starb:>ard . Speed in knots . . . . . .

the Goodwins. The run was, therefore, made amongst the shoals off the N orth K entish coast, running from the Nore down to the North F oreland, through the Black Deep and Edinburgh Channel. As it was, the sea was rougher than beseems tt ial trip condit ions, although nothing to serious]y test the true seaworthiness of the ship's design. The sh~llow water in which the run was made naturally combined with the rough weather to detract from the speed of the vessel, and not only that, but reduced the indicatPd horse-power also, for engines can never get away so well when the screws are n ear the bottom. At one part of the ., run- near the West Oaze, where there is about ten fathoms-the Speedy brought up a wave that we estimated to be 2 ft. to 2 ft. 6 in. higher than the deck, the crest being about 15 f t. to 20ft. as tern, which shows that the wave wa.s pretty steep and must have been absorbing an enormous amount of power. \Ve are glad to hear that the Admiralty have decided to run a series of progressive trials with this vessel. They will be r emarkably interesting, and we have little doubt i hat when the stokera have had more t raining a. speed of 21 knots will be got in deep water and fine we~ther. During the forced -draught trial, the boilers worked better even than on the natural draught trial. During the latter, on e of the boilers got filled up so that the port engines had to be eased for a time, but the mishap is one that would not be like1y to occur with a trained engineroom staff, and with not t oo many people to gi ,.-e orders or t urn valves. One thing is certain, that these boilers please the stokers, who appear to appreciate the absence of danger and anxiety ; and they also say they find the work of firing much l ighter than with the more ordinary types of boiler. The water level in the boilers was constant, and there was n o unusual fluctuation in ateam pressure, two troubles characteristic of some types of water-tube boiler; in fact, throughout the trials the boilers of the Speedy were an undoubted success.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION. THE address of Mr. W. H. \Vhite, C.B., F.R.S ,

at the annual meeting of the Sheffield Technical School, raises again the question of the comparati\·e advantages of the old English system and of the Continental systems of training engineers and factory managers. There is, perhaps, no more consptcuous example of the value of a. sound technical education than Mr. \Vhite himself, but the advantage of a scientific training in the case of designers and chiefs of departments is now fully recognised, and, indeed, a word of caution seems needed as to what technical education can and cannot do. At the present moment there appears to be a danger of it becoming a mere fad. Technical institutions and classes are being organised over the whole country, often, we fear, with less j udgment than might be desired. With the exception of such work as plumbing, and possibly two or three other trades, the possession of an elementary scientific training will not improve the work turned out by the average workman . A knowledge of the parallelogram of for ces will not, for instancP, make a man a. better fi tter, n or enable a machinist to t urn or plane a casting more accurately. Nevertheless, as scholarship3 are in many cases provided, by which a. clever young workman can obtain an adequate scientific training at the larger institutions, the~o elementary technical classes are, on the whole, advantageous. In short, t hescholarshipsystem provides a way by means of which any youth of the artisan class of good abilities

612

may acquire a sound technical t raining, fitting him, when combined with an adequate knowledge of workshop methods, and of the materials of construction, for the post of foreman, under-manager or manager of works, or to take charge of a drawing office. As for the vast majority who are without exceptional ability, it is doubtful whether such a smattering of scientific knowledge as they acquire at the ordinary evening cla.gses does not do them as much harm as good. A half-educated individual is very likely to think he ''knows it all, , and is thus led to illustrate anew the truth of Pope's adage, ''A little learning is a dangerous thing."

Experience shows that, to be r eally useful to a man in a responsible position, a thorough training is n ecess uy. In many technical schools attention seems to be concentrated too tnuch on the mathematical side of engineering, without sufficiently insisting on the precautions necessary in carrying out a design, t o insure that the assumptions necessarily made in the mathematical treatment shall agree reasonably well with the conditions actually obtaining in practice. The result of this is such failures as those of th e bridge over the Morawa in Servia (ENGINEERING, vol. lv., page 134), or that over the Cannich in Scotland (ENGINEERING, vol. liv., page 329). In both these cases the nominal stresses on the material were well within reasonable limits, but errors were made in working ouc the design~ which should be impossible to a properly trained engineer.

Our view as to the great importance of the thorough training of a few men, as oppos~d to a general and incomplete training of a larger number, seems to be borne out by some facts mentioned at the recent meeting of the Society of Chemical Industry at Ml:l.nchester. F or years it has been the practice at our chemical works to employ imperfectly trained. chemists, manufacturers, if anything, fi~hting shy of those who had :t<3 students showed signs of originality. In Germany the opposite policy was purdued, with only too successful results so far as the British chemical t rade was concerned. Within the last few years, however, our own works have begun to appreciate the folly of the former policy, with the result that last year, t hough the tonnage of our chemical exports had diminished, their value had been enormously increased.

Another question which arises in this connection is as to how a lad should commence his engineering training. In the case of a lad of the artisan class who wishes to become an engineer, as opposed to a mere mechanic, there is usually no option. He must attend the works during the day, and evening classes at night, putting a strain on his constitution which it may prove unable t o stand. If, however, the eiaht-hours system becomes general, there will be les~ difficulty in his doing so, as he will be able to get a fair amount of sle?p at that period of life when it is most essential, and will not have to turn out athalf-past five in the morning, and, brea.kfastless, trudge down to a cold and draughty shop, after having worked at his books to a ~a~e hour ~n the previous niaht. Many employers, 1t 1t t rue, 1n the past have b~d the good feeling to allow prom_ising lads trying for \Vhitworth o~ other scholarships to come in after breakfast, but 1n such cases the foreman naturally does not put t hese youths on the best work and other employers are less considerate and i~deed, can hardly be blamed, as privileges of this kind must be bad for the discipline of the shop. Mr. White, we observe, is a strong advocate of the workshop and theoretical training being carried on toaether and his opinion will necessarily have much w~ight ~ttach~d to i_t.. Pro~ably in t~e earlier s tages of a youth s t ratnmg tlu~ system IS

the best and is provided for by the evemng classes, but, as ~lready mentioned, it entails a sever? physical strain to which many parents would obJect to expose their sons. The question then remains as to whether the lad should be sent into the workshops first, and to college afterwards, or vi~e versa. Both systems have their advantages and disadvantages. If a lad completes an engineering co~rae at one of the technical schools, and then goes tnto a shop, he is likely to. create .a bad impression by bumptiousness and In certain cases may take a disgust to the' manual wo~k involved, th_ou~h, if really worth anything, he will go through with 1t. . It must be admitted, too, that students may pass wit~ credit through college, and fail afterwards a~ engineers from a lack of that common sense ~htch, as appli~d to construction, is said to constttute t~e whole art of the engineer. Instances. c?uld e~~1Jy b~ provided of distinguished mathemat.1c1ans fathng


in this way. With such it is of small importance whether the college or the shop training comes first, as they are bound to be failures any way. With others, however, the plan of making the college training precede the workshop has the advantage of continuity-to our mind a very great one. Otherwise a youth spends some five years, say, in the shops, then goes to a college for two years, and at the end of that time finds that he has lost touch with the workshop, finds difficulty in getting work, and finally takes up the profession of teaching, or some similar occupation, and ceases to be an engineer. I t has been proposed to found continuatic.tn scholarships for such cases, which would be held subject to the scholar engaging in practical work. This plan, if carried out, would do away with the objection to t he workshop course coming first, as it would give the holder time to make a new niche for himself in the practice of engineering. As Mr. White points out, the possession of workshop experience certainly enables a student to make better use of a good technical course than he otherwise could. He states that his experience as professor at t he Royal School of Naval Architecture was decidedlv favourable .. to t he students having had a previous work-shop trJ.ining. At this school, in addition to students from the dockyards, there were many from abroad, who, although well trained in mathematics and physics, were totally ignorant of workshop practice, and proved, accordingly, to benefit less than the others from the course of instruction.

THE YARROW WATER-TUBE BOILER. ON \Vednesday last a short trial was made at the

works of Messrs. Yarrow and Co., with a boiler of the Yarrow water-tube type. This, as our rtaders are aware, consists of two lower wing chambers and. a cylinder above, each of the former being connected to the latter by a number of straight tubes, which supply the heating surface of the boiler. In cross-section the boiler is, therefore, triangular, the base being formed by the grate bars, there being, of course, an ashpit below. The whole is inclosed in a smoke-jacket of sheet iron, surmounted by an uptake and chimney. The Yarrow boiler differs from some other steam generators of a somewhat similar type in the fact that the whole boiler is inclosed by the smoke-jacket; there being nowalthough there were originally- no pipes outside for water to flow down in order to promote circulation. It will be understood that each of the two groups of t ubes, connecting the wing and the top cylinder, consists of several row. . The inside row of each group will, therefore, be directly exposed to t he radiant heat of the furnace, whilst the other rows will be heated by the circulation of ga2es amongst them. On page 79 of our fifty-first volume will be found illustrations of the Yarrow boiler aca originally designed. This arrangement comprises two special down-flow pipes for circulation. These were thought to be necessary at the time, but practical experience has shown them to be redundant.

It will he obvious that the inner rows of tubes will be the hottest, whilst the outer rows will be coldest.. It should be further noted that the whole of t he tubes are what is known as ''drowned"that is to say, the water-level in the upper cylinder is carried higher than the top orifices of the tubes where they are expanded into the top cylinder. It is hardly necessary for us to point out that a watertube boiler, to work successfully, must have adequate circulation, and it would appear that this is secured in the Yarrow boiler by reason of the higher temperaturd imparted to the inner rows of tubes. Thus we may imagine these inner row~ to be filled with a mixture of steam and water, whtlst the outer rows will contain solid water. It will be evident that the mix ture of steam and water in the inner rows will be lighter than the solid water at the back. There would, therefore, be ascending currents in the inner rows (next to the fire), and a descending Bow in the outer rows. How nearly these actual conditions are reached in practice, it is not possible to say, but from the experiment we a:e about to describe- and from the fact that the b01ler answers well in practice- it would seem that th? circulation is sufficient. \Ve have not yet dealt w1th the conditions of the intermediate rows. Those adjacent to tho inner and outer rows would partake, more or less, of the nature of their neighbours, but in the centre row, or rather t hat row where the tern-

perature of the gases is mid way between the temperatures of the inner and outer rows, there might be supposed to be an equilibrium, or static condition, so that the circulation would be destroyed. Supposing that such a condition were reached, what would be the result ? The water in these tubes, being stationary, would have more time to take up heat, and would thus be evaporated, so that a large part would be turned to steam, and an ascending current would be set up. It would: therefore, seem that the water must pass, in the cooler rows, downwards so quickly as not to be changed to steam to any large extent, or else it must become evaporated in sufficient quantity to be more than balanced by the descending water in the still cooler rows. Probably some steam is generated in all rows when a boiler is being forced in the manner we witnessed last Wednesday. Possibly, also, some rows may be subjected to a pulsating, or reciprocating flow, sometimes upwards and sometimes downwards, as changes take place in the fire or from other local causes. I t is further possible that there may be a downward flow of water in some of the pipes, whilst the bubbles of steam struggle upwards against the water current .

These points, however, are largely matters of speculation, but the fact remains- whatever may be the philosophy of the apparatus- that there is a circulation of water in all t hese tubes, for we know that without circulation such a boiler could not work for any considerable space of time. The boiler which we saw at work- which is one of the group of eight to be placed in the new torpedo-boat destroyer Hornet, now under construction at Poplar- has copper tubes 1 in. in diameter, and the effect of lack of circulation for any considerable time may well be imagined upon any tubes subj ect to a considerable degree of heat. So long as there is an upward current in some tubes, there must be a corresponding downward current in others, and a downward current means a waterprotected tube. The hrisker the evaporation, the more rapid the circulation, may be taken as an axiom. From the foregoing it will be seen that good fresh water is required for feeding this boiler, but that may be taken as applying to all advanced boiler practice in the present day, whether the boiler be of the " shell " or water-tube type.

The fact that the tubes are straight may be looked on a a disadvantage, and, indeed, it P'tiv1·i - or, as some persons say, " theoretically "-it is a disadvantage. Expansion and contraction of the tubes, due to difference in temperature between individual tubes, exists. The conditions, however, would appear not to be such that the whole struct ure cannot accommodate itself to them without damage. There are, however, some advantages attending the use of straight tubes. In the arrangement adopted by Mr. Yarrow, the wing chambers are made in two parts, being joined longitudinally by bolts and nuts passing through flanges. In cross-section the wing chambers are approximately semi-cylindrical, the flat part being upwards, in a plane which makes them more conYeniently placed for getting the tubes normal to the fiat part (or tu beplate ), and at the proper angle for reaching the top cylinder. Now if the bottom part of either of the wing chambers be removed, the tube ends are exposed, and offer facilities for cleaning, &c., on the inside. The upper cylinder is also made in two parts and joined by bolts through flanges, so that the top ends of the tubes can also be exposed. The difficulty in making a steam-tight joint of such a Eize must not be overlooked.

The boiler tried on \Vednesday last was fitted up in the yard, a. feed pump being attached. The steam as generat€d was blown oft~ the outlet being controlled by a stop-valve. The boiler and water were quite cold . At 2. 20 P.l\I. a match was put to the fire. About 5 minutes after lighting up the wing chambers were quite warm, top and bottom, on the outside; the lower part of the upper cylinder being, perhaps, a trifle hotter. The steam space in the upper cylinder was quite cold. At 2.30 the guage needle had come away from the pin to the extent equal to about 5 lb. pressure. At 2. 32 the first coal was put on since lighting. At 2. 33-thirteen minutes after lighting- the steam gauge registered 25 lb. pressure ; at 2.36 there was 60 lb. pressure ; at 2.38, 80 lb ; and at 2.40, 100 lb. The steam blast in the chimney was then turned on. The pressure then rapidly increased, until at 22 minutes 20 seconds after lighting up, the working pressure of 180 lb. was reached. The stop valve

Nov. 17, 1893.]

was now opened an:d the ste~m allowed to escape. Coaling was contmued at Intervals of 2i to 3 minutes, and the steam was maintained steadily at about 180 l b. for half an . hour. The gaug.e for draught registered an equtvalent of from 3 1n. to 3! in . . .

The pressure having been mamta1ned for half an hour at 180 1 b., it was proposed that the fire should be suddenly withdrawn. This was commenced to be done a t 3.12, the grate being almost clear at 3.18 P. M. The fire-door was lef~ ~pen, an~ a. good opportunity was given of exammmg the .1ns1de of tho boiler. The result was most satisfactory, there being not the sign of a leak at any par t .

The stop valve was closed when the fire was drawn and pressure naturally fell~ the fire· door being 'kept open. At 3. 22 i t was a little under H>O lb. ; at 3.27, 120 lb. ; and at 3. 50, when our last observat ion was made, the pressure had fallen to 70 lb .

The weigh t of this boiler, with water and all fi t tincrs is 5 tons 7 cwt. , and the makers have found ' by previous tests, that it will evaporate 12,500 lb. of water per hour. With 16 lb. ?f water per indicated horse-power per hour, whiCh Mr. Y arrow takes as ordinary torpedo-boat practice,* the power obtained by means of such a b.oiler would be 781 indicated horse-power. The heatmg surface is 1027 ft. , and the bar surface 20.6 square feet. The bars are 6 ft. 6 in. long. In the sister destroyer to the Hornet (the Bavock) there are two locomotive boilers, the weight of which, with water and fi ttings, is 54 tons, and the Havock's machi~ery developed 3400 indicated horse-power on trial. t The H ornet's eight water-tube boilers will weigh with water and fittings, 43 tons.

THE ATTENDANCE AT THE COLUlVI:BIAN EXPOSITION.

THE complete record of attendance at theW orld's Columbian E xposition is now available, and a glance at the figures clearly shows that in spite of all the fates that combined against the W orld's F air, the results are as satisfactory as they are astonishina. The steady improvement will be seen at a glance from the ann exed ~iagram whic~ we ~ave specially prepared from offiCial returns. The hnes show the attendance on each successive day, the heavy line indicating the total and the thin line the number of paying visitors, including children. The difference between the two represents the number of free admissions, exhibit attendants, &c. The nu m her present on the opening day was 137,557, but following this there was a drop to 19,524. From this point there was a steady increase, and by the 30th of the month the state of affairs induced about 140,000 to attend. Meanwhile the number of free admissions was increasing, and had advanced from 8000 to over 20,000 daily, indicating a temporary abuse of passes that was checked. But it was not really until the middle of June that the reports which went forth from Chicago justified a visit with full expectation of finding the great '\Vorld's F air in a state worthy of that city. It is interesting to note from our diagram that, although there were fluctuations from this point, the general trend was upwards. Even the fl uctuations indicate some regularity. There was a steady rise usually from the Monday until Friday, which showed a drop as a prelude to the largely augmented total of Saturday, followed by a collapse on Sunday. The F ourth of July breaks the line in a pronounced way, the total mounting to 330,542 ; but the most remarkable total is that of Chicago Day, when 761,942 passed the turnstiles; and of this number 683,742 were paying adults, and 33,139 children, so that only 45,061 were admitted free, the money taken being on this day not far short of 75, OOOl. This total is far before the highest hitherto reached at any E xhibition. The best day at the great Paris Exposition of 1889 waR little more than half-397,000 ; while at the Philadelphia Centennial Celebration Exhibition the total was just under 275,000. In the London show of 1862 we were satisfied with 62,000 for a day record. Moreover, Chicago did not exhaust the resources in one day, for they made about a week of it. On each of the two following days the total was about 350,000, and on the Thursday 315,000. The total for Chicago

* The evaporation of the Ha.vock1s boilers was Mr. Y arrow informs us, 7 lb. of water per pound of coal burnt, the coal per indicated horae-power per hour being about 2~ lb.

t For trial of the Havock, see page 545 ante.


week closely approximated 2! millions. The sum taken as en trance fee~ was about 410, OOOl. It is in teresting to note that the paid admissions exceeded 100,000 on 92 days, and that the number was over 200,000 on 24 days- once in July, once in August, four times in September, and eigh teen times in October; while 300,000 was exceeded on four occasions- on the first three days of Chicago week, October 9, 10, and 11, and on Thursday, the 19th of the same month.

The steady improvement may be indicated in a short Table, which shows that the daily average increased from 54,714 in May and 119,271 in June, to 264,849 in October, which was the best month of the half year. Towards the close, indeed, there was, as is usually the case, quite a rush of visitors, pnblic

:HO, • "

Ill

•

•

•

in which the total is exceeded is that of the Paris Ewrposition of 1889. I t must, however, be remembered that that E xhibition was open for two days longer, and that on . Sunday the visitors wer.e usually as numerous, If not more so, than on or~Inary week-days. The differ ence of 620,000 ~s, t herefor e far more than accounted for by these Circumstanc~s . Instead of the closing day at Chicago being marked by r~j oicing, a sp~ci!l'l programme, and the great enthusiasm charac.ter1stlc of s_uch occasions, ther e was sorrow and an Idle day owmg to the great calamity that ended the useful career .o~ one of the most vigor ous projectors of the ExpositionMayor Harrison. Anoth~r, and prob~?ly a more impor tant consideration, IS that the visitors to the Paris E xhibition paid n ominally only a franc each,

I Ill

• •

· ~ ~. c:: ~~ ~ ~~'~ ~- ~

. ~,g~ ~J§~

l1l

' I G IJ 20 Z7 3 10 17 ~ I 8 15 22 U S 12 19 2G 2 ~ 16 U 30 1 14 21 2tJ Jr.

MAY. JUNE JULY. AUGUST. SEPTEMBER OCTOBER,

1ss4- Asterisks on Datum Line. i'ndi'ccrt,e 11' dtxy of' ecrch month. ,

The Diamonds in the Graphs inri/cate Sunriays on which -Exposition was dosed.

appreciation of the great merits of the Exposition having grown with the lapse of time.

Total Pay· Grand Total. Per Day . • m g.

