Encounters between theory and practice: Semiotic and pragmatic principles in advertising

FOSTER, Stuart

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FOSTER, Stuart (2017). Encounters between theory and practice: Semiotic and pragmatic principles in advertising. Doctoral, Sheffield Hallam University.

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SHEFFIELDHALLAMUNIVERSITY

FacultyofDevelopmentandSociety

EncountersbetweenTheoryandPractice:Semioticand

PragmaticPrinciplesinAdvertising

ADoctoralThesis

By

StuartFoster

Supervisors: DrPeterJones

DrJodieClark

Acknowledgments

IwouldliketoextendmythankstomysupervisorsandotherstaffatSheffield

HallamUniversityfortheirinvaluableassistanceandadvicethroughoutthe

process,andalsospecialthankstoDrBarbaraMcMahonwhohassincetakenup

anewpostanotherinstitution.

Iwishtothankthosewhocooperatedwithmyresearch,andespeciallytothose

whoworkintheadvertisingindustrywhogaveupsomeoftheirprecioustime

toanswermyquestionssocomprehensively.

Lastly,Iwouldliketothankmywife,Jill,forherwillingnesstoletmespend

countlesshoursinthelibraryandinmystudyworkingonthisthesisandfor

takingtheloadinrelievingmeofmanyofmyusualchores.

StuartFoster

Abstract

Advertisinghaslongbeenofinteresttosemiotic,linguisticsandpragmatic

theoristsincludingBarthes(1957;1977),Williamson(1978),Myers(1994),

Cook(2001)andTanaka(1994).Marketingscholars,includingBrierley(2002)

andBeaseley(inBeaseley&Danesi,2002)showareciprocalinterestinthe

potentialforsemioticstoadvancetheirdiscipline,butthereisnoapparent

awarenessoftheoriesofpragmaticsoritsrelevancetotheirfield.While

semioticsoffersatoolinunderstandinghowmeaningisconveyedthrough

linguisticandnon-linguisticsigns,pragmaticsfocusesuponlanguage,speaker

intentionsandtheinterpretationofutterancesincontext.Thisstudycompares

thesetwoapproachesinunderstandingthecreativeprocessesinvolvedinthe

designofadvertisements.Universitiesandprofessionalbodieswerecontacted

toascertainwhetherthesesubjectsweretaughttoprospectiveandpractising

advertisingprofessionalsand,ifso,whatwastheprecisecontent.Considerable

variationisfoundbetweeninstitutions,rangingfromnoinputtoamoderate

levelofinputinsemiotics;pragmaticsisabsentinthesyllabus.Wheresemiotics

istaught,itisconfinedtousingtheoriestodeconstructselectedadvertisements

ratherthanemployingsemioticprinciplesasadesigntechnique.Inaddition,five

copywritersareinterviewedtoascertaintheirawarenessofsemioticsand,more

generally,thecreativeprocessestheyadopt.Whileavagueknowledgeofthe

theoriesisreported,andsomeappreciationoftheirpossiblerelevancetothe

industry,practitionersmakenoattempttoapplysemioticssystematicallyin

theirdesignpractices.Thereisevidenceofanawarenessoftheeffectsof

significationandcontextwhichalignswiththetheoreticalframeworks,although

thisalignmentcanbeexplainedmorethroughintuitionandjobexperiencethan

aconsciousapplicationoftheories.Itisrecommendedthatfurtherresearch

shouldbeconductedintothevalueofteachingsemioticstomarketingstudents,

thatanappliedsemioticmethodisdevelopedspecificallyforstudentsof

advertisingandthatconsiderationisgiventoincorporatingaspectsof

pragmaticsintotheirtraining.

KeyWords:advertising,copywriter,linguistics,marketing,pragmatics,semiotic

TABLEOFCONTENTS pageCHAPTER1–THESISINTRODUCTION

1.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 11.2 THECHARACTEROFADVERTISINGDISCOURSE 21.3 ADVERTISINGASANOBJECTOFSTUDY 41.4 ADVERTISINGASCOMMUNICATION 61.5 STATEMENTOFAIMSANDRESEARCHQUESTIONS 81.6 SCOPEANDSTRUCTURE 11

CHAPTER2-ADVERTISINGFROMASEMIOTICPERSPECTIVE

2.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 152.2 OVERVIEWOFSEMIOTICS 162.3 SAUSSURE 172.4 PEIRCE 202.5 STRUCTURALISMANDFORMALISM 212.6 BARTHES 302.7 LÉVI-STRAUSS 382.8 INTERTEXTUALITY 412.9 ECO 442.10 MULTIMODALITY 472.11LIMITATIONSOFSEMIOTICANALYSISOFADVERTISING 532.12 METALANGUAGE 59

CHAPTER3-ADVERTISINGFROMAPRAGMATICPERSPECTIVE

3.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 613.2 OVERVIEWOFTHEORIESOFIMPLICATURE 633.3 LIMITATIONSOFGRICE/RELEVANCETHEORY 723.4 DEIXISANDPRONOUNS 763.5 OSTENSIVEINFERENTIALANDCOVERTCOMMUNICATION863.6 LOOSETALKANDMETAPHORS 913.7 AMBIGUITY,PUNSANDPOLYSEMES 1003.8 REASON/TICKLEANDHARD/SOFTSELLDISTINCTIONS105

CHAPTER4–METHODOLOGY

4.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 1094.2 RESEARCH-ADVERTISINGEDUCATION 1104.3 RESEARCH-ADVERTISINGPRACTICES 1124.4 ADDITIONALINTERVIEW 1134.5 ETHICALCONSIDERATIONS 1144.6 INTERVIEWS-DATAHANDLING 116

pageCHAPTER5-TEXTSFORSTUDENTSOFADVERTISING 5.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 117

5.2 PROFESSIONALBODIES 117 5.3 UNIVERSITIES 119 5.4 SIGNIFICATION 122 5.5 DENOTATION,CONNOTATIONANDMYTHS 126

5.6 INTERTEXTUALITYANDCONNOTATIVECHAINS 129 5.7 PRODUCTANDBRANDNAMES 136 5.8 RHETORICALDEVICES 139

5.9 RATIONALANDNON-RATIONALADVERTISING 1415.10 BRANDBUILDINGANDBRANDRECOGNITION 142

CHAPTER6-INTERVIEWS,RESULTSANDANALYSIS 6.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 147 6.2 ADVERTISERS–AGENCY 150

6.3 INTERVIEWEEBACKGROUND 155 6.4 FORMINGIDEAS 163 6.5 STRATEGY 182

6.6 COMMERCIALSEMIOTICIANINTERVIEW 209 CHAPTER7–DISCUSSION 7.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 216 7.2 LINGUISTICCONTENTINADVERTISINGEDUCATION 217 7.3 THEBRIEF 221 7.4 APPLICATIONOFSEMIOTICPRINCIPLESINADVERTISING223 7.5 APPLICATIONOFPRAGMATICPRINCIPLESINADVERTISING239 7.6 PRODUCTVERSUSBRAND 258 7.7 FINDINGSASTHEYRELATETOTHESISQUESTIONS 261CHAPTER8–CONCLUSION 8.1 CHAPTERINTRODUCTION 272 8.2 REVIEWOFRESEARCHPROCESS 272 8.3 RESEARCHEVALUATION 273 8.4 RECOMMENDATIONSANDFUTURERESEARCH 277BIBLIOGRAPHY 281APPENDICES 291

1

CHAPTER1–THESISINTRODUCTION

1.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION

Theprincipleaimofthisthesisistoestablishadialoguebetweenlinguisticand

semiotictheoryontheonehandandthepracticeofadvertisingdesignand

productionontheother.Advertisingmaybenaturallyassociatedwithbusiness-

orienteddisciplineslikemarketing,butitalsohasalsoattractedtheinterestof

scholarswithinotherdiversefields,rangingfrommodernart(e.g.Flood,2012;

Cairns,2010)toappliedpsychology(e.g.Fennisetal,1968;O'Shaughnessy&

O'Shaughnessy,2004).Thefocusofpreviousstudiesintoadvertisinghastodate

beenalmostentirelydirectedtowardsthefinishedproductofthecreators'

endeavours,i.e.advertisementsthathavebeenpublishedorbroadcast,orthe

cognitiveeffectsachievedbytheadvertisements,ratherthanontheprocesses

involvedinadvertisingcreation.

AsBrierley(2002:p.2)states:

“Thoughtherearethousandsofacademicstudiesofadvertising

textsandtheirinteractionwithaudiences,thereareveryfewthat

examinetheproductionofadvertisingfromtheadvertiser’s

perspective.”

Thefocusofresearchinthisthesiswasdirectedtowardsaddressingthis

deficiencythroughexaminingtherelationshipbetweenthecreative

processesinvolvedintheproductionofadvertisementsandthe

treatmentofadvertisingdiscoursewithinthetheoreticalframeworks

foundinsemioticsandpragmatics.Wherealignmentsbetweentheory

andpracticeareidentified,theauthorhasinvestigatedwhether

practitionersconsciouslyappiedmethodsandprinciplesfromtheir

knowledgeofthetheoriesintheiradvertisingdesign.Whereitwas

2

discoveredpractitionerswereneitherawareof,norconsciouslyapplying,

theprinciples,thestudyattemptedtoestablishwhetheranycorrelations

identifiedbetweentheoryandpracticecouldbeexplainedbyother

means,suchasthroughintuitionderivedfromexperience,and

consequentlywhethertheprincipleswereappliedunconsciously.To

illustratethispoint,inthecaseofsemiotics,anadvertisingdesigner

interviewedduringthecourseofthisresearchstated:

“Ibetifyoubrokedownourprocesses…ifyoucouldlookintoour

heads…we’dbeusingsemioticsinsomeway,butnotactively…not

explicitly”.(SubjectB)

Itwasfurtherintendedthatthisresearchwouldshedlightonwhetherthe

processesinvolvedinthecreationofadvertisementstendtosupportsemiotic

andpragmaticmodelsand,ifso,inwhatwaysandtowhatdegree.

1.2THECHARACTEROFADVERTISINGDISCOURSE

Advertisingisadistinctiveanduniquetypeofdiscourseforseveralreasons.Itis

prevalentinmodernsocietyor,asWilliamson(1978:p.11)states,

advertisements:

"areubiquitous,aninevitablepartofeveryone'slives:evenif

youdonotreadanewspaperorwatchtelevision,theimages

postedoveroururbansurroundingsareinescapable."

3

While,accordingtoDyer(1982),abusinessthatengagesinadvertisingmay

claimthatthepurposeissimplytomakeconsumersawareoftherangesof

goodsandservicesavailablewithinafreemarketeconomy,itwouldbenaïve

tosupposethepurposeisasaltruisticasthissuggests.Theultimateaimof

anadvertiseristomodifyconsumerperceptions,andtherebyinfluence

consumerbehaviortotheadvantageofasupplier;inotherwords,itisto

transformreceiversofadvertisementsintocustomers.Advertisersemploy

anassortmentofmethodstocapturetheattentionofpotentialcustomers

includingsuchasimagesjuxtaposedwithcaptions(asdescribedin

subchapter2.6),presentingareaderofviewerwithariddleorenigma

(subchapter2.10)andpersonalization(subchapter3.4).Theirsuccessinthis

respectiscontingentuponthempossessingsomeunderstandingofthe

interpretiveabilitiesofreceivers(i.e.theircognitiveprocessing),andtaking

accountoftheseinthedesignoftheiradvertisements.Asagenre,

advertisingsharessomeofitsfeatureswiththatofliterature.Itconstructs

parallelworldsthatcanbeenteredandwhichhavesimilaritieswiththose

inhabitedbythereaderoraudience,butareoftenmoreglamorous,exotic

andexcitingthanthebanalityofday-to-dayexperience.Itgenerates

narrativesthatalludetofolkloreandpopularculture,asexemplifiedby

BeasleyandDanesi(2002)wheretheysuggestallusionsaremadetothe

AncientGreekgodofwineandcarnalpleasures,Dionysus,inaVersace

advertisement(asdescribedinSubchapter5.6,below).Insomecases,these

featurecelebrities,suchasHalleBerry,whoisusedtomarketRevlonbeauty

products(Subchapter2.6).Sometimes,advertisingcreatesstories,and

characters,ofitsownwhichitcandevelopthroughoutacampaignanda

notableexampleofthisisaseriesoftelevisionadvertisementsforNescafe

GoldBlendinstantcoffeebroadcastintheUKbetween1987and1993,and

thisdepictsaslowlydevelopingromancebetweenacouple(Armstrong,

1995).Tobesuccessful,advertisershavetocaptureattention,perhapseven

overcomingsomeresistanceintheprocess.Inordertoengageconsumers,

advertisersexploitsomeofthemethodsfavouredbyauthorsandfilm

directors,suchasvisualstimulibywayofimageswhichmaybestrikingin

termsofthephotographyorgraphicsused,andthroughlinguisticdevices

4

suchasjingles,straplines,enigmaticwordingorpersonalization(as

mentionedabove)(Brierley,2002).However,unlikenovelists,playwrights

andmoviedirectors,advertisersdonotinvitethosewhoexperiencethem

intotheseworldsprimarilytoentertain.Forthem,Dyer(1982)asserts,the

entertainmentaspectisinsteadavehicleusedtofulfillanentirelydifferent

purpose,namelytopromoteaproductorbrandandtherebyalter

perceptionsand,ultimately,behaviorwithrespecttothatproductorbrand.

Thisdifferenceinpurposemakesitnecessarytoviewadvertisementsfroma

differentperspectivefromthatofothergenres.Specifically,ifthefuture

behaviourofthereceiverisnotinfluencedintheprecisewayintendedthen,

asBissel(2001)pointsout,communicationmayberegardedasunsuccessful,

theopportunityaslostandmoneyspentonproducingtheadvertisementas

wasted.

1.3ADVERTISINGASANOBJECTOFSTUDY

Asageneralrule,commercialandpublicinformationadvertisementsare

receivedunsolicitedandattachedtootherdiscoursessuchastelevisionand

radioprogrammes,andperiodicals.Nonetheless,researchshowsthat

advertisingismemorableasthecontentofadvertisementsreadilycomesto

mind,suchaswhenshopping(Cobb&Hoyer,1985;Daltonetal,2013).

Commercialsare,asnotedbyDyer(1982),ubiquitousinmodernsocietyandare

foundinallformsofmedia(Cook,2001).Tobeeffective,theymustberelevant

totheconsumersandsoeffortsaremadebothtoreflectmodernlifestylesand,

insomecases,presentconsumerswithaprojected“idealizedself”in“idealized

settings”(Richins,1991).Theeffectivenessofadvertisinghasultimatelytobe

measuredintermsoftheprofititisabletogenerateand,asaconsequence,

5

“advertisingtheoryandpracticehadtodefineveryearlythe

conceptofadvertisingeffectivenessandalsothetoolstomeasure

thiseffectiveness”(Pavlu,2016).

Inordertoengageconsumers,advertisersexploitarangeofmodesincluding

imagery,musicandlanguage,accordingtoBrierley(2002).Whenanalyzingthe

artisticelementsinadvertisements,andthecreativepracticesofthosewho

producethem,theirprimarypurposeofpersuasionmustnotbeoverlooked.

Thisstudyconsidersthetrainingthatadvertisingpractitionerswerereceivingat

thetimeoftheresearch,butitfocusesparticularlyonthecontentofsomeofthe

textbooksthathavebeenproducedofferinginstructionintheprinciplesand

practicesofadvertisingforstudentsandpractitioners.Insomecases,theserefer

toconceptualmodels,suchasLavidgeandSteiner’smodel(Lavidge&Steiner,

1961),whichestablishesahierarchyofeffects,showstheoperationof

persuasionandsuggestsaseriesofstepswhichchartareaderorviewer’s

progressfromthepointofproductawarenesstopurchase.Majorfiguresinthe

marketingindustry,likeOgilvy(2007)andHegarty(2011),sharetheir

experiencewiththeindustrybyrecountingitinbooksandmanuals.Inorderto

establishtheeffectivenessofadvertising,anumberofstudieswereperformed

whichexaminedtheperceptionofadvertisements,someasearlyasthe1920s

(Nixon,1927).Later,cognitivemodelsofperceptionandrecallweredevised

(Hornik,1980).AccordingtoPietersandWedel(2004),oneofthegreatest

challengesofanadvertiseris:“tocutthroughtheclutterofcompeting

advertisementsandeditorialmessages”(p.36).Visualstimuliapproachesfocus

uponthewaystomaximizethelevelofreaderattentionanadvertisementcan

secureandtheextenttowhichthesizeoftheadvertisement,andtheelements

within,contributetothis.Theperceivedwisdomhas,intheviewofPietersand

Wedel(2004),longbeenthatlargeradvertisementsattractagreaterdegreeof

attention

Asidefromtheobviousbusinessperspective,advertisinghasbeenatopicof

interesttoscholarsofapparentlyunrelateddisciplinesandwherethechief

6

purposehasnotbeentofurthertheaimsofbusiness,butrathertoachieve

greaterunderstandingwithinoneorotheracademicfields.Disciplinesthathave

demonstratedaninterestinadvertisingincludepsychology(e.g.Eighmey&Sar,

2007;Fennis&Stroebe,2010),sociology(Packard,1957;Marsland,1988),

socialanthropology(Goldman,1992;Leiss,Kline&Jhally,1990),philosophy

(Spence&VanHeekeren,2005)andtopicsfallingunderthegeneralheadingsof

communicationstudiesandlinguistics,asoutlinedinthenextsubchapter.

