Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization The Christians entry.doc

8/18/2019 Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization The Christians entry.doc

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The Encyclopedia of

Christian CivilizationVolume IEdited by George Thomas Kurian

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Encyclopedia

of ChristianCivilization

EDITED BY George Thomas Kurian

Four olumes

Blac!"ell #u$lishers%&ford

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#refaceA preface is an apologetic device. It is designed to explain !rst the occasionsecond the concept rationale and purpose and third the organi"ation structureand methodology.

The %ccasion

In 2#$$ the %hristian %hurch &ill celebrate its 2### years and the Encyclopediaof Christian Civilization 'E%%( is timed to anticipate and celebrate the momentouslandmar).

The 'ationale and #urposeE%% is a panoptic and magisterial survey of the cultural complex and civili"ationcreated by the %hristian %hurch over the past 2### years. *ost reference boo)son %hristianity deal &ith theology and history &ith the beliefs and doctrines. E%%paints a much broader picture. It tries to explore the impact of %hristianity onhuman civili"ation the &ord encompassing not only religion but also music artliterature architecture la& visual arts performing arts society. E%% believesthat +ostoevs)y ,ernini %aravaggio ,ach %olumbus and *ichelangelo are asimportant as Augustine Tertullian -ope Gregory the Great and ,illy Graham instudying the evolution of %hristianity. The !rst purpose of E%% is to study theGestalt of %hristianity not merely its doctrines and beliefs.

The second purpose of E%% is to study not merely %hristianity but also %hristians.%hristianity is a living faith and it is dicult to grasp its roots or its strengththrough purely intellectual philosophical theological or even historicaldiscourses. In fact it is relatively easy to dismiss %hrist on intellectualphilosophical theological and historical grounds and thousands have done sofrom the !rst to the 21st centuries. ,ut it is more dicult if not impossible todismiss or deny the lives and testimonies of 1/ billion human beings &ho havelived as %hristians during the past 2### years or the testimonies of 0# millionmartyrs &hose blood &ould !ll several rivers. These are the cloud of &itnessesof &hom -aul spea)s. To deny %hrist &ould be to deny these 1/ billion &hoselives &ere touched by 3im and to dismiss all of them as deluded fools. There is anorganic bond bet&een the believer and the believee. In a remar)able statement

4esus as)s of -aul on the 5oad to +amascus 6hy do you persecute me7

&hereas -aul had never even seen %hrist in the 8esh. The implication is thatthose &ho deride or persecute %hrist persecute 3is follo&ers and vice versa.

The third purpose of E%% is to present %hristianity as a dynamic faith rather thana static religion. %hristianity is a moving target and snapshots give the falseimpression that the faith is set in concrete or is entirely passive or dead butpreserved li)e an Egyptian mummy. Every day and every hour and every momentthe 3oly 9pirit is active in the &orld &or)ing in the lives of believers. There is acore %hristianity as distinct from its outer shell the invisible church as distinctfrom the visible church. The visible shell is a series of moral codes prescriptions

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for a happy life a placebo not a cure. It is diluted and alloyed &ith ideas ofhuman origin &ith no inherent po&er in them. %ore %hristianity on the otherhand is a po&erful explosive force a force that in ,iblical language can movemountains. ,ecause of the enormity of this force it has to be mas)ed steppeddo&n or scaled do&n to ma)e it comprehensible to !nite intelligence. The divinehas to be physically translated into the human. -aul describes this %hristianity in

unforgettable language Eyes have not seen nor ears heard neither has itentered into the heart of man that &hich God hath prepared.

The fourth purpose of E%% is to examine the fruits of %hristianity its impact onhuman institutions and society. 4esus said :ou shall )no& the tree by its fruits.Applying the same standard to %hristianity E%% examines ho& %hristianity haschanged human civili"ation &hether these changes are real and for the good.6hen 4ohn the ,aptist &anted to !nd out &hether 4esus &as the long;a&aited*essiah 4esus ans&ered him by citing the captives &ho &ere set free the blindmen &hose sight &as restored lepers &ho &ere healed and bro)en lives that&ere mended These are the ultimate fruits of faith.

(tructure) %rganization and *ethodology

Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization is an A;< encyclopedia. It is both adiachronic encyclopedia that delves into history and a synchronic encyclopediathat describes the state of the %hristian %hurch today.It has !ve categories of entries=

%>5E A5TI%?E9 ; 6ideranging articles that de!ne a !eld and include commentaryhistorical bac)ground and comprehensive revie&s of literature.%35>@>?>GI%A? 3I9T>5IE9 ; These are timelines that survey the expansion of%hristianity by centuries and set the chronological context for the topical essays.G?>,A? 5EGI>@A? A@+ TE55IT>5IA? %35I9TIA@IT: These entries cover ethnic nationalor regional churches and their peculiarities based on the nature and date of itsintroduction and exogenous cultural in8uences.

+E@>*I@ATI>@A? A@+ %>@E99I>@A? %35I9TIA@IT: These entries cover denominationsand families of denominations as &ell as confessions and traditions as buildingbloc)s of the church.,I>G5A-3IE9I@TE5-5ETIBE E99A:9 Key issues events places concepts and ideas.,5EAK>CT E@T5IE9 9atellite or subaltern entries that explore greater detail somefacet of a topic or concept.All entries carry a bibliography. There is a comprehensive bibliography at the end.Each entry also has cross references.

>ther features include 1/ appendices sidebar maps and charts.

As al&ays I ta)e full responsibility for any de!ciencies shortfalls or errors in

these four volumes.

GE>5GE T3>*A9 K C5IA@ :>5KT>6@ 3EIG3T9 @E6 :>5K *A5%3 2D 2##/

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Introduction+ %vervie" of theChristian ,orld%hristianity is more than a religion in the conventional sense. It is a )ingdom of itso&n a spiritual )ingdom it is true but nevertheless a )ingdom &ith o&n monarchla&s language institutions intellectual currencies culture and civili"ation. It is a)ingdom that coexists &ith the )ingdoms of this &orld &ith &hich it has been al&aysin con8ict. A typology of %hristian ideas and traditions has never been attempted

but such a classi!cation is important because the various in8uences that shaped%hristian history are not apparent to casual observers or even to believers. *a)ingthe tas) even more dicult is its sheer immensity. The landscape of the %hristian&orld &ould be similar to the great Ama"on 5iver &ith its vast net&or) of interloc)ingtributaries and branches. It can be mapped as cartographers map countries but togain an intimate )no&ledge one needs to &al) through the terrain.

The universe of %hristian civili"ation has never been fully explored eitheruantitatively or ualitatively. The uantitative universe can never be fully measuredaccurately but through statistical extrapolations &e may obtain some glimpses of itsextent. The data in this section are obtained from The ,orld Christian Encyclopedia 'edited by +avid ,arrett George Thomas Kurian and Todd 4ohnson >xford Cniversity-ress 2###(.

The -um$ers

There are 210$1/$ D## %hristians in the &orld. That is the number from &hicheverything else in this boo) 8o&s. %hristianity can only be understood in terms of thefact that the lives of over 2 billion people are in some form or other shaped by it.%hristians ma)e up $$.2F of the global population. That is do&n from $D.F of the&orld population in 1H## and $$.DF of the &orld population in 1H/#.


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3o&ever %hristians form over #F of the &orlds literate population. In all countriesof the &orld %hristians are more literate than non;%hristians. *ore than #F of*uslims and DF of 3indus and ,uddhists are illiterate.*ore than 1/ billion human beings have lived as %hristians on earth since the time of the 12 apostles.Every day=

The number of %hristians is gro&ing by 122###>f these by continent 2D## %hristians are being added in Africa1HD## in Asia22## in Europe 21### in 9outh America### in @orth America/## in >ceania

>f the total number of %hristians about DF are non;&hite and DJF are &hite.%hristianity became predominantly a non;&hite religion in the 1HH#s.

>n the one hand %hristianity has experienced massive gains across the Third 6orldfor most of the 2#th century. In Africa %hristians have mushroomed from H.H million in1H## to $J# million in 2###. +espite the &idespread notion that %hristianity &as acolonial religion much of the gro&th occurred after the end of colonial regimes. Thepresent net increase in that continent is /.D million ne& %hristians a year '2$### aday( of &hich 1. million are net ne& converts. 9i"able net conversions are alsota)ing place in Asia outside the *iddle East '2.D million a year(. Korea has becomethe second nation in Asia to have a maority %hristian population. A maor reason forthis expansion across the Third 6orld is the message of ustice of the %hristianGospel to the poor and the oppressed. It is the same po&er that brought in thedisenfranchised people of the 5oman Empire to the faith in the !rst century.

,ut on the other hand %hristianity has experienced massive losses in the 6estern6orld since the end of 6orld 6ar II. In Europe and @orth America especially in themore aLuent countries net defections from %hristianity are running at 1./2# milliona year. This loss is much higher if one considers only church members= 222D/## ayear or J### a day. If one is spea)ing of only church attendees the loss is muchsteeper. >ver 20J1## church attendees in Europe and @orth America ceaseattending church every year at the rate of 0J## a day. The loss in 6estern Europeand @orth America is oMset partially as a result of the fall of %ommunism in EasternEurope and the former 9oviet Cnion countries. ,ut there also the gains may not lastvery long given the increasing seculari"ation of society.