May • • •• • • • • ],060,037 1 ,531,084 54,714 June .. • • • • •• 2,675,113 3,677,834 119,271 J uly •• • • • • • • 2,760,263 3,977,502 132,583 Aug ust •• • • • • l$,515,493 4,687,708 151,216 Sep tember • • •• • • 4,659,871 5,808,942 ! 93,631 October .. .. .. 6,816,435 7,945,430 264,849

Total • • •• • • 21,477,212 27, 529,400 153,800

-- -It would not be of much use to speculate on what might have been. For instance, one could almost assume that, had the Exhibition been free from difficulties, the attendance in the first three months would have more closely approximated that of the latter three months, and that the aggregate might have been 36 millions ; or, again, had the attendancd throughout been as large as that during October, the total might have been 47 or 48 millions. It was on the assumption that all would be ready, and that the enthusiasm of October would have commenced in May, that the sanguine estimate of 40 million visitors was based . The aggregate recorded is eminently satisfactory, and the average daily total- 153,800- is very high, especially as it includes the Sundays, when, as we have shown on the diagram, the attendance was very small. Curiously enough) too, the percentage of children on Sunday was very low. P erhaps the measure of success, in the aggregate, is more appreciable when comparison is made with the record of some other Exhibitions, and the only case

and 2 francs in the evening. But practically the entrance did not cost on an average more than 5d. in the daytime, or 10d. in the evening ; for owing to the lottery system adopted, and the great supply of tickets, they were sold by the people for a very small&mount, dropping on one occasion as low as 2id. An eaormous attendance was thus assured. At Chicago, on the other hand, each of the 20,1 millions of adult paying visitors had to pay 50 cents or 2s., while the 1! million children paid 25 cents. The only concession made was that during the week ending October 21, when the Chicago school-children were given a holiday, the charge for admission for '' all children under eighteen years of age " was reduced to 10 cents. As might be supposed, the attendance of children was during these days unusually large, the record for the week being 316,066. The weekly average for children was 90,000. The following Table gives the attendance at some of the leading International Exhibitions as compared with that at Chicago :

Paris, 1855 ... ... ... ... 5,162,000 London, 1862 .. . .. . . .. .. . 6,250,000 Paris, 1867 .. . .. . .. . .. . 10,200,000 Philadelphia., 1876 ... . .. ... 9,911,000 Parifl, 1876 ... ... ... over 16,000,000

" 1889 .. . ... .. . .. . 28,149,353 Chicago, 1893.. . .. . ... . .. 27,529,400

But, as we have incidentally pointed out the number of concessions t o visitors was few i~ the case of Chicago, so that the money actually paid for admittance was probably three times areater than that at Paris. At Chicago 20! million° adults each paid 60 cents, representing 2,314,924l. ; I}

•

E N G I N E E R I N G. million of children each paid 25 cents, totalling and whatever may be the advantages accruing 6~,681l.; while the 316,066 children who attended from the former, y et the difficulties of mainduring the week ending October 21 only p'lid tainiog proper supervision, and of preventing an 10 cents each, equal to 6585l., so that the three insuffrlrable nuisan ce, b acome so great, even in sums combined show the entrance receipts to have towns of small siza, that water carri~ge has to be been 2,391,190l. Of cour.3e this does not by any adopted, even though it is everywhere recognised m~ans r epresent the total income. Added to this that sewage ought to go back at once to the land. sum is the va1.u e of the concessions, which are

1 Water carriage is far from being a perfect system,

estim~ted a~ ovdr 800,000l., as compared with and the w<1rste of useful manurial matter is to be abou t 160,000l. at Pclris in 1889. The total receipt3 r egretted, and should be prevented wherever posare put at present at 51 millions, while the ex- l sible. Such waste is one of th e cheques that has had penditure to October 31 is put at nearly 6! mil- to be given, so far, for the immunity from epidemics, lions. The Exhibition is still kept open for the and for the diminished death-rate that has attended aimission of visitors, and many availed themselves the use of the E~ystem in large towns. Some of the privilege for a few days, but now J ackson cases-of which the author very justly complainsPark is almost deserted, save for exhibitors and show t hat it can be abused, for in isolated districts workmen clearing away. and in hamlets such a system is quite out of place ;

LITERA'rURE. but against this must be set the gr-1ve dangers that can exist in the system advocated by the author, where earth sh ould happen to b e used over and over again in different dwellings in the way men-

Ru,·al H ygiene. By G. V . Po::>RE, M.D., F .R.C.P. Lon- tioned on page 216 of his book. don a.nd New York : Longm3.ns, Green, and Co. 1893. Throughout the work valuable matter is to b e

TBIS is a volume of very readable essays, several of found that should prove of the u tmost value to which have already been printed, but which are now those residing in rural districts, and much of it is published as a whole in book form. They are written , given from the author's own experience. He has a from the medical point of view, as would be ex- number of suggestions also as to the course that pected from the author, and t he key to the subject- should be adopted in L 1ndon, which are excellent matter of the book, and of the author 's views upon except for the fact that they clash with vested it, is to be found on the first page, where he interests. explains that '' the title ' Rural Hygiene ' has been chosen .because it is only in p~ac~s havi.ng a rural BOOKS RECEIVED. or. semi-rura:l c~~ract~r ~hat ~t IS possible to be Digest of Cases and Decisions und'-r the Employers' Liability guided by sCientific principles In our measures for A ft, 1880. London : T. J. W. BocKLEY, Post Magathe preservation of health and the prevention of I zine Office. disease. In cities the hygienic arrangements are E ngi,ecr ing, Drau.ing, and Design ( A Text-book ?f). By the products of expediency rather than principle SIDNEY H. WELLS, Wh: Se. Part I:-Pract'll~al Geo-

1 · d · d fi f, mctry. Part II. - Mach11ne and Engtne Drawtng amd and are n?t unfrequent Y ?:1.rr1e out In e a~ce C! Design. London : Oha.rles Griffin and Co, Limited. the teachings of p~re SClence. Overcr owding B [Price: Vol i., 33.; vol. ii., 4~. Gd. ] encouraged, and n vers or other sources of water Re~istanrc of Ships and Screw Propulsion. By D. W. are recklessly fouled, because such condit ions are, 'FaYLOR. London : . Wbitta.ker a~d Co. or are supposed to be 'good for trade. ' Our Diamonds and <?old tn South Afnca . . By THEODORE

· · h' · 1 1 d f REUNERT. Wttb Maps and IllustratiOns. London : munlcipa~ governors, w o are ma1n .Y ~e ecte rom Edward Sta.nford. [Price 7s. 6d.] the trading classes, and the maJOrity C!f whom The I ncandescent Lamp and i ts Manu,factu1'e. By GrLBli:RT have had no scientific training of any kind, are S. RAM. London : "The Electrician " Printing and rarely c~pable of looking beyond the que9tion of Publishing Compa.n~, Limited. [ Price 7~ .. 6d.J. immediate profit which to them s eems all- R efe1·endu·m des lnJerneurs.-Enq_uate sur l Ensetrtnement · ' Th h · · f de la Mecanique. Par M. V. DWEL HAU\'F.R -D RRY et I ~~ortant. · · · e ygienic measures .0 M. JuLIEN WEIL'ER. Liege: Marcel Nierstra~z. cities have, for the most part, been ~astily T he Jlfechanical World Pocket Diary and Year Book, 1894. adopted in order to escape the dang.ers whiCh are Manchester : Emmott and Co., Limited. [Price 6d.] insepar able from an undue concentratiOn of population. They may be compared to the herculean method which was practised upon the stables of King Augeas ; and although we may admire the prowess of Hercules, we can feel nothing but contempt for Augeas, who ~ould ~ave be.en happie;, and richer had he kept h1s oxen In a rational way.

It will be seen that the author has but little sympathy with the " sanitary .engine~r, " and he makes it clear that he rather views him as t h e man who has made m odern overcrowding possible by renderin()' it possible for water to be delivered to the tops ofbthe loftiest buildings, and the refuse removedall by means of pipes. In a fine vein of sarcasm he tells us : ''This is indeed a civilising and wonderful age. Let us build a temple, and place in it. a ~te~~ engine an iron water-pipe, and an hydrauhc hft ..

He 'looks, indeed, to our moder~ methods of communication as a means by which dangerous cr owdinO' of the population may be averted, and consider~ that sanitation is a matter that concerns th.e agriculturis t chemist, and biologist, and not the engineer at all. 'He overlooks, however, in h is excellent book the grave danger that always exists whenever the welfare of the community is at t he mercy of one or two careless individuals. The system that he advocates with much ability consists of the w~llknown method of t reating excremental matter w1th fresh dry earth, and daily r emoving it to the ground ; but this plan, though thorou.ghly successful when adopted by the owners of pr1vate country villas, who have servants, and who are capable of taking the trouble to see that such matters are regularly attended to, is neverthe~ess troublesome in practice as soon as the. communi~Y exceeds the limits of a village. Practically, ~s .Is well known, privies and cesspits a:e adopted 1n Its place by the average villager as bemg leas trouble~ome, an~ very soon the business instincts that are !nherent In the minds of a nation of shopkeepers brmg about overcrowding, and it is necessary to have som~ responsible authority· :who can. attend to sanitary matters. There are In these Circumstances practically but two systems available, eithe'r some .form of a pail system, or one involving water carrtage;

NOTES. N .EW S)!OKELE. s P OWDER.

'' PLASTOMENITE " is the name given to a new kind of smokeless powder invented by a German, Herr W. Gtittler. The solution is poured into forms, where it becomes a fairly hard substance, capable of being pressed, rolled, &c. The substance can be colour ed at will, and is, like celluloid, serviceable for numerous purposes. Plastomenite is used for blasting powder, powder for cannons and rifles, signal rockets, &c. The greatest ad vantage claimed for it is complete durability, whils t all other smokeless powders, manufactured by the means of ether and ni tro-glycerine, invariably deteriorate. The combustion of pla.stomenite is also, it is claimed, so well b:\lanced that it leaves no residue in barrel or cartridO'e, although the striking velocity of the projectile

0is unusually great. The initial velocity

from a 6! -mm. calibre is 715 m., with a gas pressure of considerably below 3000 atmospheres. It is said that neither cold nor hot weather has any effect upon the plastomenite cartridges, whereas all powders containing nitro-glyce~ine suffer from changes in the temperature. Hitherto plastom enite has principally been manufactured for sporting purposes, but its good qualit.i~s have attr~c.ted the attention of the German mihtary author1hes, and it will now be extensively tested in the army.

THE BRowN SEGMENTAL WIRE Gu N. Several attempts have been made in the United

States to construct satisfactory wire guns, but up till recently the guns produced have not proved very successful. A new gun, known as the Brown segmental wire gun, has, h owever, been recently tested, in which more ca.reful study has been given to the problem than. I? former. guns. Mr. L ongridge's principle of obtammg the Circumferential and longitudinal strengths by separate elements has been adopted, though in detail the construction of the gun is very different. Mr. L onO'ridCYe advocated the use of a heavy outer jack~t of cast iron as a means of getting longitudinal strength. The Brown gun has also ~n outer jacket,

but this is of steel, and extends from the breechb lock t o the trunnion ring. The trunnion ring is a sliding fit only on the body of the gun, and hence the whole of the pressure on the breechblock must pass through the outer jacket, and n ot thr ough the body of the gun. The necessary resistance against bending is obtained by winding the wire on a stout steel core. This core has, however, no circumferential strength, as it is built up like a barrel out of anum ber of staves. A thin liner is, however, fitted inside it to take the rifling. Owing tothisstaveconstruction, crucible steel having a very high elastic l imit can be conveniently employed, as the large masses necessary for the formation of a tu be of a single piece in the ordin:uy sy6tem of construction are not required. A high elastic l imit, or rather a high elastic range, is a great advantage in the inner tube of a gun, as the range of stress is gr eatest in this tube, which is accordingly the most severely tried. The wire is wound on t he staves tube under such a tension that the staves are always in compression, even under the highest powder pressures used. Hence there is never any tendency for them to separate from each other, and the thinner liner can possibly be dispensed with. This liner, it should be added, is only put in place after the rest of the gun is finished. The stave core is then bored out, and the liner inserted by hydraulic pressure. Hence the initial compression in this liner is not as high as in the staves, and a material with a smaller elastic range can be ust d.

A MoNSTE R ELECTRIC LocoMOTIVE. An electric locomotive of 1000 horse-power is

now being constructed in America to the designs of M essrs. Sprague, Duncan, and Hutchinson, and is describe-d in a recent issue of the New Y orJ;, Elect1'ical Enginee·r. The engine is intended for switching pur poses and slow speed freight traftic. It is carried on a steel frame supported by eight coupled wheels, each 56 in. in diameter. Each axle carries t he armature of a 250 horse-power motor, whilst the field magnets are supported by the axle-boxes. The armatures in question are 31 in. in diameter, and have 237 coils. 1'hPy are compound wound, and are designed to take a current of 250 amperes at 800 volts, their normal speed being 225 revolutions per minute. The four motors, when working at their maximum power, are expected to exert an effective pull of 30,000 lb. on the drawbar, and hence the engine will be able to start a very heavy t rain. The connections to the motors are made through a contact cylinder, which permits them to be arranged either a.ll in paralleJ, all in series, or partly in series and partly in parallel. In changing over from one arrangement of contacts to another, resi5tances a re first thrown in, the change is then made, and the resistance finally switched out again. This contact cylinder being of large dimensions, is operated by air pressure, though hand gear is also fitted. The air is taken from the br"ke tanks, which are kept charged by an automatic electric pump. The reversing switch is separate from but interlock ed with the contact cylinder, in such a way that it can only be operated when the current is cut off from the motors. Provision is made for two trolleys above the car, to collect the current from the line. The total weight of the motor will be 120,000 lb., so that if a drawbar pull of 30,000 lb. is expected, an adhesion of one-fourth will be required. To insure as high an adhesion as possible, the coupling-rods between the wheels are double.jointed, and equalising beams are used between the springs supporting the frame of the car. The total wheel base, we should add, is 15 ft. only, leaving only 4 in. clearance between the wheels. The outer wheels only a.re flanged.

PROPO ED E x HIBITION IN TA MA~IA IN 1894. An International Exhibition is to be held in the

city of H obart, on the island of Tasmania, next autumn, to be open for six m onths from November 15. The Government of the colony is associated with the scheme, and have granted a site for the buildings, covering about 11 acres, in a central situation. It is scarcely necessary to state that all the principal inhabitants of the island colony are working for the success of the undertaking, while an influential London committee has been formed to arrange for exhibitions from the United Kingdom. The chairman is t he Agent-General for Tasmania,

ir R . G. W. Herb6rt, and his offices a.re at 5, Victoriastreet, L ondon. There is practically n o restriction in the class of exhibits, and the enormous importance of the Australasian colonies as markets for our pro·

Nov. 17, r893.] E N G I N E E RI N G.

ductions should influence nnny manufacturers t o THE LATE Mit. ANTHONY RECKENZAUN. send exhibits to the Exhibition in the seagirt colony. MANY of our readers will learn with regret that The imports into T asmania. last year amounted to Mr. Anthony Reckenzaun died last Saturday morning. nearly 1! millions sterling, of which one-half was The news came as a shock to his friends, in spite of its t he production of thi~ .country, ~bile the. exports being common knowledge that he was suffering from were valued at 1} m1lhons, a th1rd of wh teh came consumption, and could only attend to business in a to this country. These proportions are gratifying; fitful way. On Friday he was not not.iceably worse but Ex.hibitions have far -reaching effects, and the than he had been, but in the early hours of the followvery fact that we stand so advantageously will induce ing morning he passed. away without pain or ~truggl~. other manufacturing nations - p ar ticularly the His lo~s leaves ":void m the colon~ of elect~1cal e~glUnited States and German y-to ma.ke a.n effort to nee.rs m \Yestmmste~; all knew hllll:, and hked hl.m , force comparison with the goods imported from this while ma~y ente;rtamed s~rong. feelmgs of affect10_n

t · Eft t is therefore necessary on the part towards .hlm. Hts unvarymg. kmdness of heart, h1s coun ry. or . . h . d 1_\.I unassummg demeanour, and h1s constant cheerfulness of our produc~rs to _mamtaln t elr ~r~>Un • ore- I rende~ed hin~ very_ easy _of access, and acquaintance over, H.obart 1s a fatrly cen tral po~1t10n for all tl~e soon n pened mto fnendslup. Australian and N~w Zealand col?n1es, and ther e lS Mr. Reckenzaun was born in 1850 in Gratz, Styria. every prospect of tm~orters, anxwus to k_n?~ about H is father was a mechanical engineer, and in his the latest advances 1n m:J.nufactures, Vlsttmg the works his son had an excellent t raining in the designing E t hibition. We s tand well with our colonies, for out and construction of a wide range of machinery. He of a total of about 60 millions sterling of imports, d id not, however, stay long at home, but in 1872 one-half is sen t from t his country. The same ca.me to_England~ and found ~mployme?t w_ith. Messr~. necessity for conserving our markets therefore Ravenh1ll and Miller . . On t~1s firm rehnquish1og buslholds. There is a business-like exactitude in r.he r egu- ness, he tran~ferred h1s serVIces to Messr~. Easton_ a.nd la.tions framed by:the Exhibition authorities. "Space Anderson, Wlth whom he stayed until . electnc1ty

t ' i d within fourteen days previous to th e open~d a ~reatly extended field for engmeers. I n no o_c ... up c . . . .11 b h • . ll tt d entenng th1s new department he commenced by obopenmg of th e ExhlbltlO~ Wl e ot er Wlse a 0 e ' t aining a t horough theoretical training in electrical and ~11 payments made 1n r~spect ~hereo_f absolut~ly science, just as he had previously done in mechanical enforfelt~d. " . Clearly t here l S the 1ntent10~ o_f bem g gineering. His first position was with thP. Faure Cornready m t1me. The charge for . space ~n~1de the pany, and when t hat concern was merged in the building is 23. per square foot, w1th a. m1n1mum of E lectrical Power Company, he became engineer to the 50s., while large bays of 225 f t . of floor space and amalgamated undertakings. Immediately he turned 225 ft. of wall space cost 2ll. his attention to electric traction and propulsion, and

WooD P uLP SYNDICATE IN GERMANY. The example set by the wood pulp manufacturers

of Wesb Germany, Saxony, and S ilesia h as n ow been followed by t hose of South Germany, who h ave recently formed a union, with a. sales office at Munich ; the central union of German wood pulp manufacturers now comprises the whole of Germany. At the first meeting it was stated that a. bout 75 per cent. of the whole production of white pulp, or a-bout 58,000 tons dry, would be available for buyers for 1894, provided the water in the rivers increased. Of the 25 per cent. of the production which is still outside the union, about half comes from factories lying in out-of-the-way places. The oth er half comprises a few large works which, through certain circumstances, are tied to paper mills, or the production of which consists of brown pulp. The immediate object of the cent ral union is t o r egulate the prices, so that the works shall not lose money when there is a. lack of water, and shall h ave a reasonable profit when t h ere is a sufficie ncy of water. This price will serve as ,a basis for the private unions for contracts for 1894, and, with the smallest possible deviations, apply to the whole of Germany. The calculated dry production of Scandinavia of white pulp for 1894 a mounts to 42,783 tons for Sweden, and 90,462 tons for Norway, or 133,245 tons, reduced to t h e dry condit ion. This can again be divided as follows :

Dry 50 per Cent Pulp. lVIoisture. p. o. p.o.

Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 49 Nor way . . . . .. .. . .. . 18 82 Both... . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 7 4

Of t he above the following quantities were already sold for delivery during 1894, a.s early as July 1 this year :

Per Cent. In Sweden 17,850 tons reduced to dry, or 38.7 ,, Norway 43,950 , , 48.7

---Together 61,800 , , 46.4

or about half of the total production of Scandinavia. Further important sales have taken place since J uly 1, both for England, France, and Belgium; also German firms have appeared as b uyers, an d abou t 75 per cent. of the Scandinavian wood pulp production for 1894 has n ow been disposed of. '£he same remark applies to Finland, whose expor t may be put at 18,000 to 20,000 tons. The Scandina.via.n wood pulp union had considerably r educed t h e production during the first half of the present year. The reduction in th e outpu t has been abandoned for the second half of the year, so as t o derive some benefit from the present good de mand. The Sca.ndinavia.n white pulp for 189! delivery has been sold at 5l. 15s. t o 6l. 23. 6d. per ton, free to r ails in English por ts. The German union will, n o d oubt, fix its prices so that t hey can compete with the Scandina.vian quotation s, and, if p ossible, place the German paper industry in such a. position that export is not out of the question.

ever since he has been associated with these systems. A tria.l was made of an electric car in 1881, and again in 1883, * and several electric launches were built and tried. The " Electricity " was constructed in 1882, t and was followed the next year by a larger and more successful boat .::: 'I'he '' Volta," however, is the best known of these boats, as it crossed t he Channel and back again with one charge in the cells, on September 13, 1886.

About this time Mr. Reck enzaun left the E lectric Power Storage Company, and commenced practice on his own account. He was a prolific inventor , one of the earliest and best known of his inventions being his worm gear for electric cars. This he t ook t o America in 1886, and applied to a set of battery cars in Philadelphia. He also fitted i t to some experimental cars that were sent t o Australia. I t was, however, very uphill work trying to introduce battery tract ion, and of late years Mr. R eckenza.un has a pplied himself more to general questions. He acted as con sulting electrical engineer to several important firms, and found constant employment , al though he did not fignre so prominently before the public as formerly. Many scientific societies applied to him to read papers, both in this country and America, and t he tit les alone of his communications would run to considerable length. He also delivered lectures at the City and Guilds Technical Schools on electric traction, and published a book on the same subject. During the present year he made a voyage to America, partly for heal th and partly for business, but the latter proved so engrossing that on his return it was evident that he had lost, rather than gained, g round. H e leaves a widow and t hree children to share his loss with his very numerous friends.

ROYAL METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY. THE first meeting of this Society for the present session

was held on Wednesday evening, the 15th instant, at the In~titution of Civil E ngineers, Great George-street, Westminster; Dr. C. Theodore Willia.ms, president, in the chair. Twenty-three new fellows were elected.

Mr. F . J . Brodie, F .R. :Met. Soc., read a paper on "The Grert.t Drought of 1893, and I ts Attendant Meteorological Phcnomenct." The author confined his investigations to the weather of the four months March to June, during w hi eh period the absence of rain was phenomenal ; barometric pressure was greatly in excess of the average, temperature was high, with a large diurnal range, and the duration of sunshine was in many places the longest on record. The mean temperature over England was about 4 deg. above the average. Along the south and southwest coasts the sunshine was between 50 and 60 per cent. of the possible duration. The rainfall was less than half the average amount over the southern and eastern parts of England, the extreme south of Ireland, and a. portion of Durham and Northumberland; while over the southern counties of England generally the fall amounted to less than one-third of the average. The smallest nuwber of days with rain was at the North Foreland, where there were only 18.

Mr. W. Marriott, F .R. Met. Soc. , ga.ve an account of the "Th!under and Hail Storms" which occurred over England and the south of Scotland on July 8, 1893. Thunderstorms were very numerous on that day, and in many instances were accompanied by terrific hailstorms and squalls of wind. It was during one of these squalls

* See ENGINEERING, vol. xxxv., page 83. t I bid. , vol. xxxiv., page 339. ::: Ibid., vol. xxx vi., page 66.

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6I5

that a pldasure boat was capsized off Skegness, twentynine persons b3ing drowned. A?ont noon. a thunderstorm, accompanied by heavy bad and a. violent squall of wind, passed over Dumfries and along the valley ?f the Nith; many of the hailstones measured ~ro!D 1m. to 1~ in. in length. At the same hour a slmtla.r storm occurred at Peterborough. F rom about 2 p.m. to 10 p.m. there was a succession of thunderstorms over the northea..<;t of E ngland and south-east of Scotland, and at many places it was reported that the thunderstorms were continuous for nine hours. Two storms were remarkable for the immense hailstones which fell during their prevalence over Harrogate .and Rich~on~, in _Yorkshire. The hailstones were 4 m. and 5 m. In Circumference and some as much as 3 in. in diameter. Great damag~ was done by these storms, all windows and gl~ss facing the direction from which the storm came bemg broken. ltl is computed that within a. radius of five miles of Harrogate not less than 100,000 panes of glass were broken, the extent of the damage being estimated at about 3000l.

The thunderstorms in the northern pa-rt of the country travelled generally in a north-nortB.-westerly direction at the rate of 20 miles an hour. They appear to have taken the path of least resistance, and consequently passed over low ground and along river valleys and the sea coast. Several storms seem to have followed each other along the same track.

THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. THE inaugural meeting of the seventy-sixth session

of this society was held on Tuesday evening, the 14th inst., Sir Robert Rawlinson, K.C. B. , Vice-President, in the chair. Owing to the absence, from ill-health, of the la.tely·elected P resident , Mr. Alfred Giles, the address prepared by him for delivery on this cccasion was read by the secretary. Claiming the indul~ence of his audience on the score t hat he was the semor of all previous presidents of the Institution at the time of their election, Mr. Gilee proceeded to recall some circumstances connected with locomotion sixty years ago, contrasting the cheapness, safety, and luxury of the modern railway, with the danger, discomfort, and expense of even the best lines of stage coaches. Not less striking was the development of t he Post Office. In 1831 two mail coaches daily (one going through Newcastle to E dinburgh, and the other through Carlisle to Glasgow) were sufhcient to carry the whole of the mails from London to Scotland. A letter from London to Mortlake in Surrey cost 4d., and if it contained anything but the folded sheet on which it was written, even the smallest cutting from a newspaper, it was charg~d double. Referring to the virtual completion of the English railway system, the President opined that the work of providing like accommodation in the immense possessions of the empire would yet provide employment for the rail way engineer for many year a. Turning to steam navigat ion, it was stated that in 1819 the first steamer crossing the Irish Channel accomplished the distance of 63 miles, from Holyhead to Dublin, in 7~ hours. The same trip is now frequently made in less than 3~ hours. Ocean transport was next considered, special reference being made to the advisability of adopting twin screws for all fast passenger steamers. Highspeed navigation involved special appliances for quickly load in~ and unloading at the docks, and also considel'able extensiOn and onlargement of the docks thems~l ves. It was stated that the new Empress Dock at Southampton had been designed in the shape of a diamond, so as to allow of greater speed in getting vessels to their berths, thus also avoiding the necessity of swinging round at right angles when pas~5ing through the gates. The importance of these improved facilities was illustrated in the programme proposed for a new cargo steamer just launched from Messrs. Harland and W olff 's yard at Belfast. This vessel could carry 14,100 tons outward and would bring home 9400 tons of cargo and 1200 bullocks. She would leave L iverpool on a Friday, arrive at New York in ten days, discharge cargo, load again, and leave New York in seven days more, so as to be ready t o return t o New York with a. fresh cargo on the thirty-fifth day from her fi rst departure from Liverpool. The President then made some remarks on the advantages which would accrue from a simpler procedure in passing private Bills through Parliament, and concluded with a reference to the progress and prospects of the Institution, especially in co~mection with the contemplated rebuilding of the premises.

After the reading of the address, the premiums and prizes awarded last session were formally presented to the recipients.

TRIESTE.- Tho foreign commerce of Trieste is declining. The imports of September showed a decrease of 12,500 tons as compared with September, h582. A more or less similar decrease has been noted for several months past.

CATALOGUE!:>.-We have received from Messrs. Tannett, Walker, and Co, engineers, Leeds, a eopy of their new ca.t~logue. containing . illustrated _descnptions of the vanous olasses of machmery for whiCh this firm has so long been famous. A great variety of hydraulic cranes are included amongst the illustrations, and th~ hydraulic sheari!lg and plate-bending machines are also worthy of notlCe.- Mr. Peter Brotherhood's catalogue, which we have also recei ved1 contains fine illustrations of the well-known specialities produced at the Lambeth works. Several forms of the three-cylinder engine are described and illustrated, a.s well as different sizes of the air-compressing plant, of which so many sets have been supphed to va.riouli navies of the world, for charging the air-chambers of torpedoes .

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616 ...

THE LOSS OF R .M.S. "VICTORIA." To THE EDITOR OF EXGINEERING.

~IB,-Ha.d there been no watertight doors in the bulkbeads of H .M .S. Victoria, she would have been afloat now and hundreds of lives saved; so would also the Vanguard have been and many other ships.

A bulkhead with a. door in it is no watertight bulkhead at all, do what you will. To save a little trouble in passing over the upper deck a bulkhead is pierced, and laziness finds its reward.

Permit me to direct public attention through your esteemed journal to another cause of the loss of the above shi~-a cause not sufficiently insisted on.

'I he Victoria. had sunk so low forward that her upper or forecastle deck was awash, or even under. It was decided by some one to try and beach her. The plainest common sense would have suggested that under those circumstances to go ahead with the engines would drive the vessel under water. Had she been put full speed astern, the reverse would have been the case, and the rush of water would have helped to raise the forepart.

"\Vhat was done was to go ahead, thus piling up more water forward, and filling more compartments through the open dours of the superstructure. Was it not natural that the weight of water piled up on the starboard eide, which was lowest, would cause the vessel to heel further and capsize ?

The moral of this terrible calamity seems to be : Abandon watertight doors in toto, and if your ship is

sinking by the bead, do not move the engines ahead, but astern, or not at all.

Any twin-screw steamer will go astern and steer astern almost as well as ahead.

Yours faithfully, CORONA.

THE STABILITY OF ARMOUR-CLADS. To THE EDITOR o~· ENGINEERING.

SIR,-The L ords Commissioners of the Admiralty in their report on the loss of the Victoria appear evidently to be unaware of recent improvements for the construction of ships and vessels for prevention from sinking; and their lordships' report confirms the opinion that other vessels of a. similar construction to the Victoria are equally likely to founder upon any small injury to their hull.

Now it is possible so to construct the bull that a positive internal reserve of buoyancy and stability can be given, which, upon injury to the hull, and water entering any of the holds, shall buoy up and float the vessel; in the existing vessels it is generally admitted that there is a want of reserve of buoyancy and stability, for upon the vessel receiving injury and the holds becoming filled with water, the vessel sinks deeper in the water in proportion to the volume d estroyed, and the stability or shoulder is also destroyed. The height of metacentre becomes reduced and brought proportionate]y nearer to the centre of gravity of the vessel. The overturning moment of bottom buoyancy is increased by the addition of the volume of double bottom, acting as bottom floats, tending to the capsize or foundering of the vessel.

In armour-clads the metacentric height is in the initial state none too high for perfect stability, but upon injury to the hull and the water entering the holds in even small amounts, this measure is quickly reduced, and becomes entirely different ; the whole state of flotati0n is changed, and would nob be allowed in an original design. The whole of the armour-clads are deficient in this want of stability and flotation even with a small volume of their original buoyancy or flotation destroyed. This subject has now been under investigation for some years past, but the Admiralty constructors confine themselves to a state of stability at different angles of inclination, vanishing points, &c., but the question of maintaining internal stability should also be considered, and the elements of flotation differently treat~d under the condition of the h~lds becoming filled with water, before they can come to a better appreciation of what is required in the internal construction of armour-clads to prevent similar disasters.

Again, their lordships state that the watertight doors were not closed at the time of collision. Poor watertight doors are always to blame, but watertight doors do not give stability to a. vessel, if what is meant is that the water finds its way to different parts of the vessel if these doors are open. But the vessel should be so internally constructed as to be entirely independent of the doors being open O?' shut. The structural weakness of athwartship bulkhead a is also another element of da.ng~r to ~he vessel without sorue other method of constructiOn (1-. c., internal construction to prevent sinking, other than bulkheads). For bulkheads at the least can only be treated as partial divisions of the vessel, and with any great pressure or heig-ht of water on them are bound to ''bulge" and open their seams, if not absolutely to give way under the pressure and strain induced upon them.

Again we have to consider the blame to be attached to doubl~ bottoms in the capsize of the vessel. These double bottoms only add to the capsizing or overturning volume of the bottom buoyancy. Better be without them entirely than have them acting up as a powerful volume of overturning buoyancy, this ~verturning buoyan,cy coming into action when the vesselts least able to res1st its overturning influence, viz., when the shou~~er or volume of stability is destroyed ; upon a. cond1t10n of injury and the holds becoming tilled with water, and any tendency of the vessel to shift to either side, this buoyancy of double bottom will be forcin~ up with a moment equal to its volume, by t~e di~tance 1ts centre of volume is shifted from the vertiCal hne through the centre of gravity of the bull, &c.

E N G I N E E R I N G. It can only be said that their lordships' want of infor

mation as to the internal stability of sh1ps as designed is not much in advance even than the earlier constructed vessels of this type.

I am, Sir, your obedient ser vant, L ondon, S E., November, 1893. W. A.

THE ATLANTIC RECORD : QUEENSTOWN verstls SOUTHAMPTON.

SIRJ-Your article on the above subject in last week's issue says: "The Paris and New York are quite able, if worked at their best, to arrive at Quarantine beforA sun· set on Friday." Now I do not know whether these two steamers have recently been \VOrked at their best or not, but I do know that it is the rarest possible thing for them to reach Quarantine at New York before sunset on Friday. In proof of this statPment I append a list of the arrivals of the Paris and New York at Sandy Hook during the past four months. Sandy Hook, it should be remembered, is about 25 mil~s east of Quarantine.

Arrivals of the "Paru" a;nd "New York '' at Sandy H ook, July-November, 1893.

New York ... July 8 (Friday), midnight. Paris.. . .. . July 21 (Friday), 4 p.m. New York ... August 4 (1f riday), 11 p.m. Paris... ... August 11 (Friday), no hour given. New York ... August 26 (Saturday), noon. Paris.. ... September 2 (Saturd~y), 6 a.ru. New York ... September 16 (Saturday), 10 a.m. Paris .. ... September 23 (Saturdayj, 2.40 a. m. New York ... October 7 (Saturday), 5 a..m. Paris... . .. October 14 (Saturday), 5 a. m. New York ... October 28 (Saturday), 4 a.m. Paris.. . ... November 3 (Friday), 6 p.m.

Yours truly, N OllTH ·WESTERN.

Liverpool, November 13, 1893. ["North-Western" says, "I do not know whether

these two steamers have recently been worked at their best or not." "\Ve know, otherwise we would not have made the statement.-En . E.]

BALL BEARINGS FOR THRUST BLOCKS. To THR EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.

SIR,-I have now to thank you for your good nature in giving publicity to my letter of August 31, and, if I may again appropriate e:ome of your valuablt' space, those gentlemen also who have responded so readily to my queries, and thrown light on an interesting subject.

Although perhaps prematurely, I think we may now " sum up " as regards ball bearings for thrust blocks.

They have been applied on a small scale by Mr. Volk for this purpose. They were found unsatisfactory by t1tat gentleman, from the following causes, viz. : The apparent impossibility of getting the hardened steel surfaces true in themselves and in relation to each other, thus causing unequal distribution of load and consequent crushing of the balls.

These objections, arising as they do from imperf~ctions in manufacture, if we may trust the article in your issue of the 3rd inst., are not insurmountable.

Mr. lVIcGla.sson suggested a possible difficulty in the friction arising from the surfaces in contact moving in opposite directions. Even if it has any real importance, we may accept the remedy he himself suggests, and pass it over.

Mr. Wingfield points out that friction will arise from the inability of balls to roll naturally in a circular groove as usually designed, but as he shows bow the ~roove should be made to obviate the friction, we may 1gnore this objection.

Messrs. Purdon and Waiters, in addition to the above objections1 add that of want of bearing surface for heavy balls, at tne same time admitting that they are not aware that balls have been tried for this purpose, but I cannot see that bearing surface is a desideratum if the materials used are of such a nature as to preclude abrasion within a reasonable period of time.

Mr. H. Binsse summarises his objections in the statement that the balls must nob wear, and with that would put them out of court. He means, I presume, that they must not wear sufficiently to stop their motions. How much this wear might be must be determined by experiment, and it becomes a question of suitable material and renewal.

Captain Ed wards has heard of the application of balls to thrust blocks, and declares that they were a failure; he may possibly have reached the Wilkefi·Edwards form of block over the apparently dead body of ball bearings, but it is also possible be may have abandoned them prematurely from such difficulties as Mr. Yolk encountered.

It will be only just, therefore, I think, to discount the assertions of gentlemen who have patented other forms of bearing, as they may not take a perfectly impartial view of the case.

"Clyde's" letter, though it speaks of a somewhat antique application, declares that balls were used successfully ; while Mr. Tyler, who has evidently had practical experience of balls in bearings, takes a hopeful and encouraging view of the case.

It would appear, therefore, that ball bearings for thrust blocks are possible, providt>.d true balls of good material and of sufficient diameter, and in sufficient numbers, be placed in suitably formed paths.

This statement, in the present state of manufacture, may amount to condemnation. I cannot say.

In conclusion, I may add that, in addition to the letters in E~GINEERING, I have bad private communications from different parts of the country, and it is satisfactory to observe, from the interest shown in the matter, tha~ it is receiving consideration.

•

Whether or no the screw represents finality in propellers, for the present, at least, it must be made the most of, and I think we may hope that at no late date SOILbthing feasible and capable of general application will be forthcoming to meet the difficulty, and lay low one of the many monsters that gape to swallow up the power so laboriously produced by the marine engineer, of which so much is lost.

Whether the remedy is found in ball bearings, conical rollers, or oil films, or any other form, it will be welcome alike to owners and makers.

With apologies to you, Mr. Editor, for the length of this, and also to those gentlemen whose letters I have so briefly criticised,

I am, yours truly, A. G. R AMAOE.

Lei tb, November 11, 1893.

To THE E orroR o~;~· ENGINEERING. Sin,- In reply to the courteous letter from lvir . Renouf,

may I, in concluding my share in th~ present discussion, assure him that I fully appreciate the value of his, and of all, researches which are conducted upon scientific m~thods commanding respect ?

My first letter was- as it professed to be-merely intended to suggest a theory to account for the peculiar form of the roller which Captain Ed wards appears to find very satisfactory. Any difference between Mr. Henouf and myself arises principally from a want of definition of terms. What he-as a cycle-maker-terms a heat·y pressure, I-a.s a marine engineer-consider a very l'i!Jht one.

Where Mr. R enouf speaks of hundredweights I speak of tons, and I must adhere to my opinion that, under the heavy pressures met with in a marine thrust beariog, balls would be found unworkable, unless of a prohibitive size.

It is amusing to note that Mr. Renouf follows the neat construction given by Mr. Wingfield, which has already been denounced as radically wrong by Mr. Ty ler. As Mr. Renouf has, however, practical experience of end thrusts (chiefly not in cycles, by the way), he may be able to wean Mr. Tyler from his misplaced confidence in the form of bearing he has recommended to us.

Yours faithfully, w. c. CARTER.

Mansion House Chambers, E . C., November 13, 1893.

TWIN SCREWS. To 'l'HE E DITOR Oil' ENGINEERING.

SrR,-Could you, or any of your readers, kindly give me any information respecting the correct direction in which the screws of twin-screw passenger steamer s should run? I may mention that the engines of the steamers with which I am concerned can be run in either way, as the guides are equally S"ood on both sides.

Thanking you in anticipation, I remain, yonrs truly,

November 13, 1803. J . B.

COAL IN THE HAINAUT.-The production of coal in the Belgian province of the Hainaut last year amounted to 14,253,750 tons, or 3140 tons more than in 1891. Last year's output was, however, 514,770 tons less than the corresponding total attained in 1890, which witnessed the heaviest output on record. The value of the coal raised in the Haina.ut in 1892 was computed at 5,812,124l. , or 1,286,908l., or 22 per cent., less than in 1891. It follows that the average price of the coal raised in the Hainaut last year was l s. 10d. per ton less than the corresponding average for 1891. The Haina.ut is the most important coalmining district in Bel~ium, its output of 14,253,750 tons last year comparing w1th a corresponding output of 5l298,050 tons in the Charleroi district, 4,715,060 tons in tne Centre district, and 4,249,640 tons in the ~Ions district. The number of workpeople employed in coalmining in the Hainaut last year was 86,914, or 114 more than in 1891. The amount paid in wages to the coalminers of the Hainaut last year was 3,282,850l., or 446,396l. less than the corresponding wa~e payments made in 1891. The average annual wage paid last year was 31l. 15s. 2d. per head, or 5l. 4s., or 1~! per cent., less than in 1891. The contemporaneous decline in the selling price last year was 22 per cent. The average annual wage of each working miner in the Hainaut for the last ten years comes out as follows : 1892, 37l. 15s. 2d. ; 1891, 42l. 19s. 2d. ; 1890, 44l. 5s. 7d. ; 1889, 36l. lls. 2d. ; 188~, 33l. 17s. 7d. ; 1887, 31l. 9a. 7d. ; 1886, 30l. Ss. 9d. ; 1885, 31l. 16s. 9d. ; 1884, 36l. Ss. 9d. ; and 1883, 401. 5s. 7d. Of the 86,914 workpeople employed in coalmining in the Ha.inaut Jast year, 2716 were women working below ground. This total of 2716 showed a reduction of 752 a~ compared with 1891. The reduction occurred wholly in young ~irls, whose employment below ground is now prohibited by BeJgian law. The profit realised last year from working was only 5d. per ton, as compared with l s. 5d. per ton in 1891. Of the mines in the province, 42 were worked last year at a profit of 450,276l., or 604, 453l., or 60 per cent., less than in 1891. On the other hand, 27 mines were worked at a loss of 112,822l., or 84, 7V4l., or 160 per cent., more than in 1891. The final profit for 1R92 was according]y 299,846l. , or 689,247l., or 75 per cent., less than the corresponding profit for 1801. 'Vhen the comparison is ex· tended to 1890, the relative falling off in profits last year is carried to no less than 1,252, 466l. The stock of coal remaining on hand in the Hainaut at the close of 1892 was 687,962 tons, as compared with 381,486 tons at the close of 1891. It follows that stocks increased in the Ha.inaut last year to the extent of 306,476 tons. The corresponding increase in stocks last year in the Char]eroi district was 196,410 tons; in the Centre district, 65,694 tons; and in the Mons district, 44,372 tons. ThP. average depth of the pits worked last year in the Hainaut was 1836 ft., or 20 ft. more than in 1801.

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E N G I N E E R I N G. 617

• threaten to revert to a. general strike and call out t he

LATHE CENTRE GRINDER. men now at work. . . At the N eston Colliery t he company have, 1t 1s

stated, advanced the wages of the men 10 per cent. 4t some other pits there is a rumour that the men ~1ll seek an ad \'&nee on the old rates, owing to t he scarc1ty and high price of coal. In some districts it is rumoured that the men threaten a strike because of the refusal to pay the heavy le,·ies. In one district the wiv?s of t~e miners at work have taken charge of the ch1ldren. m other districts adjoining, so as to help th~ ~en t o t ide over the difficulty. Some fresh negotiations have been entered into of a non-official character for the resumption of work. In Leicestershire, it is said, the men are demanding an advance of 30 per cent. on the old rates, but this may only be a threat.