1.4ADVERTISINGASCOMMUNICATION

Somescholarsapplyprinciplesfromabroadrangeoftheoreticalapproachesto

advertising(e.g.Vestergaard&Schrøder,1985;Myers,1994;Cook,1989&

2001);othersfocusonspecificaspectssuchaslexisandsyntax(e.g.Leech,

1966);criticaldiscourseanalysis(e.g.Williamson,1978;Mills,1995;

Thornborrow,1998)andpragmatics(Tanaka,1994).Examplesfrom

advertisingprovidematerialforpioneersofculturalsemioticssuchasEco

(1976),Barthes(1957,1977)andBignell(2002)totheextentthatithasplayed

aroleintheadvancementofthisfield.Thesamemaybesaidforthe

developmentofmultimodalapproaches(e.g.Kress&vanLeeuwen,2001),

whereadvertisingcomprisesasubstantialpartofthematerialanalysedusing

thismethod.

Semioticssuggestswaysofunderstandingthecultureofthesocietyinwhichthe

signsexistinparticularaspectsofculturalmythologyandthesocialroleofsuch

myths(Bignell,2002;Turner,2002).Fromanadvertisingstandpoint,thisoffers

possibilitiesforengagingthepublic,capturingattentionandinfluencing

behaviour.Itisthereforeunsurprisingthatsemiotics,whichhaspreviously

beenofinterestmainlytophilosophersorlinguists,hasalsoattractedthe

attentionofscholarsfromthefieldofmarketing(e.g.Beasley&Danesi,2002;

Brown&Turley,eds.1997).Asstatedabove,semioticshasbeenappliedinthe

analysisofadvertisementsforseveraldecadesand,morerecently,aworking

7

knowledgeofithasbeenarequirementforsomestudentsundertakingdegree

coursesinmarketingandadvertisinginBritishuniversities.However,whilethe

subjectisorhasbeentaughtincertaincourses,thedegreetowhichsemiotic

toolsaresystematicallyusedintheeverydayworkoftheadvertisingindustryis

oneofthemattersexploredinthecourseofthisresearch.

Thestudyofsignsisanancientbranchofphilosophyandcanbetracedbackas

farastheAncientGraeco-RomanperiodonthethirdandfourthcenturiesBCE

(Nöth,1990:pp.14-15),butalaterdevelopmentistobefoundinstructuralist

semiotics.Sincetheinceptionofstructuralistsemioticsbythepioneering

linguistFerdinanddeSaussure,semioticshasbeenhugelyextendedinits

purview.Whilemanyformsofcommunicationexist,themostsophisticated

systemusedbyhumansislanguage.Thiscanbestudiedacrossmanylevels,

fromthemostelementalsoundsofspeech,throughtheinternalmeaningsof

morphemes,wordsandphrases,anduptothestudyofcompletetextsand

discourses.Thestructuralistapproach,however,isunabletotakeaccountofthe

fundamentalroleofcontextintheproductionandinterpretationof

communicationalprocessesandproducts,arolewhichhasbecomeincreasingly

recognizedsincetheinceptionofpragmaticsasadistinctdisciplinefromthe

earlyandmiddleofthetwentiethcentury(Biletzki,1996).Pragmatic

approachessuchasthosesuggestedbyAustin,Grice,andSperberandWilson,as

describedinSubchapters3.2to3.7,focusprimarilyuponcontextwithinspoken

interaction.Whiletherehavebeeneffortstoextendpragmaticanalysistoother

communicativesituations,theseappeartobefewinnumber.Thosewhichdo

exist,e.g.Geis(1982),tendtobedatedandsotheydonotemploymoremodern

pragmaticframeworksorelsetheyconsistofstudieswhicharehighlyspecificin

character,suchasTanaka's(1994)contrastivestudyofthecontextualfeatures

ofBritishandJapaneseadvertisements.

8

1.5 STATEMENTOFAIMSANDRESEARCHQUESTIONS

Asmentioned,asubstantialbodyofscholarlyworkrelatingtoadvertisinghas

beenproducedoverseveraldecadesandbyacademicsfromawidevarietyof

disciplines;someofthesearelistedinSubchapters1.3and1.4,above.Thetwo

disciplinesofinterestinthisthesisaresemioticsandpragmatics,andthe

particulartheoreticalconstructsandprinciplesfromthesedisciplinesthatare

employedinanalyzingexamplesfromadvertising.Thetwochaptersfollowing

thisIntroductioncompriseareviewconductedforthepurposeofestablishing

whichparticularmodelsareapplied,whattheycontributetoenhancing

understandingofthediscourse,andhowtheymayshedlightonthecreative

processesinvolvedinproducingcommercials.

Whileitmaybethecasethat,amongthosepractitionerswhohavereceived

traininginsemanticand/orsemioticprinciples,theseprinciplesguidetheir

creativeroutines,thiscannotbetakenforgranted.Itisconceivablethatmuchof

theircreativityarisesfromothersources,suchastheirlifeexperiences,

recollectionsofprevioussuccessesandfailuresinpreviousadvertising

campaigns,andwitnessingandemulatingtheworkofotherpractitioners.By

exploringthecreativestrategieswhichadvertisingprofessionalsadopt,itis

possibletodeterminetheextenttowhichtheircreativityandinspirationarises

fromthesesources,andestablishingthiswasthechiefaimofthesecondmajor

partofthestudy.Whereitisdiscoveredthatpractitionersdrawupon

experienceandintuitionratherthanattemptingtoapplytheoreticalprinciples,

thatisnottobeinterpretedasmeaningthattheseprinciplesareirrelevantto

theprocess.Thisstudyisdesignedtoascertainwhethersuchcreativepractices

accordwiththeprinciplesevenwhentheyarenotconsciouslyapplied.A

numberofin-depthinterviewswithpractitionerswereconductedtoexplore

thispossibility,andtheseareoutlinedandanalysedinthesixthchapter.

Inadditiontoexploringthistopicfromtheperspectiveofadvertising,thisstudy

considerstheimplicationsoftheconsciousandunconsciousapplicationof

theoreticalmodelsandprinciplesintermsofitscontributiontothe

9

understandingofthemodelsandprinciplesthemselves.Itattemptstoestablish

whethertheresearchundertakensupportsorconfirmsthevalidityofthe

theories,orchallengesthem.Deconstructingadvertisementscanbeinsightful,

buttheinsightsgainedarelimitedaccordingtothemethodbywhichthedata

analysedisobtained.Theoreticallyinformedanalysisofadvertisements

(Williamson(1978),Vestergaard&Schrøder(1985),Myers(1994)Tanaka

(1994)Cook(1989,2001)andBignell(2002))hasledtosignificantinsightsinto

theunderstandingofthegenre,andinparticularintotheroleofaspectsof

contextintheinterpretationofthetextualcomponentsofadvertisements.Atthe

sametime,itremainsanopenquestionastowhatsuchtheoreticallydriven

researchhastoofferregardingthecreativecommunicativeandcognitive

processesthatpractitionersthemselvesevinceindesigningadvertisementsand

advertisingcampaignsandtheirexplicitknowledgeandapplicationoftheories

inprofessionalpractice.Consequently,thisdissertationhasinvestigatedin

detailthecharacterofthecommunicationalexpertiseinevidenceinprofessional

practice,theroleinthatpracticeofexplicitknowledgeinsemioticsor

pragmatics,theextentandnatureofthatknowledgeandhowsuchknowledge

wasacquired.Tothatend,thenatureofthetrainingundertakenbyadvertising

professionalsisexaminedwithaparticularfocusonthetwodisciplinesthatare

ofparticularinterestwithinthisresearch.Itis,ofcourse,possiblethat

theoreticalknowledgeisacquiredoutsideofformaleducationalandtraining

environments,apossibilityexploredintheinterviewswithpractitioners.Where

intervieweesrevealtheyhaveatleastsomefamiliaritywiththeoretical

principles,theextentoftheirknowledgeandwhetherandhowtheyattemptto

applytheseintheirdailyworkisinvestigated.

InChapter2,thestudyconsidershowthecreativeprocesseswithinadvertising

relatetoBarthes'sviewofculturalmyths,theinfluencesexertedonsemioticsby

Formalism,andespeciallyShklovsky'stheoryofdefamiliarisation,developments

ofapproachessuchasmultimodality,andwhethertheseareconfirmedor

underminedbyevidencecollectedfromthosewhoactivelycreate

advertisements.Similarly,aspragmatictheoriesaremainlyconcernedwith

dialogueintheformofutterances(Levinson,1983;Sperber&Wilson,1995),

10

Chapter3ofthestudyattemptstouncoverthedegreetowhichpragmatic

principles,andespeciallythosewithinRelevanceTheory,aresubstantiatedby

advertising.Advertisementsareamarkedlydifferentformofcommunicationto

thatofconversation;advertisingismasscommunicationratherthanpersonal

communicationand,assuch,itisone-wayonly,withtheadvertiserbeingthe

communicatorandtherebeingnoexpectationthatthereceiverwillrespond.It

hasapurposewhichisspecificandfarnarrowerthanadialogue;itmostly

consistsofmorethanjustthelinguisticmodeanditcommonlyincludesthe

elementsofimages,graphics,video,soundandmusicwhichcontributetothe

contextthroughwhichthespokenorwrittenlanguageisinterpreted.Thisstudy

thereforeattemptstoascertainhowadvertisingpractitionersgeneratecontext

intheircreativepracticesandwhethertheirmethodsconformtoparticular

pragmatictheoriesthatareprimarilyaimedatexplainingcontextinface-to-face

spokeninteractions.Accordingly,afurtherambitionforthestudyisthat,by

highlightingpointsofconcordanceanddivergencebetweenthetheoriesofthe

disciplinesmentionedandadvertisingpractice,theboundariesofknowledgein

termsofsemioticsandpragmaticsareextendedtosomedegree,thusadvancing

thesefields.Thisobviouslyrelatesmainlytoadvertising,butitalsoappliesto

otherdiscoursesthataresimilarincharacter,suchaspoliticalspeechesand

publicserviceannouncements.Additionally,recommendationsaremadewhich

maybeinformativeforindividualsresponsiblefordesigningthetrainingof

futuregenerationsofadvertisingprofessionals.

Theresearchquestionsforthisthesisaresummarizedasfollows:

1. Whathavelinguisticpragmaticsandsemioticscontributedtoour

understandingofadvertisingdiscourse?Whatarethekeytheoretical

constructsandprincipleswhichtheseapproacheshavebroughttobear?

2. Towhatextentarethespecificconceptualframeworksproposedin

theoriesofsemioticsandpragmaticsvaluableinsheddinglightonthe

11

linguisticandcommunicativeprocessesinvolvedintheproductionand

operationofadvertisements?

3. Howfamiliarareadvertisingprofessionalswithparticularsemioticand

pragmaticmodelsofcommunicationandtowhatextentdotheyattempt

toapplytheoreticalprincipleswithwhichtheyarefamiliarintheirwork?

4. Towhatextentdothecommunicativeinsightsandprinciplesof

professionaladvertisingpracticeprovidesupportfororconformtothe

relevanttheoreticalmodels?

5. Whataretheimplicationsfortheoryfromthisconfrontationbetween

theoryandpractice,andwhatimplicationsarethereforprofessional

practiceandtraining/education?

1.6SCOPEANDSTRUCTURE

ThescopeoftheresearchforthisstudyisconfinedtoadvertisingintheUnited

Kingdom,andthebackgrounds,approachesandcreativepracticesofadvertising

practitionersworkinginthenorthoftheEnglandatthetimeofwriting.The

primarydataforthisstudyisdescribedindetailintheMethodologychapterand

consistsoftwomainkinds,namelyteachingmaterialsusedbyeducatorsin

universitiesandelsewherewhoareconcernedwithtrainingprospective

advertisingcopywritersandmarketers,andinterviewswithindividualsworking

inthesefields.Withregardtothefirstkindmentioned,publicationsaimedat

studentsandpractitionerswereexamined,andtheseincludedrequired

theoreticaltextbooksandcoursematerialsusedinrelevantuniversitycourses

forstudentsaswellasbookswrittenbywell-knownfiguresintheindustryand

inwhichtheysharetheirpracticalexperiencesinadvertisingcreation.Aswith

manyotheraspectsofhumanactivity,differencescanbefoundbetweenthat

whichistaughtandstudiedintermsoftheoryandthedailypracticesof

individualswhoroutinelyundertaketheactivity.Practitionersthemselveswere

12

thereforeinterviewedtoestablishtheconceptualframeworkstheyhadbeen

usingintheiradvertisingdesigns,consciouslyorotherwise;howtheysoughtto

constructmeaning;howtheycontextualizedtheirmessagestocapturetheir

intendedaudience’sattentionandtoensurethatanyandallintended

interpretationswereaccessedbytheirintendedaudience.

Semioticsandpragmaticssharethesameobjectivebyvirtueofthembothbeing

concernedwithaccountingforthecreationandcomprehensionofmeaning.In

thecaseofsemiotics,meaningisconsideredtobeembodiedinsigns,andthe

semioticapproachconsidershowtheseoriginateorareintentionallygenerated,

howtheyinteractwithothersignsandhowtheymaybeinterpreted.The

conceptofsignsinsemioticsissobroadasitmaybeconsideredtoencompass

everythingthatalivingentitycandetectwithanyofitssensoryfaculties.

Languageis,insemioticterms,simplyasophisticatedsystemofsigns.Onthe

otherhand,accordingtoLevinson(1983),pragmatics,isconcerned

predominantlywithlanguage,theintentionbehinditsproductionandthe

possibilitiesfortheinterpretationofthatintentionthroughcontext.Semioticsis

generallyunconcernedwithcontext,althoughitmaybearguedthatthereisa

considerableoverlapbetweencertainconceptswithinit,andpragmatics,as

explainedinSubchapter3.1,below.Peirciansemiotics,andPeirce's

classificationofcertainsignsasindexical,havebeensuggestedasbeingclosely

tiedtocontext,suchasinassigningreferentstopersonalpronounsand

demonstratives.AsRellstab(2008)pointsout:

“…ifindexicalitypromptstheinterpretertolookforthespecific

objectsintended,thenthesentencecanonlybeinterpretedbya

mechanismthatDanSperberandDeidreWilson,prominent

representativesofRelevanceTheory,wouldcallcomputational,or

inferential.”(p.322)

13

Similarly,asisexplainedinSubchapter3.1,somesemioticians,suchasJakobson,

recognizethefrequentlyoccurringdiscrepancybetweentheformofan

utteranceandtheintentionthatmotivatesit,andattemptshavebeenmadeto

describethis,includingbywayofestablishingutteranceandintention

categories.

Inspiteofinterfacesbetweenthetwoapproaches,therearecleardifferencesin

theperspectivesofsemioticsandpragmaticsandsothetheoreticalbasisofthis

studyisstructuredaccordingly.Thefirstofthetwochaptersrelatingtothe

theoreticalapproachesbeginbyexplainingthebasicprinciplesofstructuralist

andculturalsemiotics,andhowadvertisingisunderstoodasconstituting,and

beingcomposedof,signs.Chapter2detailshowsemioticframeworkshavebeen

appliedasameansbywhichexistingadvertisementsaredeconstructed,either

forinterestbylinguists,orasmethodsthatcanbeusedbylearnersand

practitionersintheadvertisingindustry.Amongthetopicscoveredinthis

sectionarethebasicsofSaussureanstructuralism,thecontributionsofPeirce

(fromNöth,1990),Barthes(1957,1977)andEco(1976,1979),aswellas

pertinentapproachestointertextualityandmultimodalityastheyrelateto

advertising.Thethirdchapterreviewsthebasicprinciplesofpragmatics,from

workonspeechactsbyAustinandSearle,throughGriceanmaximsand

thereaftertothelatestapproachesofferedbyRelevanceTheory.Whilelittle

workhasbeendoneonapplyingthesecontext-basedtheoriestoadvertising

texts,onescholarinparticular,Tanaka(1994),attemptstoapplycertain

principlesofpragmatics,asameansofcomparingandcontrastingadvertising

languageasusedinBritishandJapanesecommercialsandherstudyisdescribed.

Thischapteralsodiscussesstylisticandrhetoricaldevicessuchasambiguity,

punsandmetaphor,andconcludeswithanexplanationofthetwomain

approachesinadvertisingsuggestedbyBernstein(1974)whichheterms

“reason”,i.e.persuasionbywayofmakingalogicalcaseforpurchasingaproduct,

ortoestablishorreinforcebrandloyalty,and“tickle”,whichisanapproach

aimedatamusing,entertainingorotherwiseengagingaconsumerwithout

providingconcreteproductorbrandinformation.Thefourthchapteroutlines

themethodologybywhichprimarydataiscaptured,recorded,processedand

14

interpreted.Chapter5functionsasalinkbetweenthetheoreticalbackground

andtheprimarydataanalysisbyinvestigatingthetraininggiventostudents

whowishtopursuecareersinadvertising;thepurposeistodescribewhatkinds

andlevelsofinputareprovidedthatrelatetosemioticsandpragmatics,andto

identifythebookstowhichtheyreferaspartoftheirtraining.Obtainingthis

informationisdeemednecessaryinordertoprovideinsightsintothepre-

existingknowledgethatadvertisingprofessionalsmighthaveinrespectof

theoreticalmodelspriortocommencinginterviewswiththem.Thesixthchapter

detailsthemostsalientpartsoftheinterviewswithcopywriters,andwitha

commercialsemiotician,andanalysesthedatatheyprovideintheiranswers.