>f the 2.10$ billion %hristians 2.#J billion are aliated '$1.DF of the &orldpopulation(. >f the aliated %hristians the confessional distribution is as follo&s=5oman %atholics= 11$02H### '10.DF(-rotestants= $/210H### './F(>rthodox= 21HD$$### '$.DF(Anglicans and Episcopalians= /12$0### '1.2F(

Independents= D$222$### 'J.JF(*arginal %hristians= $D0/### '#.F(

They are divided among $$/## denominations &ith

1. million ordained clergy of &hom /F are &omen2D## religious institutions orders and societies/### monasteries##### mon)s and 1.$ million sisters

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D1H## missionaries1# million %hristian pilgrims1 million &ee)ly prayer groupsJ## maor church and ecumenical councilsD### foreign mission boards or societies## home mission boards or societies

D## foreign medical missions

,eyond the human numbers %hristian footprints extend to every sector of society.

/# million pieces of %hristian art in museums and private collections.1J million pieces of %hristian music including hymns 0 million churches and church;related buildings &orld&ide.10#### %hristian primary schools#### secondary schools1## %hristian universitiesD/## seminaries$## hospitals and medical centers21### %hristian publishers and printers1D#### %hristian boo)s published annually in over 12# languages/ billion copies of the ,ible published in $J0 languages$.0 million ,ibles distributed annually12#.0 million copies of the @e& Testament billion tracts and $ billion copies of other boo)s printed annually$D## %hristian periodicals published annually>ver 10### %hristian radio and television stations>ver N1/0 billion collected by %hristian charities annually2$### parachurch or service agencies

9ome of these numbers &hen multiplied by 2### years &ill yield some idea of thegreat %hristian harvest. or example the number of %hristians &ho have ever livedon earth is estimated at 1/ billion the number of %hristian martyrs at 0# million andthe number of %hristian mon)s priests and religious at ## million and the number of %hristian boo)s produced at /# million.

%hristian civili"ation can also be measured ualitatively. That is &hat the Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization attempts to do. All civili"ation are driven andsustained by ideas and have a set of signature values and norms that togetherconstitute &hat is )no&n as "eltanschauung or &orld vie&. ,ecause %hristianity hasno temporal po&er 'and the pope has no divisions( it exists based simply on thestrength of its ideas. These ideas oMer an alternative to those that propel secularcivili"ation. In many cases they are diametrically opposed to those of secularcivili"ation. Thus @iet"sche spo)e of %hristianitys transvaluation of values. %hristianideas are the antithesis of those that sustain the &orld system. In %hristianity it isnot the strong and the rich but the poor that inherit the earth. It ennobles evensacrali"es the disenfranchised the &ea) the captive the lame the blind the

outcast the dispossessed and the dis!gured. It elevates and gives dignity tosuMering pain and even death until they become badges of honor and path&ays toglory. In the &ords of 5einhold @iebuhr %hristianity began as and remains a religionof the do&ntrodden. It opposes the &arproneness of human societies &ith turn;the;other;chee) nonviolence. It opposes the lust for po&er &ith an ethic of service andhumility.

%hristian ideas are also multidimensional and time;transcending. Cnli)e secularcivili"ation %hristian civili"ation is not a closed space li)e a suirrel cage. It vie&s

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human existence su$ species aeternatitis as a prelude to an eternal )ingdom. Itendo&s transience &ith a purpose and infuses the temporal &ith the sacred.

.o" Christianity (pread

>n the day of the -entecost A. +. $$ there &ere about $### %hristians in 4erusalem.

These &ere the seedstoc) of the church. Their tas) especially that of the Apostles&as to go into all the &orld and ma)e disciples. Among them most &ere 4e&s butthere &ere a fe& gentiles. @ot more than a fe& hundred &ere the actual follo&ers of

4esus before 3is cruci!xion. In A. +. $0 the mission to the Gentiles &as launched. ,yA. +. D# there &ere %hristians in 5ome Egypt and Greece.

A. +. 1## T&o generations after %hrist there &orld is #.JF %hristian of &hom 0#F&ere non&hite and $#F &hite. The scriptures had been translated into six languages.

A.+. 2## 9ix generations after %hrist the &orld is J.DF %hristian J/F of them non;&hite and $2F &hite. The scriptures had been translated into seven languages.

A.+. $## @ine generations after %hrist the &orld is 12F %hristian of &hom JJ.DF

&ere non;&hite and $$.JF &hite. The scriptures &ere translated into 1# languages.

A.+. $$# 1# generations after %hrist the &orld is 12F %hristian of &hom J.0F isnon;&hite and $D.$F &hite. The 9criptures &ere translated into 1# languages.

A.+. D## 12 generations after %hrist the &orld is 10.1F %hristian of &hom JDF isnon;&hite and $JF &hite. The scriptures &ere translated into 11 languages.

A.+. ## 1J generations after %hrist the &orld is 22.DF %hristian of &hom J1.HF isnon;&hite and $/.1F &hite. The scriptures &ere translated into 1$ languages.

A.+. J$# 2# generations after %hrist the &orld is 22.F %hristian of &hom /F isnon;&hite and D2F &hite. The scriptures &ere translated into1D languages.

A.+. /## 2J generations after %hrist the &orld is 22.F %hristian of &hom 1F isnon&hite and DHF &hite. The percentage of non;&hites decline hereafter as Islamthro&s an iron curtain across the *iddle east and forcibly converts or )ills %hristians.

The scriptures &ere translated into 1 languages.

A.+. H# $1 generations after %hrist the &orld is 1HF %hristian of &hom /./F is&hite and D1.2F is non;&hite. This represents the !rst decline in numbers in the !rstmillennium. The scriptures are translated into 10 languages. ,y 1#JJ the conversionof 6estern Europe is completed. After the *iddle East and @orth Africa are lost%hristianity no& spreads to 5ussia and Eastern Europe.

A.+. 1### $2 generations after %hrist the &orld is 1/.0F %hristian of &hom J1F is

&hite and $HF non&hite. The scriptures &ere translated into 10 languages.

A.+. 12## $H generations after %hrist the &orld is 1H.DF %hristian of &hom JD.$Fis &hite and $.0F non&hite. The scriptures &ere translated into 22 languages.

A.+. 1$# DD generations after %hrist the &orld is 2D.1F %hristian of &hom J0.JFis &hite and $2.DF non;&hite. The scriptures &ere translated into 2/ languages.%hristianity !rst reaches Africa south of the 9ahara through 9enegal in 1D/J.

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A.+. 1## DH generations after %hrist the &orld is 1HF %hristian of &hom H2.JF is&hite and 0.$F non&hite. -rinted scriptures are available in 12 languages. Thedecline in %hristian population is caused by the extirpation of the church in Asia bythe *ongols and the >ttoman Tur)s. 3ereon the percentage of non&hites &illcontinue to shrin) until the 10th century.

A.+. 1J## 2 generations after %hrist the &orld is 2#.0F %hristian of &hom /JF is&hite and 1DF non&hite. -rinted scriptures are available in $J languages.

A.+. 1J# D generations after %hrist the &orld is 21.2F %hristian of &hom /$.1Fis &hite and 1J.HF non&hite. -rinted scriptures are available in D languages.

A.+. 10## J generations after %hrist the &orld is 21.0F %hristian of &hom /D.1F is&hite and 1.HF non&hite -rinted scriptures are available in J languages.

A. +. 10# 0 generations after %hrist the &orld is 22.2F %hristian of &hom /.2Fis &hite and 1D./F non&hite. -rinted scriptures are available in J languages.

A.+. 1/## H generations after %hrist the &orld is 2$.1F %hristian of &hom /J.Fis &hite and 1$.F non&hite. -rinted scriptures are available in J0 languages.

A.+. 1/1 J# generations after %hrist the &orld is 2D.DF %hristian of &hom /J.1Fis &hite and 1$.HF non&hite. -rinted scriptures are available in /J languages.

A..+. 1/# J1 generations after %hrist the &orld is 20.2F %hristian of &hom /.2Fis &hite and 1D./F non&hite. -rinted scriptures are available in 2# languages.

A. +. 1H## J2 generations after %hrist the &orld is $D.DF %hristian of &hom /1.1Fis &hite and 1/./F non&hite. -rinted scriptures are available in $0 languages.

A. +. 1H1D J$ generations after %hrist the &orld is $D.HF %hristian of &hom 0J.2Fis &hite and 2$./F is non&hite. This is the highest percentage of %hristians in history.3ereafter there is incremental decline for the rest of the century.

A. +. 1H# JD generations after %hrist the &orld is $D.1F %hristian of &hom J$.Fis &hite and $J.F non&hite. -rinted scriptures are available in 1#2 languages.

A.+. 1H/# J generations after %hrist the &orld is $2./F %hristian of &hom #.Fis &hite and DH.F is non&hite. -rinted scriptures are available in 1/11 languages.

A.+. 2##0 JJ generations after %hrist the &orld is $$.2F %hristian of &hom DF isnon;&hite and DJF is &hite. -rinted scriptures are available in 1H#/ languages.

The Believers

The fortunes of %hristianity have 8uctuated &idely over the centuries. In thebeginning most 4e&s and even many of the Apostles doubted if it could spreadbeyond 4erusalem and the surrounding villages. 9ome 4e&s even predicted that thefaith &ould die out in a fe& years. They had seen too many peasants and rebels &hoclaimed to be the saviors of the 4e&s go do&n in 8ames or cut by the s&ord andforgotten. 4esus they thought &as one such. 4osephus the historian barely notices3im.

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>ver the !rst 1H centuries %hristianity advanced and retreated in cycles. There &erenine such cycles or epochs of &hich !ve &ere times of advance and four of retreat.