CONSTRUCTED BY MR. CHARLE. TAYLOR, ENGINEER, BIR~IINGHA~L

~~~- - - ----- - - ------ -~~- - - --

I!EN.VETT

THE annexed illustration shows a handy device for grinding lathe centres, constructed by Mr. Charles 'faylor, Bartholomew-street , Fazeley-street, J?irmingham. It is fixed to the tool-holder of the shde rest, either by aid of a piece of square iron, or bJ: 3: plate, according to the type of tool-holder. For dn vrng the emery wheel a. belt i.s ~assed round the cone pu~ley of the headstock, and 1s ttghtened by means of a Jockey pulley the arrangement allowing one belt to serve for differe~t lathes. To better resist the pull of t he belt, an adjustable strut is provided to take a bearing on the headstock. The grinding spindle is carried in adj ustable bearings wit h dust guards, and with a steel back pin for end thrust.

EDWARDS' AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER. \YE illustrate below a. type o~ automatic sprinkler

now being put on the market by Mr. Leoline A. Edwards, of 19, Laurence Pountney-lane, London, E. C., and which possesses some novel features. The sprinkler consists essentially of a straight t ube with a spherical pocket near its upper end, which forms the ''alve seat of the ingenious valve with which this sprinkler is fitted. This valve consist s of a rubber

0 0 @ @

IS) I

b3.ll m':>unted upon a hollow stem sealed at the upper end by a. screwed plug. \V hen undistended by pressure, the ball is of such a diameter that it can be passed freely through the straight part of t he main t ube upwards into the pocket; when water is forced into the ball through the hollow stem aforementioned, it expands out against the sides of the pocket. The open end of the stem is then sealed by a. fusible metal, and the sprinkler is ready for fixing. In case of a fire t he fusible plug is melted, relieving the pressure inside the ball, which is then forced down, stem and all, into ~he lower part of tpe tube, allowing the water from

the sprinkling mains to escape through the perforations in the arms shown in the engraving. These arms revolve under the pressure of the water escaping from them, and insure a good distribution of the spray. The surface of the pocket against which the rubber ball seats is t inned, and as the ball is likewise filled with water, the rubber is claimed to be a.bsobtely free from deterioration with age.

INDUSTRIAL NOTES. VERY little change took place in t he coal dispute

during t he past week. There were rumours of ne~otiations taking place, but no facts had leaked out w1th respect thereto up to the close of last week. :Members of the House of ommons had been canvassed as regards moving the adjournment of the House in order to call attention to the matter, but, for reasons unexplained, no such motion was made, though two different rumours were afloat as to the cause of the alleged postponement of the motion. One was that the labour members deprecated it. Who t hey were who intervened is not stated, but nothing was heard of it in the lobby. Another rumour was that negotiations were pending, but this scarcely agreed with Mr. Ashton 's statement that no meeting of t he Miners' Federation would take place till the coalowners proposed terms acceptable to the miners. Early this week, however, the condition of affairs changed rapidly. On Monday a meeting of the Miners' Federation was hastily summoned by telegraph for the following day, and on the same evening Mr. ~ ladstone announced in the House of Commons that the Government had addressed a letter to both parties in the dispute, asking them to hold another conference under the presidency of Lord Rosebery. "\Ye take it this conference, which has been accepted on both sides, will close the matter ; t he fact of its being held at the instigation of the Government will lend sufficient importance to both par ties to enable them to make the necessary concessions to secure a working agreement without loss of dignity- real or supposed. Both are suffering terribly, and will be glad to avail themselves of the opportunity of ta.king advantage of the altered conditions of the coal market.

The officers of the :Miners' Federat ion had stated that they were rather led by the men in the matter of resistance, t han that they bad used any pressure to cont inue t he struggle. But in the circular accompanying the ballot, after the recent conference, t hey stated t hat they could not advise the men to accept the terms offered by the employers. Under the circumstances it might have been better to leave the facts to speak for t hemselves. As i t is, the advice was, though in a negative form, to continue the resistance. The whole contest is now over the old rates, re1·. tu the proposed reduction of 15 per cent., in lieu of 25 per cent. The men are then willing to join a conciliation board to regulate future wages, with the proviso of a. minimum wage, presumably the old wage which is now contended for.

It is reported that several pits are on the point of being reopened at the old rates. Two large companies opened their pits at the old rates on Monday last , employing some 3000 men. The employers, it is said, are raising a fund to continue the fight. The proposal is to raise 200,000!. to help the weaker coal owners in the struggle. On the other hand, the mep

The condition of trade in the engineering branches is such a.s to cause some anxiety for the winter. The number of unemployed has not largely increased during the past month, but many of those at work are on short time, or are occasionally suspended for a portion of the week. The total membership of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers is 73,335, of whom 6865 were on donation benefit, 1725 on the sick list, and 2331 on superannuation allowance. This well-managed union is, therefore, maintaining 10,921 members on the funds, besides the help it is giving from the benevolent fund. The cost of this assistance amounts to 4619l. lOa., or l s. 6f d. per member per week. The benevolent levy of 6d. per member has been carried by an overwhelming majority, only 143 voting against it. The societ y has also voted a levy of 3d. per member for the miners. There is also due, it appears, l s. 4d. per member for accident levy, but one-half only is to be charged at present. Over 4000l. has been spent on accidents since the last levy, which is much more than usu~l. Two members of the union have been returned at the municipal elections, one for Brighton and one for Manchester. It appears that the Registrar of Friendly Societies objected to the word ''direct, " as applied to labour representatives, in the new rules, and the society or delegates accept the correction. The state of trade in Canada and the United Stat es has not materially improved, though there a re 116 fewer members out of work than at the date of the last report. The Australian Council reports that trade is still bad, there being a slight increase in the number of unemployed. The Colchester School Board have adopted resolutions in favour of trade union rates of wages, no subletting of contracts, and a bond from all contractors to pay compensation for injuries under the Employers' Liability Act.

The monthly report of the Ironfounders states that ' ' the decline in trade is daily becoming more percept ible, and in the iron and steel industries no signs of improvement are visible. " The report adds : '' The iron market is in a very unsatisfactory state. The demand for pig iron has recently fallen off considerably, and the fluctuations in prices have shown that t he slightest advance cannot be maintained, the tendency being towards reduced prices. " The report rightly states that the coal dispute has intensified the depression. The total nu m her of members on the funds was 3085, of whom 1804 were on donation, 389 on the sick list, 659 on superannuation allowance, 16 on dispute, and 217 on the trade fund. The increase on the previous month is only 97, and the proportion is fairly even on all the benefits, those out of work being only 39. The increased calls upon the funds have reduced the balance by 1177l. 16s. 7 d ., the total balance in hand being 37 ,509l. Ss. lOd. As regards the state of trade in t he several districts, one only reports trade to be good, three not so good. In 38 places, employing 4555 members, trade was from good to slack and dull. Last month the figures were 46 places, employing 5130 members. On the other hand, trade was \'"ery slack to very bad in 84 places, employing 10,460 members, as against 76 places, employing 9911 , last month. These figures indicate a deepening depression, although much of it is due to the coal dispute. The members have voted a 6d. levy for the miners by a majority of 4225. A vote is now being taken for a temporary relief fund for the members out of work. The outlook for the winter appears to be as bad in this union as in the Engineers, though the total cost per member a.t present is less, the amount being la. 4!d. per member per week. On the whole, this union is not suffering so much as in some previous years, notably in the disastrous year 1879.

The monthly report of the Associated Blacksmiths shows a decrease in the number of unemployed members, but it appears that this must not be taken as an indication of any real revival in trade. On the contrary, the figures just show the fluctuating character of the labour market from week to week to meet present emergencies. The amount paid as out-of-work benefit in the month was the largest paid in any month of this year except the first two months which are a.lwa?s t~e heaviest. The si?k .pa.ywas ~lso'heavy, l\nd a. htnt 1s thrown out that 1t 's e.xcessl\·e owing,

~erhaps, to lack of energy while trade is so depressed. The figures a1·e also issued for the last quarter, which show increased expenditure, and a slight decrease in the fund s. Some friction has arisen over the Barrow dispute last summer between the members of the Smiths' Society and another trade union. So far it is only a paper warfare, and it is to be hoped that it will end at that, for disputes between two organisations are disastrous alike to the men and to the employers, while the latter have no power, no responsibility, and no blame in the matter. They only suffer the loss. Members are urged to be on the look-out for situations for unemployed members, so as to minimise the effects of the depression.

The Shipwrights' quarterly report states that the members are not so well employed as they were. In some d istricts this is owing to trade disputes, and it is suggested that some system of arbitrament by reason, instead of by industrial conflict, would be conducive to the welfare of the workers, the prosperity of trade, and the good of the community. The returns show that orders are on hand for increasing tonnage, as compared wi th the previous three months. The total, according to this report, is double as regards the number of Yessels, and treble as regards tonnage, of that of the same period last year. 'V ages have been steady at all the shipbuilding and repairing ports, but it is urged that the work shall be more equally shared, so that all may have some employment, instead of some working overtime, while others are idle or on short time, as the case may be. On the whole, the r eport is rather sanguine as to the future, after the coal dispute is settled.

The monthly report of the Carpenters and Joiners states that the society is making progress in the number of branches and of members; the latter now stands at 41,256. The report refers to the dispute on the Clyde between the members of the society and the shipwrights, which had just been settled, and work h ad been resumed, when a. further dispute arose over the proposed overtime rules, which eventually led to a lock-out. The report stat es that the carpenters were required to work overtime without extra pay when all the other branches were on short time. This was resisted. Reference is also made to the strike at Belfast against the employment of two cabinetmakers to do certain work, but the deputation sent by the union to the employers arranged the difficulty. The dispute at Black burn is also settled after thirty weeks' duration by some slight concessions on both side~. The condi tion of trade is shown by the fact that only 1453 members are out of work out of a total of 41,256. There are also 851 on the sick list, and 410 in receipt of superannuation allowance-Ss., 7s. , and 5s. per week.

The state of trade in the cotton textile industries is not so bad, considering the general condition of trade in all other brc~.nches. The percentage out of work is only 3. 78 per cent. of the total members, in so far as the cotton spinners are concerned, the aggregate membership being 16,285. The members are still on double contribution, in consequence mainly of the cotton operatives' strike last year. The report states that there were 35 disputes in the month, but these were mostly of a t echnical character, the matters in dispute being deaU with mutually by the different firms and the association. No fewer than 39 minor accidents were reported during the month, none being of a serious chara.ct er. The injured are provided for.

The ship carpen._ers and joiners' strike at Southampton which commenced in June last, has come to an end,' the executive of the uuion having counselled the men to resume work at the old rates of wages. Shipbuilding is,. howe_ve~, verr dull at the port, many of the jobs havmg, 1t IS satd, been transferred to other places owing to the strike. Many men are still ont of work, and the outlook for the winter is far from good in the shipyards. --

The discussion on the report stage of the Employers' Liability Bill was exceedingly sharp on both si~les. The chief amendment was on Clause 2, and was ratsed by :Mr. McLaren, the member for Crewe. The debate turned mainly on the insurance scheme of the London and North. \Veatern Railway, but the London, Brighton, and South Coast was represente~ i_n the debate while the Great Eastern found a vo1ce m one of the iater speakers. T~1e moti?n was to permit c~n · tracting out of the Act m certam cases, where an m· surance scheme was in operation. The heat of the debate was intensified from the first by the statement t hat if the amendment were not accepted the bo~rd of directors of the London and ~ orth- \Veste~n Ra.1lway would withdraw their contributiOn to the acCident fund. I t was also stated in the discussion that the Great Eastern would do likewise, and it was hinted that t~e L ondon, Brighton, and South Coast would follow sUlt, and also the South Metropolitan Gas Comp~~Y·. T~e mover of the amendmen t was mild and pohtlC 1n h1s


speech, but some of the succeeding speakers evoked , shown as to which particul1:1.r type of transition curve opposition, rather than conciliated opponents. It is • is the best. to be regretted that so much heat was generated in the The ideal transition curve must possess the follow-debate, for after all the question is one for judicial ing qualities, viz. : d iscussion rather than for wild accusation on both 1. At the point of curve the radius should be in · sides. In the result, the amendment was lost by a. fioity. majority of 19, the figures being for the amendment 2. The radius of curvature should vary inversely, as 217, against 236. All the labour members who were the distance from the point of curve, measured along present voted with the Government. On the other the curve. hand, 15 supporters of the GoYernment voted against 3. The field work should be simple, rapid, and their party, while some four or five Conservatives accurate. voted against the amendment. Although this was the 4. The curve should be such that, taken in connecreal test division on the Bill, there are a number of tion with the circular curve with which it is used, it other points which sharply didde the H ouse, one will render the whole curve flexible and of easy adbeing the omission of shipowners from liability justment to suit the configuration of the ground. in certain cases, and another rela ting to sub-con- The majority of transition curves now in use fail in tractors. The feeling exhibited on Mr. McLaren's the third and fourth requirement. Among these may amendment will cause further friction as the debate be mentioned some of the eo-called railway spirals proceeds, and will help to delay the passing of the Bill. and the cubic p1:1.rabola.

The condition of the engineering trades and cognate indus tries in Lancashire is no more satisfactory than it has been for some ~ime past. Indeed, if anything, the outlook is even darker : the coal d ispute is gradually tending to intensify the depression. It is quite exceptional to find establishments more than moderately supplied with orders, and work generally is coming forward but indifferently. Engine builders are getting decidedly worse off for work, boilermakers have fewer orders, and machine tool makers are by no means well engaged as a. rule, the work that is coming forward being irregular and in small quantities. The iron trade is very dull and depressed, but as the supplies were limited, the prices have hardened rather than otherwise. But business being quiet at the old rates, little can be done at any advance, howeYer small that advance may be. In the finished iron trade business is very slow, but prices remain unchanged. In the steel trade all branches are very quiet, but prices are tolerably firm. Gtnerally, trade in all those branches is unsettled, and no appreciable change for the better can be expected until the coal strike is over, and the market s are well supplied with fuel at reasonable rates. The prospect of this is not reassuring, though pits are being reopened. As regards disputes in all other industries, there is an almost total absence of them, fortunately for all concerned. Peace reigns in the engineering trades.

---In the Cleveland district the ironstone miners are

still busy ; this time they are endeu.vouring to advance the wages of fillers, which are at the rate of under 3! d. per ton. 'l'he content ion is that 4d. per ton is low enough. This would mean filling 15! tons per day for 5s., clear of candles.

In the 'Volverhampton district the condition of the iron and steel industries would be fairly good were it not for the coal question. The pressure of want of fuel has not beP.n felt so severely here as in most other districts, but the pinch is felt, nevertheless. Orders appear to be fairly plentiful for most classes of finished iron, and the specifications for the completion of old contracts come in pretty regularly. Inquiries are also made for the renewal of cr>ntracts, and old customers are generously dealt with. But new buyers cannot get their wants supplied, or, if they can, not on the same liberal terms. Steel is in active request, espe· cially for bars, plates, and billets. Makers of pig iron are heavily booked forward, owing t o the difficulty of getting material from other d istricts. Orders have been booked for marked bars at good rates, but the chief demand is for common bars, sheets, and tubes, and also tank plates. On the whole, the district has less to complain of than others.

In the Birmingham d istrict business is dull; orders for all kinds of raw material are for merely the most pressing requirements. Very little is doing in the export trade, except. in gc~.l vauised sheets, nail rod, and hoop iron. The local industries are for the most part quiet; there is not the usual seasonal spurt.

At Crewe the steel works have re-st arted, employing about 600 men. These have been idle since July. But the coal strike has operated badly for the railways generally. even of the principal trunk lines connected with the coal districts have lost in r evenue 1 847,466/. as compared with the same period covered ~seventeen weeks- last year. This is serious not only for the companies, but for general trade, as such a decrease in revenue will affect the industries which obtain large orders front railway companies.

'l'RANSlTION CURVE . By CnARLE D. J AMIEso~, Professor of Engineering,

State University of Iowa. TuE advantages attending the use of transition

curves are now so well understood, and their use is becoming so general, that nothing need be said upon this point.

There can be but one opinion as to the use of tran-sition curves per t~e, but great diversity of opinion is

•

The following solution of the " tra.nsitivn curve" problem was made by ~Ir. E. \V. Crellin while an undergraduate in the En~ineering Department, State University of Iowa, and the general principles were published in the "Transit" of April, 1o90.

Since that time it has been used by a nu m her of engineers in the field, and has always given satisfaction.

One ad vantage that this curve has over any others that are known to the author is that no t ables are required in using it, and that t he field calculations a1 e all simple.

The curve is represented by the equation 8 2 =eO

S = d istance of any point in the curve from the origin, measured along the curve.

8 = the angle included between the initial line and the radius vector c = t o a constant.

To draw the curve, set off the angle a o l (Fig. 1), and then in succession the angles bot, c o t, cl o t, &c., 4, 9, 16, &c., times as large as a o t.

"With the distance o a between the points of the dividers, start from o and step from one radius vector to another, loca.ting the points a, b, c, d, &c., which will be on the curve.

The radius of curvature of this curve is given by the equation

s 8 R = -------,,..----

4 2 r • • • (1)

+ (s2-4 r2 82)f R = radius of curvature at any point. r = length 0f radius vector.

To obtain R in terms of s and 8 we must eliminate,. from equation ( l ).

r = s (1 - i 82 - ~ 8"' -y·~ 815, &c.). By taking several ternn of this series for the value

of r and substituting in equation ( 1) we have:

R =~ (1- .56 8-1.3 8"}. . Ge

• (2)

ince the angle 8 is expressed in terms of the radius, that portion of equation (2) ilacluded within the parentheses will always be very nearly equal to unity, and

Substituting

we have

R = G ~ (apvrox. ).

~2 8 = ' c

R = ~ (approx.). 6 s

Therefore the radius varies inversely as s on the distance from the point of origin measured along the curve, thus conforming with requirements 1 and 2. From the characteristics of the curYe it can be laid out in the field with the same ease and facility as a circular curve, the method of work being the same, excepting that the angles turned off vary as the square of the number of sta tions, and not directly as the number of stations, as in circular cur vos.

Thus in a circular cun'e the angles would be 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., while in the transition curve they would be 1, 4, 9, 16, &c.

ome idea of the flexibility of this curve may be obt ained by an examination of Fig. 2.

Any number of curves as a and c joining the two t angents may be made to pass through any intermediate point p, while only one circular curYe would fulfil this condition. In fact, by the use of this transition curve, a curve joining any two tangents may be made to pass through several intermediate points, situated within certain limits.

This property of flexibility is of the greatest possible ad vantage in fitting a line to the ground in detail. 'Vhen a. line has once been run in with only circular curves connecting the tangents, no change can be made in the location of 1:1.ny part of it without necessitating the changing of a considerable portion of the line on each side of the affected point, and involving so much work that often th.-se small changes, which

Nov. 17, 1893.]

would ei&her improve tho alignments or reduce the cost of construction, are not made. By the use of this transition curve, however, any desired changes in t he alignment, within certain lim~ts, can be .made, . and none of the line changed exceptmg the port10u dcs1red.

In the use of this transition curve the following

Fig. 7.

.,, ...... ..., ....... .... .... ....... ... ... -- . ----- ...... .... ... --- .... ... ... - ......... _ ........ .. ..... '..,.~V -... ...... ... ~ .............. .. ......... .... ...... __ ......... ... ' ..... __ ..... .. .. ... -...... _ ...... _ ... .. --... -... .. .... ---.. - .......... .. ... _ ... __ ........ ,:- .......

........... -::-:~ .... . . ----------------------.--·- . -·-------·---------- ... ·-.---- . .. -. -·· .. f lf30. A. 0


m= 3~ a. (1 + .000171 a 2 + .00000028 a.4) •

m = lOO 0 (1 + . 000012 o2 + . 0000000024 o") · D

d = m D (1-.0000000022 m2 D 2). 300

• •

. (7)

• (8)

• (9)

s == ( 137,520 ~) ~ (1 + . 0000035 d D-. 0000000036

d2 D2) . . • . (10)

m = ( 3!,380 ~ )' (1 + .0000104 d D) . . . (11)

1' = s (1 + .000122 a.2) • • • • • • (12) I n these formulre the factor inclosed in parentheses is

in ordinary cases nearly unity, and usually a sufficiently accurate result may be obtained by dropping this factor entirely. When o is less than 6 deg. the error would be no greater than 1 in 1000. The method of using the transition curve in the field will be. gove~ed by circumstances and by the analogy wh1ch ex1sts between it and the circular curve.

Suppose it is desired to introduce a curve at the point a (Fig. 3). The topographical features of the ground and other circumstances will decide what defiection unit to use, the same as in the use of the circ:.1lar curve,

I 1+30 8

PLJ.3.

Pig. Z.

0~-. I ',

l~ I ' : ' I ,,

I ' I '

: "' : ' (L I I I I I

b 9

Ag.4. ;

; ;

; •

/

• , •

; , ,

/ /

/

; , • ;

;

, ;

;

; ;

• ,

/ , ; ,

;

0 1430 D

Fig.S.

1/1.90.£.

•

formulro (see Fig. 3) will be found useful in connection with the various field problems :

s = a d the distance in feet of any point in the curve from the origin measured along the curve.

M= ab abscissa of centre of curvature in feet. r =ad length of radius vect or in feet.

D = degree of curvature at any given point a.s d. a. = deflection angle of cl a c in degrees. o = do b = d g c central angle in degrees. d = off-set be between the tangent ab and a parallel