ThewiderimplicationsofthisstudyareexploredinthepenultimateDiscussion

chapterandthethesisterminateswithaConclusionthatreviewstheprocess

andthefindings,evaluatesthestudy,suggestsfurtherresearchinorderto

extendunderstandingofthecognitiveandcreativeprocessesinvolvedin

producingadvertisements,andmakesrecommendationswithregardtothe

trainingofadvertisingcreators.

15

CHAPTER2-ADVERTISINGFROMASEMIOTICPERSPECTIVE

2.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION

Thischapterdiscussesthecharacteristicsofsignsandtheirfunctionsin

communicationbyreviewingtheoreticalapproachesfromstructuralistand

culturalsemiotics,thetoolstheyprovideforanalyzingexistingexamplesof

advertisementsandtheirapplicationintheadvertisingindustry.

SemioticiansincludingBarthes(1957,1977)andWilliamson(1978)consider

advertisinginrelationtoitsideologicalcontentandpurposewhileothers(e.g.

Bignell,2002;vanLeeuwen,2005)viewitasagenrethatoffersameansby

whichsemioticprinciplesandmethodscanbeclearlyappliedtorealworld

communicationsandillustrated.Unlikestrictlylinguisticapproaches,semiotics

concernsitselfwithallmodespresentincommunication,includingsound,music,

imagery,graphicsandformat,andadvertisersseektomaximizetheiruseof

modalalternativestogenerateandmaintaininterestinthecommercialsthey

produce.Conversely,asthisthesisdemonstrates,therehasbeensomeinterest

fromthefieldofmarketingintothepossibleapplicationsofsemioticsasameans

ofdevelopingtheirfieldandenablingthemtoproduceadvertisingthatismore

impactfulandbettertargeted.Semioticshasbeenintegratedintosomemedia

andadvertisingcoursesatuniversitylevel,asisdiscussedindetailbelow,and

thelinkbetweensemioticsandmarketingisnowwellestablished,as

demonstratedinChapter6.7,below.

Anumberofbookshavebeenpublishedthataredirectedspecificallytowards

individualsworkinginadvertisingandwhomightwishtoexploitsemiotic

theorieswhendesigningcommercialsandevenmanagingbrands,andtheseare

outlinedinChapter4,butOswald(2012)highlightstherelevanceofsemioticsin

effectivebrandmanagement:

16

“Bymanagingbrandsemioticsatallstagesinthedevelopment,

execution,andcommunicationofthebrand,marketerscreatea

codesystemthatstructurestheconsistentandenduring

associationofthebrandwithspecificicons,language,and

symbolsinconsumers’minds.”(p.46)

Theconceptofstructure,whichisthefoundationofsemiotics,facilitatesa

processofbrandingthrough,forexample,markingdifferencesbetweenthe

brandadvertisedanditscompetitors.Oswald(pp.51-56)assertsthatbrands

are“multidimensionalsignsystems”andsheliststhedimensionsasbeingthe

“material”(i.e.thosesignifierswhicharedistinctivetothebrandandintendedto

bereadilyrecognized,includinglogos,brandnames,jingles,colourschemesand

evenfonts);“conventional”signifiers(i.e.thosewhicharecodifiedbytraditions

orrules);“contextual”signs(i.e.thosewhicharecontextsensitiveandperceived

throughtheculturalandsocialcodesandwhichwouldincludemarkersofsocial

statusandgender,plusfactorsrelatingtoconnotation)and,lastly,the

“performative”factor,whichisconcernedwithhowtheparticipantsusesemiotic

codesincommunication.Thesecodescanbecategorizedas(i)subjectaddress,

suchasthevoiceusedandchoiceofpronouns,and(ii)meaningandreference,

whichconsistsofmarketingsignsthatresemble,orsubstitutefor,linguistic

signs“bylinkingamaterialsignifiertoanabstractconcept”(Oswald:p.55).

Asisdemonstratedinthisthesis,brandingoperatesthroughsigns,regardlessof

whicheversigndimensionisdecidedmostpertinent.

2.2OVERVIEWOFSEMIOTICS

Philosophershavetakenaninterestinthenatureofsignssincethetimeof

Aristotle.StAugustine(AD354–430)consideredthedifferencesbetween

17

differenttypesofsigns,includingthosethatarenaturalandthosewhichare

madebyhumans,includingwords:

“Thereareotherkindsofsignswhosewholefunctionistosignify

something.Words,forexample:nobodyuseswordsexceptinorderto

signifysomething.”(Augustine,379:trans.Green1995:p.15)

Inthelaterpartofthe19thandearlypartofthe20thcenturies,ahandfulof

scholars,includingFerdinanddeSaussure,CharlesSandersPeirceandCharles

WilliamMorris,directedtheirattentiontothenatureofsigns.Saussureusedthe

term“semiology”todenotehisparticularfieldofinterestbut,inmorerecent

times,therehasbeenareversiontotheoldernameanditisnowmostlyreferred

toas“semiotics”(Beasley&Danesi:2002:p.26).Sincethen,semioticshas

developedand,whileretainingitsphilosophicalroots,italsohasanapplied

dimensionwhichisexploitedin,forexample,theanalysisandinterpretationof

texts.LatersemioticianssuchasRolandBarthes1(1957;1977)consideredthat

signscanoperateonmorecomplex,culturallevelsandcantherebybe

associatedwithstrongideologicalfunctionsinthattheywere“bearersof

acceptedopinionandideologicaltrickery”(Blonsky,1985:xvii).Oneexampleof

thisphenomenonwidelydiscussedinsemioticsisthatofthemyth(Barthes,

1957;Nöth,1990).

2.3SAUSSURE

Harris(1983:p.157)pointsoutthat,accordingtoSaussure,asignification

systemexistswhensignsrelatetoothersignswithinthesamesystemand

generatemeaning.Thefirstproblemencounteredwhenmentioningmeaningis

1Subchapter2.6,below,discussesBarthes'workindetail.

18

decidingwhatisactuallymeantbymeaningandespeciallyinrelationto

signification.Thewordmeaninghasmanypotentialinterpretationswhichare

subjecttocontext,includingexpressionofdetermination(e.g.Imeantowin),

importance(e.g.herexpressionofconcernreallymeanssomethingtome)aswell

asindication(e.g.thumbsupmeansyouhavewon).Semioticiansand

semanticistsdistinguishbetweendenotativeandconnotativemeaning,and

betweensenseandreference,andthesearediscussedbelow.AsSperberand

Wilson(1995)note,utterancesandtextsrarelyconveyasingleandprecise

meaningthatisincapableofmisinterpretationthroughsuchfactorsas

ambiguityorthemis-assignmentofreferents.Thisis,however,amatterthatis

exploredinChapter3,below,andthefocusatthisstageisontheprimary,and

exclusivelyhuman,significationsystem.

Language,writtenandspoken,offersasophisticatedhumansignificationsystem.

Everyphonemeinanyspokenlanguageandeveryletterinanywrittenlanguage

functionsinrelationtotheotherphonemesandletterswithinthesamewordor

adjacentwords.Similarly,wordsfunctioninrelationtootherwords,andthe

sequencesofwordsproducessyntaxthat,inturn,constructsmeaningful

utterances.Phonemes,lettersandwordsareonlymeaningfulaspartoftheir

systemofsignificationand,inthissystem,theyhaveanessentiallydifferential

quality,i.eanidentityrootedinthedifferencebetweensigns.Saussurestates

thatthe“linkbetweenthesignalandsignificationisarbitrary”(1916:p.67):

signifiershavetobelearnedandthey(mostly)bearnophysicalorotherrelation

totheconceptstheysignify.Saussuredoesnotundulyconcernhimselfwiththe

questionofdegreesofarbitrariness,butherecognizesthatsomesignsmaybe

morearbitrary,orlessarbitrary,thanothers.Heidentifiessignsofpolitenessas

being“oftenendowedwithacertainnaturalexpressiveness”(p.68)butadds,

however,thatthey“arenonethelessfixedbyrule”(ibid).Notevenwhatmightbe

consideredonomatopoeicwords,wherethewordisdesignedtoimitate

whicheveracousticphenomenonitrepresents,arefreefromhumanarbitrary

reformulation.Tosupportthiscontention,hecomparesthedifferentwords

usedindifferentlanguagestorepresentanimalsounds;thus,adoginFrench

makesthesound“ouaoua”,whileaGermandog’sbarkis“wauwau”(Saussure,

19

1916:p.69).Saussure(1916)considersthatthemostefficientconveyersof

meaningarethosesignsthatarethemostarbitrary.Thisgoessomeway

towardsexplainingwhylanguageisthemostwidespreadofallsemioticsystems,

thatithasexistedinvariousformsformanythousandsofyears,andisan

essentialtoolofcommunicationusedbyvirtuallyallhumanbeingsacrossthe

world.

Saussureargues,inrelationtosynchronicidentity:“awordcanexpressquite

differentideaswithoutcompromisingitsidentity”(1916:p.107)andhe

exemplifiesthisbyciting“the8.45(train)fromGenevatoParis,oneofwhich

leaves24-hoursaftertheother”(ibid).Hepointsoutthatthesetwo

manifestationsof“the8.45fromGenevatoParis”(ibid)aretreatedlinguistically

asthesametrain,eventhoughitisknowntheymightbedifferentphysical

objectsintermsofthembeingdifferentenginesandoperatedbydifferentstaff.

Bythesametoken,asignifiedcanusuallybedenotedbyseveraldifferentsigns

while,equally,asignifiercanhaveamultiplicityofpossibleinterpretations.For

example,amen’stoiletcanbeindicatedbyarangeofstylizedgraphics,orthe

words“men”,“gentlemen”,“gents”,“males”,oranynumberofcorresponding

wordsinotherlanguages,whilethesamesignifiersmaysignifyachangingarea

inapublicswimmingpoolorclothingstoreandtheintendedmeaninghastobe

recovered,eitherfromtheenvironmentorfromadditionaltextswithwhichitis

associated.Insuchcases,thedenotationalinterpretationwouldbethesameso

thatanysignwhichwasrecognizedassignalingthelocationofamen'stoilet

conveysthesameessentialinformation,althoughtheconnotationsmayvary.As

anexampleofthis,afacilitywhichusessignssuchas“ladies”and“gentlemen”in

traditionalRomancharacterswouldbeaddressingreadersinamannerwhich

suggestsbothpolitenessandformality,whereasanentirelydifferentimpression

wouldbeconveyedbysignswhichread“guys”and“gals”.Insuchcases,one

mightfindthatthewayinwhichthewashroomisdesignatedhaslittleorno

effectoncustomers’successintheirprimarygoalofnavigation,althoughthe

secondaryimpressiontheyobtainfromsuchadesignationaboutthe

establishment’sprojectedidentity(andtheirownrelationshiptothatidentity)is

adifferentquestion.

20

2.4PEIRCE

AnalternativeviewofsignsisofferedbyCharlesSandersPeirce,anAmerican

philosopherwhopostulatesthatasignisanythingthatdenotesanobjectother

thanitself,whileanobjectwasanything,concreteorabstract,thatcouldbe

thoughtaboutorconceptualized.Heusesthetermrepresentamentorefertothe

“perceptibleobject”(Nöth,1990:p.42)whichfunctionsasasignandwhich

correspondstoSaussure’ssignifier.ThesignforPeirceis,asNöth(1990)

explains,thementalrepresentationofanobject,whetherornotitexistsinthe

realworldandheintroducesthenotionofaninterpretanttodenoteitseffectin

themindoftheinterpreter.Heproposesatypologyofsignsconsistingofthree

categories,namelyicons,indexesandsymbols.Anicon,inPeirce’sterms,isa

representativewhichbearsa"similarity"(Chandler,2017:p.1)toitsreferentin

someway;itslikenesstotheobjectitrepresentsmakesiteasiertorecognize,

evenifitishasnotbeenlearnedorencounteredpreviously.Iconsona

computerdesktopprovideaconvenientexampleofPeirceaniconicity:auser

mayreadilyunderstandthattheimageofawastepaperbasketonthemonitor

indicatesameansforelectronicallydeleting,andtherebydisposingof,unwanted

programsanddata,whileanimagewhichresemblesatraditionalmanilafolder

representsanelectronic“file”ofbinarydataandnotphysicaldocuments.A

petrolpumpillustrationofthekindseenonroadsigns,forexample,wouldbe

classedasaniconinPeirce’striad.Similarly,metaphorsoperateasiconsin

Peirce’sframeworkas,whiletheyaremostlyconventionalizedbytheirfrequent

idiomaticuse,theyfunctionthroughresemblanceinthattheysuggestparallels

betweentheirsourcesandtargets.

InPeirce’ssystem,anindex“isasignthatencodesspatio-temporalorcause-and-

effectrelations”(Beasley&Danesi,2002:p.40).Purelynaturalindexeswould

parallelthenaturalsignsdescribedbyStAugustine,asmentionedpreviously,

andwouldinclude,asexamples,heavycloudsindicatingthelikelihoodofrainor

afastpulseindicatingphysicalexertionorexcitement.Thesecondtypeofindex

Peircedescribeswouldincludethosecreatedbyhumansasameansof

indicatingsomethingwhichhasfactualsignificance.Examplesofthismight

includethehandsofaclock,apointinggestureandsomefamiliarroadsigns

21

whichtaketheformsofarrowsorchevrons.Hisfinalcategoryinhistriadis

symbols,andsymbolshavearelationtotheirreferentthatisentirelyarbitrary

orconventionalinasimilarwaythatSaussuredescribeshissignifier.

Somesymbolshaveculturallyfoundedmeanings,suchasathumbs-upgesture

(Stone,1996),indicatingtheculturalviewthatpositivityandnegativityrelateto

directionalindicesofupanddown;awesternermayrecognizearedroseas

representingloveorthecolorwhiteasrepresentingpurity.Virtuallyall

componentsofwrittenandspokenlanguage,includingphonemes,letters,

morphemesandcompletewords,wouldbesymbolsinPeirce’smodelasthey

arearbitrary.Afurtherlayerofcomplexityexistsinmanylanguagesandata

higherlevelinthattheyhavesyntacticrulesthatalsogeneratemeaningthrough

structure.SpeakersofEnglishwillthusrecognizetheutterance“Paulhasa

brotherwhoisadoctor”asmeaningthatthedoctorreferredtointheclauseis

notPaul.Thiscanbecontrastedwithaverysimilarutterance,composedof

preciselythesamewords,“Paul,whohasabrother,isadoctor”,andthe

utterance“Paul,whoisadoctor,hasabrother”.Otherlanguagesconstitute

alternativesemioticsystemsand,inadditiontotheirdifferentvocabularies,

generallyhavedifferencesintheirsyntacticrules,sothattherecoveryofthefull

andintendedmeaningwill,tosomeextent,becontingentuponconsciouslyor

intuitivelyknowingtheserules2.

2.5STRUCTURALISMANDFORMALISM

Nöth(1990)describeshowRomanJakobsonisaprominentfigurebothin

structuralismandRussianformalismand,inthefourdecadesoverwhichhis

careerspanned,hiscontributiontothedisciplineofsemiotics,beginningaround

1920,hasbeenconsiderable(pp.74-76).

2Thatisnottosaythatsomeoralloftheintendedmeaningcannotberecoveredfromother

cognitiveresourcesavailabletothehearer,suchasencyclopaedicknowledgeorpragmaticawareness.ThiswillbecoveredinmoredetailinSubchapter3.2,below.

22

JakobsonconstantlyreferstoSaussureinhiswork,sometimesdevelopingitand,

atothertimes,criticizingitandclaimingtodisagreewithit3.Jakobsonisa

prominentfigurefromaschoolofliterarytheorythatemergedinRussiashortly

aftertheturnofthe20thcentury.Thisschoolconsistsofindividualsinterested

inthedefiningelementsofliteratureandpoetryanduncovering,byscientific

methods,thenatureofwhatisreferredtoas“literaturnost”,atermcoinedby

Jakobsonandgenerallytranslatedas“literariness”.Literaturnostisproposedas

thekeyingredientinliterarywriting-theessenceofwhatdistinguishedthe

literaryfromthenon-literary.Otherleadingfiguresinthisschoolincluding

VictorShklovsky,BorisTomashevsky,VladimirPropp,YuriTyraniov,Boris

EichenbaumandJanMukařovský,arereferredtoasthe“RussianFormalists”.

TheaimoftheFormalistsisto:

“endthemethodologicalconfusionprevailingintraditionalliterary

studiesandsystematizeliteraryscholarshipasadistinctandintegrated

fieldofintellectualendeavor”(Erlich,1965:p.172).

Jakobsonnotesthatallsignsystemshaveatwo-foldcharacterandsharethe

sametwoaxes.Hereferstotheseasthestructuralaxis,thesyntagmaticor“axis

ofcombination”,andtheoperationalaxis,theparadigmatic,otherwiseknownas

the“axisofselection”,becauseitrelatestotheselectionofparticularcomponents

asopposedtoothercomponents.Jakobsonsuppliesanexampleofthisatthe

phoneticlevel,withanexamplefromAlice’sAdventuresinWonderland:“‘Didyou

saypigorfig?’saidtheCat.‘Isaidpig’repliedAlice’”(Carroll,fromJakobson,

2010:p.72).Atthegrammaticallevel,itcanbeexemplifiedintheclause:“Does

Marydrinkwine?”,whichisidentifiableasaninterrogativestructurethroughits

syntax,andspecificallytheorderandrelationshipofthewords“Does”and

“Mary”.Byexchangingthepositionsofthesecomponentsintheclause,the

3Thecaveat’claimed’isthetermusedbyHarris(2003:p.94)because,toHarrisatleast,JakobsonappearstohavemisunderstoodSaussure’spointsonanumberofissues.