The !rst six centuries &ere one of great advance although mixed in some areas &ithpersecution. ,y A.+. J## almost 22.F of the global population &ere believers. Therise of Islam in the seventh century mar)ed the !rst era of retreat. The original%hristian homelands of %hristians in @orth Africa and the *iddle East &ere stolen by

*uslims &ho unleashed one of the most brutal massacres characteristic of their faithand race. The *ongols and the Tur)s follo&ed li)e locusts and &iped out the churchin Asia. ,ut the same period mar)ed the steady expansion of %hristianity in Europebeginning in earnest in the very century that it &as losing the *editerranean lands. It&as a pattern repeated throughout %hristian history. 6hen the Tur)s sei"ed Asia*inor and bro)e into Europe the %hurch gained in the very same century the t&ocontinents of the @e& 6orld. Again there &ere massive gains pari passu &ith massivelosses. ,y 1## %hristians made up only 1HF of the global population much lessthan the percentage in ##. The ethnic composition of believers also changed.6hereas in the early centuries non&hites had predominated %hristianity becamemore or less exclusively &hite and %aucasian. ,y 1H## %hristianity not only resumedits earlier gro&th pattern as a result of the expansion of 6estern po&ers into thehitherto closed continents of Africa and Australia but reached a ne& "enith of one;third of the human race. It &as believed as the 2#th century da&ned that %hristianity&ould soon spread to all countries of the &orld and that it &as only a matter of timebefore the entire &orld became %hristian.

,ut the 2#th century mar)ed a maor setbac) for the faith. T&o 6orld 6ars the risingmilitancy of *uslims and 3indus the expansion of %ommunism in the lands ofEastern >rthodoxy all meant that the earlier predictions had to be scaled bac). Infact by the end of the century ,illy Graham said that %hristianity &ould al&aysremain a minority religion. True unexpected gro&th of the %hurch in Africa oMsetsome of the losses and overall in absolute numbers %hristians &ere gro&ing and bythe end of the century had passed the 2 billion mar) a number that &ould have8abbergasted the Apostles. ,ut by the time the 21st century da&ned secularism &asta)ing a heavy toll on church membership in every country of the &orld. There &erevictories nonetheless. %ommunism &as dead. Khrushchev once boasted that thelast 5ussian >rthodox priest &ould be sho&n on 9oviet television as a museum relicin 1H/1. ,ut it &as Khrushchev himself &ho bit the dust long before that time andhis much vaunted 9oviet empire lay in shambles. As 4ohn ,uchan said %hristianity isthe anvil that outlasts the hammer.

A more signi!cant victory is the decline of scienti!c agnosticism and anticlericalismthat had been steadily gaining ground in Europe since the Enlightenment. T&o &orld&ars have impressed on the intelligentsia and the clerisy that the alternative to%hristianity is not progress but violence and chaos.. Agnosticism and secularism havebecome ideologically debilitated by the reali"ation that the changes that science andtechnology have brought about have not made human beings better or happier. Thisaugurs &ell for the future gro&th of %hristianity because it removes one of theunderlying assumptions held by 6estern intellectuals against the faith.

Ironically the 1Hth century in &hich the secular movements of the modern age gainedstrength &as also the golden age of %hristian evangelism. rom the end of the@apoleonic &ars in 1/1 to the beginning of 6orld 6ar I %hristians gre& by 1.DFannually. ,et&een 1H1D and 2### the rate had slo&ed to belo& 1F although%hristians continued to gro& by 21 million annually. Almost J## millions &ere addedin the Third 6orld alone. Even as the percentages dropped and the numbers gre&%hristianity had by no& become a truly universal religion. There is not a single

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country in the &orld &ithout a %hristian presence of some )ind. The church no& hasno boundaries and is coextensive &ith the %i!umene or the inhabited &orld.

The cultural impact of %hristianity goes beyond mere numbers of its adherents. The%hristian calendar the Anno +omini often )no&n as the Gregorian %alendar is no&used throughout the &orld. The %hristian 9abbath 9unday is similarly observed even

in %hina and India. As has been noted %hristians form over one;half of the &orldsliterates. This is because schools and colleges in all countries in the &orld &ith a fe&exceptions &ere founded by %hristian missionaries or churches. A public schoolsystem simply did not exist before the advent of the !rst monastic schools inmedieval Europe. %hristian contributions to literacy are not limited to theestablishment of schools and colleges. In Africa Asia and ?atin America %hristianmissionaries such as those associated &ith the 6ycliMe 9ociety have devisedalphabets for over 2### native languages that existed only in their oral form.%hristians are historically also in the forefront of printing and publishing. The ,ible&as the !rst boo) printed in most of the countries of the &orld. *ore than 2###%hristian boo) titles and 2H### periodicals are issued every year. @early D1F of theboo) titles are published in English.

The Countries%ountries are a maor focus of %hristian thin)ing and missionary enterprise. *orethan D# countries are speci!cally mentioned in the ,ible but more often as the homeof a particular people. In the Great %ommission the focus is more on tribes andcommunities. ,oth !gure prominently in the @e& Testament. ,y the time of %hristeach country &as the home of more than one group of people. As part of the 5omanEmpire Gree)s 5omans 4e&s Egyptians Assyrians and others mingled in each cityand to&n even though the countryside remained solidly monoethnic. Even as theApostles &ent out to the nations of the 5oman Empire to spread the gospel theirprimary target &as the community. Thus in &hatever country he &ent -aul preached!rst to his o&n fello& 4e&s then to the Gree)s and then to the 5omans.

T&enty centuries later %hristians no& form the maority in t&o thirds of the &orlds2#D countries including 9outh Korea &here they became the maority for the !rsttime in 2##$. The spread is very uneven &ith %hristians forming H#F in over 12#countries less than 1#F in 1 countries less than 1F in 2D countries and astatistical "ero in nine countries= Afghanistan ,hutan 9audi Arabia @epal 9omalia

:emen *aldives %omoros and *auritania. According to the Illustrated Boo! of ,orld'an!ings) countries &ith the largest %hristian populations are in numerical orderCnited 9tates ,ra"il and 5ussia. @early 2HF of the &orlds %hristian population livesin Europe 1JF in @orth America 20F in 9outh America 1JF in Africa and 1#F inAsia. In terms of geographical extent four of the six continents are historically%hristian the result of the %hristian;led explorations of the 1J th and 10th centuries.%hristians are no& found in signi!cant numbers in all continents even Antarctica.

Any description of %hristians has to adopt both a national and an ethnolinguisticapproach. @ations are not homogeneous entities and they are becoming less so as aresult of the mass emigration of the late 2#th century. ,ut ethnolinguisticcommunities are even less clearly demarcated and overlap in many cases. ,ecauseof the increasing number of mixed marriages it is becoming harder to classify orlabel persons by ethnic origin. Again aggregate totals in many cases mas)signi!cant internal variations. ,ecause %hristians are sometimes concentrated incertain communities &ithin larger ethnic groups or in even smaller microgroups&ithin communities it is dicult to use national or ethnolinguistic terminology to

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describe them. or example there is a strong *essianic 4e&ish community &ithin the 4e&ish community in every country but this is never explicitly ac)no&ledged byreligious demographers. There are signi!cant numbers of crypto;%hristians &ho areunable ac)no&ledge their %hristian aliation in *uslim societies and in %hina. Theirnumbers are ignored or suppressed by most demographers. Even in countries &ithstable populations there are constant gains by conversions and losses through

apostasy &ith the result that the reported numbers are oM the mar) by severalhundreds thousands or even millions. These problems must be remembered inloo)ing at the numbers of %hristians by nations.

The Three Constant Themes

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There are three constant themes in %hristian history= defense of orthodoxyevangelism and persecution. The defense of the faith has been the principal missionof the church. irst the church had to de!ne the true faith and this it did onlygradually over the course of three centuries. The de!nition of true faith or orthodoxybegan &ith the Epistles of -aul and continued through the !rst seven Ecumenical%ouncils and through the many denominational councils held in every century since

then. 9ound doctrine is li)e oxygen to the believer and -aul himself &arned ofstrange doctrines and the seductions of false believers. 6hat is the infallible test oftrue doctrine7 6hatever points to and glori!es 4esus %hrist is true doctrine and&hatever detracts from 3im or points a&ay from 3im is false doctrine. True doctrinealso must be catholic that is it must be applicable to and capable of being believedby every human being.

The church has been remar)ably successful in its eMorts to defend orthodoxy. Themaority of the churches in the modern &orld subscribe to the principal tenets oforthodoxy as de!ned in the @icene %reed including the divinity of %hrist the Trinityvirgin birth the resurrection of %hrist plenary inspiration of the ,ible baptism ?ast

4udgment and 4esus 9econd %oming. It is remar)able that after 2### years the basicbedroc) of faith remains the same as it &as in the !rst century. EMorts to add orsubtract from the faith have lasted only brie8y before they 8ic)ered and died.

The second constant theme is evangelism and the ful!llment of the Great%ommission. Every %hristian is called upon O in fact commanded O to proclaim theGospel convert teach and bapti"e. The great millennial uestion is= 6hy is it thatafter 2### years %hristians ma)e up only one;third of the human race7

To ans&er this uestion it is necessary to loo) at both the nature of the enemy andthe nature of conversion. %hrist did not use the term harvest along &ith or as part ofthe Great %ommission yet the t&o have become closely associated. 3o&ever theterm harvest suggests that there are billions of stal)s out there patiently &aiting forthe imminent sic)le. True the stal)s are out there O &hite unto harvest andperishing O but the ground is the enemys.

,efore the harvest can ta)e place the ground has to be sei"ed from the enemy andthe strong man has to be bound. The Gospel is not moving into a vacuum or virginlandP it is going into enemy;held and enemy;o&ned territory. The Great %ommissionis as much a declaration of &ar against the prince of this &orld as it is a call to dutyto %hristians. The Great %ommissioners O as all %hristians should properly be called Oare conscripts in a &ar that has lasted 2### years.