tangent to the circular curve e i . The curve e i coinciding at cl in direction and degree of curvature with the transition curve.

s = 6~a (1 + .000168 a2 + .000000093 a")

o = 3 a (1 + .000049 a 2 + .000000046 a4) • a= ~ o (1- . 0000054 lfl- . ooooooo0057 o"') •

= 200 ~(I + oooon6 o1 + .oooooooo13 ~) . })

• (3)

• (4) • (5)

• (6)

I

Pig. 6.

•

•

Pig. 7.

Take five minutes as this unit. It will be found best to use chords of 50 ft. for curves of more than 5 deg. The cur Ye is then run in the same man? er as the circular arc. The angles turned off snccess1 vely are : !2 X 51 =51, 22 X 51 = 201, 32 X 5 1 =451, 42 X 51 = 801, &c. Suppose the sixth de~ectio~ 180 min.= 3 d~g. reac~es t he point d. Insertmg th1s value for a. m equat10n (5) a nd we get o = 9 deg. 0 min. 15 sec. =cl r; c. If the parenthetical factor had been dropped the result would have been 9 deg.

In the case of a circular arc, t he angle d g c would be twice d a c instead of three times as with the transition curves.

The transit can now be movei to the point cl and turned on the tangent by setting off the angle et d g = o - a. = 9 deg. - 3 deg. = 6 deg. The circular arc can then be run in as usual.

There are several methods of locating the second transition curve or the one joining the circular arc to the succeeding tangent. The most convenient and most accurate method, however, is to locate the transition curve from the tangent end, eYen if it does require a little more walking on the part of the transit man. In some cases the transition curves are run in by a special field party after the generd.l location has been completed.

It is only necessary to leave an offset b e (Fig. 3) of any desired length at the beginning and end of the circular curve. The transition curves can then be run in at any t ime by the aid of equations (9) and (11).

The problem of joining two tangents by two transition cur ves meeting at a point cl (Fig . 4), a. given distance from vhe p oint of intersection E, is solved by equations (5) and (8).

In case of an obstacle to direct measurement, as o (Fig. 5), the long chord a b may be measured, its leng th being found by equation (12). If an obstacle prevents the location of the entire transition curve with the transit at the point of curve, the instrument may be moved to any convenient station, set on the tangent of the curve at t hat station, and the deflection angles for the succeeding portion of the curve found as follows :

s1 = number of station from new transit po1nt. m= number of stations from point of curve to new

transit point. fJ =deflection angle for any succeeeding station.

Then • (13) • •

Example :

T~ke unit of deflection angle five minutes and at

619

sixth station necessary to move trans~t. The succeeding deflection angles from the new pomt would be:

90' X 1 + 12 X 5 == 951 90' X 2 + 22 X 5 = 200' · 90' X 3 + 32 X 5 = 315', &c.

Equation (13) is only approKimate but sufficiently accurate for most cases. When possible it is best to locate the entire transition curve from the point of curve.

Many problems occnrring iu the use of cir~u.lar curves are much simplified by the use of trans1t10n curves.

E xample.-Ghren two tangent s whose point of intersection is inaccessible to be connected by a curve.

If a circular curve is used it is necessary to know the central angle and the tangent distances. ~Vith this transition cunre it is not necessary to know e1ther of these quantities (Fig. 6) .

In introducing transition curves on a road already laid with circular curves, it is desirable to disturb the existing tangents and curves as little as possible. The change can generally be effecte.d most econol!lically by decreasing the degree of the c1rcular .curve sh~htly , so as to allow a sufficient offset for the mtroduct10n of the transition curve. The change can usually be made in such a manner as to necessitate the moving of the track only a few feet. Fig. 7 shows how this can be done, the middle portion of the new c~rv.c cl being outside of the old curve and the ends ms1de; by a simple calculation, this curve can be so adjusted that the length of track will remain unal tered.

In conclusion, we will summarise the merits of this transition curve. It conforms with the first and second requirements, as stated in the beginning ; so also do the majority of the transition curves in use.

But in addition to this, however, it conforms more nearly with the third and fourth requirements than any transition known to the author. It is flexible, can be made to fit the ground, can be run in with as much ease as a circular curve, and no bulky tables are needed for making the necessary calculations .

The few formula:; needed can be copied into the back of the note-book and always be ready for use.

PORTS ON SANDY COASTS.* On the Mode of Establishment and Maitntenance of P orts

on Sandy Ooasts L iable to Deposits of Silt. By P. DE MEY, Chief Engineer of Ponts et Chaussees. l nt1-oduction.- The low and open coasts of Belgium

are essentially alluvial. The bottom of the sea is there covered with deposits of sand comprising numerous and important banks, as well as deposits of mud. The sandbanks are often sbelly, and in certain places, gravelly. The mud is chiefly met with in the depressions which separate these banks.

It may be admitted, in a general way, that the sands of submarine deposits under the action alone of tidal currents, and contrary to what takes place with regard to mud, are not put in suspension and taken along with the mass of the water in circulation. They are rather rolled along the bottom by small successive movements .

The alluvial deposits cons tituting the bottom of the sea on the coast of Flanders are the result of accumulated effects during a long series of ages, and the conformation of the banks which \they compose goes back, doubtless, to the quaternary age previous to the most recent transformation of our shores. Taken as a whole, this sea bottom, with the numerous banks that characterise it, shows a great degree of permanence. The contour line of 20 metres depth which limits it on the sea side, has preserved approximately the same position from the commencement of the century. The shoals and channels are almost in the same sites, and we cannot discover the formation of any new banks or any new channels.

What is .neceRsary to consider in the first place is the tidal currents, whose effect is preponderating because of their uniform, periodic character. Now, these currents before the coast of Flanderst.. ... alternate in the open sea towards the N. E . and S. W. ~ear the shores they exhibit a rotative inverse movement; that is to say, they are constantly variable in direC'tion, and successively traverse all the points of the compass, from right to left. But the flood and the ebb during the greater part of their duration, comprising the period in which these currents have the greatest intensity, are still directly opposed, and their directions are about N. E. and S. W.

The ebb has a duration greater by 1 to 1~ hours than that of the flood, but the ratio of its velooity to that of the flood is on the average comprised between ~and e. The effects of these currents, then, acting in opposite directions, tend to neutralise each other.

As re~ards the action of the waves, it decreases very rapidly m descending from the surfat'e of the water, and at a considerable depth it has no longer sufficient p ower, even in violent storms, to cause important movements of sand. Tbe waves only act with energy on high banks, above all on those which are bare at low water. On striking these shoals they rise and break, throwing forward the sand in the direction of their propagation, and this with the more violence as the depth of water is smaller. Nevertheless the movements of sand which these conditions give rise to, are confined to narrow limits, and often to simple displacements taking place on the surface of the raised plateaus. It is thus that on the whole the

* Paper read before the International Maritime Congre,c;s, London M eeting.

•

620

sea bottom on the coast of Flanders shows great relative stability, and this appears even in the estuary of the Scheldtl.

As to the deposits of mud and muddy sand which occupy such considerable extents of surface ab the entrance of the North Sea., greater or less amounts of these alluvia. are put in suspension and int~rmingled with the mass of the water, travelling with it under the incessant action of the ebb and the flood. The degree of saturatien of the water evidently depends on the velocity of the currents, and still more on the state of agitation of the

41

•

42


I .-CONDITIONS OF A CCESSffiiLITY OF HARBOURS.

Whilst certain sandy shores, like those of the Netherlands, are connected directly with the deep sea by means of unbroken slopes more or less stee~, the existence of the banks that encumber the shores of Flanders creates there a special situation, varying from one point to the other of this CO::\St (Fig. 1).

Only a few years ago the idea would not have been entertained of improving the oonditions of accessibility of a harbour by modifying at certain points the configura-

IS I I I J D' •

o CL£MSX!Ritl

[NOV. I 7, I 893.

bank only offers 3 metres of water at low water, th~y can only cross this bank at high tide. *

In 1801, at which t ime the celebrated hydrographer, M. Beautemps-Beaupre, drew up the chart of the banks of the coast of Flanders, the Stroom-bank, in the part limited by the contour lines of 4 metres below low water, only extended on the east side 18, 000 metres beyond the port of Ostend. It had, at a minimum distance of 12,000 metres, soundings of 4 metres extending to the shore, thus leaving on this side a wide channel of approach into the small roadstead of Ostend. In the whole extent

•

Fi&. 7.

•

(<:) MIDDLfBOURC

• Z5

' 20

C OAST oF BELGIUM •

10

'The soundings{m meLre.s) ~how mean levels below low water at .sprin.J tides

I I 0 0 • • • • f •

m . . 2. 50

11 14 ,, -- - --- ----------- Sm~es s CJFVRN£~ b --------8 11

• tl

---·- · - · - ·-·- _/0 ., ·· - -·-··--·- · .. -· 20 ,,

'?$JDlllfKI RI( l • • .. ~ .. ··- - ·- . - 30 11

• J.. intlicales lloalinJ f,!hl ship

Sovndtng.s at dead uw Water FifJ . 2.

I

Sullt ?JQODD I

11100£J.J(C/IK£ •

Fig . 8. H"Jh Waltr 0 S T __ --

--- · --__ lo_w Wattr q.s:.....:....r_

Scolt o 0015 p m

l d tl.on of the sea· bottom in front of the. shore. To·d~y But the mud although it circulates constant Y an h k t th t

~eba.u.ndantly along t'he whole coast of :Flanders, does not things are not the same, t ~n . s o e tmproveme~ s hln "" d d t dredging machinery. SuctiOn dredgers can act m t e givA rise either in the channels or roa stea s, o any eo~- open sea ei ther to excavate a cha:m~el across a bank of siderabl~ deposit, so Ion~, of course, as t?hdea bo~tom I S sand or to deepen or improve an extsttng one. not, by any abnormal crrcumstance, w~t rawn m fl~~a Excavation of the Channels of the St.-oom-bank.-The degree from the regular alternate actiOn of the Stroom-ba.nk, opposite the coast of Ostend, extends from and ebb. h 1 _ Middlekerke up to the village of Breedene, and separates

The mud in vades, on the contrary, ~11 t e p ach~~~e the reat from the small roa.dstl'!a.d of Ostend. The gr~at tected transversely t o t~e shore, and dwlth ~h muc ce in I roafstea.d of Ostend being in no way protected, sbtps activity a.s the depth ts gr~a.ter an d a\ t dpa s cannot lie there in rough weather 1 and ~ tQ~ Stroom-question have greater e~tenslOP tow~r s t e a.n , .

5 ()

Fig 7.

1133 c

of this roadstead mean soundings of 7 metres to 8 metres at low water spring tides were obtained (Fig. 2. ) .

In 1886, as the cb art of Lieutenant Stessels shows us, the Stroom-bank had lost in width, and had gained more than 4000 metres in length towards the east, following a direction slightly inclined ~ith reference to the s~ore,. and only leaving on the right stde a pass 550 metres.m w~dth, with 5.30 metres of water below low water sprmg tides. At the same time, all that part of the small roadstend situated to the east of the meridian of Mariakerke was much silted up in 1886. There were only soundings there at low water of 5.20 metres to 6.20 metres, and immediately t o the west of Os tend 7 metres.

These modifications have been more and more accentuated since that time, to such a point that the Stroombank in the end baR closed in with the shore, whilst the smaller roadstead has continued to silt up; the depth at the east end only now measures 4 metres to 4~ me~es below low water.

The progressive ~xtensi~n. of the f3troo~-ban!' is explained by the spe.ctal cond1t1~ns und~r wh10h th1s s~ndbank exists. It 1s comparatively h1gh, and comprtsed between two deeps-the .great and smal~ roadsteads .of Ostend. I ts inward slope 1s very steep, whilst the oppostte slope has a somewhat gentle inclination, and as the bank on the whole shows an oblique direction with reference to

* The range of the tide at Ostend is 4.Ci0 metres a~ springs, and 3. 70 metres at nea~s.

Nov. 17, 1893.] the shore differing little from that of thE' tidal ourrf3nts at the moment of their greatest force,* these, and especially the flood current, impinge on this last slope, which at the same time receives the shook of the waves from the open sea. There are. thus produced al~ng the s~oa.l breakers and eddies wh1ch throw the sand m suspensiOn, and permit the currents to carry, little by little, a part of these materials towards the east or in the direction of the prevailing winds, and deposit them at the end of the bank wher~ the intersection of the ftood tides, coming resp;cti vely from the ~reat and the small roadsteads of Os tend, gives rise to the formation of a. large pool, such as to cause the precipitation of the sand conveyed.

In proportion as the Stroom-bank extended itself across the formt>r channel, the waters that enter the small roadstead during the flood, find ing on this side a continuously diminishing section, have been more a.n~ more obstr~oted in their progress, and therefore, entermg comparat1 vely still water, they deposit on the bottom a. part of the matter in suspension. Further, the erosive force of the ebb currents at the moment of their greatest speed has diminished at the same time, so that their action was not sufficiently powerful to counterbalance the effect of these deposits.

It must be added that in any violent winds the waters brought up to the surface of the sea carry with them solid matters in a way that some hydraulicians consider to be of great importance.

The considerations which precede show clearly that the silting up of the small roadstead is only a natural consequence of the extension of the Stroom-bank. We have thus been led to propose, as the only means of improving the condition of t his roadstead, the excavation of a wide channel at the east end of the bank, or, in other words, to rem'.)ve on this side the end of the bank for a distance great enough to reproduce the hydrographic state of things shown on the chart of Ostend drawn up in 1801 by M. Beautemps-Beaupre.

Now it may be foreseen that when the cause of the silting up has disappeared, the silting itself will cease, and that the depth now existing in front of Ostend, which is about 6 metres below low water, will be maintained, and that is the result that it is above all important to arrive at.

When the eastern channel is opened it will be doubtless exposed to fresh deposit, for the condition of the S troombank itself not being modified, the movements of sand that take plaoe along the shoal and which cause deposit at its end, will continue to go on, to the detriment of the channel that is made; but it must be notE."d that the movements of sand of the Stroom-bank are not, after all, of excessive amount, for the Axtension of the plateau is the result of effects accumulated during about a. cen tury, and if we make an approximate estimate we obtain about 13,000,000 cubic metres, or a mean of 150,000 cubic metres per annum, and it may bA asserted that the deposits in the new channel will not eocceed that figure.

\Ve have also proposed to open a second channel across the Stroom-bank to the west of Ostend, !5pecially designed for navigation, and it is this channel that has just been excavated. It is 600 metres in width, and its depth was provisionally fixed at 5 metres below low water spring tides. The works were commenced on March 15, 1890, with two suction hopper dredgers ; each of these vessels has a length of 43.40 metres, and is 8.50 metres wide and 4 metres deep. The draught aft is 2.45 metres light and 3.25 metres loaded. The capacity of the hoppers is ~50 cubic metres ; the engines a.re vertical, compound surface-condensing, 220 indicated horse-power, giving a speed of 6 knots loaded and 6 knots light. In the month of January, 1891, the work was commenced by removing 343 cubic metres at a cost of 0.58 fr. per metre, carried a distance of 4 kilometres. The sand dredged was almost pure, of average size, and in certain spots more or less shelly. Each dredger filled itself on an average in less than fifty minutes. They have done as much as 3700 cubic metres in a day. There is no example within our knowledge of dredgers of this kind having given so good a result. F rom the very commencement of this work the soundings showed very satisfactory results. In the month of November the minimum depth in the channel was already 4.27 metres; from March 9 to October 21 following, 250,000 cubic metres were dredged in the channel at a. cost of 0.40 fr. per cubic metre, including transport. At the conclusion of the work the depth obtained everywhere reached the minimum of 5 metres, which had been specified.

Without entering into more details on this subject, we will say that from October 21, 1891, to September 7. 1892, no dredging has been done in the new channel, and that the depth has remained praotioally the same.

From the month of June, 1892, the dredging to be done in the west pass of the Stroom-bank has been included in the general estimate of dredging works for the Belgian coast . The amount provided for this channel for a period of five years is a maximum of 150,000 cubic metres and a minimum of 100,000 cubic metres per annum. This dredging is expected not only to maintain the channel, but to gradually deepen it to 6 metres at least, i.e., to the existing depth in the small roa.dstead before the port of Ostend. Fig. 5 represents the state of the channel in 1893, and also tha1l of the bank abreast of the channel before any dredging had been done there.

Artificial· .Roadsteads and Breakwaters.- The idea has b~en sometim~s :put forward of creating along the Belgtan C?ast arti:ficta.l roa.dstea.ds by means of breakwaters esta.bhshed parallel to the coast, that is to say, in the

--------------------------. * Along the coast of B~lgium the speed of 1lbe ftood ttde ab the moment of 1ts greatest force varies from 1.10 metres per second to 1.50 metres per second; that of the ebb from 0. 90 metre per second to 1.40 metres per aecond.


direction of the tidal currents during the period of their greatest intensity.

U nless breakwaters were eRta.blished at a. great distance from the shore, such works would not overcome the difficulties of approach created by the shoa.ls on the coast of Belgium. Besides, on a OO~iSt devoid of shelter we should have to give a. great length to the breakwaters, without which the space that they protect would not offer sufficient calm to allow ships to remain there with safety in heavy weather. This bein~ the case, it is cer tainly better, and much more practical, to confine ourselves to the improvement of the channels of approach to the port by dredging, and to give it a depth of water and such a design as to admit large shipe at all times, or, a t any rate, during as many hours of each t ide as possible. We shall examine this question later.

The usefulness of a breakwater on an open and alluvial shore may be fairly argued, in our opinion, when the beach in quAstion leads directly to deep water without the interposition of any shore, as, for instance, at Y muiden. The coast is, then, specially exposed to the waves of storms, and the breakwater, which should be placed at a distance of at least 2500 metres t o 3000 metres from the shore, would have the result, not only nf creating in front of the shore relatively calm water, where ships could, if necessary, cast anchor, but also of protecting the coast itself.

'fhere can be no question of constructing, as some engineers have proposed. artificial roadsteads or vast outer harbours on the coast of .Flanders by means of works starting from the shore. and forming an inclosure whose entrance would be ou~ide the shoals parallel to the coast~ such as the Stroom-bank before Ostend, or the Zana before Heyst. These works would intercept completely the ftow of the littoral currents, and would infallibly give rise to disturbances in the sea bottom of the neighbourhood.

Still less can it be advisable to create outer harbours by means of a.singlecurved breakwater starting from the shore, and turning its convexity towards the prevailing winds. This arrangement would not sa.ve us from silting even if openings were left in the breakwater, and thus a partial passage gi vec to the tidal currents.

!I.--THE E sTABLI H MENT AND M AI NTENANCE 0.1<' HARBOUR ·.

Generat Considerations.-Tidai ports on the coast of Flanders include generally a channel formed between two piers and an outer harbour, at the end of which are the locks of wet docks. The :{>iers are of open work, that is to say, they are formed wtth a low embankment, in advance of which, on the side of the channel, is a high pier of timber framework. The low embankments are intended to stop the sands of the shore, and to confine in the channel the tidal currents as well as those coming from the artificial sluices and from land drainage. The axis of such channel on our coast is directed almost N. W., this being the best direction, as the prevailing sea winds blow from the \V. to N . N. \V., and those from the N. '\V. cause the most violent storms.

The tidal 'ports of the coast of Flanders, constructed in parts through a long series of years, and often badly arranged, do not, in general, possess the qualities now desirable from a nautical point of view, especially in respect of the insufficient dimensions of the channel and of the outer harbour. But th is system, nevertheless, suits better than any other the conditions of a shore essentially alluvial, and there is nothing to prevent its being applied to the needs of large ships, as we will try to show.

Sand Deposits.--The movement of sand that is observed on beaches is due, as we know, to the action of tidal currents combined with that of waves, and to the direct action of the wind. The effect of tidal currents is in this respect of comparatively small importance; nevertheless these currents, when they are deviated by piers projecting on the coast, give rise along these works to eddies and erosions, and they carry the sand so raised beyond the pier heads. There the currents so di ~erted intersect those travelling past the harbour, and thus give rise to dead water and deposits a t the entrance of the channel. Waves are the most active agency in the trans~ort of beach sands. In calm weather, as they are propagated over great depths, the movement decreases from the surface downwards, but when they a.p~roach the beach, traversing depths of water uniformly d1minishing, the displacement produced carries with it the sands from the bottom, which are thus driven gradually towards the beach. The waves in breaking throw a part of the materials raised beyond their own range of action, and add to the effect of the rising of the water on the beach. Thus there are formed in the exterior angles, between the p iers of a harbour and the beach, more or less important deposits, which are more pronounced along the pier exposed to the prevailing winds. Besides, the winds in dri vin~ before them the sand of the part of the beach which l S left bare by the tide, as also sand from the sandhills, serve to increase these deposits largely. \Vhilst the beach is raised in calm wea.ther, it is, on tbe other hand, eaten away in storms, especially when these are accompanied by high tides. The water then accumulates on the shore and produces powerful downward currents, whilst the waves in breaking on the beach give rise to return waves of very great strength, which act chiefly on the bottom and stir up the sand on the whole exten t of the beach violently. It is thus that a greater or less quantity of the sands, which have been carried up, are removed towards the regions outsidE:' low-water line, and in front of the pier heads. Under the action of the continual movements of sand that we have just described, the beach on each side of the piers of the harbour tends, after a certain period, to a position of comparative equilibrium.

Only a few yea':'s ago the deposits a.t the entrance of

621

harbours on sandy coasts were very difficult to contend with.

The only method applied with any success was the Amployment of sluicing. Originally the ports of the coast of }"landers, Dunkirk, N ieuportl, and Ostend, were formed at the mouths of old creeks, where the sea en tered freely, and which occupied vast areas. Ab the reflex the ~ow of the tidal waters together with the waters of land dram age, formed more or'less powerful natural sluicfls.

But it was always at the entrance of the ~hannel _tha.b these natural sluices had least effect, that bemg precisely the point where the greatest depth is wanted in order to compensate for the loss o~ water in the trough ? f waves, and to a void the formatiOn of breakers. Bes1des, they could scarcely increase the depth already exiatiJ?g, for t~e bottom was generally formed of sand not eas1ly put m motion, and bein~ well consolidated and mixed with shells, offered much res1stancE.".