23

speakeraffectsthesyntagmaticrelationsbetweenthesecomponentsandthus

transformsthequestionintoanassertion,“Marydoesdrinkwine”.Incontrast,

theterm“paradigmatic”(Nöth,1990:p.195)relatestothereplaceabilityof

elementswithotherelements,eachofwhichwouldbecapableoffilling“the

samepositionwithinthesamecontext”(ibid).Forexample,anyoftheelementsin

“DoesMarydrinkwine?”canbereplacedwithotherswhichfulfillthesame

grammaticalfunction,“ShouldMarydrinkwine?”,“DoesSusandrinkwine?”

“DoesMarymakewine?”and“DoesMarydrinkcider?”Asageneralrule,the

syntagmaticelementsareassociatedbytheircontiguitywhileparadigmatic

elementsareassociatedbytheirsimilarity.

Jakobson(2010)ismindfulthatlanguageisnotalwaysunderstoodsimplyby

addingthemeaningsofthelexemesusedtoarriveataunifiedmeaning:the

formulaislessthansatisfactoryinexplainingidiomaticlanguage.Theexample

heofferstodemonstratethispointisthegreeting:“Howdoyoudo”.Henotes

howconnotationsaregeneratedthroughmetonymyandmetaphor:metonymy

isdependentuponcontiguityrelationswhilemetaphorsfunctionthrough

similarity.Inaddition,Jakobsonisoneofanumberofsemioticianswho

recognizethat,inadditiontothecodethatexistswithinamessage,certain

pragmaticfunctionscanalsobediscerned,andheproposesamodeltoexplain

thesefunctions.Nöth(1990:pp.185-187)listsJakobson'ssixfunctions,the

firstofwhichisthereferentialfunction,whichistheimpartingofinformation

andcandescribeanobject,asituation,aneventorastateofmind.The

expressivefunctionrelatestoutterancesintendedtodisclosethestateofmind

oftheaddresserandthisfunctionisoftenexpressedthroughinterjections.The

conativefunctionisintendedtoinfluencethebehaviouroftheaddresseeand

typicallyconsistsoftheuseofimperativestructures.Thepoeticfunction

focusesonconveyingthemessageforitsownsake,placingitsownformorstyle

asbeingofequalimportancetothecontent.Thephaticfunctiondescribeshow

languageisusedasameansoftheopeningof,andthekeepingopenof,

communicativechannelsbetweenindividuals,usuallyforthesakeof

establishingorreinforcingarelationshipbetweentheinteractants.Lastly,the

metalingualfunctionisconcernedwiththe‘code’,i.e.howlanguageisusedto

24

describeordiscussitselfandthisisanaspectwhichisfurtherdiscussedin

Subchapter2.13,below.

TheearliestworksofJakobsonarefoundedonthestructuralistapproach,which

hemodifiesanddevelops.Whilecriticalofmuchofhisthinking4,Jakobson

creditsSaussure’semphasisontheimportanceofthestudyoflanguageasa

system,butsuggeststhathisapproachofconsideringthatsystemtobe“the

exclusivedomainofsynchrony,andassigningmodificationstothesphereof

diachronyalone”(Pomorska&Rudy,1985:p.12)shouldberevised.Jakobson

extendssomeofthestructuralistunderstandingofsignsandconceptsbeyond

semioticsandconsiderstheirapplicationwithinthefieldofliterature.He

attemptstoexplainthepoeticfunction,whichhereferstoas“poeticity”

(Jakobson,1981),andtheuseoffigurativelanguageinpoetrywherebya

signifierrepresentssomethingbeyonditsconventionalsignified.Inseekingto

explainhowpoeticitymanifestsitself,hestates:

“Poeticityispresentwhenthewordisfeltasawordandnotamere

representationoftheobjectbeingnamedoranoutburstofemotion,

whenwordsandtheircomposition,theirmeaning,theirexternaland

innerformacquireaweightandvalueoftheirowninsteadof

referringindifferentlytoreality.”(Jakobson,1981:p.750)

Jakobsonisherebeginningtochallengetheperceptionthatasignandits

referentarealwaysunderstoodascorrelative.Hegoesontoexplainthat:

“…besidesthedirectawarenessoftheidentitybetweenthesignand

object(AisA1),thereisanecessityforthedirectawarenessofthe

4AccordingtoHarris(1983),“onanumberofpoints,JakobsonmisconstruedSaussure’sposition:

hepickedoutthebitsofSaussure’steachingthathelikedandrejectedordismissedtherest”(p.94)andheevendoubtedSaussure’sprincipleofarbitrariness(p.96).

25

inadequacyofthatidentity(AisnotA1).Thereasonthisantonymyis

essentialisthatwithoutcontradictionthereisnomobilityof

concepts,nomobilityofsigns,andtherelationshipbetweenconcept

andsignbecomesautomatized.Activitycomestoahalt,andthe

awarenessofrealitydiesout.”(ibid)

Poetstherebyworktoovercomethehearerorreader’sinclinationtoautomatize

theirresponsesbyforcingthemtorevisetheirawarenessoftherelation

betweensignsandtheirreferents.Indoingso,thecommunicativefunctionof

poetrydiminishesasitsexpressivityanditsabilitytoconvey(e.g.emotion)are

maximized.Thisisachievedthroughphonologicalandtexturalqualitiesof

soundcombinations,andbytheabilityofwordsusedpoeticallytocarryarange

ofdifferentandpossiblypreviouslyunimagined,meanings,thus:

“…wordsinpoetryhavethestatusnotsimplyofvehiclesforthoughts,

butofobjectsintheirownright,autonomousconcreteentities.In

Saussure’sterms,then,theyceasetobe‘signifiers’andbecome

‘signifieds’,anditisthepoem’salienatingdevicesofrhythm,rhyme,

metreetc.,whichenablethisstructuralchangetobeachieved.”

(Hawkes,2003:p.48)

Jakobson’sinterestinpoetryarisesfromaperspectiveoflinguisticsratherthan

ofliterarycriticism.Hepostulatestwomainprincipleswhichheclaimswould

explainthepoeticfunctionoflanguage,thefirstbeingpolarity,relatingbackto

Saussureandhisbinarynotionoftheplanesofsyntagmaticversusassociative

relations.Thesecondishisnotionofequivalence,whichispresentinmetaphor

andmetonymy,whereonephenomenonorconceptactsasaproxyforanother.

Hawkes(2003)argues:

26

“Metaphor…isgenerallyassociativeincharacter,andexploits

language’s‘vertical’relations,wheremetonymyisgenerally

‘syntagmaticincharacter,andexploitslanguage’s‘horizontal’

relations”(p.60).

Jakobsonconsidersimaginativewritingasaformofart,referringtoitas“verbal

art”andposingthequestion:“Whatmakesaverbalmessageaworkofart?”

(Jakobson,1981:p.18).TheFormalistsfocusonliteraryworksasartistic

creationsandcomparethemtovisualart(Erlich,1965).Specifically,the

imagerywithinpaintingshadbeenequatedbypreviousliteraryscholarswith

theimagesconjuredinthemindofareaderofpoems.Formalistsarelessthan

convincedbythisneatparallelandSchlovskyandJakobsonpointtoits

weaknesses,includingthatoffigurativelanguageextendingbeyondpoetic

works,andalsothatsomepoetryachievesanintendedeffectwithouttheuseof

metaphororotherfigurativespeech(ibid).

Inanymessage,onefunctionisnormallythedominantone,butamessagemay

havemorethanonefunctionandadvertisingisanaptexampleofthis.Onthe

onehand,itmayseemtobearelativelyneutralactofcommunicationconcerned

withthetransmissionofinformation(e.g.aboutabrand,productorservice).In

advertisementssuchasclassifiedads,thisisveryevidentlythemainpurposeas

abuyermaybeassumedtoknowmoreorlesswhatheorshewantsandthe

advertisementwillindicatewhetherornottheitemforsaleiswhatapotential

buyerisseeking,oriscloseenoughtowhatisrequired,inallrespects.However,

inviewofthepervasivenessofadvertisingthathasexistedformanydecades,it

maybethecasethatmodern,media-savvyconsumersofprofessionallycreated

advertisementsareawarethattheirmainpurposeextendsbeyondmerely

informing;instead,theystrivetochangethebeliefs,attitudesand,ultimately,the

behaviourofreadersorviewerssoastoachievetheaimsofthose

commissioningtheadvertisement.InJakobson’sterms,theconativefunction

maybedominantwhileanyinformationpassed,i.e.thereferentialfunction,is

relegatedsoastobeofsecondaryimportance.Lastly,thepoeticfunctionmay

27

alsobepresent.ThisistheentertainmentaspectmentionedinSubchapter1.1

andisemployedasameansofwinningtheattentionofareaderorviewer.In

advertisingtexts,thisoftentakestheformofliterarydeviceswhicharefoundin

poetryandliterature,andwhichoperateacrossalllevelsoflanguagefromthe

phonetic(suchasalliterationandrhyme)totheconceptual(suchasallusionand

metaphor).AccordingtoCook(2001):

“Thepoeticfunction,whichJakobsonregardedasofparticular

importanceforthelinguisticstudyofliterature,isalsorelevanttothe

studyofads.Whenthisfunctionisdominant,eachlinguisticunitis

effectivenotonlyforitssemanticandpragmaticmeaningbutalsofor

thepatternsitmakes–orbreaks–initsformalrelationships

(grammarandsound)tootherunits.”(p.134)

Inthisway,thereisashiftoffocusawayfromthearbitrarymeaningthatis

carriedbyasignifier,i.e.itsinformativecontent,andtowardsitsforminstead.

Formalistsareinterestedintherelationshipbetweenformandcontent,and

itistheformwhichdeliverstherewardintheformofpleasure,e.g.ofa

rhyme,alliteration,orthesatisfactionofrecognizinganambiguityor

resolvinganobscureverbalorvisualmetaphororotherriddle;thereinisto

befoundtheartistryorliterarinessthatFormalistsseektoexplain.

AfundamentalcharacteristicofliterarinessiswhattheFormalistsrefertoas

“ostranenie”,whichmaybetranslatedas“makingstrange”or

“defamiliarization”.ThisisbasedonShklovsky’s(1917)preoccupationwith

thenotionoflifeasrelativelymundane,consistingofagreybackdropand

automatizedhumanbehavioragainstwhichhumansexperiencedistinctand

memorableevents.Oneofthemeansbywhichthisoccursinthereadingof

textsiswherethewriterwishestopresentaphenomenonoreventwhichis

likelytobefamiliartothereader,butinawaywhichisunfamiliarand/or

unexpected.Thedevicesthatareemployedinthisrespectareintendedto

28

maketheunderstandingofthecontentmorechallenging,presentingreaders

withobstaclestoovercomeandforcingthemtopausebeforetheyfullygrasp

themeaning(ibid).Indeed,themeaningwillbeatbestsecondary,and

perhapsevenentirelyunimportant5.Indoingso,thewriterendeavorsto

enhance,refreshandprolongtheaestheticexperienceofthereaderwhois

engagingwiththetext,andhastherebycreatedaworkofartisticmerit.

Shklovskystates:

“Thepurposeofartistoimpartthesensationofthingsastheyare

perceivedandnotastheyareknown.Thetechniqueofartistomake

objects'unfamiliar,'tomakeformsdifficult,toincreasethedifficulty

andlengthofperceptionbecausetheprocessofperceptionisan

aestheticendinitselfandmustbeprolonged.Artisawayof

experiencingtheartfulnessofanobject:theobjectisnotimportant.”

(Shklovsky,1917:p.5)

AnexampleofthisisprovidedbyAuerbach(1968),inwhichhetranslatesa

paragraphfromLaBruyere’sCharactersthatpresentstheappearancesandlives

of18thcenturyFrenchpeasantsinawaywhichis,tous,bothoriginaland

disturbing:

“Oneseescertainferociousanimals,maleandfemale,scatteredover

thecountryside,blackandlividandburnedbythesun,boundtothe

soilwhichtheydigandturnoverwithunconquerablestubbornness;

theyhaveasortofarticulate[sic]voice,andwhentheystandupthey

exhibitahumanface,andinfacttheyaremen.Theyretireatnightto

theirdens,wheretheyliveonblackbread,water,androots…”(p.366)

5Anexampleofthiswouldbeatonguetwister.

29

However,whatisunfamiliarwill,soonerorlater,becomefamiliarand

automatizationbecomesestablishedasexposuretoitoccursandisrepeated.

JustaswhenthepetroldistributorEssourgedmotoriststobytheirfuelby

urgingthemto“putatigerinyourtank”(Exxon,n.d.)(Appendix4:image1),this

wasoriginallyanovelconceptanditsuseacrossseveraladvertisingcampaigns

establisheditasiconicofthebrand.Thomashevskyexplains:

“devicesareborn,live,growoldanddie.Totheextentthattheiruse

becomesautomatic,theylosetheirefficacyandceasetobeincludedon

thelistofacceptabletechniques”(Tomashevsky,BfromHarland,

1999:p.151).

TheconceptoflinguisticforegroundingisattributedtoanotherRussian

Formalistscholar,JanMukařovský,whoreinforcesTomashevsky'sclaimand

explainsthevalueofforegroundinginasmuchasitis:

"theoppositeofautomatization,thatis,thedeautomatizationofan

act;themoreanactisautomatized,thelessitisconsciously

executed;themoreitisforegrounded,themorecompletely

consciousdoesitbecome"(Mukařovský,n.d:p.44).

Foregroundingtechniquesconsistofcreatingparallelswhichareunexpected

andtherebyattractattention,givepleasureormakeamessagememorable,and

canincludedevicesatalllevelsoflanguagefromalliterationandrhymeatthe

phonologicallevel,toconceptualparallelssuchasmetaphorsanddeviation.The

effectofforegroundingistointensifythepoeticeffectsofthelanguagetosucha

degreethatitsreferentialpurposeispushedtothebackgroundandtheactof

expressionitselfisemphasised(ibid).WhileMukařovský'sprimaryfocusis

30

Czechpoetry,Cook(1992)andMyers(1994)notetheuseofthekindsof

foregroundingtechniquesdescribedwithinadvertising.Foregroundingisa

phenomenonfurtherdiscussedbelowinrelationtotheworkofBarthes

(Subchapter2.6),multimodalapproaches(Subchapter2.10)andmetaphors

(Subchapter3.6).

2.6BARTHES

RolandBarthesisanotableFrenchphilosopherandsemiotician,andhis

writingshavebeenhighlyinfluentialforacademicsworkinginsemiotics,

linguisticsandotherdisciplines.Studentsofmarketingtheoryareintroducedto

Barthesinsomeuniversitycoursesandparticularemphasisispaidinthese

coursestohistheoryofculturalmyths,howtheseareactivatedwiththeaidof

pictures,andhisinsightsinrelationtoconsumerism,neomaniaand

connotations.This,alongwiththetextsmarketingstudentsusewhichreferto

Barthes6,areoutlinedindetailinChapter5,below.

Barthessuggeststhatmythsareaneverydayaspectofmodernculturerather

thanbeingsimplyancientfablesinnarrativeform.Specifically,hedefinesa

mythasa“message”which“cannotpossiblybeanobject,aconcept,oranidea;it

isamodeofsignification…”(Barthes,1957:p131).Herecallshisschooldays

andreadingaLatintextwhichhadasentencecontaining“quiaegonominorleo”.

Ifthereissuchathingasliteralmeaning,thenthiswouldbe“becausemynameis

lion”,butBarthesrecognizes:“thesentenceinnowaysignifiesitsmeaning”and

mustthereforesignifysomethingelse(pp.138-139).ReferringtoSaussure’s

structureofthesign,whichiscomposedofthesignifierandthesignified,he

suggeststhisnotioncanbeextendedsothatitisalsoapplicabletocultural

6TheseincludeBarthes’sownworks,suchasMythologies(1957),andImage,Music,Text(1977),

aswellasbookswrittenwithmarketingstudentsinmind,suchasTurow&McAllister’sTheAdvertisingandConsumerCultureReader(2009)andBeasley&Danesi’sPersuasiveSigns(2002).

31

myths.Afurtherexampleisgivenintheformofanimagefromthemagazine

ParisMatch,whichhasonitscoveraphotographof:

“…ayoungNegrosoldierinaFrenchuniform…saluting,withhiseyes

uplifted,probablyfixedonafoldofthetricolor”(ibid).(Thisimagecan

beviewedinAppendix4:Image2)

Barthesdescribeshisownunderstandingofthemythbeingpresented,

specificallythatFranceisagreatempireandthatthemenofthatempireare

servingfaithfullyandwithpride.Thesignificationhere,possiblydirected

towardsthedetractorsoftheFrenchEmpireandwhoaccuseitofcolonialism

andoppression,isthatpeoplefromacrosstheEmpireenjoythebenefitsit

bestows,areenthusiasticcitizensofitandarenotsubjectedtodiscriminationon

thebasisofraceorskincolour.Themediumbywhichthismythispresentedto

theviewerisphotography.Itrecordsascenewhichisa“literalreality”and

therefore“amessagewithoutacode”(Barthes,1977:p.17)astheevent

occurredasitisdepicted.Thefactthataphotographcapturesanactualevent

makesitadenotativesign.Thisconfersuponitadegreeofauthoritybecause

whatisbeingviewedinthephotographhappenedandthatcannotbedenied.

However,Barthespointstothefactthataphotographisanobjectwhichhas

beenchosen,composedandworkedon,anditis:“treatedaccordingto

professional,aestheticorideologicalnormswhicharesomanyfactorsof

connotation”(p.19).Itistheseintentionalfactorsthat,accordingtoBarthes,

containthecodeandnotthephotographitself,andhereferstothisasthe

“photographicparadox”(ibid).