The nature of conversion also determines the success of evangelism. @o humanbeing is ever born saved. Through >riginal 9in every person at the point of birth isalready a chattel of the enemy. 3is or her mind is not a ta$ula rasa but is already&ritten over &ith the message of the anti;%hrist and the vessel of his or her being isbrimming full &ith the 9pirit of +isobedience. As everyone )no&s it is not possible topour &ater into a full cup. The cup has to be emptied !rst before the re!lling can ta)e

place.

9imilarly it is not possible to &rite on a plate that has been &ritten over. The original&riting has to be erased !rst and then a ne& message can be &ritten on it. Indeedthe degree of erasure is uite importantP other&ise as in many ancient parchmentsthe old &ritings tend to resurface after a fe& years an unfortunate phenomenon &ithmany spiritual parallels. Again it is relatively easy to !sh in the open sea yet it isnever possible to catch !sh that are already in someone elses net. The net has to becut !rstP the captives have to be set free before the Gospel can be preached to them.

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The third constant in %hristian history is persecution. -ersecution and martyrdombegan at the time of the Incarnation &ith the *assacre of the Innocents and it hascontinued to the present day. According to the ,orld Christian Encyclopedia therehave been over 0# million martyrs over the course of the past 2### years. The riverof blood that runs through %hristian history has never run dry. In fact there &ere

more %hristian martyrs in the 2#

th

century than in any of the preceding centuries.%hristians have faced considerable opposition in modern times and millions of%hristians have been butchered in %ommunist and Islamic countries in the 2#th century. ,ut the gates of hell have never prevailed and the church has survived itstormentors. As 4ohn ,uchan said the church is an anvil that has &orn out manyhammers.

The (i& /evels of Christianity

%hristianity is a multi;faceted multilayered faith. It operates on many levelssimultaneously. Any classi!cation of the %hristian church must begin by identifyingthe principal levels of this living faith.

The !rst and most primary level is the vertical. Above everything else %hristianity isa &ay of salvation &or)ing &ith one person at a time. The 9on of *an came to see)and to save that &hich &as lost '?u)e 1H=1#( encapsulates the Gospel in fourteen&ords. %hristianity is !rst of all a vast universal search and rescue mission a lifelinethro&n to those &ho are dro&ning in a stormy sea.

It is important to visuali"e %hristianity not in the abstract but in concrete terms and innumbers. >ver t&o millennia more than 1/ billion persons have lived on planet earthas %hristians and every one of them had direct access to salvation. %hristianity is thesum total of the spiritual lives of these 1/ billion.*ore than 0# million persons havedied for their faith. *ore than ## million dedicated their lives to the ?ord as priestsmissionaries mon)s and pastors.

The next three levels are lateral or hori"ontal. >f these the most important is thelocal church. The local church may mean either the physical building or other facility&here %hristians meet or the bonds that binds believers together as a community. Avast net&or) of %hristian communities have arisen across the globe O sharingcommunities congregations eucharistic communities basic communitiescharismatic communities and a host of others. 9ome are spontaneous andunstructured and others are highly structured. %hristianity is a relational religion&here the (o$ornost or communal bond and hori"ontal relationships are critical inmaintaining the integrity of the %hristian testimony in a hostile &orld. The localassembly is the focal point of all %hristian activities &hether it be the 9unday schoolthe transmission of %hristian values across generational divides evangelism andhospitality or scripturally sanctioned sacraments such a baptism marriage andcommunion. There are over 2 such million congregations in local churches and

assemblies &here on every 9unday believers gather to celebrate divine service andrearm their faith. These are the most visible manifestations of %hristianity in the&orld.

The third level is the denomination a term that is often used imprecisely andoverlaps &ith tradition or confession. It is sometimes held that %hristianity should bedenominationless but denominations have played a useful role in %hristian history inde!ning creeds mobili"ing evangelistic eMorts and providing a home for a variety ofdoctrinal emphases and ethnic identities. There are over 2### denominations in the

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&orld today up from2### in 1H##. *ost of the denominations are in the Third 6orld&here !ve ne& denominations are added every &ee). 6hile this gives the impressionthat %hristians are disunited and disorgani"ed it has historically helped to enlarge%hristian presence in every country.

4esus %hrist established one church and he prayed that his follo&ers must be united

as one. or a small church in 4erusalem this might have been easy although eventhe early 4erusalem church itself had factions and groups &ithin groups. Therefore itis important to examine &hat 4esus meant &hen 3e said that %hristians must beunited. The unity that he spo)e of &as unity in the spirit unity of faith in 4esus asredeemer and lord. It did not preclude the formation of denominations. In fact one ofthe great strengths of the %hristian %hurch is the fact that there are denominationseach pushing bac) the frontiers of unbelief in its o&n &ay. In fact countries &ith moredenominations are more successful in evangelism that mono;denominationalcountries. The &orlds smallest denominations have done as much or even more thanlarge denominations to advance the )ingdom of God.

In a sense denominations are comparable to the large land masses continents andislands that ma)e up the planet. 9ince the 1 th century the 5oman %atholics-rotestants and Eastern >rthodox %hurches have made up the continents of the%hristian &orld. 6ithin these continents are distinct regions peninsulas and islandsthat ate the splinter groups &ithin these churches. The fact that there are variousbraches of %hristianity does not ma)e it disunited ust as the fact that there are over2### land masses of various si"es does not ma)e the earth a divided planet. In myathers house said 4esus there are many mansions.

6orld %hristianity is made up of seven maor blocs each of &hich is divided into alarge number of ecclesiastical traditions. The H2 largest of these are sho&n in thefollo&ing table.

,loc QTradition +enominations %ountries

5oman %atholic 22$ 22#?atin 5ite?atin Eastern 5ite9yro;*alabareseC)rainian*aronite5omanian*el)ite%haldean5uthenian3ungarian>riental9yro;*alan)arese9lova)

%optic

-rotestant /1HJ 212Cnited?utheran5eformed '-resbyterian(,aptist*ethodist-entecostal 9ix types

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+isciples3olinessAdventist9alvationistInterdenominational%ongregationalist

Isolated 5adio %hurch9ingle %ongregationIndependent Evangelical%hristian ,rethren '>pen(*ennonite 'Anabaptist(+un)er 'German ,aptist(*oravianriendsExclusive ,rethren

>rthodox /# 1#0%halcedonian

9lavonic5omanianGree)9erbian>ld ,elieverGeorgianArabic-olish9ub;>rthodox '5ussian(

True >rthodox>ld %alendarist%"echAlbanian

@on;%halcedonianEthiopian%opticArmenian9yrian9yro;*alan)areseAssyrian

@on;6hite Indigenous 1#HJ 1D

-entecostal,aptist*ethodist5eformed %atholicIndependent Evangelical

%onservative %atholic*arginal5eformed -resbyterian5adio;%hurch?utheranAnglican5eformed >rthodox%ongregationalistExclusive ,rethren

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Cnited%hristian ,rethren3oliness9alvationist9piritualist

Anglican 2D# 1J?o& %hurch3igh %hurchEvangelicalAnglo;%atholic%entral ',road( %hurch

*arginal -rotestant 1DH# 10J

4ehovahs 6itnesses*ormons%hristian 9cienceCnitarian

%atholic '@on;5oman( #D H%atholic Apostolic5eformed %atholic>ld %atholic%onservative %atholic

The fourth level is the universal church &hich is the proper body of %hrist. Theindividual believers local assemblies and denominations are all part of 3is body. Theuniversal church is a mystical concept in &hich all human beings &ho confess 4esus%hrist as ?ord and 9avior are members. ,ecause the universal church is an organicand living entity &hatever aMects an individual member aMects the &hole body and&hatever aMects the &hole body aMects the individual members. In theologicalterms the universal church on earth is the %hurch *ilitant &hich has carried thetorch for her lord and bridegroom for the past 2### years.

The four mar)s of the Cniversal %hurch are stated in the @icene %reed= >ne 3oly%atholic and Apostolic. The Cniversal %hurch consists of both the visible church andthe invisible church. The invisible church consists of those millions of %hristians &hoare for not for some reason formal members of a local assembly or denomination. Italso includes millions of silent and underground %hristians in countries &here openprofession of the %hristian faith is proscribed. The parallel coexistence of the visiblechurch and the invisible church is similar to the parallel streams in African countries&here the above ground rivers run dry most seasons but the ones belo& ground havea perennial supply of &ater from auifers and are unaMected by the evaporation.>bservers &ho udge %hristianity only on the basis of the visible church are ignoringthe great reservoir of strength that the invisible church represents.

The !nal t&o levels of %hristianity are ancillary and have nothing to do &ith itspurpose or goals. The !rst is as a fol) religion and the second is as a civil religion. Inmany countries %hristian presence is only as a fol) religion li)e any other religion. Itis encrusted &ith myths and popular traditions associated &ith rites of passagemar)ing life events such as births marriages and funerals and also &ith the naturalcalendar. 3uman beings are innately religious O it has been contended that they aredriven by a God;gene in their system O and fol) religion is all most of them need tosatisfy their limited spiritual needs. Even here there are &ide variations. 9ome are

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openly pagan in their beliefs &hile others retain some measure of %hristian identity intheir lives.