After the lagoons and creeks had been embanked in the interest of agriculture and of public health, and after finally the inroads of the sea. were completely stopped by lo.oks established at th3 bead of the harbour, the natural sluices were replaced by artificial ; but the same difficulties c~>ntinued. As soon as the depth of water at low bde attained to 2 or 3 metres, the sluices bad only a feeble a<.'tion on the sands of the bottom, especially outside the piers, where the sluioing currents were rapidly lost in the ml\ss of t he water. Thus it was adruitted as a principle that the sluice gates were to be placed as near t? the entrance as possible, and that the greatest head a vailable was to be given. On the other hand, many methods have been attempted or proposed in view of stirring up the sand in the approach channel to a harbour, and so famlitate its being earned away under the action of sluioing or tidal currents.

The application of dredgers has proved that the deposit of sand before the pier heads is, in most cases, much less rapid than had been supposed. Therefore, in removing the deposits by this means and transporting them to places where they cause no inconvenience, a. r ational and final solution is obtained. The results that can be obtained by dredging in the improvement and maintenance of the entrance of harbours on sandy coasts essentially depend on the conditions of those ports, A.nd, in the first place, on their width.

So it is that at Dunkirk, where the beach is very wide-1200 metres to 1600 metres--and includes an upper zone of great extent, J?ra.otically level, and only covered by the sea a t spring tide, the amount of dredging to maintain in the outer channel of the harbour a depth of 2! metres below low-water spring tides is no less than 500,000 cubic metres per annum. The beaches a t the north end of the coast of }"'landers, notably those about Heyst, are, on the other hand, very scanty; they have only a. width of about 200 metres from the foot of the sand-hill to the line of low water spring tides, and they are protected against the erosive action of the sea by frequent herbage. W e may assert that on this parb of the coast, where a new harbour is contemplated, no difficulty will arise from silting, and that a very moderate amount of annual dredging will enable the depth necessary for large merchant ships to enter a1l all states of the tide to be maintained.

W e have proof of this in the results obtained at Ostend, where the beach in this respect has a. much less favourable r~gime than that at H eyst .

To the east of the channel the beach shows a mean width of 375 metres, with a slope of about 1.3 per cent. in the belt bounded by the line of higb-wa.ter s:ering tides; the higher belt up to the foot of the sand-hills has a. width of 20 metres t o 40 metres. On the west side, in front of Ostend, is a. masonry wall and reclamation 650 metres in width, which advances 160 metres beyond the S'enera.l line of the sand-bills. Immediately beyond th1s wall the beach shows a width of about 300 metres, with a slope of between 1. 3 and 1. 6 per cent. Now the interesting point to observe, and which I have already pointed out to the Congress at P aris, is that the projecting wall, which is now of considerable age, has had no effect upon the low-water line ; that remains unaltered up to the entrance channel of the harbour. This is owing to the small wi_dth of the be~oh on the west, whose upper portion to half-tide has been pitched so that the movements of sand are comparatively limited. We thus see how the extension of the piers of the harbour, carried out in 1804, has caused no extension of the beach.

The first efforts at dredging were made in 1880. Beginning in the following year, the works were pushed forward actively, and in June, 1884, as much as 615,000 cubic metres were removed. At this time the outer channel had acquired on the line of entrance a depth of 6 metres below low water spring tides , while that previously obtained by means of sluices only reached 1~ metres to 2 metres.

The width of the channel has been r,ontinuously increased up t o June, 1888, the total excavation amounting to 11200,000 cubic metres.

Smoe tha1l time the work has been confined to the dredging necessary to maintain the situation established. The annual amount on the average reaches about 100!000. cubic metres, including in this whs.t is done to mamtam t he channel between the open-work J?iers. We may, then, say that by means of a nomparattvely small an:tount of dredging great depths can be created and maintame~ at tb~ entrance of ports on sandy coasts, except in oertam spectal oases, such a.s that at Dunkirk.

In such a case the best way to overcome the difficulty in our opinion! is t o rl ea~ with the beach, and embank th~ ?Pper part of It. There ~se~en an advanta~e in construotmg embankmen~s pro)eottng beyond htgh-water line, such as that wh10h extsts at Ostend. In this way we should suppress, in the neighbourhood of the harbour that part of bhe beach on which in ordinary weather th~ sand gets accumulated, and from wbioh ib is brough t bacJt

by the first storm, in greater or less quantity, towards the entrance of the harbour. B efore a. projecting embankment the direct transport of alluvium towards the piers, especially the transport by wind, is in a. great measure interrupted, while, on the other hand, the descending currents and the return waves which arise along the embankment have the result, whenever the sea is rough, of eating away the beach, and maintaining it in a compa.ra.ti vely attenuated form. Thus at Dunkirk the great development of the beach on the webt dates from a distant period. It is due to the uniting cf the shore with a high shoal situated seaward of the coast, and from which it was ~eparated by the d eep of Mardyck, which has gradually been filled up. At oth~r placas these wide beaches have been produced by the gradual fillinR up of the mouth of an old arm of the sea., such as the Zwyn, situated on the Dutch frontier. But in those cases the changes were of limited duration, and when the beach has acquired its condition of r elative equilibrium, there is nothing to prevent our emba.nking the upper part, without fear of further extension by encroachment on the sea. The exam ph of Os tend is absolute proof of this.

L et us say, to summarise, that in order to improve the approach channel of harbours established on a sandy coast, artificial sluices with sea water are no longer advisable; dredging gives better and more certain results, and, at the price at which it can be done to-day, it is a more economical process than artificial sluicing. \Vhere the sluices already exist they may, nevertheless, be usefully employed to maintain the entrance by carrying off recent deposits at the entrance and against the piers, especially when the submarine slope outside the harbour is steep; for in that case there is little fear that the sand carried away would create a bar in front of the entrance, the action of the waves and currents being there generally sufficiently powerful to carry away the fine sand and spread it in the deep parts of the sea.*

Mud Deposits.-We find silt on most shores, even those that are rocky. In most cases, however, it is not found on these shores except in comparatively small quantiti6s, and comes from the disintegration of the clayey rocks which enter into the composition of cliffs , and from the discharge of rivers emptying into neighbouring bays.

But on the shores of Flanders, where muddy deposits occupy very vast areas, this alluvium occurs in great quantity, and invades all shel tered places freely opened to the sea.. For ports established on such a shore, internal silting constitutes a considerable difficulty in the maint enance of their depth, and cannot be left out of view in studying the design t o be adopted.

The simplest design consists in forming the outer harbour of two converging piers, like those of the port of Kingatown in the Bay of Dublin-a port which continues in excellent condition almost without dredging. But the nei~hbourhood of Kingstown cannot be regarded as being muddy in the character of its shores. The coast in the interior of the bay is formed of granite rocks to the south, and of calcareous rocks in the r emaining parts.

The conditions that characterise neighbourhoods essentially alluvial are quite different. The porb of Ymuiden is a rare example of one constructed on the system adopted at Kingstown, and having alluvial conditions. The inclosure betwean the breakwaters has an area. of 120 hectares. Now the d eposits of mud are so abundant in this enclosure, which was destined to serve as a harbour of r efuge, that from the very outset the idea of giving ib deep waters had to be abandoned, and no more is attempted than to maintain a. cent ral passage of 250 metres in width with a. depth of 7~ metres below low water, and still the maintenance of this passage, whose surface up to the locks of the maritime canal of. Amsterdam only m easures 320,000 ~quare metres, req m res every year a dredging of 500,000 cubic metres of silty matter mea.sured in the hoppers. The importance of this dredging, undoubtedly considerable, is neverthele~s not excessive, and although it is objec~ion~ble by reason of the e~tensi.ve plant it necessitates, .this kmd o~ outer harbour IS qu.Ite admissible for Y mUiden. Besides, the range of tide being only 1.60 metres, ib would be difficult to p rovide a system of tidal sluices.

But on the coast of Flanders the situation is different. It must be noted, first, that the movements of mud are there much more abundant than at Ymuiden. The sea.· b ottom found at considerably less depths, is consequently much ~ore subject to disturbances by storm waves. Further the tidal currents have there much more force. Their v~locity is almost doubl~ .that at -:£ ~uiden, so ~hat the water carries great quantities of silt m suspe!ls10n. The mean quantity of ~olid ~a.tter in a calf:D or ehghtly disturbed sea is 0.9 cub10 cent1metre for one htre of water taken at the surface, and 2.8 cubic centimetres for a litre of water taken 1 metre at l~ast from the b~ttom. ,V_hen the sea is rough, the quant1ty of matter m suspens~on, especially that which circulates_ near the bottom, gt ves rise t o deposits ten or fifteen t.1mes great er than those obtained in calm weather. It Is unders~oo~ that wa ters so saturated, in entering freely at every t1de m to ~n outer harbour or inner channel, must cause v~ry considerable silting when no natura~ or a.rtific~al flow exists to hinder the formation of d eposits ; espeCially as, along the coast of Flanders, the range of the tid.e, on which depends the volume with which the harbour 1s fi lled, measures on the average 4 metres, or double what ~ s found ab Ymuiden. This effect is observed on the shps at Ostend and at Blankenber~he ; the silting th~re reaches a t least 0.8 metre of thiCkness per year, while they are excavated to hardly 1 metre below low-water. A s S<?On ~s we pass that depth, the importance of the deposits mcreases very

* In this memoir we do not consider outer harbours situated at the mouth of tidal ri ve!s such as ~he Ty ne and T ees in which the tidal waters filhng those n vers produce on the ebb natural sluices of great value.

E N G I N E E R I N G. rapidly. As we have already said, it must of necessity be so, for all protect ed inclosures in which there is no strong outward current. Thus it would be impossible to establish on the coast of Flanders outer harbours l ike those of Kingstown or Madras, and to maintain their depth. Even if we wished, following the example of Ymuiden, to confine ourselves to providing a central passage, the Jabour this would require would still be excessive, and would give rise in practice to great difficulties.

It results from what has been said that, on an open and muddy coast, the best system to adopt for the establishment of a harbour musb comprise in the main a channel bound ed by open piers, an outer harbour of limited surface, as well as an installation of tidal sluices, completed, when the site allows, by sluices from the land drainage water.

The end to be obtained from the sluices, in the way in which we propose to make use of them, is very diff6rent from their original purpose, in which they more especially aerved to attack the sandy d eposits at the entrance of the harbour, while these d eposits, by the nature and cohesion of their constituent parts, do nob lend themselves to an attack by artificial sluices. The muddy silt, on the contrary, is easily carried off by currents of sufficient intensity. When they a re recent they are only floating, so to speak, near the bottom, in the form of liquid mud, and it is beyond doubt that sluicing currents of a mean velocity of 0. 80 metre to 1 metre per second will successfully clear away deposits in course of format ion . It is even more important to consider the mass of flowing water rather than its speed, and to regulate the opening of the sluice paddles and the water level of the sluicing basin so that the force of the currents does not exceed a. comparatively moderate limit. *

Whenever the sluices operate they simply restore to ~be sea a relatively small quantity of mud brought by it mto the harbour; and as this fine matter is mixed with a considerable volume of water, it is carried off at once by the ebb tide to meet later on the flood tide which carries it in the opposite direction.

. T o fix the ideas, we have repreRented in Fig. 7 a kmd of a rrangement it would be well, in our opinion, t o adopt for ports to be established on a sandy shore where mud abounds. In each case it is clearly necessary to accommodate ourselves to local circumstances. The project that is shown in full lines is especially suited to the new port which is contemplated at Heyst, at the n orthern el!d of the Belgian coast. The entrance channel following the direction of the prevailing winds would be included between open piers, with low embankments, constructed like the new wasb pier of Ostend (Fig. 8). It would have 150 metres of w1dth, and would extend as nearly as possible to the depth which it is proposed to maintain in the harbour, or 7 metres under low water. Being oarried t o the inside of the sand-hills, it would terminate in an outer harbour of dimensions large enough to allow large ships to turn without difficulty. The outer harbour would include a branch to the west of its axis, where would be placed the locks for enterin~ the marit ime canal t o be made between Heyst and Bruges. It would also communicate directl3' with a wet dock, having quays founded at a gr eat depth to be used by regalar lines of steamships. The distance between the entrance of the channel and the further end of the outer harbour would measure about 2500 metres. We may regard this distance as sufficiently great that ships would lose their speed and t o avoid any trouble from the swell in rough weather: D esigned as shown on the plan, a channel of 150 metres wide would be cer tainly practically safe for the &'reatest ships. It would even afford, in regard to famlity of entrance, being included between pier-heads of open framework, undoubted adva.ntages over ports like Y muiden or Madras, formed with solid breakwaters. A s to the greater or le.ss disturbance which these O.J?en works allow to exist in the interior of the channel, it 1s not of a nature to hinder navigation. In support of what has been said, we may quote the example of the port of Ostend. The channel of this port was widened in 1889, and now has 110 metres of width between the piers, and 150 metres between the pier-heads. The depth at the entrance is 5 to 6 metres below the level of low water in the outer pass, and 4 metres in the interior of the channel. Now the port of Ostend, since the completion of these works, is practicable at high water to sailing ships in any weather, and no case of damage has arisen .

The system of sluices would com.J?rise a large basin, whose upper sluice would be spaced m the centre line of the channel, but which would ser ve also to produce sluicing currents at other pa.rts by means of culverts at a great depth.

Conclusions.-J.i'rom the considerations that have been developed, the following conclusions may be drawn :

1. On an alluvial coast, having sandy shores, like that. of Flanders, it is impossible to create artificial roadsteads, or large out er harbours, by means of breakwaters starting from the shore and carried out into deep water.

2. All that could be done in this way would be to make breakwaters on certain shores favourably situated as regards tidal currents and waves, to improve an existing roadstead which might offer con venient channels of approach. In such cases it would remain matter for conSideration whether the considerable cost of the works to be executed for that purpose was in proportion to th e benefits to be gained.

3. It is generally more practical t o improve t o the desired extent the conditions of approach of a harbour by dredging, and to create in the same way, at the entrance of the harbour itself, the necessary depth for la rge merchant ships to approach it at all states of ths tide.

4. But when the neighbourhood of the harbour con-

* See Appendix.

[Nov. I 7, I 89~·

tains any great quantity of mud, we must, besides, pay attention to the difficulty of maintaining an equal depth in the interior, and of counterac ting successfully the deposit of silt. The only way of doing this is to use tidal sluices, combined with those of land water, where circum· stances allow of it. From this point of view, the arrangement of the harbour that it is best to adopt. should include mainly a channel bordered through t he beach and out to the entrance by pi~rs of open work with low embankments; an outer harbour of limited extent, at the end of which are established locks for access to the tidal basins on the maritime canal to be served, as also the tidal quays for the use of ships of regular lines. These constituent parts of the port ruust be arranged in a way to suit the needs of the largest ships, and to enable the best advantage to be taken of the sluice@.

A PPENDIX.

On the I njluence E xerted by the L owering the SiU of a Sluice-Gate on the Useful Effect of the Sluice.

The sill of sluice-gates is generalJy placed a few inche! at least above the level of low water spring tides, to enable the work to be examined, and repairs, if necessary, to be made.

But for the purpose of obtaining the best effect from the sluices there is an evid ent ad~antage in placing the sill as nearly as possible at the level at which it is desired to maintain the bottom of the entrance channel.

In order to get at the floor and apron of the sluice, it is only necessary to construct it with grooves in the walls above and below the gates, in which cofferdams can be placed if necessary. Further, with the methods now available for putting in deep foundations, they may be so constructed as not to be liable to any serious injury.

The flow of water from a sluice-gate is a Yery compli· cated case of varying motion. W e may, however, without serious error, suppose the period of flow divided into intervals, during each of which the flow is uniform, if these intervals are sufficiently short. This is what we haTe done in order t o investigate how the useful effecb of sluices varies with the depth of the sill of the gate .

The differential equation of_ the hydraulic axis of a current of uniform flow is

dh --ds

i-: b1 ( ~ ) 2

1 ( )f) l ,J 1 - i 2 - - !I . g w w

We allow for the sake of simplicity : 1. A horizontal floor, so that i = 0 and ~1 - -z,2 = 1. 2. The transverse section to be rectangular, and equal

to the actual section of the channel. 3. The pe!imeter X = n l wher~ n > 12 n being constant

and dependmg on the wetted penmeter of the section of the channel at low water.

We also neglect the t erm

.! (!!. )!_l g w w

?<'m pared with .unity; for the ordinary velocities of sluic· mg currents thts terr~ h:as a compara tively . small value : for v = 1.60 motres 1t 1s less than ~·;. Thts amounts to the assumption that the whole slope of the surface is re- -quired to overcome the resistances to motion.

It is also to be noted that we are only concerned with co~pa.ratiye !esults., and, tber~fore, these hypotheses are qmte adm1ss1ble w1tbout senstbly affecting the correctness of the conclusions .

The formula fer uniform motion becomes then : dh l q2 dh b z - = - b 1- , and as w = l h = - 1 q d s w w2 ' d 3 l2 h3

Integrating for a. length of channel s, beg inning at the sluice-gate, we have :

h4 - h4 - 4bl q'!. s o - - . l?. And for the total ~ength L :

• • 4b ., h"' -h"' = 1 q· L o 1 Z2 • • • • (I.)

ApJ?lying to the flow through a sluice-gate the formula for o~1fices, the flow per second will be given by the expressiOn:

q = 8'A J'l.g(H- ho) {i (H- h0 )+{h0 - h")} , (II.)

'A being the linear opening of the sluice and 8 a coefficient of contraction. '

The corn bi~ation of I. and II. will give q and h0

for each .value g1 ven to H . . In: maki?g ~diminish through a sertes of valu~s, begmnmg wttb Its maximum we may draw up a table containing the different v~lues of ho, q, and .6t, which characterise the motion of water in the channel during the whole period of the flow and by giving different determinate va lues to h" we can ~scertain the effect on the motion of alterations in the level of the sill.

T o determine the work of friction , or the useful effect of the sluice, we have the formula

X b1 q: d s, w w-

expressing the resistance of the banks and floor for an elementary length d s of the channel. Its integral

expresses the channel.

L X b1 !!..

2 d s

w w 0

• r es1stance for the whole length of the

Nov. 17, 1893.]

The work of resistance, for an el em~nt of timed t, is expressed by

rL ( )

•)

X q -w bl ;; d s, 1r q d t

J 0

and according to the simplified differential equation of motion given above,

fbl ( ~ ) 2d s, = - d h.

The expre~s:on of the work, for time d t, becomes then :

r h1 1r qd t - d h= 1rq (ho - h1) d t,

.,) h o

and for the whole flow of time T ,

rT r = 1r q (h0 - h1) d t.

J 0

To calculate the whole work done by a sluice, we must calculate for each elementary section of the water in the sl uicing basin the product q (h0 - h1) t:. t, e,um the results, and multiply by 1r. .

Application.- L et us apply the precedmg formulre to a sluicing basing of 120 hectares (296.5 acres) a:rea, the bottom of which is excavated to+ 2.00 ~etre~ w1th refe;ence to the datum of mean low water sprmg tides, and 1s connected by an easy slope w_ith the sil~ of the gate. T _his is taken to be formed of eigh t openmgs,_ each . hanng 4 50 metres of clear width, the range of t1de bemg 4.50 ~etres. W e suppose the channel to have a width of 150 metres at low water, 7.00 metres of depth below low water, and 1850 metres of length with slopes of 3 t<;> 1.

As the formula. I. supposes a rectangular section, we shall replace the true section by a rectangle of equal area and depth. I ts width would be 129 metres or, say, 1~0 metres. .

Taking the wetted perimeter X = n l , n be~ng supposed constant, n x 130 = 130 + 2 x 7, from whtch n = 1.11 metres.

The error committed in supposing n constant through-out the flow is very small, as we shall see by t~e table below; the greatest value of h0 , _near the sluice-gate, which is 7. 28 metres, would only glVe n the value 1.112 metres.

"vVe have supposed L = 1850 metres, A. = 8 x 4.50 = 36 metres (the tota.l width of opening), b1 = 0.0004 metre, h1 = 7.00 metres, 8 (the coe_fficient of c~nt~action) = ~· The level of water in the basm at the begmmng of flow 1s + 4.50 metres.

AJ?plying these data to the formulre I. and II., we obtam:

h40= 2401 + 0.0001944 q2

q = 7. 5 ,J2g (l::f. - h 0 ){2 H + h0 -3 h'' ). If we successively suppose the sill placed at the levels

0. 00 metre, - 2. 00 metres, and - 4. 00 metres, h" be~omes 7.00 metres, 5.00 metres, and 3.00 metres, and makmg H diminish from 7.00 metres + 4.50 metres, or 11.50 metres, by steps of 0.25 metre each, to 7.00 metres+ 2.00 metres, or 9. 00 metres, we obtain the following Table :

I •

"" bo ... ~ ~· - • <1 a> QJ 0 0

(.) • .. ~ ·-- - ... .... c:$ . ... ~ · ~ -·- ~ -~ I'Z1 .c: Ql 0< QJ

~ - I - '0 ;:s • H . ho. "Cj 8 0 -0 0 ~ g • ~ 0 - -a ;:s~ ..!:d . ....

QJ ..... UJ · - 0 ..,c-=:::.. ~ Q ~ O (J - o ·-> ,.... GI o - ... 0~ 0' a> t>I'Z1 <1.1

~ ~--~ I'Z1(/) A.. ~ 1.::: . - -

metres metres metres met. cubic cubic sec-. met. 10etres

0.00 + 4.50 11.50 7.055 1 0 .634 300,000 1473 1r X 16,494

Taking for 1r (the specific weight of the water in the sluioing basin), the value 1r = 1000 kilos., the work of friction on the bottom and sides of the canal will be:

metres. r 1 = 82,63!> ton-metres when the sill

is at ... .. .. . 0.00 r 2 = 265,424 ton-metres when the sill

is at ... ... ... -2.00 r.1 = 537,631 ton-metres when the sill

is at ... ... .. . -4.00 T hus, representing by 1 the useful work of friction pro

duced during one veriod of sluicing with the sill at 0. 00 metre, that produced in the same conditions with the sill at - 2.00 metres would be represented by 3.21, and with the sill at - 4.00 metres it would be represented by 6.51. If we calculate the velocity of the current by the

formula V

w = ' wT V representing the volume of water flowing in time T, and w the mean section of the channel, we obtain for the maximum, mean, and minimum velocity, respectively:

metres S ill at 0.00

, - 2.00 ,, -4 00

...

...

.. .

Maximum Mean Minimum V elocity. Velocity. V elocity.

metres metres metres 0.6!> 0.41 0.25 1.13 0.80 0.57 1.53 1.17 0.88

ELECTRICITY AND THE GRAVE.-An electric hearse is the latest innovation in trolley transportation at San Fran-

• ClBCO.


BOILER EXPLOSIONS AT CONGLETON AND NETHERTON.

T wo " formal investigat ions" by th~ Board of Trade have recently beE\n held respecting boiler explosions, the following particulars of which may be of interesb to our readers.