Signs,rangingfromsimpleiconstolinguisticutterances,canbeviewedfroma

denotativeandaconnotativeperspective.Forexample,asimplecrossmight

denotethefactthatachurchisnearby,butthatsame,simplesignislikelyto

havesubstantial,andperhapsdivergentandhighlysubjective,significancefor

thosewhoviewit.Advertisementsoperatewithsignsthathavebothdenotative

32

andconnotativeinterpretationsavailable.ThisthesisdemonstratesinChapter6

that,byvirtueoftheirsophisticationandingenuity,advertisersarealerttothis,

andareatleastasmuchconcernedwiththeconnotationsoftheproductsthey

aremarketingaswiththeirpracticalbenefits.Inhislaterwork,Barthes

considerstheroleoftheimageandhowitcanbeusedrhetoricallyandto

generatedesiredconnotations.Hisexampleconsistsofaprintedadvertisement

forPanzanipastaproductsbearingacaptionjuxtaposedwithaphotographic

imageofastringbagtornopen(Appendix4:Image3).Thecontents,namely

vegetablessuitableformakingpastadishes,plusPanzaniproducts,aredepicted

asspillingout.HereferstotheFrenchcaptionandthename“Panzani”,and

statesthatthissign:“istwo-fold…:denotationalandconnotational”(Barthes,

1977:p.33),becauseitnotonlyinformsthereaderofthenameoftheproducer,

butitsoundsItalianphoneticallyandthatcarriesassociations,especiallyin

connectionwithfood.Theimageissaidtocomprise“aseriesofdiscontinuous

signs”(p.34),amongwhicharethefreshvegetables,indicatingfreshnessand

naturalnesswithwhichthismanufacturedproductistobeassociated.Herefers

tothemas“discontinuous”(ibid)becausethereisnosyntax:theirorderis

unimportant.Thenextsigntoberecognized,accordingtoBarthes,istobe

foundinthecoloursofthevegetablesandwhichheassociateswiththeItalian

flag.HecoinsthetermItalianicitytodescribethisphenomenon:

“itssignifieristhebringingtogetherofthetomato,thepepperandthe

tricolouredhues(yellow,green,red)oftheposter;itssignifiedisItalyor

ratherItalianicity.Thissignstandsinarelationofredundancywiththe

connotedsignofthelinguisticmessage(theItalianassonanceofthe

namePanzani)andtheknowledgeitdrawsuponisalreadymore

particular;itisaspecificallyFrenchknowledge(anItalianwouldbarely

perceivetheconnotationofthename,nomoreprobablythanhewould

theItalianicityoftomatoandpepper),basedonafamiliaritywith

certaintouriststereotypes.”(ibid)

33

Ifaphotographofatomato,oranyotherofthecomponentsmentioned,istobe

consideredasignwhenusedinanadvertisingcontext,thenitmayreasonably

assumedthatitsdenotationissimplyarepresentationandfulfillsasimilar

functionastheprintedorspokenword“tomato”.Itsconnotativevalueis,

however,likelytoencompassallthatisknownabouttomatoesfromthe

viewer’sexperienceandculture,rangingfromitsversatilityasaningredientfor

arangeofdishesandperhapsthearomaofthisfruitbeingcultivatedina

greenhouse.Aswithallthevegetables,theremaybeaconnotationwith

freshnessandhealthproperties,too,operatingperhapsmetonymicallyas

representativesofthesequalities.Thesignspresentintheimageoperate

togetherto“formacoherentwhole”(Barthes,1977:p.35).

Itcouldbesaidthatitisintheinterestsofadvertiserstoconstructand

promulgatecertainmythsasdescribedintheprevioussubchapterinorderto

increasethesuccessoftheiradvertising.Bignell(2002)noteshowtheRolls

Royceemblem“isnolongersimplydenotingaparticulartypeofcar,but

generatingawholesetofconnotationswhichcomefromoursocialexperience”(p.

16).InthecaseofRollsRoyce,itmaybetakenforgrantedthatthesewouldbe

luxury,refinementandsuccessand,oncethepublichasmovedbeyondthe

simpledenotationofthesign,suchasabrandofcar,andbeginstoconnoteit

withthesequalitiesoftheproduct,thenthemythhasbeencreated.Afurther

examplemightbeaperfumeadvertisement,asitisunlikelytostatethatthe

product“smellsreallynice”eventhoughitisunlikelytobesuccessfulifthe

fragranceislessthanpleasing.Manyadvertisementsforsuchproductscontain

verylittlereferentialproductinformation,orevennoinformationwhatsoever,

relyinginsteaduponanimagewhichdepictsaproductorbrandinsomekindof

visualcontext,andanexampleofthiscanbeseenintheTommyHilfiger

advertisementshowninbelowinAppendix4:Image4.Whenanimageisread

asasign,itsdenotationistheforegroundedobjectorobjects,andpossibly

people,situatedagainstabackgroundandoccupyingamomentintimeas

depicted.Intheperfumeadvertisement,theadvertiserhopesthatthe

connotationsrecoveredbythereaderwillhavebeenthosewhichwere

intentionallyintendedbythem.Thesecouldrangefromsimplefamiliaritywith

34

theappearanceoftheproduct(“thisiswhatabottleofPerfumeXlookslike”)to

amoreambitioussetofassociations,possiblyonesthatcouldbetiedtoamyth,

andwhichobliquelyinvitethereadertoassociatethebrandorproductwitha

desirableoutcomeorlifestyle.Theabilitytoevokethedesiredconnotations

maythusbeamongthekeyskillsofsomeoneemployedtodesign

advertisements.

Whileadvertisementsgeneratetheirownmyths,theyalsodrawonandinteract

withexistingculturalmyths,suchasthedepictionofscenesfromthetranquil

andorderedvineyardsinruralFrancewhensellingwines,orientalimagerysuch

astheTajMahalandelephantswhenpromotingjarsofcurrysauce7andeven

theconceptofItalianicityasitisperceivedbynon-Italians.Often,thesemyths

arisefrom,orarelinkedto,othertextsincludingwell-knownexamplesfrom

genressuchasliterature,TVshows,filmsandoccasionallyevenother

advertising(seeSubchapter2.8,belowwithregardtointertextuality).

Thecharacterizationoftheperfectionofthehumanformisalsocontinually

reproducedwithinthemediumespecially,butnotexclusively,whenselling

clothing,makeup,toiletriesandluxuryitems.Thismythicalperfectionis

predominantlyrepresentedbythefeminineandmasculineidealsthatare

prevalentwithintheculture.Thedepictionsofthesearerepresentations

comprisingimagesofprofessionalmodelswho,byvirtueoftheirphysical

characteristicsoftenenhancedthroughcosmetics,lightingtechniquesand

photographicretouching,areabletooperateassignifiersfortheseidealsand

thusfacilitatetheconstructionofanintendedmeaning.Whenapersonwho

doesnotfitthisidealisshown,thereislikelytobeareasonthatcanbe

discernedfromtheadvertisement,suchasinstancesinwhichsomeotherdevice

isusedtoattractattentionorwherephysicalperfectionmaylookoutofplace

7EdwardSaid’s(2003)theoryofOrientalismdescribesthedepictionofMiddleEasternandEast

AsiancultureswithinWesternsocietiesbytheirmediaandthroughtheirart,andtheperception

ofthembywesternersasexotic.Whilesomeofthesecountriesmaybegeographically

neighboursofwesternnations,and/ortheymaybeformercoloniesofEuropeancountries,Said

pointsouttheycanalsobeviewedvariouslyasrecentlywealthy,alienand,insomecases,apotentialthreat.

35

andactuallydetractfromthemessage.Itmayalsobepresentwherethe

individualshowncanbeidentifiedashavingotherdesirableattributes,suchasa

fullheadofhairinadvertisementsforbaldnesstreatments,orinstanceswhere

advertisementsexploitcertainmythicalqualitiesthatmaybeassumedin

respectoffamouspersonalities.Advertisementsareabletocapitalizeonthe

fameofsuchpeopleandthecausesoftheirfamesuchastheiractingorsinging

abilityorsportingprowessandsuccess.Inaddition,advertisersareawareofthe

public’sperceptionsoftheopulentandjet-settinglifestylesoftherichand

famousandtheircasualassociationswithothercelebrities.Examplesofthis

includewell-knownfilmactorstopromotebeautyproducts8andfragrances9and,

bycontrast,seriousandrespectedformerTVpresentersandnewsreadersto

marketpracticalproductssuchasinsurance10.Thesecelebritiesarenowseen

outoftheirnormalcontext;bytheirparticipationinthediscourse,theyare

addressingviewersindividuallyandofferingaccess,orpretendedaccess,to

certainaspectsoftheirlivesthatareostensiblyunrelatedtotheirfame.Inorder

tomakethenecessaryassociations,areceivermustinstantlyrecognizethem,

recallthereasonfortheirfameandperhapsotheraspectsoftheirlivesthathave

beenreportedinthepopularpress.Inadditiontoactualandlivingpersonalities,

advertisersarealsoabletoinvokeculturalknowledgethatmayrelateto,for

example,longdeadhistoricalpersonalitiesandthemythssurroundingtheir

charactersanddeeds.

Theterm“neomania”iscoinedbyBarthes(1957)torefertothecravingthat

existsinconsumersocietiesforgoodswhicharedesirablebyvirtueoftheir

newnessintermsofthedesignsorfeaturestheyoffer.Thisphenomenon

createsitsowndemandasconsumer,whomayalreadyowncomparableitems

8AnotableexampleofthisisAmericanactressHalleBerry,whoseimagehasbeenusedto

marketRevlon’sFabulashmascara(Appendix4:image5),andevenhasabrandofperfumenamedafterher.

9Manyperfumesaremarketedbyspecificcelebrities,eventtotheextentofbeingnamedafter

them.Anexampleofthisincludes“ElizabethTaylorWhiteDiamonds”perfume.

10AnotableexampleofthisistheveteranTVpresenterSirMichaelParkinsonwhoprojectsan

imageofadown-to-earthYorkshireman,sonofaminerwhofrontedAXASunLifeAssurance’sproductcalled“Parky'sPlanforOver50's”

36

whichperformthesamefunctions,cravesbeingamongthefirsttoacquirethe

latestmodel.Inordertodrivethisdemand,andthuskeepthemselvesin

business,manufacturersallegedlybuildinobsolescenceandthesameproduct,

withsomemodificationsandperhapsminorimprovements,canberepeatedly

soldtothesamecustomers,andthisphenomenonisnotedbySarver(2006).

Whenthisispropelledbyacarefullyconstructedandpervasivemyth,the

marketingopportunitiesareprodigious.Amodernexampleofthismightbethe

popularityoftheAppleiPhoneanditslatermodels,theiPhone3GS,iPhone4,

iPhone4S,iPhone5,iPhone6andsoon;atthetimeofwriting,theiPhone7isdue

tobereleasedontothemarket.Wheneveranewmodelisintroduced,this

generatesexcitementinthemediaandamongthosemoreenthusiasticofiPhone

users,andpromptsspeculationastotheappearanceoftheforthcomingmodel

andnewitsfeatures.Onthedaysonwhichanewversionislaunched,ithas

becomeusualforthestorestoopenhoursearlierthanusualandtohavelengthy

queuesofwillingcustomerswaitingoutside,manyofwhomwillalreadyowna

perfectlyfunctioningdevice,asobservedbyWilliams(2015).Suchisthepower

oftheiPhonemyth,andtheneomaniaassociatedwithit,thatconsumersofthis

productarewillingtobehaveinawaythatappearstodefylogic,andtheyhave

givenrisetoanewcolloquialterm,namely“Apple-fanboy”,torelatetothose

whoareinvariablysusceptibletotheAppleCorporation’smarketingstrategies

(UrbanDictionary,2010).

Theimplicationofsignsandmythsasdiscussedsofarseemstopresentand

evendefineviewersaspassiveconsumersbothoftheadvertisements,andofthe

productstowhichtheirattentionisbeingdrawn;advertisersposition

consumersassuchtosuittheirpurposeandtheyfrequentlyoblige.However,

signs,especiallyimages,arepolysemous11andopentovariousinterpretations.

Barthesrecognizesthisashedescribesimagesas“a‘floatingchain’ofsignifieds”

(Barthes:1977:p.39)fromwhichreaderscanchoosewhichtoacceptandwhich

toignore.Multiplicityofmeaningpresentsadvertiserswithanopportunityfor

creativityby,forexample,playingwithambiguity,butitcanalsoposeariskin

11Thepolysemousnatureofimagesisfurtherdiscussedlater.

37

thatthereadermayfailtoperceivethemessageinanythingclosetothemanner

intendedandtherebyfrustrateitspurpose.Itisthereforeuseful,andperhaps

evenessential,fortheproducerofprintedadvertisementsinparticulartobe

abletoanchorthemessageinsomewayinordertodelimititsrangeofpossible

interpretations,andinhibitlessdesiredmeaningsfromestablishingthemselves

inthemindsofreaders.Barthesappliestheterm“anchorage”(p.38)todescribe

occasionsinpressreportsandadvertisementswherewordsareusedin

associationwithimagesas,forexample,captions.Thisisnormallyachievedin

advertisingbytheadditionofsomeformoftextualcomponentandisoften

supplementedbyanothersign,suchasabrandnameorlogo.Forexample,the

widelyusedtigerimageoftheEssobrandmentionedinSubchapter2.5above

maybesubjecttomisunderstandingwhenitdoesnotappearinitsexpected

context,e.g.onaposterwhichisnotsituatedatapetrolstation.Theadditionof

theassociatedstrapline“Putatigerinyourtank”would,formostBritishreaders

whoarelikelytobefamiliarwiththebrand,enablethemessagetobe

recognizedunambiguouslyasanadvertisementfortheEssobrandandproducts

soldunderit.Inthisway,theadditionoftheEssologotendstoeliminateany

otherpossiblereadingsofthepurposeoftheimageandleadtheviewertothat

whichwasintendedbyitsproducer.Itistherebyapparentthatthemessageis

deliveredthroughtheactionofrelayingthem,i.e.thethreecomponents,the

image,thetextandthelogo,“standinacomplementaryrelationship”witheach

other(p.41).

Tanaka(1994)attemptstoaccountfortheoperationofadvertisementsthrough

pragmaticprinciplesratherthansemioticones,butshebeginsbydescribing

howsemioticsisusedforthispurposeandBarthesisherstartingpoint.She

explainshowhedoesthisbythecombinationofalinguisticmessageintheform

ofthecaptionandanylabelsassociatedwiththeimagesandtheiriconic

messages.Thesemessagesarethendividedbetweenthosewhicharecoded

(denotational,perceptionalandliteral)andthosewhicharenon-coded

(connotational,symbolicandcapableofbeingunderstoodthroughcultural

knowledge)andshenotesthatsemioticsdoesnotalwaysprovideanadequate

explanationastowhyonlysomeoftheseareactivatedinadvertisements(ibid).

38

Tanaka(1994)findsBarthes’sviewtobeunconvincing,arguingthatthe

distinctionsarenotsoclear-cutbecause,forexample,perceptioncannotbeso

easilydivorcedfromculturalknowledge.Shealsoassertsthatlinguistic

messagesarepolysemousandclaims:

“Itisdifficulttofindanyutterancewhichdoesnotrequiresome

degreeofdisambiguation,referenceassignmentorenrichment.”(p.

61)

ShecriticisesBarthesforfailingtoaccountforlinguisticdevicescommonly

foundinadvertising,suchaspuns.Tanaka(1994)furtherquestionsthevalidity

ofBarthes’semphasisonthediscontinuityofsignsandreferstothesignifiers

whichBarthesclaimstobepresentinthePanzaniadvertisement.Shesuggests

thatthewaysinwhichBarthesgroupsanddividesthesignswithinthe

advertisement,andthenumberofsignsattributedbyhimtotheillustration,

appeartohavebeendeterminedbyhimarbitrarilyandwithoutanylogicor

explanation.

2.7LÉVI-STRAUSS

AnthropologistClaudeLévi-Straussisrememberedforhisapplicationof

Saussureanstructuralismtohisowndiscipline.Theaspectsthathewritesabout

inparticulararethoseconcerningidentitythroughsocialbehaviourand

relations.Theserelationsincludekinship,andevenculturalcuisine,bothof

whichheviewsassystemsoflanguage(Harris,2003).Asanexampleofthe

latter,hecontraststhesynchronicityofChinesemeals,servedallatonce,with

thediachronicnatureofFrenchcuisine,whichisservedincoursesandthishas,

accordingtoHarris(2003),attractedthederisionoflinguists(p.126).Heinsists

39

thatmythsarecomposedofcodesinasimilarwaytolanguage,andtheyhave

universalstructureswhicharetimelessandtranscendcultures.Indeed,myths

canonlyexistandbeperpetuatedbecauseoflanguageand,likelanguage,they

consistofalangue(astructurecommontoallmyths)andaparole(thevariant

contentsofaparticularmyth).Heproposesthatmythsarecomposedof

minimalunitswhichhecalled“mythemes”andthat“functionlikephonemesina

language”(Nöth,1990:p.375),havingbeenassembledorbundledtogether

intothemesthatcanthusbe“arrangedonasyntagmaticorparadigmaticaxis”

(ibid)andexampleswouldincludeheroes,villains,obstaclesandsolutions.