Associated &ith the fol) religious aspect of %hristianity is cultural %hristianity.%hristianity shaped and mid&ifed 6estern civili"ation and despite the eMorts of allthe secularists and humanists %hristian in8uences on modern civili"ation are still

strong. An example is the %hristian calendar that is no& the global calendar follo&edby all nations of the &orld. A number of eMorts to mas) the %hristian origin of thecalendar li)e using ,efore the %ommon Era ',%E( instead of ,% for ,efore %hristare too patently arti!cial to succeed. EMorts to abolish the %hristian calendaraltogether li)e that by the 4acobins during the rench 5evolution &ere ludicrousfailures. *odern legal educational and political systems o&e much to biblical and%hristian values and ideas. %ultural %hristianity has also helped to change the sociallandscape. . or example monogamy is no& the dominant and default norm inmarriage due solely to %hristian in8uences since virtually every other religionsanctions approves or condones polygamy. %hristian contributions to literaturearchitecture and music are enormous. '9ee section on 3o& %hristianity %hanged%ivili"ation.(

?astly %hristianity functions as a civil or state religion in many countries. This role&hich dates bac) to %onstantine the Great is one in &hich the church is mostuncomfortable because it con8icts &ith its primary mission as a defender of thenontemporal and eternal as against the secular and temporal. As a state religion ithas to ma)e compromises and see) accommodations &ith state authorities and evenlend its imprimatur to military underta)ings that are patently unust. There aredenominations such as the *ennonites &ho see this contradiction clearly and opposeany alliance &ith the civil authorities. The church &as not designed to serve as ahandmaiden to civil authorities and &hen it is forced to do so it becomes a caricatureof itself. There is also a social %hristianity that is heavily involved in organi"ed social&elfare education and medical care not as a vehicle of evangelism but out of senseof philanthropic duty.

The Contradictions in Christianity

The existence of several layers and levels in manifest %hristianity is indicative ofseveral internal contradictions in the &ay it is received by its follo&ers. Thesecontradictions have never been resolved but most %hristians continue to believe andact as if they did not exist. There are contradictions bet&een la& and grace bet&een&or)s and faith bet&een predestination and free &ill bet&een the 9ocial Gospel andfundamentalism and bet&een tradition and rene&al. These con8icts many of &hichgo bac) to the !rst century have led to many of the schisms and divisions &ithin thechurch. ,ut the most serious con8ict in the church is the dichotomy bet&een%hristianity as a religion that arms the &orld system and a faith that de!es the&orld system. The term &orld system refers to the entire order of the physical

universe ;; the river of life into &hich human beings are thro&n at birth and in &hichthey have to s&im until they sin). The term salvation means that %hristianity is inopposition to the &orld orderP if the "orld "ere good) there "ould $e no need forsalvation0 The @e& Testament speci!cally refers to the &orld system and its author asevil and calls for the deliverance of captives from the oppression that the &orldsystem represents.

3o&ever the %hristianity that emerged in the later third and fourth centuries as aformal religion has tended to arm the &orld order and to undergird its social and

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moral postulates. Almost all modern denominations and theologians belong to thisschool. There are pastors and denominations &hose message is exclusively positive Onothing about sin death or deliverance ;; and &ho emphasi"e virtues such as orderdiscipline ambition success prosperity and obedience thus reinforcing thelegitimacy of the &orld system.

,ut it &as not al&ays so. In the beginning %hristianity &as a &orld;defying incendiaryfaith designed not so much to buttress as to overcome the "orld) ultimately destroyit and replace it "ith a heavenly !ingdom. I have come not to bring peace but as&ord said 4esus Even in the !rst century both 4e&s and 5omans recogni"ed thesubversive nature of the %hristian faithP the pagans said that the %hristians hadturned the &orld upside do&n. 3atred for the &orld system and contempt for the godof this &orld &ere strong themes running through the &ritings of the early churchfathers and ascetics. or them the &orld system &as not merely illegitimate but alsorepresented everything they hated O sex po&er greed money and inhumanity.

This hatred reached a crescendo in the 5evelation of the ,eloved +isciple in &hichthe immediacy of the 9econd %oming emboldened the %hristians to thumb theirnoses at the &orld. Even death did not hold any terrors for these %hristians becausethey placed a lo& value on the present life. ,y the fourth century hundreds ofthousands of mon)s and stylites 'pillar saints( in -alestine 9yria Asia *inor andEgypt represented the triumph of this strain of %hristianity. or them morti!cation of the 8esh fasting and asceticism became articles of faith. Even heretics li)e*arcionites and Gnostics regarded all matter as a evil and life itself as anincarceration.

After the !fth century as the eschatological timetable receded de!ance of the &orldbecame muted in %hristian theology. It survived in small poc)ets li)e the ,ogomils inthe ,al)ans and the %athari in rance and Italy and !nally died out in the early*iddle Ages. Interestingly opposition to the &orld system and separation from ithave resurfaced in many modern;day millennial movements but in a more subduedform.

6hile this contradiction has become inactive in modern times many othercontradictions are ongoing. or example la& and grace or free&ill andpredestination can !nd valid scriptural usti!cation in selected verses of the ,ible.,ut even as they generate heated theological discussions leading to schisms they donot seriously damage the gro&th of the %hristian %hurch.

The T"elve Branches of Christianity

%hrist chose 12 disciples and the church that 3e founded developed 12 branches inthree primary modes. They are also called traditions or confessionsP 9t. 4ohn the+ivine compares them to %andlestic)s before the Throne of God. They are=

1. -etrine Tradition 5oman %atholic %hurch Eastern >rthodox %hurch 5ussian >rthodox %hurch @on %halcedonian ?esser Eastern %hurches Assyrian '@estorian( %hurch

2. -auline Tradition ?utheran %hurch*ethodist %hurch

-resbyterian %hurch

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,aptistAnglican,rethren

$. 4ohannine Tradition -entecostal %hurches

There are 2#/## organi"ed churches and denominations in these three maor

ecclesiastical traditions. +enominations tend to multiply especially &ithin the -aulineand 4ohannine traditions because of their inherent freedom to interpret the ,ible. ,utmost of them he& closely to @e& Testament boundaries and generally have one ormore verses from the ,ible to ustify their existence. Bery fe& actually die out and ifthey do they usually reappear under some other name. *ost often they are theresult of the spiritual leadings of one man. ?est it be forgotten the great -rotestanttraditions li)e *ethodism ?utheranism and %alvinism &ere started by singleindividuals.

6hat the -auline and 4ohannine traditions cannot claim its antiuity. -entcostalism atleast in its modern form is only a century old and the great -rotestant denominationsare less than half a millennium old. >n the other hand %atholicism and the >rthodox%hurches can claim to be directly descended from the Apostolic Age if not from theApostles themselves. Through the laying on of hands every bishop and priest in the-etrine tradition can claim a legitimacy that goes bac) to %hrist 3imself. 9uch anunbro)en transmission of authority confers a patina and aura on the -etrinechurches that -auline and 4ohannine churches cannot match. It is not surprising thatt&o;thirds of the 6orlds %hristians belong to the -etrine churches although the

4ohannine churches are gro&ing faster.

Antiuity and orthodoxy are t&o of the *ar)s of the %hurch and it is on the latterthat the -auline and 4ohannine churches base their legitimacy. The ultimate characterof a church is its ability not only to place itself in the epicenter of faith that is 4esus%hrist but also to de!ne itself solely in relation to 3im. *any of the -auline and

4ohannine churches have discovered O or rediscovered O treasures of faith that hadbeen ignored or missed by the older churches and therein lies their strength.

@ibbling at the heels of the established orthodox churches are the marginal or fringe-rotestant sects that have only a dubious claim to the name %hristian. They have ahistory as old as the %hristian church itself. Even in the !rst century the Apostlesespecially 4ohn and -aul are &riting against the spurious doctrine;pushers &ho namethe name of %hrist but deny 3im in fact. ,y the second century they &ere labeled asheretics. %hristianity has bred almost as many heresies as orthodox doctrines andthey have proved to be hydra;headedRno sooner is one destroyed or disabled thananother !ve ta)e its place. ,ut the po&er of the 3oly 9pirit as the Guardian of the%hurch is such that none of them has established a beachhead in the %hristian &orld.+espite the unchec)ed license in the modern &orld to initiate false doctrines and lureunsuspecting persons to follo& them there are only a handful of marginal churchesthat have substantial membership among them 4ehovahs 6itnesses *ormons%hristian 9cientists and Cnitarians. The greater danger to orthodox believers is not

so much from these marginal %hristians but from spiritual uislings &ithin the churchas for example in the C. 9. Episcopalian %hurch &ho don the garb of traditional faithbut preach and uphold &orse heresies than Cnitarians.

The *a1or Traditions of the Christian,orld2 The #etrine Tradition

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'oman Catholicism

5oman %atholicism is the primary %hristian tradition claiming the allegiance of one inevery t&o %hristians. It is an apostolic faith taught by the 5oman %atholic %hurchheaded by the pope as the vicar of %hrist the 9upreme -ontiM and the patriarch ofthe 6est. It is also chronologically the oldest %hristian confession and the pope has

primacy even among the !ve oldest patriarchates of 5ome %onstantinople Antioch 4erusalem and Alexandria. It regards itself as the custodian of the deposit of truthhanded do&n directly from 4esus %hrist through the apostles in an unbro)en line ofsuccession. >n the doctrinal side this truth is enshrined in the canons of theecumenical councils as &ell as the %ouncil of Trent and the t&o Batican councils ofmodern times. It upholds the orthodox and biblical doctrines regarding the Trinitythe Incarnation and salvation and it prides itself on having defended the gates offaith vigilantly for 2### years. It is an exclusive faith that proclaims that there is nosalvation outside the church. It also espouses extra;biblical doctrines regarding thestructure and rights of the church the intercession of the saints and Birgin *ary andthe functions of the pope and the councils.