The first was conducted at the Town Hall, Congleton, and d~alt wit h an explosion which occurred at the iron foundry of M r. J on a than Booth, Victoria Mills, in tbab town on Thursday, August 24. The Commissioners were Mr. Howard Smith, barrister-at-law, and Mr. J. H. Hallett, consulting engineer. Mr. K. E. K. Gougb ap-peared for the Board of Trade, and Mr. Andrew, solicitor, for Mr. Booth.

In opening the proceedings Mr. Gough stated that the boiler was originally made for an engineer of the name of Scragg, of Congleton, whot in 1860, fi tted it to an engine which he himself had built, and supplied it to a Mr. Benjamin Barber, a. farmer at Goostrey, Cheshire. Mr. Scragg had been dead some time, and Mr. Barber died shortly before the explosion took place. The boiler was of the vertical type, with an internal firebox, the uptake from which passed horizontally through the back of the shell. It wa3 about 4ft . in diameter by 6 ft. 8 in. in height, made of iron plates originally about i in. thick, and was sin~le-ri veted throughout, the rivets being pitched about 2 in. apart. The shell was composed of five plates i n the circumference, each plate extending the full height of the boiler. The crown was fla t, made of two plates a ttached to the shell by an angle iron, and supported by three gudsets. The firebox was 3 ft. 4 in. in diameter by 3 ft. 10 in. in height, the plates being, like the shell, originally ! in. thick. A manhole was cut in the boiler crown, and a vertical engine, with the crankshaft carried across the boiler top, was attached to the side of the shell. The mountings consisted of an open eafety valve loaded by a lever and weight, supposed to be set to blow off at a pressure of about 50 lb. per square inch, a glass water gauge, a. pressure gauge, a. blowoff tap, and a check valve. The boiler appeared to have been used by Mr. Barber for threshing pur,Poses, and was then worked, so far as could be ascertamed, at aboub 60 lb. pressure. In 1890 Mr. Barber seemed to have had no further use for it, and it was sent to Mr. Booth, with a view to its being sold, the Erice wanted for the boiler and engin0 bein~ 25l. Mr. Booth carried out some repairs to the engme at an estimated cost of 10l., but no sale was effected, and in the month of M ay, 1892, he decided to use the boiler himself. H e appeared to have considered thab he was entitled to do this, having regard to the repairs he had made, and he used the boiler without any permission from Mr. Barber, and practically without his knowledge. Mr. Booth at this time examined the boiler by tapping the fi rebox, and be then, so far as he was able to form an opinion, found it in fairly good condition. H e knew that Mr. Scragg had had other boilers and engines made for a working pressure of aboub 50 lb., and appeared to have concluded therefrom that that was the proper pressure at which t o work this one. At any rate, he aqjusted the weight on the safety valve lever so that the valve would blow off at about 50 lb. by the gauge. This gaus-e, which bad been obtained from a neighbour named BerrlSford, the owner of Mr. Booth 's premises, had been found slightly inaccurate by an inspector in the employ of an insurance company, who had ad vised its removal from Mr. Berrisford's boiler. Mr. Gough went on to say that the boiler was used about twice every three weeks to supply steam to the blast engine, and no examination was made of it after ~1ay, 1892. On August 24, when the boiler was full of water, the fire was lighted in the morning, but went out. It was lighted again between three and four in the a.ftarnoon, and at the latter hour the pressure by the gauge appeared to have been 40 lb . Shortly afterwards the boiler exploded, badly scalding Mr. William Booth, and also causing injuries to a labourer. Portions of the boiler were thrown through the roof of the building, and fell near some cottages about 20 yards away.

Mr. Thomas Robinson, farmer, Goostrey, said his late uncle, Mr. Barber, purchased the boiler thirty-three or thirty-four years ago from Mr. Scragg. It was used for various farm purposes, and was worked at 20 lb. to 30 lb., the valve being set t o blow at 50 lb. When Mr. Barber's stock was sold, two years ago last spring, the boiler, not being disposed of, was sent to Mr. Booth's foundry. During the seventeen or eighteen years during which time his uncle used it, he had never known it t o be repaired.

Mr. ,J ona tban Booth deposed to the boiler being sent to him with the request that he should find a customer for it. He repaired the engine at a cost of 10l. , and thinking it might sell better if it could be seen under steam, he put it to work about eighteen months ago. Before doing so he looked the boiler over, and tapped it round with a hammer. H e saw no leakage, and found it all right. H e fixed the working pressure at 50 lb. because he knew this bad been done before, having, manr. years since, worked with Mr. Scragg, for whom the bo1ler was made. The pressure gauge was nob more than a pound or two out. After starting to work the boiler, he did not examine it again or get any one else to examine it. H e knew it was an old one, but there were plenty in the neighbourhood older. In order to feed the boiler it was necessary to remove the weight from the safety-valve lever, and there was no mark on the lever to show where ib was to be put when replaced.

Mr. H. BerrlSford, smallware manufacturer, gave evidence as to supplying the pressure gauge, which he should have had no hesitation in using again if necessary.

Willi9.m Dutton, fitter and turner, said be worked the boiler for Mr. Booth. The valve would blow off a.t 45 lb., and very hard at 50 lb.

Henry Barton, moulder, deposed to having lighted the

£re in the afternoon, when the boiler was full of watE\r. Having got steam up to about 20 lb. or 30 lb. , he banded the en~ine over to the care of other people. . .

Mr. William Booth, son of the owner, sa1d be was lD charge at the time of the explosion. The pressure w~uld not exceed 40 lb. H e was struck on ~he bead. by a. p1ece of the boiler and was also scalded, bemg deta.med m the hospital for three weeks in consequence.

Mr. Wm. Thomas Seaton, engineer surve~or to the Board of Trade, gave a report of an e?'amina.tton he had made of the boiler soon after the explosiOn. Tb~ plates of the firebox were considerably wasted by corros10n, ~ore especially on the fit·e aide. He could not say defimtely whether the firebox had been out of shape before the explosion. It was not safe to work the boiler at a higher pressure than 8 lb. to the squa~e. inch . . The thickn~ss of the plates varied from the ortgmal th1ckness of ~ m. to "J "-rr i n .

-Replying to Mr. A ndrew o~ behalf of Mr. Bo~th, witness stated that as the corros10n was general the boiler would give pretty much the same sound ~ll 9ver,_ and therefore it would be easy for any one tapp1Dg Ib w1th a hammer to fail to detect its deterioration.

Mr. Gough an~ ¥r. Andr~w havin~ add~essed the court the Comm1sstoners deliberated m private, and subsequently the P resident, Mr. Howard S mith, delivered judgment.

The Court found, he said, that the explosion was due to the wasting_ of the plates of the firebox by corrosion, and that Mr. Booth, the owner, was to blame, inasmuch as, although knowmg that the boiler was. upward~ of thirty years old, he made only a very superfiOJal exannnation. If be bad gone carefully over the plates of the firebox, as he ought to have done, he would have had an indication of the dangerous defects existing, and then it would have been his imperative duty to have drilled the plate&, a process which would at once have shown him that the boiler was not fit to be used. It was in J\IIr. Booth's favour, however, that he did make some examination, perhaps to the best of his ability, and that be had given his evidence straightforwardly. Nevertheless, the Court found him to blame, and must order him to pay a portion of the costs of the investigation.

Mr. Andrew pointed out that Mr. Booth was seventythree years of age, and was only a working man.

Mr. Gough stated that the costs would amount to a t least 30l. or 40Z.

Mr. Howard Smith said the Court was disposed to make the order as lenient as p('lssible, and the j ustice of the case would perhaps be met if Mr. Booth paid to the solicitor to the Board of Trade the sum of 5l. as his share of the expenses of the investigation.

The SE'cond formal investigation was held ab Dudley, and referred to an explosion which took place on M onday, August 14, at the boot and shoe manufactory of Mr. John Harrison, Halesowen-road.z.. N etherton. The Commissioners were Mr. Howard ~mith and Mr. Hallett. Mr. Gou~h conducted the case for the Board of Trad0.

The boiler Mr. Gough said, was purchased secondband by a Mr. Hughes some ten or eleven years ago. It was of plain cylindrical construction, 6 fb. long by 2 ft. in diameter, and wa-s equipped with the usual and necessary fittings. About eight or nine years since, Mr. Bridges purchased the boiler and a small engine from Mr. Hughes for the sum of 9l . 10s., apparently as a speculation, and a. short t ime after this transaction the boiler was seen by a boilermaker who advised the fitting of a new bottom t o it, which was done at a cost of 4l . About five years ago the boiler was sold by Mr. Bridges to Mr. Harrison for 5l. , and it was then set up in brickwork by some engineers who had now left the district. Thev inform~d Mr. Harrison that the boiler was safe to work up to 30 l b., and the safety valve was adj usted to blow at that point. The boiler was fitted up in a shed on Mr. Harrison 's premises, which was not watertight, and in wet weather the water leaked through, and found its way on to the top of the boiler. Actin~ on some information he received from an engine-dr1ver, Mr. Harrison cleaned out the boiler and examined it about every six months, but never found any thing the matter with ib, and never employed any one else to examine it for him. It waa used for four or five days a week at a pressure of about 15 lb. for supplying steam to a small engine which drove~ cutting press. On the morning of A ugust 14 the fire was lit, and at one o'clock Mr. HarriEon put on some slack and lefb for dinner, the gauge then indicating a pressure of _7 lb. . T en minutes afte~wards the boiler exploded, bem g hterally blown to pieces, the t op portion being hurled _throu~h tw? br~ck walls, w h!le other parts were blown m var10us d1rect10ns. The bnckwork seating was scattered, and the boiler shed demolished, but fortunately no personal injury resulted.

After various witnesses had been examined Mr. H arrison deposed to buyin~ the boiler five ~ears ~go for 5Z. H e never had a pract10al man to examme it but he cleaned it out and examined it himself twice a ye~r. He had never tried it with a. hammer, but looked at the plat es with a candle to see if any of the rivets were loose. He bad seen 40 lb. on the boiler, and the safety valve was then blowing hard.

Mr. J ames S hanks, engineer surveyor to the Board of Trade, ~tated that he had made an examination of the boiler after the explosion. He found very serious external corrosio?, 'Yhioh had reduced the plates, for 2 ft. along the longltudmal seams, from n in. to a thickness not exceeding that of a thin piece of paper. This he attributed to the continual wetting of the top of the boiler by . water draining in_ from the roof of the shed. If the boiler had been exammed by a competent person ther.e would n?t h~ve been t?e slightest difficulty in de~ tectm~ th~ m1sch1ef. The s1mple cause of the explosion was thmnmg of the plates from corrosion.

•

Mr. Gough then submitted certain questions to the Court as follows : Did Mr. Harrison cause the boiler to to be e.."<amined by a competent person when he purchased it, or at any other time ? Did be take proper measures whereby the boiler could be safely worked '! What was the c~use of the explosion, and did blame rest upon Mr. Harnson ? Mr. Go?gh pointed out that the b oiler plates, as .shown by the ev1d~nce of Mr. Shanks, were only 16u in. th1ck when the bo1ler was purchased, and the boiler was worked on the m orning of the explosion at the high pressure of 35 lb.

Mr. Harrison in reJ?lY stated that the boiler did not leak and he thought 1t was safe.

Mr. lloward Smith referred to the dangerously thin plates, and asked Mr. Harrison what he had to say with regard thereto. ~fr. Harrison replied that he could say nothing at all except that he was ignorant of danger.

~Ir. Howard Smith said ignorance was no excuse and p ersons who used steam boilers and other applianc~ for their own use should take care to see that they were worked under safe conditions. The present case was a very bad one, and might have been attended with very serio~s results. The corrosion was external, and could readily have been found, had an examination been made. Mr. Harrison was decidedly to blame for neglecting this simple precaution. The case was of a flagrant character, and the Court was very much inclined t o make an order for the payment of the costs in full, which would amount to between 60l. and 70l. They had decided, however, to order Mr. Harrison to contribute to the Board of Trade the sum of 30l. towards the costs and expenses of the investigation.

LAUNCHES AND TRIAL TRIPS. THE s.s. Chickahominy went on her trial trip off the

Hartlepool coast on the 4th inst. She is the second of a group of three steamers built at the Middleton 8hipyard, West Hartlepool, by Messrs. Furness, Withy, and Co., Limited, for the Chesapeake and Ohio Steamship Company, and is fit not only for general carg_oJ but especially for the carriage of live cattle from the United States to this country. Two whole decks, almost from stem to stern, are given up to the accommodation of live cattle, and numerous improvements are provided for their safety and comparative comfort whilst on the voyage, the arrangements for ventilation and for the rapid sup{>lY of fresh water deserving especial mention. The vessel 1s pro· vided with main engines and boilers from the Central Marine Engine Works, West Hartle:J?ool, the cylinders being 28 in., 43! in., and 72 in. in diameter, by 48 in. stroke. The boilers are two large double·ended boilers working at 160 lb. per square inch made on the plan universally adopted at the Central En~ne Works, with welded and f\anged shellplates. The tnal trip took place on a most unfavourable day, there being a heavy sea running and much wind, which prevented anything like a test being made of the speed of the vessel.

The first-clas9 battleship Revenge, which was built and engined at ,J arrow by Messrs. Palmar and Co., made a contractors' eight hours' trial in the Channel on Tuesday, the 7th inst. , under natural draught. The average boiler pressure was 149.8 lb., the revolutions 96.3 and 96.8, and the mean vacuum as high as 28~ in. and 28.3 in. U nder these conditions, and with a mean air-pressure of .19 in., the starboard engine developed 4614 and the port engine 4563 horses, representing a collective horse-power of 9177, or 177 beyond the contract. The average speed of the ship as r egistered by log was 17.375 knots; the estimated speed is 16 knots. It remaino, however, to be said that the trim of the vessel was 24ft. 2i in. forward and 25ft. 9 in. aft, ~iving a mean immersion of 24 ft. ll.y in., whereas her d esigned mean load draught is 27 ft. 6 in. The coal consumption per unit of power per hour amounted to 1. 95 lb. of Harris's deep sea navigation coal. The vessel went out on the 9th inst. on forced draught trials. The sea was very rough, and swept the vessel from end to end, and caused the engines to race. But in spite of the severe test, the trial was remarkably successful, the P<?W~r having exceeded the forced draught contract by 524 mdt· cated horse-power, with an air pressure of only .46, or less than the allowance for natural draught trials. The details of the trials are as follows:

Steam pressure .. • • • •

Vacuum . . .. . . . . Revolutions . . . . . . ?rtean High pressure .. . . P res· Intermediate pressure sure. Low pressure . . . .

. JHigh pressure .. Indtcated I n t e r m e d i ate

Horse- l pressure . . . . Power. Low pressure ..

Total . . . . . . . . Collectively . . . . . .

• Mean air pressure . . 10. Speed of vessel by log . . knots Coal per indicated horse-power

per hour, approximate lb.

--

Natural Draught. I Forced Draught.

149.8 Starboard. 28.6

Port. 28.3 96.83 4,.7 22.73 ~ 0. 61 1402

96.3 4b.5 21.15 ll.66 1419

1433 1551 1762 1610 4614 4563

9177 .19

17.375

1.95

146.8 Starboard. Port.

28! 28 101.62

52.70 25.03 18.62 1783

102.3 54.20 28.12 12.63 1795

1792 2026 2169 2009 669i 6830

11,624 .46

17.5

2.24

On both occasions the vessel was under the command of Captain McKmstry, the Admiralty being represented by Mr. Oram the Dockyard by Mr. Hodgson, and the con · tractors by Mr. J. W. Reid, engineering manager. At the natural draught trial Mr. Colquhoun was present on behalf of the Steam ReRerve Staff, and at the forced draught trials Mr. W otton attended in a similar capacity.

---The new second-class cruiser Hermione, which has been


built in Devonport Dockyard, was successfully launched on the 7th inst. The llermione, which is one of the vessels built under the Naval Defence Act of 1889, was laid down at D evonport in December, 1891, and was designed by Mr. W. H. White, Assistant Controller and Director of Naval Construction at the Admiralty. Her principal dimensions are: L ength, 320 ft. ; breadth, 49ft. 6 in.; mean load draught. 19 ft. She will be power· fully armed with quick-firing Maxim and Hotchkiss guns of the newest type, and will be fitted in addition with several Whitehead torpedo tubes. H er en~gines and machinery have been supplied by Messrs. J. and G. Thomson, of Glasgow, and the total cost of the ship when completed, and including her armament. will be 244,625l. She is expected to develop 9000 and 7000 horse· power respectively with forced and natural draughts, and to accomplish a speed of 19.5 knots with forced and 18.25 knots with natural draught.

---On Wednesday, the 8th inst., there was launched from

the Cleveland dockyard of Sir Raylton Dixon and Co., Middlesbrough, a steel screw steamer of the spar deck ~ype, which has been built to the order of the Hansa Steamship Company, of Bremen, and is named the Lin· denfels. The principal dimensions are : Length, 327 ft. ; beam, 41 ft. 9 in. ; depth moulded, 28 ft. G in. The vessel has a deadwe1ght carrying capacity of about 4500 to?s. The engines will be fitted by Messrs. Thomas R10hardson and Sons, of Hartlepool, the cylinders being 24 in. 1 38 in. and 64 in. in diameter by 42 in. stroke, and supphed with steam by two large steel boilers working at 160 lb. pressure.

The second-class battleship BarftfJUr, of 10,500 tons, built at Cha.tham Dockyard, made her full-power natural draught trials under steam between theN ore and Dunge. ness on the 9th inst. The run occupied seven hours, the regulation eight hours not having been run on account of the darkness of the weather. The contractors for the machinery, the Greenock Foundry Company, were represented by Mr. J ohn Scott, C.B. The draught of water of the Barfleur was, forward, 21ft. 6 in., and aft, 25ft. 6 in. The .load on the safety valves was 155 lb. per square inch; average pressure of steam, 149 lb.; vacuum, 27.4 in. to 27.8 in. The revolutions of both engines k ept steadily at 95.3 to 95.9 revolutions per minute. The total indicated horse·power of each set of engines was 4970 on the starboard and_ 4950 on the port engines. The wind was very strong, bemg force 8, and the sea was rough. The engines worked splendidly throughout the trial, without any hot bearings, and with the use of only the ordinary water service, and indicated 900 horse-power above the contract stipulation. The boilers generated a plentiful supply of steam, without the aid of fans, and there was no priming. The results were in all re~peots satisfactory. The trial was conducted with open s tokeholds, and the fan engines were not used once during the day. The maximum horse-power developed during one hour was 10,615, while 10,070 horse-power was indicated for two consecutive hours. The ship was in charge of Captain L ord Charles Beresford, C. B., of the Medway Dockyard Reserve, the Admiralty being represented ab the trial by Mr. R. J. Butler, R.N. Tbe Greenock Foundry Company was represented by Mr. John Scott, C.B., senior partner in the firm, and also by Messrs. C. C. Scott and Mr. Edward Mackay. The engines were in charge of Mr. W. Cairns, who superintended the work of fitting the machinery at Chatham D ockyard. The forceddraught trial of the vessel on Saturday, the 11th inst., was highly satisfactory in every respect. The mean results were as follows: Steam pressure, 142.4 lb. ; air pressure, 1.4 in. ; vacuum, starboard, 27.7 in. ; port, 27.4 in. i revolutions per minute, starboard, 104.8; port, 105.6 ; mdicated horse-power. starbo~rd, 6580.4; port, 6582.7; aggregate, 13,163.1. The contract was for 13,000 horse-power. The speed by the patent log was 17.537 knots. The Barfleur is now to be completed for active ser vice. Either the Barfleur or the battleship of the same design, the Centurion-whichever is completed for sea first- will be despatched to the China St~tion to relieve the first-class cruiser Imperieuse, which will complete her second period of service as flagship early in the new year.

Messrs. Scott and Co., Greenock, launched on the 9th inst. a steel screw st eamer, called the Glen Park1 for Messrs. J. and J. Den holm, Greenock. Dimensions: Length, 212ft.; breadth, 31ft.; depth moulded, 14ft. 10 in. ; and with a deadw~ight carrymg capacity of 1250 tons. The builders will supply triple-expansion engines of 800 horse-power indicated.

Messrs. R. N a pier and Sons, Go van, launched on the lOth inst. an auxiliary screw steamer of about 700 tons for the London Missionary's Society's South Sea Mission. This vessel, named John Williams, has been Rpecially designed by Mr. Gilbert S . Goodwin, Liverpool, to take up the work of visiting the various islands m the South Pacific, which work has been done by the society 's sailing vessels for nearly a hundred years. T o attain the most economical results on the long voyage of 18,000 miles, she will be rigged as a barquentine, with about 12,500 square feet of canvas, and a Bevis feathering propeller has been fluppli ed, which can easily- ha adapted when steam power is required. The prinCipal dimensions are : L ength over all, 204 ftl.; length on water line, 180 ft.; breadth extreme, 31 ft. 8 in.; depth moulded, 16 ft . She has a cellular double bottom for 130 tons of water ballast. Accommodation has been provided for twelve buropean missionaries in six state-rooms, with a dining-room, &c. The machinery consists of a set of triple-expansion engines, having cylinders 15 in., 24 in., and 39 in. in diameter, and 27 in. stroke, with a single-ended boiler

'

[Nov. 17, 1893.

14 ft. 3 in. in diameter by 10 ft. 3 in. Ion~, for a working pressure of 175 lb. per square inch.

The new Russian coast defence battleship Admiral Oushakoff was launched from the Baltic shipbuilding yard on the Neva, the C~r and Czarina being vresent on the occasion, with other members of the ImperJal family. The new ship, which is named after a distinguished com. mander of the Russian Black Sea fleet at the end of the last century, was begun in the Baltic works in July of last year, the Emperor and Empress having performed the ceremony of laying down the keel on November 3, 1891, the day on which the great cruiser the Rurik was launch ed from the same -~yard. The dimensions of the Admiral Ouehakoff are : L ength of bull, 278ft.; breadth of beam, 52ft. ; draught, 17ft. ; and displacement, 4126 tons. The greatest thickness of her side armour will be 10 in. Her twin engines and four boilPrs have been made by Maudsley and Field, in England ; the engines are of the triple·expansion type, representin~ together 5000 indicated horse-power, and capable of giving the ironclad a speed of 16 knots. The armament will consist principally of four 10-in. guns glaced in two armoured turrets, and 20 quick·firing guns, besides torpedoes. Her normal supply of coal is calculated at 200 tons, although she is considered capable of carrying double that quantity. The Rurik, it may be added, is now being fitted ont for sea, and it is, to sa_y the least, a remarkable circumstance that the English Navy has not a single ship afloat capable of overtaking and capturing this Russian vessel. The Powerful and Terrible have been designed for that pur· pose, hub so far only one of them has been laid down.

THE COPENHAGEN FREE HABBOUR.- On November 1, with much solemnity, the water was admitted to the new Copenhagen free harbour, now in course of construe· tion, Prince Waldemar of Denmark O.J..>ening the syphon, which, at a very moderate speed, will fill the basins so slowly, in fact. that unless another syphon or two a re employed as much as two months and a half will elapse before they are filled. All the work in connection with the Copenhagen free harbour has been pushed ahead with much energy. The Bill was only introduced before the Danish Parliament some three years ago, and became law two years and seven months ago; the following day the authorities begau to move in the matter. The numerous contractors have also worked with a will, large s taffs of men have been employed, and a. quantity of special plant has been in operation. · At times the work has been proceeding through the whole of the twenty-four hours. On the southern reservoir work has been going on for about 420 days, and on the northern about 340 days and 50 nights. The largest quantity of earth removed per diem has been 3120 cubic yarde in the southern and 5120 cubic yards in the northern section, or an aggregate of over 8000 cubic yards per twenty·four hours. There have been no serious accidents to the works, but there have been eeveral casualties among the m en, who, however, so far as it has been possible to control it, have been insured against accidents. The total amount of earth dug out and used for filling-up purposes is about 1,200,000 cubic yards. The area of water mside the dams was origin· ally about 120 acres, and of these about 60 acres have at prer3ent been transformed into land, and the balance will constitute the water area of the southern and middle basins.