Followingtheprinciplesofstructurallinguistics,including“segmentation12,

classificationandthesearchforbinaryopposition”(ibid),Lévi-Straussapplies

thesetofeaturesofculturalnarratives,e.g.heroversusvillain,monsterversus

humanandproblemversussolution.Thisexplainsthewayinwhichcultures

organizetheirknowledgeoftheworld:theconceptoflightisunderstoodonly

becauseofitsrelationtoandcontrastwithdarkness,malewithfemale,wetwith

dryandotherbinaryopposites.Binaryoppositionis,accordingtoLévi-Strauss,

thekeytounderstandingthestructureofallmythsandhedemonstrateshis

approachbyanalysinganumberofstoriesandlegendsfromdiversecultures

(Nöth,1990).

Anyanalysisofatextgenerallyinvolvesbreakingitdownintoitscomponent

partsand,wherethisoccurs,itissometimespossibletoseethepresenceofthe

kindsofbinaryoppositionsthatLévi-Straussdescribes.Manyproductsare

made,oratleastmarketed,onthebasisthattheysolveaproblemand,insuch

cases,thebinaryoppositionismostevident.Forseveraldecadesandasfarback

asthe1930s,Lifebuoysoapwasadvertisedasprotectingtheuserfrom“B.O.”,or

bodyodour(Unilever,2017)andanexampleofsuchanadvertisementcanbe

seeninAppendix4:Image6,below.Theimplicationintheseadvertisements

wasthatreaderscouldchoosebetweenusingLifebuoysoaporemittingan

12SegmentationisaprocessdiscussedbyBarthes(1977)whichoperatesinconjunctionwith

classificationandrelatestothemethodsbywhichtextscanberationallydividedupsothattheir

elementscanbeanalysed.Thesameexpressionusedinmarketingrelatestodividinguppopulationsbyselecteddemographicparameters.

40

unpleasantsmell.Thispresentedtheconsumerwithsimplebinaryopposition:

nothirdalternativewasavailable.Morecommonlyperhaps,thebinary

oppositionislessexplicit.

AsimilarexampleistobefoundinaTVadvertisementfromthe1970sforFlora

margarine.Itshowedamiddle-agedmanstandingoutsideasupermarketwhile

awomanofaroundthesameagewasinsideselectinggroceries.Themanwas

lookinginthroughthewindowandhemadevariousattemptstogesturetothe

womanthathewantedhertobuyFlora.Thiswasonlysuccessfulwhena

bystander,whowasamanofasimilaragestandingnearby,pulledatubofthe

productfromhisownshoppingbagandshowedherthat.Theadvertisement

concludedwithastrapline“Themargarineformen”(astillimagecanbeseenin

Appendix4:image7).Thelogousedonthisproductconsistsoftheouteredge

ofasunflowerwithaheart-shapeatitscentre,andthemarketingofthisproduct

haslongbeenassociatedwithitsclaimtobefreeoftransfatswhichwereatthe

timebelievedtocontributetotherisksofcoronaryheartdisease(Kmietowicz,

2015)andthatmenwereclaimedtobeatgreaterriskofthisconditionthan

women(Nicholson,1973).Dietaryguidelinesurgingthepublictoreducetheir

consumptionofdairyfatswereprevalentforthisreason,asnotedbyNestle

(1998).ALévi-Straussanalysisofthisadvertisementmightproposeasetof

paradigmaticrelationships,somevisibleandothersimplied,namely:

man-woman

inside–outside

Flora–otherproducts

healthyheart–coronaryheartdisease

TheFloraadvertisementappearstobeexploitingthispublicconcerntomarketa

margarinefreefromtransfatsand,assuch,theproductsubtextwasofferinga

compellinglifeordeathbinary.Florawasthusnolongersimplyamargarine:it

wasthekeytosurvivingbeyondone’smiddleyears.

41

Applyingthesimplebinaryoppositionalternativesappearsstraightforward

whenanalyzingadvertisementsthatarepredicatedonanoverarchingbinaryof

problemversussolution.However,thismethodbecomescomplexwhen

attemptingtodeconstructadvertisementsthatareaimedchieflytoentertainor

amuseratherthanbyappealingtoreason.Afairlytypicalfull-page

advertisementonthebackcoverofVogue(fromAugust2014)showsan

attractivewomaninaleatherdressandmatchingsnakeskinboots.Herblond

hairisslightlydisordered;sheisadoptingacrouchingposture,againstabrown

andneutralbackground,andlookingintothecamera.Inthecentreoftheimage,

thebrandname“GUCCI”appearsinlargelettersand,nearthebottomofthe

pageandinmuchsmallertype,“GUCCI.COM”.Binaryoppositespresentinthe

image,ortheimagejuxtaposedwiththebrandname,arelessthanobvious.A

readerwhoisusedtoperformingsuchanalysesmayseethetensionbetween

thebeautyoftheyoungwomanandtheanimalisticelementsintermsofher

leatherandsnakeskinattire,orbetweentheprimitiveversusthesophistication

oftheGuccibrand.Whetherthesebinaries,orthemessagesorimpressionsthey

wereintendedtoconvey,wouldbeapparenttomostcasualreadersofVogueisa

matterofconjecture.

2.8INTERTEXTUALITY

Structuralistsemioticsprovidestoolsforanalyzingindividualutterancesand

textsanditsfocusispredominantlyoninternalstructures(Chandler,2017),yet

withoutmajorregardtothecontextorco-texts,ortothefactorsrelatingtothe

speaker/author,allofwhichmayhaveabearingontheirproductionand

interpretation.Poststructuralisttheorists,suchasKristeva(1980)andGenette

(1997),attempttoaddresssomeoftheweaknessesofstructuralistsemioticsin

theseregards.Theyrecognizethattextsdonotexistinisolation:they

incorporateandintersectwithothertexts,eitherbyreferringtothemdirectly,

42

orbyimplyingoralludingtothem(Chandler,2017)andthisconstitutesthe

linguisticphenomenonof“intertextuality”,atermcoinedbyKristevaherself,

accordingtoPrayerElmoRaj(2015:p.77).

Barthes(1977)isclearthattextsaremorethanjusttransmissionsoffullyself-

containedmessageswhenhedescribesthemas:“…madeupofmultiplewritings,

drawnfrommanyculturesandenteringintomutualrelationsofdialog,parody,

contestation”(p.148).Heproposesthatreadersconstructauthorsinasmuchas

theyareunlikelytoknowthewritersofthetextstheyarereading,norwhatwas

intheirmindsattheparticulartimewhentheirtextswerecomposed.Theyare

therebyforcedtogeneratetheirownmentalconceptionsofauthorsintermsof

theircharacter,theirpurposesforwritingandthemeaningstheyintendedtobe

recoveredduringthereadingprocess,andtomentallyframethetext

accordingly.Theobjectofstudyintextanalysistherebyshiftsfromauthorto

readerbecause,asBarthesexplains:“atext'sunityliesnotinitsoriginsbutits

destination”(ibid).

Kristeva(1980)proposesviewingcommunicationasfunctioningontwoaxes:a

horizontalaxiswhichconnectsthecommunicatorwiththeaddresseeanda

verticalaxisinwhichtextsareconnectedtoothertextswhichexistalongside

them(i.e.synchronically),orwhichpreceededthem(i.e.diachronically).

Communicationsarecomposedofchainsofsignifiersandareceiverofa

messageisabletoconstructameaningfromthesebyselectingsomeand

ignoringothers.Thisprocessofgeneratingandrecoveringmeaningcanonly

occur,however,byfirstactivatingtheparticularsignificationsystemstowhich

theyareanchored,andthisactivationmustitselftakeplacewithinthecontextof

theconnectionsdescribed.Sinceintroducingtheterm“intertextuality”,ithas

acquiredawiderrangeofmeanings(PrayerElmoRaj,2015)andencompasses

phenomenabeyondthosewhichKristevaoriginallyconceived.Genette(1979)

proposestheseincludeallusion,quotationandplagiarism,bothintentionaland

unintentionaland,intheviewofHitchon&Jura(1997),devicessuchas

extendedmetaphorswhichexploitasetofequivalentscanbeaddedtothis

43

category13.Theindirectnessofintertextualfeaturesrequiresthattheymustrely

uponareceiver'sabilitytorecovertheintendedmeaningthroughimplicature

and,inparticular,thebackgroundknowledgethatisactivatedwhenthemessage

isreceived.Theoriesthatattempttoexplainthisprocessaredescribedin

Chapter3,below.

Advertisingtextsare,toaconsiderabledegree,anamalgamandreformulationof

textsproducedinothertimesandatotherplacesandmostlyforotherpurposes.

Intertextualityisoftenovertinadvertisementsandisevenemployedasa

strategyforexploitingapopularmythasameansofgeneratinginterest.Bignell

(2002)providesanexampleofthiswhenhecitesanadvertisementforanew

VolkswagenGolfEstatecarthatdepictsthreeactorswhohave,atsometimein

thepast,playedtheroleofthefictionaltimetraveller,DoctorWho,intheBBC

TVseriesofthesamename.Theactorsareshownapparentlyscrutinizingone

ofthesevehiclesandthecaptionreads:“We’vedoctoredtheGolf”(p.44).The

DoctorWhoseriesisoneoftheBBC’smostsuccessful,andlong-running,series

(evenspawningbooks,toys,gamesandotherproductsassociatedwithit)andis

sofamiliarthatmaynowberegardedasembeddedinmodernBritishculture.

Consequently,areaderoftheadvertisementwouldbeassumedtorecognizethe

charactersasthreemanifestationsof“TheDoctor”(ibid),aswellascuessuchas

thefactthatthevehicleappearstohaveanewincarnation.Thisversionis,

allegedly,morespaciousinternallythanitappearsontheoutside,justlikethe

so-called“Tardis”,i.e.thesupposedspaceandtimetravellingcraftusedbythe

Doctor.Conversely,elementsfromadvertisingtextsareoccasionallyborrowed

andusedinothergenres.ThefamiliarEssoadvertisementsmentionedin

Subchapter2.6,above,withthestrapline“putatigerinyourtank”fromtheearly

1970s,isparaphrasedinthechorusofapopularsongfrom1976called“Jeans

ON”andsungbyDavidDundas:

13DiscussedinChapter3.6,below.

44

“Youandme,we'llgomotorbikeridin'

Inthesunandthewindandtherain

Igotmoneyinmypocket

Atigerinmytank

AndI'mkingoftheroadagain”

ThepenultimatelineofthissongcanbeseentorelatetotheEssocommercial

whichpreceedsitbyseveraldecades.Itisalsonotedthatthelastlineofthis

songisalsothetitleofapopularsongfrom1964,sungbythecountrysinger

RogerMiller(1936-1992).

LiuandLe(2013)suggestthatintertextualitytakesthreedistinctformsin

advertising,namelyquotation,whereexpressionsorlinesfromliteraryworks,

speechesandothertextsareeitherrepeated;allusion,whichconsistsofan

explicitorindirectreferencetoaperson,place,eventorliterarywork;and

parody,whichisawell-establishedrhetoricaldeviceandmayinvolvemimickry,

orcreatingnewexpressionsbyinnovativelyreplacingorotherwise

paraphrasingotherexpressionswhicharealreadyfamiliar14.

2.9ECO

TheItaliannovelist,philosopherandsemiotician,UmbertoEcomakesanumber

ofcontributionsintermsofdevelopingsemioticsasbothatheoryofcodesand

ofsignproduction.Heattemptstoproduceamorerobustdefinitionofasign,

14TherelationofintertextualityandconnotativechainsspecificallyinrelationtotextbooksonadvertisingisfurtherdiscussedinChapter5.6,below.

45

distinguishingsignsfromnon-signs,andproposeswhatheconsiderstobea

moreflexibleconcept,whichheregardsasasignfunction(Eco,1976).

Semioticsis,inEco’sview,atruescienceandhejustifiesthisviewbecause

scienceisanautonomousdiscipline;itproduceshypothesestestablewith

standardizedmethodologicaltools;itcanmakepredictionsandfindingswhich

canchangetherealstatesofphenomenaintheworld(ibid).Heacknowledges

thatworkinotherdisciplines,includingsemanticsandpragmatics,has

implicationsforsemioticswhichcannotbeignored,including:

“formallogic,philosophicalsemanticsandthelogicofnatural

languagesdealwiththeproblemoftruthvalueofasentenceand

withthevarioussortsofso-called‘speechacts’…”(Eco,1976:p.6)

Eco(1976)alsodescribestherolesofculturalmythsasdoesBarthes(1957),

andpaysparticularattentiontofictionalheroeswithsupposedsuper-human

abilities.Supermanisportrayedasamodernmanifestationofcharactersfrom

ancientmythology(likeHercules)andmorerecentliterature(likePeterPan).It

ispointedoutthat,whiletheyhaveextraordinarypowers,theseheroesalso

haveaweaknessand,inthecaseofSuperman,thatisthesubstancecalled

“kryptonite”.Hisvulnerabilityfacilitatesthepossibilityforhimtobetested,

therebybeingthecentralfigureinanadventureandsupplyingtohimthe

opportunitytoshowhisingenuityandheroism.Inordertoderiveboththe

meaningandpleasurefromthemyth,Ecostatesthereadermustsuspendbelief

inrealityandthatrequiresasuspensionofhisorherusualperceptionoftime

(ibid).WhileSupermanhasanormalhumanalterego,eventsunfoldwithlittle

ornoheedtotheneedforplanningorothermundaneconsiderationswhich

formanaturalpartoflifeforhumanentities.Eco(1979)referstoMartin

Heideggerinproposingthat,inordertoapplyhiddenpersuasion:“…asubjectis

notresponsibleforhispast,normasterofhisfuture,norevensubjecttothelaws

46

ofplanning…”15(p.117).Healludestoadvertising,aswellaspropaganda,as

genresinwhichthiskindofsuspensionmustbeappliedinordertoconvince

receiversofsomekindofproposition.Itistherebyassumedthatthosewho

createadvertisementswillhaveaconsciousorunconsciousawarenessofthe

advantagesofsuspendingrealityandthemeansofachievingsuchasuspension,

andthisisinvestigatedintheprimaryresearchconductedwithadvertising

creators,asdescribedinChapter6,below.

Eco(1979)drawsadistinctionbetweenwhathecalls“opentexts”,i.ethose

whichinvitemultipleinterpretations,and“closedtexts”,i.e.thosewhichinvitea

single,intendedinterpretation.Itfollowsthat,withregardtotheauthor,the

“ensembleofcodeshereliesuponisthesameasthatsharedbyhispossiblereader”

(p.7)andsoheisforcedto“foreseeamodelofthepossiblereader”,whomhe

referstoasthe“modelreader”(ibid).Amodelreaderofaclosedtextis

perceivedasatypicaladdresseeandtheinterpretationofthetextisthereby

straightforward.Thisiscontrastedwithamodelreaderofanopentext,i.e.an

individualcapableofnavigatingthroughacomplexofcodesandrecovera

multiplicityofmeanings.Heacknowledgestheneedforwhathereferstoas

“encyclopaediccompetence”(ibid)whichrelatestotheassumedbackground

knowledgeofthereader.Thisviewcoincideswithalmostidenticalconcepts

proposedbytheoristsfromotherfieldssuchaspragmatics(e.g.“encyclopaedic

memory”,fromSperber&Wilson,1995:p.137)andcriticaldiscourseanalysis

(“memberresources”fromFairclough,2001:p.20).Itispertinenttothe

researchdescribedinthisthesisasoneoftheaimsistoestablishthewaysby

whichadvertisersattempteithertolimitpossibleinterpretations,ortooffer

multipleorinfiniteinterpretationsofadvertisements.Afurtheraimisto

discoverwhetheradvertisersattempttoforeseeamodelofthepossiblereader

and,ifso,howthisisachievedandhowitinfluencestheirworkingpractices.

15ThisrelatestoHeidegger'sphilosophicalconceptofecstasy,whichmeanstostandoutside

oneself,ortoremoveoneselffromtherealitiesofearthlyexistenceandintoamythicalor

mysticalplaneofexistence.Heideggerwritesofthe“threeecstaciesoftime”,namelypast,presentandfuture(Abram,1997:p.209).

47

Additionally,Eco(1979)developsPeirce'strichotomy,specifyingtwoofhis

threeinterpretants,namelythe“emotional”,whichisthemental/emotional

effortinvolvedininterpretation,andthe“energetic”,whichisphysicaleffort

thathastobeexpendedininterpretation.Readersmust,heclaims,be

persuadedtomakesuchaneffortinordertoproduceadesiredemotional

responseorachangeofhabit,thesebeingtwooutcomes.Effortof

interpretationisclaimedtobeasignificantfactorintermsofthereceiver

respondingtoastimulus,andthelikelihoodofareceiverjudgingamessageto

besufficientlyrelevanttobeworthprocessing,asdescribedbyWilsonand

Sperber(2012)inChapter3,below.Theimplicationsthishasforadvertisersin

termsofthewaysthatstimuliareproducedbyadvertiserstoattractattention,

andthewaytheyseektoinvokedesiredemotionalresponsesinconsumers,are

factorsexaminedintheresearchdescribedinChapters6and7ofthisthesis.

Onceattentionissecured,advertisershavetodeterminehowconsumersare

incentivizedtoengagewiththecontentoftheircommercialsforthepurposeof

changingtheirhabitsandbehaviour.TheseaspectsareexploredinSubchapters

3.3and3.7,below.Intermsofstimulatinginterestinadvertisementsand

presentingacohesiveandpersuasivemessage,advertisershaveanarrayof

optionsthatcanbeusedalongsidelanguagetoreinforcethemessage,andto

increasetheprospectofproducingadesiredresponse;thesearediscussedin

thenextsubchapter.