5oman %atholicism is built on an episcopal system of government in &hich the

supremacy of the pope and his infallibility in matters of doctrine and faith arefundamental. -ope -aul BI de!ned the 5oman %atholic %hurch as %hrists extensionand continuation... a single complex reality the compound of a human and divineelement. 3ence the church is incapable of sinning or being &rong in belief. Thefunction of the hierarchy is to mediate the seven sacraments that govern the entirelife of 5oman %atholics from birth to death. The maor sacraments include baptismEucharist con!rmation holy orders penance extreme unction and matrimony. Inaddition there are other symbolic rites )no&n as 9acramentals and traditional extra;liturgical exercises such as the ,enediction of the ,lessed 9acrament the 5osaryand the 9tations of the %ross. 9aints play a large role in the liturgical calendar of the%atholic %hurch and numerous canoni"ations are added to the calendar every year.9acraments are the channels through &hich the grace of God 8o&s to the recipient.6hen administered &ith the right intention in the right form and using the right

matter they &or) e& opere operato) that is &ithout reference to the communicant orthe celebrant. 5oman %atholic &orship remains &arm and devout although it isdesigned &ith the priest in mind rather than the congregant. A corpus of rubricsdictates every movement and every &ord of the celebrant. 6hat is lac)ing inliturgical &orship is made up for by a variety of popular devotions expositions of theblessed sacrament the rosary and processions of the stations of the cross. Theearthly liturgy is considered the counterpart of the heavenly and the union of thesecular and the divine.

The focal point of the traditional 5oman %atholic &orship is the *ass &hich is vie&edas the propitiatory sacri!ce of %hrist. %atholics believe in transubstantiation in &hichthe substance of the bread and &ine become in fact the body and blood of %hrist.-riesthood is a sacred ministry in &hich celibacy is mandatory. -riests are shepherds

&ho alone have the right to oMer sacri!ce and forgive sins. @ext to the priesthoodreligious orders constitute the bul&ar) of the church. They constitute the spiritualmilitia of the church in contrast to the regular clergy involved in more secularmatters. The monastic community is the great and invisible reservoir from &hich thechurch dra&s its strength in times of need. 9ome of the orders li)e the 4esuits+ominicans and ranciscans are celebrated in church history but there are thousandsthat are barely )no&n. >ne sacrament that plays an important role in the life of a%atholic is penance &hich is tied to the auricular confession to a priest. 9ins may bemortal or venial and their expiation reuires absolution and the imposition ofpenance &hich may be commuted through indulgences in &hich the bene!ts of a

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heavenly treasury of merit may be set to the sinners account even after death.%atholics also believe in purgatory as a preliminary puri!cation for heaven.

The most prominent feature of 5oman %atholicism is the cult of Birgin *ary . *ary&as not only conceived &ithout sin but she ascended bodily into heaven &here shesits as a comediatrix and a co;redemptrix. +evotion to *ary is one of the most

popular and universal of %atholic exercises. %atholics also venerate saints but do notpray to themP %atholic theology has al&ays made the distinction bet&een dulia&hich is the veneration of saints hyperdulia the veneration of *ary and latria the&orship of God.

9ince the 9econd Batican %ouncil a process of rene&al called aggiornamento hasbrought incremental reforms into a church set in the roc) of tradition. -ope 4ohn SSIIIin his opening address to the 9econd Batican %ouncil said that &hile the substanceof the ancient doctrine of the deposit of faith is one thing the &ay it is presented isanother. There is also a strong ecumenical interest in the emerging @e& %atholicism&hich vie&s non;%atholic %hristians as separated brethren rather than as heretics.

The vernacular has been introduced in many countries into liturgical &orship and the*issal and the ,reviary have been made more relevant to the needs of modernbelievers. 5ene&al is also evident in the toleration and even encouragement of%harismatic %atholicism in &hich -entecostal practices are adopted &ithout changein a %atholic setting. There is a strong emphasis among %atholic %harismatics onbaptism in the 9pirit and spea)ing in tongues and healing &ithout giving uptraditional devotions to Birgin *ary and the saints.

5oman %atholicism is found among all but a do"en of the 22H countries of the &orld.,ra"il is the largest %atholic country.

3niate Catholicism

Cniate 'or Cniat( churches are eastern %hristian churches in communion &ith 5omethat retain their o&n liturgies liturgical languages and ecclesiastical customs

vestments and rites such as %ommunion in both )inds married clergy and baptismby immersion. There are four groups of Cniate churches.

1. Antiochene 5ite The most important churches in this group are the *aronitesthe 9yrians and the *alan)arese. The *aronites are the oldest Cniates &horenounced their original *onothelitism and united &ith 5ome in11/2. The9yrians formerly 4acobites united &ith 5ome in 10/$ under the leadership of*ar *ichael Gar&eh after renouncing their *onophysitism. The *alan)areseseparated from the 9yrian >rthodox %hurch '4acobite( %hurch of *alabarIndia under the leadership of *ar Ivanios in 1H$#.

2. %haldean 5ite. The most important churches in this group are the Armenians%haldeans and *alabar %hristians. The Armenians united &ith 5ome '11H/;12H1 10D1( under the -atriarch of %ilicia. The %haldeans or former

@estorians did so in 11 and again in 1/$# and the *alabar %hristians before1HH.$. Alexandrine 5ite The most important churches in this group are the %optic

%atholics and the Ethiopians. The %optic Cniates date from 10D1 and theEthiopian Cniates from 1/$H.

D. ,y"antine 5ite The most important churches in this group are the 5utheniansof East Galicia no& called the C)rainian %atholic %hurch dating from theCnion of ,rest;?itovs) '1H;1HJ( and the 5umaics and the 5umanians of

Transylvania '10#1(. There are also smaller Cniate groups such as the

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3ungarians '1H( 9erbs '1J11( *elchites '102D( ,ulgars '1/J#( and Gree)s'1/J#(.

%rthodo& Churches

>rthodoxy is the descriptive note of the churches of the ,y"antine 5ite under orassociated &ith the Ecumenical -atriarch of %onstantinople. >rthodoxy is based onthe seven ecumenical councils ending &ith the %ouncil of @icaea in 0/0 the localcouncils of %onstantinople '1$D1 and 1$1( 4assy '1JD2( and 4erusalem '1J02(. Inmany theological areas the liturgical texts used in the church rather than the canonsof the councils are the guiding documents. >rthodoxy attaches great importance toconciliar authority and to the episcopacy &hile at the same time allo&ing an activerole to the laity. It ac)no&ledges the sanctity of the seven sacraments or mysteries.,aptism is performed by immersion. %hrismation the euivalent of con!rmation inthe 6estern %hurch is administered immediately after baptism and children areta)en to %ommunion from infancy. Transubstantiation although unde!ned isaccepted as part of the mystery of the Eucharist. The veneration of icons is universalas are prayers to the Birgin *ary and the saints. ,y"antium itself &as described asthe icon of the heavenly 4erusalem. The Assumption of the Birgin *ary is not adogma yet is approved. Intercession for the departed is common although purgatoryis denied. *onasteries are as important as churches in the >rthodox tradition.>rthodox monasticism found its !nest 8o&ering in *ount Athos and in the 3esychast*ovement &hich gave birth to the 4esus -rayer. ,ishops are generally dra&n fromthe ran)s of mon)s or celibate clergy. >n the other hand parish priests may marrybefore ordination but may not remarry.

or sheer magni!cence >rthodox &orship is unmatched. 6hen Bladimir the princeof Kiev sent out emissaries soon after this baptism to select the %hristian traditionmost suited to 5ussia they &ent to %onstantinople and reported bac) to the princethat &atching the service in the 3agia 9ophia &as li)e being in heaven. >rthodox&orship is distinguished by congregational participation. ?aymen both readers andcantors play a larger role in the conduct of services than their counterparts do in the6est. 9ervices are al&ays in the vernacular of the country ma)ing the &orshiperthoroughly at home in the audible parts of the liturgy although in countries li)e5ussia and Greece the liturgical language varies from the common or demoticlanguage. >n the other hand the sanctuary and the nave are separated by a solidscreen )no&n as the iconostasis &ith three doors creating a distance bet&een thepriest and the congregation. The reception of the 3oly %ommunion by the adult laityis infreuent. The entire &orship is sung but only the choir ta)es part in the singing.9inging is unaccompanied and instrumental music is uncommon. @ormally&orshipers stand during services although they sit or )neel occasionally. The 3oly?iturgy is celebrated according to three liturgies= ?iturgy of 9t. 4ames ?iturgy of 9t.,asil the Great and ?iturgy of 9t. 4ohn %hrysostom.

The four principal divisions of the liturgy are= -rothesis or the preparationP Enarxis

or the introductory oce of prayer and praiseP 9ynaxis the ?iturgy of the 6ord orthe ?iturgy of the %atechumensP and the Eucharist proper. The 9ynaxis comprisesthe entrance rite readings from the 9criptures and the common prayers of thechurch. The Eucharist proper begins after the dismissal of the catechumens andcomprises seven parts= -rayers of the aithfulP Great Entrance &ith oMeringsP Kiss of-eace and the %reedP anaphora or the Eucharistic prayerP the ,rea)ing of ,readP%ommunion and %onclusion. The Great Entrance comprises !ve acts the !rst four of &hich are covered by the almost invariable oMertory chant or the %herubi)on or the3ymn of the %herubimP a long secret private preparatory prayer of the priestP

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censing of the altarP the actual entranceP censing of the oMeringsP and a litanyleading to a prayer over the oMerings.

The Eucharistic prayer or Anaphora is of Antiochene origin the greater part of&hich is said secretly. Its order is introductory dialogue -eace 9anctus and,enedictus -ost;9anctus @arrative of the Institution Anamnesis Epiclesis +iptychs

+oxology and !nal amen. %ommunion is in both )inds administered together &ith aspoon the bread having been placed in the chalice. The ,y"antine liturgy isunsurpassed for color clarity and coherence.