GRAND THUNK E cONOMIOS.-The length of line in operation upon the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada at the close of June, 1893, was ~509 miles, of which 404 miles were double track. The length of steel rails upon the system at the close of June, 1893, was 3812 miles, while only 101 miles were laid with iron rails. The com· pany also owned at the close of June, 18~3, 699 miles of sidings, of which 404 miles were laid with steel rails and 295 mile~ wit~ iron ~ails. A branch or siding, one mhe in length, IS bemg bUilt t o COte St. Paul, a manufacturing subw·b of Montreal. The expenditure made in the permanent way department in the first half of this year was 184,942l., as compared with 184,974l. in the corresponding period of 1892. A number of wooden bridges and culverts have either been replaced or are in course of reconstruction with more permanent ma~erials. In addition to the ordinary maintenance of way and works, an embankment crossmg a long swamp between Hamburg and Hamburg Junction on the Michigan Air Line, which had settled below the level of high water, was overflowed during a. spring freshet, and had to be raised 2~ ft. The number of locomotives upon the sys tem at the close of June, 18~3, was 798 ; of pas~enger cars, 903; of freight cars, 22,486; of auxiliary and 1ce scraper cars, 96; and snow ploughs, 59. In the first half of this year 4445l. was expended m furthor double tracking the system, ::l0,400l. for other new works, and 5::l22l. for addit10nal rolling st0ck. The 30,400l. expended under the heading of " new works" was made up as follows: Sundry new sidings and works, 93n8l. ; n ew s tations and buildings, . 9582l. ;_ replacement of wo~de~ bridges by stone and uon br1dges, and strengthenmg Jron bridges, 6830l. ; Kingscourt and G lencoe line, 10,630l. The aggregate~ cost of locomotive power (including repairs of engines) in the first half of this year was 516,213!., as corn· pared with 515, 196l. in the corresponding period of 1892. The aggregate dis tance run by trains in the first half of this year was 9,277,018 miles, as compared with 9, 1G0,625 m~les in the corresponding period of 1892. The 9,277,018 miles representing the distance run by trains in the first half of this year, was made up as follows: Pas· senger trains, 3,168,586 miles; freight trains, 4,888,435 miles; and mixed trains, 1,219,997 miles.

Nov. 17, 1893.] E N G I N E E R I N G.

"ENGINEERING" ILLUSTRATED RECORD.

I vided in the periphery of the recess, and a p rojection on the segp A TENT I me.nt of similar shape to the groove. When the segment is

expanded, the projection D.on it is wedged into its grooves C, and

CoMPILED BY W. LLOYD WISE. SELECTED ABSTRACTS OF RECENT Pu:BLISHED SPECIFIOATIONS

UNDER THE ACTS 1883-1888.

The nu:rnb~r of views given in the SpecifwatWn. I>rawings is stated in each case ; where none are mentioned, the Specification is not iltmtrated.

Where l nventioM are commt~nicated from abroad, the Nam~, etc. of the Communicators are given in italics.

CoP'i~ of Specifications may be obtained at the Patent Offtee Sale Branch, 38, Cur8itor-street, Chamcery-lalne, E. C. , at the ttn;form price of 8d.

The date of the advertisement of the acceptance of a complete IJ"(Jecijication is, in each ca8e, given after the a_bstract, unless the Patent haR been sealed, when the date of sealim.g is given.

Any person m,ay at any time within two months from th_e dat~ of the advertisement of the acceptance of a complete speciji.catton, give notice at the Patent O.fltee of opposition to the grant of a Patent on any of the grounds mentioned in the .d.ct.

GAS, &c., ENGINES. 20 803. B. B. Andrew and A. R. Bellamy, Stock

pori, Chester. Gas, &c., Engines. (1 Pig.) ~ovember 17 1892.-This invention relates to means for gas finng, &c., cn'gines, either at star ting or subsequently, and the object is to enable the ignition tt~b~ to be removed and r~plaoe~ by an~th~r tube without displa.cmg t he vah•es or connecttons w1th t he Jgmtion tu be. The igni tion valve is arranged to open at the proper time to allow the explosive fluid mixture to flow u nder the valve into a abort tube inolosed in the heated ignition tube ; the exp!o-

2DIOJ

sive fl uid mixture flows t~rough the short tube and ~hen betw~en t he two tubes and passes mtoasmall chamber, the ex1t fro~ wb1ch into the atmosphere is cont rolled by a mushroom valve; tb1s valve is opened at the same time as t he ignition valve by means of a washer carried by the spindle of the ignition _va_lve acting upon a tumbler catch pivoted to t he. end of the sntftmg valv~ sp1~dle. When t he ignition valve is agam opened, the wash er _on l~S spmdle opens the snifting valve, and a llows some of the flu1d m1xture to escap~ Lbrough it into the atmosphere. (.Accepted October 4, 1893).

GUNS, &c. 21651. o. Jones, London. Machine Guns, &c. ~15

Pigs: ) November 26, U92.-This invention relates to mach10e guns and means for feeding c~rtridge~ to t~em . The ~unframe A is provided with a. hmged hd ; C 1s the ?a.rtnd~e belt; D, Dl , the breech bolts; E, ~he transverse]~ movmg fee_dslide. The cartridge belt C cons1sts of ~wo str1ps C?f mater~~l such as canvas ri veted together , t he car tridges be10g mserted 1_n openings in the belt between the rivets. A grooved support R ts e.rranged behind_ t he fe~d-slide E and between t he pl';lngers J?, D1, which are prov1ded wtth hooks wber~by the cartndges w1ll be drawn successively from the belt C mto the space above the t rough R. A plate is a rran g-ed in the ~un-fram~ beneath. the slot t hrough which the belt C travels. Thts plate lS made w1tb a l'earward extension A9 in which is formed a taper slot. A 10, so that a car tridge drawn out of the belt C by either )?lunger IS supporte~ upon the edges of the slotted extension A9 unt1l t he plunger termt·

A

Jtg.2.

R

ZIGSI

nates its backward movement, when t he cartridge can fa11 through t he slot AlO into the trough R. To facili tate the witbd.rawal ?f the plungers, the plate is arranged to turn about t he bmge-pm of the cover, so t hat, when the ~un-frame is opened, t he p late can be turned back Ylithout detachmg it from t he gun. For pushing down the cartridges into the trough R, after t hey are withdrawn from t he belt 0, a lever q is provided, and is pivoted to a bracket q1

attached to the cover of the gun-frame, and is operated by projections }{2 on the central diso K of the crankshaft, each projection acting successively on two short arms of the lever so as to rapidly depress and ra ise it. Each plunger D or Dl is pro,·ided with a p rojection u whereby, in its forward movet:nent, a cartridge previously drawn from t he belt and moved downwards into t he trough R by the lever q, is thrust into the feed-slide E. In the lonJZitudinal movement of the cartridge and of the other plunger relatively to each other, the project ion u of the plunger pushes aside the cart ridge. (Accepted Oc!ober 4, 1893).

MACHINE TOOLS, SBAFTING, &c. 17,795. F. L. Croft and B. Christian, Bradford.

Friction Clutches. (5 Figs.] October 6, 1892.-Tbis invention relates to a friction clutch fo r conveyio~ rotary motion , in which a clutch piece is expanded against the periphery of a c,rlindrical recess. An "nnular groo'·~ of wed~e eha.pe is pro-

PU:l· 7.

mu.

A D

t h e friotional contact is increas< d. To allow th e introduction of th e clutch piece, the sh ell A forming the cylindrical recess is made in two parts secured together . (Accepted October 4, 1893).

RAILWAY APPLIANCES. 21,884. J. N. Braun, Roslyn, Klttitass, Washing

ton, U.S.A. Couplings for Ra.Uway Vehicles. [3 Figs.] November 30, 1892.-In t bis invention t he drawbars C are provided with dra.wheads B in the form of a t rough open at the top, and having a bottom wall a, side walls b, and a narrow t ransverse top wall c at t heir inner ends, the bottom and top walls being provided with alignfd ver tical apertures to receive t he link pin d for connecting a Jiok D to each drawhead. Rising from t he bottom wall of each drawhead at the forward end is a hook E slopin&" back, the ba..ckward end being ben t down so as to

Fig.1

0 8

f

form a. projection to prevent. t he lin k from becomi~g disen~aged by the jolting of t he oa.rr•ages. A frame work10g verttcally t hrough the bottom of t he drawheads engages and raises the links when it is desired t o u ncouple the carriages. The frame is in <:onnection with a bellcrank lever mounted oo the top of the carriage, from which it may be operated, so that a person standing at the side or top of t he carriage may raise both links above t he books and t heret'ty uncouple the oarriagl's, Ol' so that he may raise the link of one drawhead so that it will take into another resting at a higher elevation. (.iccepted October 4, 1893).

20,185. T. A. Ainscough, Manchester. Brake· Blocks for Railway Carriages. (4 Pigs.] November 9, 1892.-This invention relates to the brake-blocks a~plied to the wheels of railway carriages, the object ot the m vention being to p revent unneoasary wear d ue to the rising and falling of the body of the carriage upon the springs drawing the lower or upper ed~es of t he brake-block against the periphery of t he wheel. Eaeh brake-block is supported by a hanger suspended from t he body of the carriage, and is connected by a radius arm to the axle· box, so t hat as the brake-block rises and falls with the carriage, instead of movin~ in a perpendicular direction, it rises and falls in a curved direction corresponding

.-. ' o I • •

o·)

with t he circumference of the wheel, so that no part of its surface is brought into conta.ct with the wheel by the ordinary spring motion of t he carriage. This radius arm is made io two parts sliding telescopically and provided with a coiled spring, so as to allow of t he arm being shortened when the brak es are applied, and return ing to it s original leng th when they are released . One end of the radius arm is pivoted to the axle-box, and the other is forked and connected by two studs to the brake-block, one of t he studs being the same that connect s the hanQ;er t o the brake-block, so that the latter cannot rock upon the conneotingpin, but is kept quite ~rm an~ compelled to rise and fall in. a curve corresponding w1th the nm of tbe wheel, and at a defhnte distance from it. (.iccepted October '· 1893).

STEA.M: ENGINES AND 17,371. J. B. Irwln, Sunderland. Condensers,

&c., for Steam Engines. (4 Figs.] September 29, 1892.This in,·ention relates to a condenser and evaporator for steam engines, whereby a quantity of waste heat can be utilised for the production of fresh water for boiler feeding, &c. , and con sists in isolating a few tubes in the hotter part of the condenser, and causing a. por tion of the circulatinll' water already heated in its passage through the condenser t o flow to and fro in these tubes, so that it may be raised to a temperature nearly equalling that of the exhaust steam itself hy absorbing h~at from the surrounding vapour. The water thus heated is conducted by a pipe to a res'!rvoir, in which it is heated by steam. A pipe from the

•

upper part of the reservoir is used to carry off the vapour to the conder.sers. Cocks, valves, and gauge~ are also. attached to the reservoir for discharging any accumulatiOn of bnne, and also for

regulating the flow of water and vapour . (.Accepted Ocwbtr 1893).

21588. w. B. Bailey, Salford, ~anos. Relief Val~es for Steam Cyl1nders. [2 F tgs.] Nov~m~er 26, 1&92 -This invention relates to relief val ves for preveotmg mjury to steam cylinders caused by an accumulation of water , and the object is to enable both valv('S t o be held open. for a f~w moments after star tiog an en~ine, and to dispense wtth sprmgs. ~hese valves are mounted in a casing c£, secured to. the stta.m cylind er near its centre, and each is composed of a d1ac and ste~ fr~e Lo slide, and having a seating in the casine- and a flange on 1·s mner

side. Between these flanges is an eccentric mounted upon a spindle g' which passes t.hroug~ the oas~ng a and has a handl_e h secured to it. When one valve e 1s closed, 11.8 rear end abuts agamst the end of t.he ot.her f and holds it open, so that as the pressure of steam admitted alternately at each end of the cylinder closes one valve, the other is opened . On s~arting t he engine both va1 ves. are opened s im ultaotously by turnmg the h andle and ecoentr1c a. quarter turn, and when all the water has escaped from the cylinder the handle is turned back. (Accepted October 4, 1893).

21,676. J. M. Austin, London. Automatic Variable Expansion Gear for Steam Engines. [6 Figs.] Nov~mber 28 1892.-This inven tion relates to automatic expans1on gear for steam eni'ines. The h or izontal lever B is worked by the eccentric throug h the arm, and engages with the bellorank at A 1, t hereby raising t he \'alve spindle 0 Cl until t he toe of the

t = Fig 2

. . ~ . .. ... L:;.;; ...

\ I I

• \ L /1616

bellorank A' trips otf the horizontalle,·er B by the stop D. The positions of D a.re regulated by t he governor by levers. For working a single-expansion vo.lve similar gear is introduced on t he other side of the valve spindle C 01, whereby two beats of the val ve for one revolution can be obtained. (A ccepted October 4, 1893).

18,254. J. Gwynne, London, and M. P. Chepournoft: Timashevo. Samara, Russia. Burning Liquid I uel in Boiler, &c., Furnaces. (12 Figs.) October 12, 1892.This invention relates to means for burning liquid fuel in steam boiler, &c. , furnaces, and comprises two separate pipes connected together at an angle oo one another, with their discharge apertures near each other, one of these pipes 1 serviog for the passage of

Fig .1. Frj.4 -@

I 3 • I

• ; ..... --. -· @ ---

Fig .:b. . 3 .

liquid fuel, and the other 2 for steam, and each being provided with an independent, longitudinally adj ustable, reA'Ulating spindle 3 for controlling its discharQ;e aperture. The forward ends of t hese spindles pass through apertures 9 formed in chambers in communication with the forward ends of the pipes. In this chamber is arranged a. metal diaphragm 10, which prevents communicat ion between the forward ends of the pipes. ( ~ ccepted. September 27, 1893).

20.966. M. Gehre, Rath, Dusseldorf, Germany. Tubular Water BoUers. [9 F igs. ] November 18, 1892.This in\'ention has for its object to aftord steam space in the water chamber into which the tubes open, and into which the steam rises, the water chamber being fo r this purpoie divided by cross partitions into separate chambers, each of which has a de~erm_ined water level and ste~m space. The water from the upper botler 1s under full pressure m the whole water chamber and fills it and the cross-chambers completely before the form~tion of steam commences. As soon as t his takes place the steam ftows from the water pipes A into the cross-cbamb~r (Fig. 1}.

As its specific gravity is lighter, the steam then remains in the upper part of these separate croBB-chambers, and presses the water down until the lower ends of the connecting pipe& 0 are above the level of the water. It then commences to Aow through these tubes to the steam space, standing above each of the divisions until 1t can escape through the topmost

Fig./.

. 2. .Fig .3 .

-and larger tube to the steam chamber of the boiler. In the uppermost cross·obamber also the steam simultaneously presses back the water until it can escape from the connecting pipe m to the steam chamber of the upper boiler. As much water as is evaporatf'd always ftows in through the openings 0 . (Accepted Septembe1· 27, 1893).

20.941. P. Browne and D. Crawford, Liverpool. Boners. [2 Figs.) November 18, 1892.-This invention relates t.o means for beating and regulating the supp1y of feed water for boilers. If the by-paBB valve 11 is closed and the valves 9, 10

Ftg .1

F~.~.

are open, the feed water passes through the pipe 7 and is heated before being delivered to th~ boiler, and the s~pply is s.utom~tically regu1ated, as the opemng of the regulatmg cock 12 vanes in accordance \\' ith the rise and fall of the water level. (Accepted September 27, 1893).

21,007. J. E. L. Tatham, Rochdale, Lancs •. ~ec~anical Stokers. [3 F igs.] November 19, 1892.-Thls m vent1on relates to mechanical stokerA for automat ically feeding fuel to furnaces, and consists in constructing them so as to dispe~se with hopper£!. The travelling creeper consists of metallic cha1ns c provided with cross-bars d. The chains pas& round pulleys e on a frame, one end of which enters the mouth or the furnace,

A~ ~ ~~ ~,,, ~rj/1'

whilst the other le carried beneath the hopper g, b£:low the level of the cart t rack lt. The fuel le tipped direot in~ th~ hopper fro~ the cart. The hopper has a reciprocatln~ mot1on 1mparted to 1t to insure regular deposition of the fuel on the creeper .. A plate is carried by the frame, and on it the fuel rests, and IS mo~ed along its surface to the furnace by the bars d. (Accepted ::Jep. tember 27, 1898).

IIISCZI·LAlO:OtJS. 21,726. J. Bornaby and J. Innocent, (!rantham,

LtncolD8. Sheaf-BlndlDJ Harvesters. [4 Jt'l{Js. ] November 28, 1892.-ln this InventiOn the end of the but~r c furthest from the crank is supported on a c~ne-shaped bar p1voted to t~e bracket j carrying the crank. Th1s bar can be turned about 1t pivot so that when the buttor is at work, the end of the latter against the sb~aves may be adjusted to suit t~e length of the crop, this adjustment being effected by a rod p1voted to the upp~r limb of the crane. Near its outer end the crane bar U JS cranked downwards and is then again b~n.t horizontally, the latter part carrying a sliding bracket h JOmted to a bracket fixed to the buttor c. To separate the bound. and unbound portions of the crop a prong is fixed to a hor1zootal bar, caused to oscillate as each sheaf is bound. The end ~f t~e ~ar is turned u w~rds to form a crank, to th~ end of wh1ch lS p1voted a coon~cting-rod, whose otber end is p1\'0ted to a b~acket. The knotter spindle makes one revolution, and the separatmg prongs therefore oscillate once tor each sheaf that is bound. When the prongs are in their normal position they are above the crop, and do n~t intercept it as it passes forward to be bound, but wben there 1s

E N G I N E E R I N G. sufficient grain to form a sheaf, and the binding mechanism is started, the needle pin passin round the sheaf makes a division

Ftg 1

•

Iig.Z.

l17ZG

between the latter and the unbouod grain, and into this division the separating prongs are moved and press the unbound grain away from the back of the needle. (.Accepted October 4, 1893).

21,408. c. McKenzle, Edinburgh. Hydraulic Valves. [5 Figs.] November 24, 1892.- This invention relates to a" disc" valve for hydraulio cranes, &c. A shallow chamber A is provided with means for connecting it with pressure pipes which operate the ram, and with the exhaust pipes al, a2, a 3. Inside the cylinder A is a disc B provided with a spindle C, the front end of which passes through a tight -fitting stuffing-box and gland D, in front of which it is provided with an operating handle

FiA.J 1 . ' . '

A G aJ • I

' • '

a~

E. The back end or the cylinder A is ground so as to form the valve seat against which the ground face of the disc B works, the disc B being formed of a less depth than the cylinder A so as to form an annular cbamher a" around the back of the disc, and between it and the stuffing-box, so as to permit of the pressure pipe a 1 being led therein, and so cause a constant pressure to be exerted on the disc B and keep the valve ti~ht. (.Accepted October 4, 1898).

21,644. C. Kohlert, Berlin, Germany. Ploughs. [10 Jt~igs. ] November 26, 1892.- This invention relates to p1oughs in which an arm on the furrow wheel axle is connected wi t b au adjusting lever by means of two jointed rods, the arm being caused, when the plough is in use, to abut against a rotatable eccentric stop provided on the plough frame, and which, when placed in one poRition, retains the furrow wheel at the depth of the bottom of the plou~h, but which, when placed ln the opposite position, a11ows of a further raising of the furrow wheel. The front furrow wheel R is, by a single adjusting- lever C, set forwards or backwards by means of the two jointed rods b connected to an arm a upon the cranked axle A, the laodwheel Rl being at the same time set backwards or forwards by a single rod bl connected to an arm al upon the axle portion to which the landwbeel is connected, and which is rotatably mounted on an extension of the axle A. The shorter ann of the adjusting lever 0 is connected by means of a rod b2 and arm a,.2 to the axle stem of a rear furrow wheel R2, so that the adjustment of the latter

\ •

Pig.1. \ • \

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Ft-g.2. •

,

Fig.3

wheel is effected simultaneously with the adjustment of the front furrow and la.ndwheels Rand Rl respectively. An eccentric stop n is arranged on the plough , ~~ adj~sting ~hich the wheels are brought into the proper pGSltlons m .relatiOn ~o the sol~ ?f t~e plough. For first ploughing, t he stop IS turnecf: mto a pos1t1on m which the arm a. strikes against it at a later per1od, so as to allow the furrow wheel R to a88ume Ita highest positio.n. For ploughi!lg, the stop is set backwards so that the wheel R.ts arrested earher, thereby neceBBitatiog a corresponding shortemog of the rods b. In order to etfect this these rods are connected together by means of a bolt x so that they can bend upwards ''' ben the arm strikes against the st~p. The be~ Qf tbe bolt ~ slides in an undercut g roove in

a guide-shoes fixed to the plough frame, when the plough is being adjusted for transport or is first ploughing. The guide·shoe s carries a withdrawal e-top pin sl, which, when inserted over the rearmost of the two jointed rods, limits the bending of the rods when the plough is being adjusted for first ploughing, but which, when withdrawn, renders the rods free to bend when t he plough is being adjusted for ploughing. (.Accepted October 4, 1893).

20,595. F. W, and F. W. Scott, London, and E . G. Scott, Liverpool. Evaporating, &c., Apparatus. (3 F igs. ] November 14, 1892.-This inventiOn relates to apparatua for evaporating or concent rating saccharine juice£', &c., in vacuo. In that part of the casing off the cock to whieh the t roughs are opposite, after they have discharged their contents, and before they are again brought into communication with the interior of the

' ' ' I ' I

2DS9S

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···------ ·-·---

\ .. • •

pan, an opening is formed communicating by a pipe h with t he air pump working in conjunction with t he vacuum pal?, so that the air can be exhausted from the troughs. A valv~ k.1s arrange~ In the pipe which remains closed when a trough lB m commumcation with the atmosphere, and is opened at the required times by a cam n rotated with the discharge valve. (..d ccepted Sep. tember 27, 1893).

20,9tf. B. R. Alien, Croydon, Surrey. Cleaning Roads &c. [4 Figs.) No,·ember 18, 1892.- This invention relates to appar~tus for cleaning roads, &c., described in Patent No. 15,717 or 1891. A is a receptacle, B a rasing, 0 a passage between ~he receptacle and casing, and Fa revolvab)e b rush over an opemng E in t he bottom of the casln~ B. IT, Hl! are revoluble rollen.

In the casing B are bands J, on which are buckets K. P are frames in the sides of the casing B having guides R and T, blocks V eliding in the frames and eupporting a scraper M. N are eccentric conoecting·rods between the wheels A' and the scraper M, and W are tipping levers actuated by links X on the rods N. (~ccepted September 27, 1893).

12,131. B. A. Willlams, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Wire Rolling Mlll. [16 F igs.] June 20, 1893.Tbis invention relates to con tinuous t rain rolling mills, in which the rolls are arranged altE'rnately in oppositely inclined planes for being placed at right angles to each other successive1y. A p1urality of triangu1ar ba e supports b are provided for the bousings, having one side extended beyond the other and set upright on the bed frame a., with the extended sides in the reverse inclinations alternately. The intermediate drhing shaft is}lorated between the sides and benches, and line shafts are placed along the lower side of eaoh range of rolls, the lower roll having the step bearing and the water-circulating connection at t he lower end. The roll housing£! are on the upper parts of

the base supports, and the rolls and line shaft being geared through the friction clutch on the roll shaft, the line shafts along the lower sides of the base supports being geared with the intermediate shafts and roBs. Pn.oking rings a:, y are p)aced between the shaft and the step bearing. Pointed adjustable studs are provided in the recesses of the housin~s, and the pointed adjusting scrAws not against the points of the studs to adjust the roBs for alignment of the passes. The rod guide consists of the funnel-mouthed divided tube extending from one to the other of the pairs of rolls in a direct line, one part of this guide being fastened in position, and the other hinged to the fixed part, means being provided for faeteniog the two pa~ together when closed. (.Accepted September 27, 1898).

UNITED STATES PAT.ENTB AND PATENT PRAOTIOB. Descriptions with illustrations of inventions patented in the

United States of America from 1847 to the present time, and repor ts of trials of patent law cases in the United States, may be consulted, gratis, at the offices of ENGIN~f:RING1 35 and 361 Bed(ord· street, Strand,

Engineering Vol 56 1893-11-17

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Transcript of Engineering Vol 56 1893-11-17