2.10MULTIMODALITY

Onedevelopmentwithinthefieldofsemioticsthathasramificationsfor

advertisingisthetheoryofmultimodalcommunicationandtheanalytical

techniqueswhichareassociatedwithit.Multimodaltheoristsattempttoexplain

howmessagesarecreatedbyemployingandcombiningcommunicative

48

resources,or"modes"(Bezemer,2012b),toconstructaunifiedmessage.Kress

andVanLeeuwen(2001)definemultimodalityas:

“theuseofseveralsemioticmodesinthedesignofasemiotic

productorevent,togetherwiththeparticularwayinwhichthese

modesarecombined”(p.20)

Modestakematerialformssuchassound(includingspokenlanguage,

musicandothersounds),orvisualphenomena(likegestures,colours,

shapesandpatterns)orinformsthatcanotherwisebedetectedbythe

humansenses.Kress(2012,inBezemer,2012b)statesthesearesocially

producedandhavebecomeculturalresourcesusedforproducingan

intendedmeaning.Generally,theyareestablished,conventionalizedand

familiar;thecommunitywillhaveusedthemoveralengthyperiodof

timeandwillknowhowtointerpretparticularsignifiersintheway

intended(ibid).Somemodes,suchasiconsandimages,operatewithout

theneedforanykindofgrammaticalstructureandaretherebyakinto

Barthes’sdiscontinuoussigns,asmentionedinSubchapter2.6,above.

However,modesthataregrammatical,governedbysyntaxandrules,

offerfargreaterpossibilitiesinmeaningcreation.Theseinclude,

accordingtoKressandVanLeeuwen(2001),abstractmeanings,butthey

alsofacilitatetheproductionofmeta-signswithinthesamemode.

Advertisementsarenotmonomodal(Cook,1992),butrathertheyuseawide

arrayofmodesandwhathereferstoas“sub-modes”16(p.42)inordertocreate

meaningsthatpersuadereaderstopurchaseitemsortoinstillbrandawareness

andloyalty.Itmaythusbearguedthatmultimodalapproachesofferthose

seekingtounderstandtheoperationofadvertisementsaninsightfulmethod.In

thecaseofmagazineadvertisements,forexample,advertisersmakefulluseof

16Sub-modesarementionedbyCook(2001)butnotdefined.

49

themodesavailabletothemandhavedevelopedtechniquestoattractattention

throughthese,suchasphotography,colourandtypeface,aswellascarefully

formulatedcopyandto“keeptheeyemovingoverthepage”(Brierley,2002:p.

180).Readersarelikelytoencounteradvertisementswhichincludean

“interplayofvisualandverbalcomponents”(Hu&Luo,2016:p.31).The

advertiserisabletomakechoicesastowhatparticularimageorimagesareto

bedisplayedfromaninfinitenumberofpossibilities,howthatimageis

processed,filtered,croppedandpositionedwithintheareaoftheadvertisement.

Suchchoicesalsorequiredecisionstobemadewithregardtoforegrounding,

whichisatechniquedescribedinSubchapter2.5,decidingwhichwordsare

foregroundedandwhichwordsarenot,wheretheyappearonthepageandin

relationtoanyimagesused,aswellastheirsize,colourandfont(Brierley,

2002).

Inthecaseofabroadcastadvertisement,thechoiceofmusicorothersounds

mayaddtomeaning,alongwithaspectsofspeakervoice,gender,intonationand

accent(ibid).Kress(2012,inBezemer,2012a)statesthatamultimodalanalyst

investigatingthecompositionofsuchadvertisementswouldattemptto

determinetheroleofeachofthemodes,whethertheyhadthesameordifferent

roles,andthiswouldthengivehimorheraclearandholisticindicationasto

howanygivenadvertisementfunctions.Theanalystwouldillustratehow

differentsemioticresourcesormodesoffertheproducerdifferentpossibilities

inmakingmeaning.However,theuseofmorethanonemodeinanactof

communicationisnotusuallyjustarepetitionofexactlythesamemeaning:

instead,thecombinationofmodesallowsafarmorecomplexandricher

meaningtobetransmitted.Inadditiontoidentifyingthesemioticresources

used,multimodalitytheoryconsidersthecommunicativepracticesineachofthe

modes,includingdiscursivepractices,productionpracticesandinterpretive

practices(KressandVanLeeuwen,2001:p.111).Theterm“discursive

practices”inthelinguisticandanthropologicalsenseisaconceptgenerally

associatedwiththeworkofpost-structuralistMichelFoucault,andrefers“toa

historicallyandculturallyspecificsetofrulesfororganizingandproducing

50

differentformsofknowledge”(O’Farrell,201017)18.Thishassignificancein

advertising,asthereareconventionsandrules,largelyunwritten,which

advertisersfollowinordertodelivertheirintendedmessages.Thesemight

includethewaysthathavebeenlearnedtoassigntheappropriatereferents

whenpronounsareused19,andbywhichareceiverhaslearnedtorelatethe

mainimagetoanyforegroundedtextandthusrecoverasingle,unifiedmeaning.

KressandVanLeeuwen(2001)demonstratethemultimodaltechniquethey

proposebeingappliedtotwomagazineadvertisementsforproducts,namely

itemsreferredtoas“cottoys”(p.115)anddesignedtobeusedtostimulate

babies.Theadvertisementsareforproductswithsimilarpurposesand

thereforehavesimilaritiesintermsoftheirfunctionsanddiscursivefeatures,

buttherearecertainwaysinwhichtheydivergethattheauthorsclaimtobe

noteworthy.Thesehingeuponhowthescenarioofbabies’playisconstructed

andwithdifferentintendedoutcomes,e.g.theformerisconcernedentirelywith

theinfantuserhavingfunwhereasthelatterpresentstheirtoysasadvancing

thechild’scoordinationandmentaldevelopment(pp.115-117).Theauthors

attributethedifferencesintheexecutionofthepresentationtotheparticular

designofthetexts,andthisissummedupasfollows:

“Design…(1)contextualises,makesitworkwithinthecontextofa

communicativeinteraction(suchas‘givingparentaladvice’,‘tellinga

story’,advertisingaproduct’)by,creativelyorotherwise,drawing

uponsemioticresourcessuchasgenericschemasforstories,

advertisementsetc.;and(2)itselectswhichmodeswillbeusedto

17O'Farrel'sisFoucault'sbiographer.Thequotationisfromthewebsite:michel-foucault.com(Accessed27thJuly2014).Nopagenumbersareshown.

18Theterms"productionpractices"and"interpretivepractices"arenotdefinedbyKressandVanLeeuwen(2001),soitcanonlybeassumedtheyaretobeunderstoodintheordinary,literal

sense–i.e.whatpracticesareinvolvedinproductionandwhatcognitivepracticesreceiversemployininterpretation

19DiscussedindetailinChapter3.5,below.

51

realizewhichaspectsofthatcommunicativeinteraction,whetherby

drawingonconventionssuchasthevisualdepictionofthe

satisfactionoftheproductinfull-pagemagazineadvertisementsor

not.”(p.119)

KressandVanLeeuwenarehereclaimingthatcontextualisationis

achievedthroughtheparticulardesignsofeachofthetexts,andthese

involvemodeselectionandutilizingwhatare(presumably)arbitrary

conventions.Whilethismaybeconsideredaninterestingand

persuasiveobservation,theconceptofcontextappearstobeveryloose

andundefined.Noaccountisofferedastohowcertainmodesare

recognisedasthedominantwhileothersaremerelycontextual,noris

themechanismbywhichparticularmodesgenerateanintended

contextualunderstandingexplained.Whileitmaybetemptingto

imaginethatthenon-linguisticmodesareresponsibleforprovidingthe

contextandthelinguisticonesexisttorelaythecoremessage,itis

dangeroustoassumethisisalwaysthecase.The“semioticresourcessuch

asgenericschemasforstories,advertisementsetc”(ibid,andquoted

above)issuggestiveofintertextualinfluences,asdescribedin

Sunchapter2.8,aboveand,inparticular,Kristeva's(1980)recognition

thattextsdonotexistinisolation,andBarthes'assertionthatmessages

aremadeupof“multiplewritingsdrawnfrommanycultures”(Barthes,

1977:p.148).

Someadvertisementscontainnowords,relyinginsteadontheviewerto

recovertheintendedmeaningthroughpictorialandgraphologicalcues

alone.Othersuselanguageinawaythatisintentionallyobscure,

perhapstomaketheadvertisementenigmaticandthereforeinteresting,

orforotherreasons.Anexampleofthiscanbefoundinsomebillboard

andmagazineadvertisementsforSilkCutcigarettesinthe1980sand

1990s.Theseprintedcommercialshavebeenreportedoninanumber

ofstudies,includingbymediascholars(Rozik,1997),linguists(Cook,

52

2001),marketingscholars(Wentz,1988),andfromapublichealth

perspective(Hastings&MacFadyen,2000;Chapman,1994).They

consistedofanimageofapieceofsilk-likefabricinaparticularshadeof

imperialpurple,andthefabricwaseithercutinsomeway,orwasshown

juxtaposedwithanimageorimpressionofabladedinstrumentsuchasa

pairofscissorsoraknife,andanexamplecanbeseeninAppendix4,

image8,below.Nowordswerepresent,withtheexceptionofthe

statutorywarning,whichappearedunderneathastotheharmfuleffects

ofsmoking.Tounderstandthiswasanadvertisement,andtorecognize

theproductbeingadvertised,viewerswouldhavetobefamiliarwiththe

variousnon-linguisticsignifiersfrompreviousadvertisingcampaigns.

Thiswouldincludethedepictionofpurplesilkfabric,butitisalsolikely

thattheabsenceofanywordsinsuchanadvertisement,withthe

exceptionofthehealthwarning,wouldhavehelpedmakeitreadily

identifiableasoneforSilkCut.Duringtheperiodwhenbillboardswere

displayingthisadvertisement,lawshadrecentlybeenputintoplace

designedtorestrictthemethodsusedinmarketingtobaccoproductsin

theUK20.Consequently,advertiserssoughtingeniouswaysofpromoting

cigarettebrandswhilestayingwithintheregulations.TheSilkCut

advertisementswhichcontainednowords,andwhichshowednothing

morethanfabric,orfabricandabladedinstrument,weredemonstrating

suchingenuityandstillcreatingeye-catchingandinterpretable

advertisements.

20TheEuropeanUnionTelevisionwithoutFrontiersDirective,1989,madeguidelinesandthese

wereexpandedintermsoftheirscopebeyondtelevisionandenactedintolegislationbytheTobaccoAdvertisingandPromotionAct,2002.

53

2.11LIMITATIONSOFSEMIOTICANALYSISOFADVERTISING

Oneofthelimitationsofsemioticsthathasalreadybeenintimatedisthe

uncertaintyastowhatdoes,anddoesnot,constituteasignandthetheories

exploredtakedifferentviewsonthis.Saussureassertsthatsignsareessentially

arbitraryor,attheveryleast,theyarepredominantlyarbitraryas,forthemost

part,theydonotpossessanaturalcorrespondencewiththatwhichtheysignify.

Herecognizes,however,thatthereare“modesofexpression”(Saussure,1916:p.

101)whichdohaveaconnection,suchasmime,alongwithsomenon-verbal

expressionsofpoliteness.Hereferstotheterm“symbol”asdesignatingpartof

thelinguisticsign.Thisisatermhefinds“awkward”becausesymbolsare,he

maintains,neverentirelyarbitrary,andhecitestheexampleofscalesbeingthe

symbolofjusticewhichcouldnotsimplybereplacedwith,forinstance,achariot

(ibid).Afurtherexampleisonomatopoeicwords,whichareconventionalized

withintheprevailingculture,althoughtheyfunctionassignsonlyinrelationto

othersignsaspartofasignificationsystem.Itisdifficult,inpurelySaussurian

terms,tomakeacasethattheimageofatigerintheEssoadvert,asastand-

aloneelement,isasigninthelinguisticsense.Anobservercandiscernthe

signifierasthetigerimageandthesignifiedastheEssobrandandtherelation

betweenthetigerandtheEssobrandisonethatislargelyarbitrary.Saussure,is,

however,concernedpredominantlywithlinguisticsignsandthetigerdoesnot

signifyalinguisticmeaning,butratheraconceptualoneapproximatelyalongthe

linesof:

THISTIGER’SIMAGE=ESSOBRAND

Theimageisnotaconstituentelementoperatingwithinaclearlydiscernible

systemofsignification,noristhemeaningcontingentuponitsrelationshipwith

thoseothersignswithinthatsystem,evenwhereitisaccompaniedbythebrand

name.Anytextthatexistsalongsidetheimageintheadvertisement,suchasthe

54

brandname,willbecomposedoflinguisticsignsintheformofletters,words

andphrases,andthiscanreinforcetheimage-brandassociation.

AsdescribedinSubchapter2.4,above,Peirceassertsthatsignsfallintothree

distinctcategories,namelyindexes,iconsandsymbols.Thefirsttypeisnot

entirelyarbitraryasindexeshaveanobservableconnectiontothatwhichthey

representandcanbenaturalorman-made.Iconicsignshaveaphysical,sensory

orconceptualresemblancetotheirrespectivesignifiedsand,whiletheydisplay

oneormoreconventionalizedfeaturesoftheirsignified,theyarestillessentially

arbitraryintheirform.Symbols,ontheotherhand,areentirelyarbitraryunder

Peirce’stheoryandtheywouldincludelinguisticsigns.Inthisrespect,they

mostcloselyalignwithSaussure’snotionofasign,exceptthattheycanoperate

inisolationanddonotneedtobelongtoadiscerniblesystemofsignification.It

ispossibleforasigntohavefeaturesfrommorethanoneofPeirce’scategories.

Forexample,adrawingofaheartonaValentine’scardisundoubtedlyiconicas

itsignifiesahumanheartbyvirtueofitsshape,buttherelationbetweenthe

heartandloveissymbolic.Similarly,anillustrationofapointinghandona

streetsigntoindicateadirectionisiconicinthatitrepresentsatypicalhuman

hand,butitsfunctionisindexical.

Advertisingusesallthreetypesofsign,mostoftentwoormorebeingpresentin

anygivenadvertisementanditsconstituentsmaynotfallneatlyintoanyof

thesecategories.Imagesusedinadvertisingconsistofphotographsand

illustrations;aphotographfallsintotheindexcategoryinPeirce’stermsasit

pointstotheexistenceofaphenomenoninaparticularlocationinspaceata

particularmomentintime,i.e.theplaceandtimethephotographwastaken.

Peircewritesthatphotographs“areveryinstructive,becauseweknowthatin

certainrespectstheyareexactlyliketheobjectstheyrepresent”(Peirce,2.281

fromBaker-Finchn.d.).However,anargumentcanbemadethataphotograph

usedinanadvertisementcanalsofunctionasaniconunderPeirce’striadic

typology.Thiswouldapplywheretheimageshownhasametaphorical

associationwithsomethingelseandusuallysomethingabstract.Animageofa

rosebudinanadvertisementforperfumemayserveasametaphorinthenon-

linguisticsense,conveyingthequalitiesoflove,beautyoryouth,whiletheimage

55

ofEsso’stigermightbedesignedtoinvokepowerandfreedom.Onthatbasis,

returningtoBarthes’sadvertisementofastringbagbreakingopenandthe

contentsspillingout,itmaybeconsideredwhetherthemainimage,oranyparts

ofit,constituteasign.Onitsown,inSaussure’sterms,theentiretyoftheimage

wouldnotandnorwouldtheindividualcontents,astheydonotformpartofa

significationsystem.Nevertheless,Barthesdescribestheimageas“aseriesof

discontinuoussigns”inthat“theyarenotlinear”(Barthes,1977:p.34);heasserts

theliteralimagetobedenotedwhilethesymbolismitgeneratesoperates

throughconnotation(p.37).Theproducerofadvertisementshastomakea

calculationbasedonaspectssuchasthelikelyculturalknowledgeoftheviewers

andreaders,andanyadvertisementisdependentuponsomeorallofthe

connotations,includingmetaphoricalsignifiers,beingrecoveredifitistobe

successful.Thisis,however,aspeculativeundertakingasanadvertisercannot

becertainpreciselywhatknowledgeispresentorwhatconceptualdomains21

areavailabletobeactivatedorwhetherthedesiredconnectionswillbemadeby

thereceiver.Asaresult,receiversarelefttodecideforthemselvesprecisely

what,ifanything,isbeingrepresentedbyanimageofarosebudinaperfume

advertisement,afighteraircraftinanadvertisementforaman’swristwatch,ora

pictureofatigeratapetrolstation.

Again,recallingPeirce’sview:“nothingisasignunlessitisinterpretedasasign”

(Nöth,1990:p.42),adefinitionofsignisproposedwhichisorientedsquarely

uponthereceiverratherthanthetransmitter.Logically,then,unheardspeech

andunreadtextsdonotconformtothisdefinitionanditmustsurelyalsofollow

thatthesignconstitutesonlythatwhichispositivelyunderstoodbythereceiver.

Whereanimageofatigerisrecognizedasadvertisingbreakfastcerealthenitis,

inPeirce’sterms,asignofbreakfastcerealregardlessoftheintentionofthe

transmittertoadvertisepetrol.Ifthisisdoubted,itcanbearguedthatPeirce

appearstoreinforcetheperceptionbyhischoiceofnegativepolarity(i.e.

“nothing”).Ratherthansaying,forexample,“everythingisasignifitis

21Thetermconceptualdomainisusedincognitivelinguisticstorefertothewaymetaphorsare

usedtorelateandunderstandoneexperienceintermsofanother.Thiswillbediscussedlaterinthethesisandinthesectionrelatedspecificallytometaphor.