>rthodox churches are self;governing or autocephalous. The principal members ofthe federation of >rthodox churches are the four ancient patriarchates of%onstantinople Alexandria 4erusalem and Antioch. The younger members are the5ussian 5omanian 9erbian Gree) ,ulgarian Georgian %ypriot %"ech -olishAlbanian *oldovan and 9inaian. The heads of the 5ussian 9erbian ,ulgarian and5omanian churches are called patriarchs and the heads of other churches are calledmetropolitans or archbishops. In addition there are smaller autonomous but notautocephalous churches such as those of inland %hina 4apan and in somecountries belonging to the former 9oviet Cnion. In 6est Europe @orth America9outh America Africa and Australia there are provinces of some of the autonomouschurches.

>rthodox %hristians are concentrated in 9outh and East Europe. >rthodoxy is thedominant faith in nine countries= 5ussia Greece %yprus 9erbia ,ulgaria 5omania*oldova *acedonia and Georgia. It is estimated that one;sixth of all %hristians are>rthodox and t&o;thirds of all >rthodox are 5ussians. Cnli)e the 5oman %atholic%hurch the >rthodox are not bound by a common organi"ation or head but ratherby a common faith theology and praxis.

The maor doctrinal diMerences bet&een the >rthodox %hurch and the 5oman%atholic %hurch are the ilioue %lause and the papal claim of universal supremacy.

There are also minor diMerences in respect of priestly celibacy O &ith the >rthodoxpermitting married clergy O diMerent rules of fasting and the use of unleavened breadin the Eucharist by the ?atin %hurch &hereas the >rthodox use leavened bread. The>rthodox also do not subscribe to the dogma of Immaculate %onception of the Birgin*ary and the doctrine of purgatory.

The >rthodox %hurch has not undergone any maor reform movements but has hadto face proselyti"ing pressures from both the 5oman %atholic and -rotestantchurches. >rthodoxy is reno&ned for its magni!cent liturgy in &hich the vernacularof the country is used.

T&o >rthodox churches deserve special mention= the 5ussian >rthodox %hurch andthe 9erbian >rthodox %hurch.

The 'ussian %rthodo& Church The 5ussian >rthodox %hurch is the national church of 5ussia. It is an autocephalouschurch dating from the conversion of -rince Bladimir of Kiev in H//. Its traditions aredra&n largely from the Gree)s. The !rst Gree) missionaries to the 9lavs %yril and*ethodius devised the so;called Glagolitic alphabet the forerunner of the %yrillicalphabet used in 5ussia today. %yrils translations laid the foundations of the >ld%hurch 9lavonic used in 5ussian liturgy. +uring the early centuries 5ussianborro&ed heavily from Gree) patristics and theology. The !rst original 5ussianspiritual &riter &as Ilarion the Gree) metropolitan of Kiev from 1#$0 to 1#D. The

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fall of %onstantinople to the Tur)s in 1D$ 'one of the great tragedies in %hristianhistory( had the bene!cial eMect of energi"ing the 5ussian %hurch. *osco& too) onthe mantle of ,y"antium as the Third 5ome and 5ussian rulers too) on the title of

Tsar 'from %aesar( and appropriated the ,y"antine double eagle. The patriarchate of*osco& &as established in 1/H. In 1/H -rince Konstantin >stro"hs)y '12J;1J#/(brought out the >strog ,ible the !rst complete ,ible in 9lavonic. After the 1Jth

century -rotestant in8uences began to penetrate 5ussia but received a mixedresponse. >n the one hand it stimulated a 8o&ering of theology but on the other itoMended 5ussian nationalistic sensibilities. In the 10th century -eter *ogila &rotethe great Confession of Faith that is considered a landmar) in 5ussian church history.It &as translated and revised by *elitios 9yrigos 'd. 1JJ0( and &as accepted in thisform by the 9ynod of 4assy in 1JD$. *ogila also published the (mall Catechism and aliturgical handboo) called Euchologion both containing traces of -rotestantdoctrines.

As part of his eMorts to promote the 6esterni"ation of 5ussia Tsar -eter the Great'1J/2;1021( directed theologian eofan -ro)opovich to draft a ne& churchconstitution. %alled the Ecclesiastical 'egulations) the ne& constitution of 1021abolished the patriarchate and created the 3oly 9ynod in its stead thus bringing thechurch thoroughly under imperial control. In 10J the !rst theological &or) in 5ussianappeared. %alled %rthodo& Teaching or a Brief Christian Theology) it &as &ritten by-laton ?evshin. ,ut the greatest in8uences on the 5ussian %hurch during this period&ere not those of theologians but of mon)s and ascetics &ho branded the 5ussianreligious mind forever &ith their mysticism sanctity and spirituality. T&o mon)s standout= 9t. Ti)hon of rthodox %hurch by publishing the devotionalhandboo) the #hilocalia in 9lavonic &hich populari"ed the 4esus -rayer.

The 1Hth century &as the golden age of 5ussian >rthodoxy exempli!ed by 9t.9eraphim of 9arov *etropolitan ilaret and theologian Ale)sei Khomya)ov.Khomya)ov inspired the 9lavophil movement &hich is still strong in 5ussia.%ontributing to the >rthodox renaissance &ere &riters li)e +ostoevs)y andphilosophers li)e Bladimir 9olovyov and @i)olai ,erdyaev. The 5ussian 5evolution of1H10 virtually &iped out the >rthodox %hurch. Thousands of churches &eredestroyed or desecrated hundreds of thousands of priests &ere )illed or exiled and%hristian theological &or)s &ere suppressed. :et the church survived 0# years ofbarbaric persecution and has been restored to its former place at the center of5ussian national life.

The (er$ian %rthodo& Church

The 9erbian >rthodox %hurch is one of the earliest %hristian churches in the ,al)ans.It is the result of a %hristian mission sponsored by the emperors 3eraclius 'J1#;JD1(and ,asil '/J0;//J(. In 1//J th disciples of 9ts. %yril and *ethodius particularly%lement and @aum started &or)ing among the southern 9lavs. rom -reslav and>hrid they helped to bring the 9lavs into the >rthodox fold. ,et&een 11JH and 11HJthe grand zupan 9tafan @emana united 9erbian lands including Kosovo andfounded a dynasty &hich lasted 2## years. 3is son Bu)an and elder brother *iroslav&rote t&o of the earliest illuminated lectionaries.

The ancient 9erbian institution of sa$ori 'elders( &as brought into the church as anadministrative body. To&ard the end of his life @emana left his throne to his secondson 9tefan and became a mon) at 9tudenica and his ueen Anna too) the veil atthe *onastery of the Birgin at Toplica. @emana no& *on) 9ymeon &ent to Athos

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&ith his youngest son 9ava and founded the *onastery of 3ilander &hich became animportant center of >rthodox spirituality. @emanas mausoleum in the *onastery of the Birgin at 9tudenica is one of the holiest shrines in 9erbia. In 121H 9ava &asappointed the !rst autocephalous archbishop of 9erbia by Emperor Theodore I?ascaris. 9avas reign as head of the 9erbian church &as one of its most formativeeras. 3is -omocanon ')rmcia( served as both the civil and the ecclesiastical canon

for 9erbia. Although !rmly >rthodox both 9ava and King 9tefan maintained cordialrelations &ith 5ome and 5oman %atholic churches and monasteries &ere built in the)ingdom. 9tefan himself received his cro&n from -ope 3onorius III. In 1$DJ the9erbian archbishopric &as raised to a patriarchate as the -atriarchate of -ec &hich&as recogni"ed by %onstantinople in 1$0.

In 1$/H the 9erbian army led by -rince ?a"ar &as defeated by the Tur)s at Kosovo-ole. 9oon after the battle ?a"ar &as canoni"ed and Kosovo itself became a symbolof 9erbian national pride. The -atriarchate of -ec became extinct in 1DH but &asrevived in 10 under an agreement &ith the >ttomans. 3aving achieved a degree of autonomy the 9erbian %hurch assumed the role of a mediator in both ecclesiasticaland secular matters and helped to preserve the national and confessional identities.At the same time the Tur)s continued to brutali"e the population by instituting thedevshirme by &hich the healthiest %hristian male children &ere ta)en by forceconverted to Islam and trained as anissaries. 9cores of churches &ere convertedinto mosues. In 101$ the 9erbian %hurch &as reorgani"ed &ith the creation of ametropolitanate at 9rems)i;Karlovci.9erbias historic churches include ,ogorodica ?evis)a at -ri"ren 9t. @i)ita 9taro@agoricino Gracanica +ecani -ec and ?esnovo. Its great monasteries include5avanica ?ubostina Kalenic *anasia 9tudenica f these the%optic Armenian 4acobite and Ethiopian churches are *onophysite in doctrine &hilethe Assyrian %hurch is @estorian. This group represents the third bloc of !rstmillennium churches the other t&o being the 5oman %atholic and >rthodoxchurches.

The Coptic Church

%hurch founded according to tradition by the Evangelist 9t. *ar) in AlexandriaEgypt the birthplace of %hristian monasticism. As one of the four maorpatriarchates of the %hristian &orld it played an active role in the defense oforthodoxy through its great sons %lement >rigen +ionysius Athanasius and %yril.It adopted the *onophysite creed in the !fth century and at the %ouncil of

%halcedon championed the *onophysite cause through -atriarch +ioscorus. The%optic %hurch has faced a long night of persecution since the Arab conuest of theseventh century. The Arab conuerors used taxation and open repression to lure%hristians to turn apostate and induce mass conversions. The massacre of %hristiansand the destruction of over $### churches and monasteries under the mad %aliph El3a)im biamr Allah 'c. 1###( spar)ed the %rusades. The persecution continued underthe Tur)s until the early 2#th century and even no& the %optic %hurch is a suMering%hurch facing severe persecution from both ocial authorities and from Islamicfundamentalists.

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The %optic %hurch follo&s the Alexandrian 5ite and use the ?iturgy of 9t. ,asil. TheEucharist is oMered in one )ind and baptism is combined &ith con!rmation as onesacrament. %opts practice circumcision and refrain from por). *asses are lengthyoften lasting for t&o hours or more. The church observes !ve important fasts= the -re;?enten fast of @inevehP the Great ast of ?ent ' days(P the ast of the @ativitybefore %hristmas '2/ days(P the ast of the Apostles before the AscensionP and the

ast of the Birgin after the Ascension. The %optic patriarch called the -ope ofAlexandria -entapolis and Ethiopia is chosen by a religious tribunal subect toapproval by the government. There are 2D bishoprics most of them in ?o&er Egypt.>utside Egypt there is a large %optic diaspora &ith dioceses at 4erusalem 9udan9outh Africa and @orth America.

9ince the 1HJ#$ there has been a dramatic revival in monastic life. *embership inthe church is estimated at 11 million. The ocial liturgical language is the ,ohairicdialect of %optic but Arabic is used for the audible parts of the service. Threeeucharistic prayers are in use= The anaphora of 9t. %yril used in ?entP the 9yro;,y"antine anaphora of 9t. ,asilP and the anaphora of 9t. Gregory used at %hristmasEpiphany and Easter &hich has the unusual feature of being addressed only to the9on. The eucharistic bread is in small leavened loaves stamped &ith a designincluding the Trisagion in Gree) and the &ine is made from the fermented uice ofraisins. ,aptismal and other sacramental rites resemble the Gree) >rthodox.,aptism begins &ith an exorcism. Cnction &ith seven lighted lamps is administeredat a public healing service on the riday before -alm 9unday. There are foot;&ashingceremonies on *aundy Thursday and the east of 9t. -eter and 9t. -aul. There areseven daily oces= midnight da&n third sixth and ninth hours vespers andcompline. Incense is oMered morning and evening. A traditional %optic church has asolid sanctuary screen &ith a central door 8an)ed by &indo&s and side doors andlighter screens to mar) oM the choir and the mens and &omens sections of thenave.

In modern times three events have infused ne& vigor into the %optic %hurch= theapparition of the Birgin *ary at


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-ersecution during the next seven centuries resulted in the brea)up of Armenia intot&o )ingdoms= Greater Armenian and ?ittle Armenia or %ilicia. The latter acceptedunion &ith 5ome at the %ouncil of 9is in 1$#0 con!rmed at the %ouncil of lorence'1D$/;1D$H(. Greater Armenia ho&ever did not accept the uniate status andestablished an independent patriarchate at Etchmiad"in. In the 1Hth and 2#th

centuries Armenians suMered severe persecutions at the hands of the >ttoman Tur)sin &hich more than 1. million Armenians perished. At the same time &hat &as leftof Armenia &as ta)en over by the ,olshevi)s &ho tried to repress the Armenian%hurch for over 0# years.

The Gregorian %hurch is still divided into the t&o catholicates of Etchmiad"in and 9is. The catholicos of 9is is resident in Antelias a suburb of ,eirut. Cnder them are t&oclasses of priests= unmarried vartabeds and married parish priests. Armenians follo&the liturgy of 9t. ,asil. The priestly vestment is the shur1ar or chasuble shaped li)e acope. In the Eucharist they use unleavened bread and do not mix &ater &ith &ine.%ommunion is in both )inds by intinction. %hristmas is not observed as a separatefeast but is celebrated as part of Epiphany from 4anuary to 1$.

The (yriac 5or (yrian6 %rthodo& Church

The 9yriac >rthodox %hurch is also )no&n as the 4acobite %hurch after 4acob,aradeus &ho championed *onophysitism in opposition to the %ouncil of %halcedon.Its liturgical language is 9yriac and its ocial calendar is 4ulian except in India. Itscurrent head the 122nd patriarch of Antioch resides at +amascus having beendriven out by the Tur)s from Antioch after 6orld 6ar II. The church has about half amillion members in 2# archdioceses in the *iddle East Europe @orth America andAustralia. 9ince the 1Jth century almost half of the 9yriac %hristians of *alabar orKerala have belonged to this church. @umbering over one million they have aseparate catholicos but their relations &ith the Antiochene %hurch have not al&aysbeen happy.

The 9yriac %hurch traces its origins to the original patriarchate of Antioch one of thefour 'later !ve( patriarchates of the early church established by 9t. -eter &ho isconsidered as the !rst patriarch '$$;D#(. About the year 0# the martyr 9t. Ignatius)no&n as the Enlightened became the third patriarch succeeding Euodius. In hishonor each succeeding patriarch since 12H$ has carried the ecclesiastical name ofIgnatius. The %ouncil of @icaea con!rmed the ecclesiastical urisdiction of the 9ee ofAntioch as covering all territory bet&een the *editerranean 9ea and the -ersian Gulf and extending into India. About the middle of the fourth century a %atholicate of theEast &as established at 9eleucia;%tesiphon to serve the faithful in -ersia and*esopotamia but it later fell to -ersian political persecutions and con8icts &ith theAssyrian %hurch of the East. In J2/ a ne& catholicate &as established in*esopotamia by -atriarch Athanasius I and its urisdiction &as expanded to includeall of Arabia -ersia and Afghanistan. After the patriarchates of Alexandria andAntioch reected the decisions of the %ouncil of %halcedon 'D1( a season of imperialpersecution follo&ed.

In 12 9everus the Great the patriarch of Antioch &as deposed by 4ustinian. ,y DDonly three bishops remained in the church. At this time the mon) 4acob ,aradeus&on over the Empress Theodora to the *onophysite side. 6ith her help and thesupport of Theodosius the patriarch of Alexandria ,aradeus set out to restore thepersecuted churches. 3e traveled in rags 'hence his name &hich means one clothedin rags( all over the *iddle East Asia *inor and Ethiopia rebuilding the church.

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+uring his travels he ordained over 1##### priests and deacons and consecrated 20bishops and one patriarch -aul II. In gratitude. the 9yriac >rthodox %hurch is oftencalled the 4acobite %hurch.

+uring the follo&ing centuries the seat of the patriarchate &as moved to the*onastery of *ar ,arsuma near *alatya and thence to +iyarba)ir and the ttomans decimated the church )illing millions forcibly converting millionsmore and destroying thousands of churches and monasteries. The holocaust haslasted &ell into the 2#th century.

The faith of the 9yriac >rthodox %hurch is based directly on the 3oly 9cripture asembodied in the @icene %reed. The 3oly Trinity is professed as one God of oneessence and one Godhead. 4esus %hrist is professed to be the only begotten 9on ofGod of one nature being fully God and fully man &ithout mixture or confusion. Ircondemns Eutychianism &hich is often confused &ith *onophysitism and &hich heldthat %hrist had only a divine nature but not a human one. The Birgin *ary isac)no&ledged as the ,earer of God. The church observes seven canonical stationsas the liturgy of the hours. The &ee)day oce contains the ferial cycle. The churchobserves seven sacraments of &hich baptism chrismation and priesthood can bereceived only once. The baptismal font is considered as both a &omb and a tomb.%andidates for priesthood are permitted to marry but they must marry prior to theirordination to the diaconate. ,ishops are chosen from the monastic clergy.

The eucharistic liturgy of the 9yriac >rthodox %hurch is among the richest in all%hristendom &ith more than /# anaphoras. The principal liturgy is that of 9t. 4amesbut the ?iturgies of the T&elve Apostles 9t. -eter +ionysius bar 9alibi and 9t. 4ohnthe Evangelist are also used. The church believes in transubstantiation. The bread forthe eucharist is made from leavened bread mixed &ith salt and oil. The &ords &ho&as cruci!ed on out account are added to the Trisagion in the liturgy and the signof the cross is made &ith one !nger.

Ethiopian %rthodo& Church

-roperly the Ethiopian >rthodox Te&ahdo ,ete %hurch. It is an ancient churchfounded in Abyssinia no& )no&n as Ethiopia by rumentius in the fourth century.According to 5e!nus rumentius &as a 9yrian from Tyre. At the end of the !fthcentury nine 9yrian mon)s no& )no&n as the @ine 9aints helped to establish the

9yrian and %optic traditions in Ethiopia. A great revival too) place in the 1th

centuryunder King 9ara :a)ub '1D$D;1DJ/(. ?i)e other ?esser Eastern %hurches theEthiopian %hurch has been mislabeled as *onophysite. It describes itself as*iaphysite after a %hristological doctrine )no&n as *iaphysis &hich holds that %hristhad divine and human natures. As formulated by +ioscorus and %yril *iaphysismaintains that %hrist is perfect God and perfect man at once consubstantial &iththe ather and &ith human)ind the divinity and the humanity continuing in him&ithout mixture or separation &ithout confusion or change. In 1HH the Ethiopian%hurch became independent of the 9ee of Alexandria under its o&n abuna orpatriarch.

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*ost parishes &orship in the ancient classical language of Gee" although thevernacular Amharic &as introduced in in the 1HJ#s. The main sources of &orship arethe 4postolic Canons) the Testament of %ur /ord) -omocanon) %rdinances andInstructions) The Boo! of -ature and the (te"ardship of the *ystery0 The *issal hast&o parts one containing 1J to 2# anaphorae and another &ith the psalmody for the

Eucharist chanted by specially trained choirs. T&enty diMerent anaphorae are )no&nincluding those by ,asil Gregory %yril Athanasius *ar) and %hrysostom. *ost ofthem are of 9yrian

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