56

interpretedasasign”,herejectsconsideringsomethingtobeasignbasedon

whateverwasintendedbythetransmitter.

Thelimitationsofsemioticsbecomeapparentwhenattemptingtoexplainthe

recoveryofmeaninginadvertisementsbyfollowingasimpleprocessof

decodingandwithouttakingintoaccountotherlinguisticandcontextualfactors

includinglexicalandsyntacticchoices,rhetoricaldevicesandinferencing.With

theslogan“putatigerinyourtank”,thesyntaxisstructuredasanimperativeas

theclausebeginswithaverbinitsbaseform.Novocativeispresentandthis

invitesthereadertoassumethepositionofaddressee22(Leech,1983).“Put”has

abroadmeaningandtherearemanywaysitispossibletoputsomething,both

physicallyandmetaphorically.Theverb“put”istransitiveandsoitmustbe

followedbyanobject.Thisparticularverbfurtherrequiresanobligatory

adverbialwhich,inthisinstance,takestheformofaprepositionalphrase.In

addition,itprovidesanopportunityforthecreatortopersonalizethe

advertisementwithapossessivedeterminerdirectedtothereader(“your”)and

toaddanelementofalliteration(“tiger”and“tank”).Theentireutteranceis

predicatedonasetofpresuppositions,suchasthatthereaderhasamotor

vehiclewithafueltankinwhichtoputthemetaphoricaltiger,andthereader’s

tankisotherthanfull,andthereaderhasthemeanstopayforthefuel.The

readerwillrecognisethatthetigerreferredtoisanallusiontoEssopetrol,

althoughthenamealonewouldachievethat.Semioticsdoesnotgenerally

attempttoaccountforfactorslikepersonalisation,thestylisticdevicessuchas

alliteration,presuppositionorallusion,orwhattheadvertisermightbeaiming

toachievebycomplementingastraightforwardlinguisticmessagewithan

ingenioussloganorpun.Traditionalsemioticapproachesthusconcern

themselveswithuncoveringmeaningsthatarerepresentedeitheratthesurface

levelbydecodingsimplesignifiers,oratamoresophisticatedleveland,

consciouslyorotherwise,relatingthemtoculturalphenomenasuchasmyths.

Arguably,thegreatestcriticismofapplyingsemioticapproachesinanykindof

22MorerecentscholarshavenotedthatanumberofsubjectsarepossibleinEnglishimperatives,e.g.whereavocative,oranindefinitepronounisused(Rupp,1999).

57

analysisisthattheyareconcernedwiththeformsandcodeswhilefailingto

accountsatisfactorilyforcurrentsocialpractices,humanrelationshipsor

societalstructures.Theypaylittleheedtotheparticipantsinanyinteraction,or

theirmotivations,butinsteadfocusontheformsandstructuresofsigns,and

howtheyconveyovertandcovertmeanings.

Advertisingmaybeconsideredartisticorentertaining,eventotheextentof

beingthesubjectoftelevisionprogrammeswhicharedevotedtobroadcasting

humorousorotherwiseingeniousadvertisementsfromacrosstheglobeforthe

amusementofaudiences.Yet,unlikeotherformsofartandentertainment,

advertisementsexistforaparticularpurposethatisdistinctfromtheircreative

meritsandartisticappreciation.Mostly,theaestheticelementisthestimulus

throughwhichattentionisgarneredandfortheoverallpersuasivefunctionto

takeeffect.Theoverridingpurposeofadvertisementsistoinfluencethe

perceptions,beliefsandfuturebehaviourofthosewhoareexposedtothemina

waydesiredbythosewhohavecommissionedthem.Consequently,their

existenceiscontingentuponother,realworld,phenomenaoutsideofthetext,

specificallytheproductstowhichtheyareattemptingtodirecttheviewers´

attention.HodgeandKress(1988)challengeSaussure’sapproachandadvocate

that“culture,societyandpolitics(are)intrinsictosemiotics”(p.18).They

proposea“higherlevelcontrolmechanism”,whichtheycalla“logonomicsystem”

(p.4)whichconsistsof:

“asetofrulesprescribingtheconditionsforproductionandreception

ofmeanings;whichspecifywhocanclaimtoinitiate(produce,

communicate)orreceive(know,understand)meaningsaboutwhat

topicsunderwhatcircumstancesandwithwhatmodalities(how,

when,why)”(ibid).

Advertisingisapracticethatprojectsaworldinwhichsocialidentityis

determinednotsomuchbywhosomeoneis,orwhattheydo,butbywhatthey

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consume,thuspositioningeveryoneasconsumersandthoseworkingin

marketingaspartieswhoknowtheirneedsandwants,andareableandwilling

tosatisfythem.Notallsemioticiansorphilosophersarewillingtodrawsucha

sharpdistinctionbetweenthetwoworlds.Ifadvertisementsaretobeviewedas

signsinthewidestsense,andtoacceptSaussure’sviewthatthesignifierand

signifiedare,tousehismetaphor,twosidesofthesamepieceofpaper,thenthe

questionastotheextenttowhichadvertisementscanbeperceivedasbeing

separateandremovedfromthecommoditiestheyareadvertisingbecomesmore

complex.

2.12METALANGUAGE

Metalanguageisvariouslydefinedas“alanguageusedtodescribelanguage”

(Lyons,1995:p.7)and“asystemfordescribingalanguagethatdoesnotrelyon

itself”(LynneMurphy,2010:p.45).Theoriginalfocusofmetalanguagewasto

describeaspectsof,andmakejudgmentsabout,otherlanguages,butitisnow

morewidelyusedtorefertolanguageconceptsineverydayuseandalsoasa

specialregisterusedinthediscoursesoflinguists,philosophers,scientistsand

others.Insomeinstances,metalanguagesaredistinctfromthelanguagesthey

describe.Others,however,arereflexive,meaningtheyareabletotalkabout

themselvesintermsthatare,orarenearto,ordinarylanguageand,assuch,may

belesspreciseandtherebyopentoawiderrangeofinterpretations.Preston

(2004)claimslinguistsextendthenotionofmetalanguage“torefersimplyto

mentionoftalkitself”(p.85)andthatexpressionssuchas“inotherwords”and

“doyouunderstandme”constituteakindofmetalanguage.Analysingthe

metalanguagethatadvertisingpractitionersemployislikelytobeinsightfulfor

thisthesisinexplainingtheirownprofessionalcommunicationalpractice,

includinghowsuchterminologycontributestotheformulationand

developmentofideas.

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Likemostspecializedfields,advertisinghasitsownvocabularywhichconsists

ofwordsandphrases,oftenmetaphorical,andwhichwouldbe

incomprehensibletosomeoneunfamiliarwiththisfield,althoughthisvaries

betweenindividuals.Someterms,suchas“caption”,“promotion”and“voice

over”maybewidelyunderstood,whileothers,suchas“copy”,“segmentation”

and“scamps”wouldbeobscure.Thisiscomplicatedbythefactthatsometerms

areusedexclusivelyinadvertising,othersareusedinmarketinggenerallywhich

includesadvertisingandothersstillhaveamoregeneralbusinessapplication.

Examplesofmetalanguageareexaminedinthisstudyastheyariseandwhere

theyaredeemedtoberelevantininvestigatingtheprocessesofgeneratingand

developingideasanddiscussingtheprocessesinthecreationofadvertisements.

Semioticapproaches,especiallythekindsuggestedbysuchasBarthes(1957),

appeartoofferameansbywhichthecodescanbeinterpretedtorevealmost

subtle,culturally-basedsubtextsandtheyarethusappropriatefor

understandingtheoperationofpurelybrand-basedadvertisementssuchasthe

glossymagazinekindmentioned.Theyencompassalltheoriesof

communicationasopposedtojustlanguageusing,forexample,multimodality,to

accountfortheeffectsachievedbyjuxtaposinglanguagewithimagery,andthe

syntagmaticsequencingthatoccursinsequencedadvertisingcampaigns.More

generalcriticismsofsemioticsasananalyticmethodincludetheclaimsthat:

“semioticianspresenttheiranalysesasiftheywerepurelyobjective'scientific'

accountsratherthansubjectiveinterpretations”(Chandler,2014:p.1)and

“semioticanalysisislooselyimpressionisticandhighlyunsystematic”(ibid).

Criticismsthatmayrelatemorespecificallytotheanalysisofadvertisinginclude

thosebyTanaka(1994),whopointsoutthatinterpretingadvertisementsas

simplydecodingsignscannotaccountforlinguisticmessageswhichare

intentionallypolysemous.Itwould,forexample,bedifficulttoseehowany

semioticapproachcouldsatisfactorilyexplainwhyareaderorviewermightfind

anintentionalambiguityorpunusedinanadvertisemententertainingand

therebystimulateinterestinabrandorproduct.Leissetal(1990)make

particularcriticismof“semiology”(p.198)asananalyticalmethodfor

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advertiserswhentheyaccusesemioticanalystsofbeinginclinedtobehighly

subjectiveand“dependentupontheskilloftheindividualanalyst”(p.214)andto

selectadvertisementswhichproveaparticularpointtheyaretryingtomake

whichcarries“thedangerofself-confirmingresults”(ibid).Whileitmaybe

appositetodothiswhencompilingasemioticstextbooktobeusedonmarketing

coursessuchasthebooksmentionedinChapter5ofthisthesisandinorderto

explaintheories,selectingillustrativeexampleswouldbeofonlylimitedvaluein

empiricalresearch.

Whilesemioticsconsiderscommunicationtoconsistoftheencodingand

decodingofmessages,thenextchapterconsidersadifferentapproachto

communicationintermsofhowmessagesarecreatedandmeaningisrecovered

havingregardtocontext,andtheimplicationsofcontexttoadvertisingtexts.

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CHAPTER3-ADVERTISINGFROMAPRAGMATICPERSPECTIVE

3.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION

Asisclearinthethesisquestions,akeypurposeofthisstudyistoestablishhow

producersofadvertisementsworktoensurereaders’andviewers’attentionis

drawntoaprintedadvertisementandtheprocessbywhichasufficientdegree

ofunderstandingisachievedinordertofulfillitspurpose,ortoencouragethe

readertoinvestigatetheadvertisementfurther.Whilethepreviouschapter

outlinesapproachesthatexplaintheunderstandingfromasemioticperspective

andtheroleplayedbysignifiers,thischapterexploreshowmorerecent

theoreticalapproachesfromthefieldofpragmaticsareappliedinorderto

uncoverwhethersuchmeaningsmaybebetterunderstoodasbeingconveyed

throughimplicature23.Itconsiderscertainstylisticandrhetoricaldevicesthat

areaccountedforsemanticallyorcontextually,includingintentionalambiguity,

metaphorsandpuns.Lastly,thedistinctionbetweenhardandsoftadvertising

approachesisdiscussedandthisisbasedprimarilyonBernstein's(1974)

differentiationof“reason”and“tickle”strategies.

Pragmatics,likesemiotics,hasphilosophicalantecedentsthatcanbetracedback

toancientGreece,accordingtoHanke(1990).However,mostmodern

pragmatictheoriesaremorerecentand,accordingtoLevinson(1983),manyof

themoverlapwithothersub-disciplineswithinlinguistics.Atitsmostbasic

level,semioticsissimplythestudyofsigns(Harris,1996:p.112;Bignell,2002:p.

5;Chandler,2009:p.1),althoughthisdefinitionmaybeconsideredan

oversimplificationinviewofthedevelopmentswithinthefieldsinceits

inceptionintheearlypartofthetwentiethcentury.Pragmatics,meanwhile,is

describedasthe“relationofsignstointerpreters”(Morris,1938,pp.6-7,from

23”Implicature”atermcoinedbyHPGriceandwhichreferstoanindirectorimplicitspeechactinwhichwhataspeakermeansinanutteranceisnotpartofwhatisexplicitlystated.Thiswillbefurtherdescribedin2.2.2,below.

62

Levinson,1983;p.1),whileLevinsonoffershisown,somewhatfullerdefinition

as:“thestudyofthoserelationsbetweenlanguageandcontextthatare

grammaticalizedorencodedinthestructureofalanguage”[p.9]

AsdiscussedinSubchapter2.5,above,RomanJakobson,whoisgenerally

regardedasasemiotician,suggestssomefunctionsoflanguagefromapragmatic

perspectivebyfocusingontheintentionorpurposeofanyparticularutterance.

Whilethiscontributestounderstandinglanguage,thedegreetowhichit

explainslanguagethroughcontextislimitedtoaspectssuchasthepurposeof

thecommunication.

Semantics,inthelinguisticsense,isastudyofmeaningwhichintersectswith

semiotics,pragmaticsandotherdisciplinesrelatedtocommunicationand,

accordingtoPalmer(1981:pp.83-85),tologic.Asaconsequence,itwillalmost

inevitablyfeatureinanyexaminationoftextsthatseektoexplainthecreation

andcomprehensionofmeaning.Whereassemanticsisconcernedwiththe

relationsbetweensignsandthephenomenatowhichtheyrefer,pragmatics

considersthecontextofthecommunication,andthishastobeachievedby

analysingfactorsexternaltothetextswithinwhichthesesignsexist,butwhich

determineorinfluencemeaning.However,theboundarybetweensemantics

andpragmaticsisnotalwaysasharpone.Strawson(1952)pointstoa

differencebetweenspeakermeaningandlinguisticmeaning;thisisdeveloped

byGrice(1989),whoidentifiesadistinctionbetweenwhatissaidandwhatis

implicated.Pragmaticswasinitiallyconcernedwithexchangesintheformof

interactionbetweeninterlocutors,ascanbeseenfromsomeofitskeytheories

suchasAustin’sspeechacttheory(assubsequentlydevelopedbySearle),and

Grice’scooperativeprinciple.However,morerecentscholarshavemade

tentativeeffortstoextendpragmaticapproachesbeyondimmediate,orface-to-

face,dialogueandintotherealmofmasscommunication,includingadvertising

(e.g.Pateman,1983;Tanaka,1994).

Inthischapter,themainprinciplesrelatingtothetheoriesproposedbyAustin

andGriceareoutlinedfirst,andthenadetailedexaminationoftheworkby

linguistswhohaveutilisedpragmatictheoriesandmodelsinexplaininghow

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advertisementsseektocontextualisethemselvesismade,andthewaysby

whichadvertisersareabletoinvoketheencyclopaedicknowledge24oftheir

readersisconsidered.WorksstudiedincludethosebyMyers(1994),Cook

(1992)Tanaka(1994)andSimpson(2000).

3.2OVERVIEWOFTHEORIESOFIMPLICATURE

ThelecturesandpapersofOxfordphilosopherJohnLangshawAustinarethe

precursorsofwhatisnowregardedasmodernpragmatics,anavenueofstudy

thatinvestigatesthedistinctionsbetweenwhatissaidandwhatismeant

(Levinson,1983:pp.226-227).Amonghisbest-knownworksisHowtoDo

ThingswithWords,publishedin1962.Inanefforttoaddresstheapparent

inadequaciesinthefieldoftruth-conditionalsemanticsand,inparticular,their

inabilitytoexplainallutterancetypes,Austinproposesthatmanysuch

utterancescannotbeassignedasimpletruthvalue(Grundy,2008:p.71).Some

declarativestatements,suchas:“thepresentKingofFranceisbald”arecapable

ofbeinguttered,yettheyaremeaningless,astheyappeartocontainafalse

premise,namelythatthereissuchanentityasthepresentkingofFrance,while

otherstatementscontaininternalcontradictions.Austindiscernsadistinction

betweena“locutionaryact”(Levinson,1983:p.236)andan“illocutionaryact”

(ibid),andtheformerisexplainedbyLevinson(1983)as:“theutteranceofa

sentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference”(ibid).Illocutionaryactsdescribe

whataspeakerdoeswhenperformingalocutionaryact,suchaswhetherheor

sheiscommanding,promising,threateningandsoon,andthespeaker’s

intentionwhenproducingtheutteranceisknownasthe“illocutionaryforce”

(ibid).Theseshouldthenbeassessednotintermsoftruthconditionality,butin

24 The term “encyclopedic knowledge” is used by Tanaka (1994: p. 27) to describe pre-existing knowledge. This is not explained by Tanaka but, for the purpose of this study, it will be assumed that it approximately equates with Fairclough’s (2000) notion of “Member Resources” (MR), which he defines as being “what people have in their heads and draw upon when they produce and interpret texts” (p.20). This is also a concept extensively used in Relevance Theory and will be described in detail in Chapter 2.2.3, below.

64

termsoftheirsuccessorfailure,i.e.theeffecttheiractshaveuponthereceiver,

whichhereferstoasthe“perlocutionaryact”(ibid)andwhichmay,inturn,give

risetoaresponseonthepartofthehearerwhichhereferstoasthe

“perlocutionaryeffect”(p.237).Themajorityofillocutionaryactsareimplicit

ratherthanexplicitbecausetheydonotinvolvetheuseofoneofalimitedrange

ofperformativeverbsthatsignaltheact.Thiscanbedemonstratedby

contrasting:

(implicit)Thismeetingisover.

(explicit)I(hereby)declarethismeetingclosed.

Thelatterinvolvestheuseofafirstpersonsingularverb,the(usually)optional

adverb“hereby”andaperformativeverb.Theparticularutterancethatcloses

themeetingalsodependsupontheexistenceofcertainconditionsinorderto

achievetheintendedperlocution.Oneoftheseisthatthepersonutteringthe

performativehassomerecognisedauthoritytodoso;anotheristhatthe

situationinwhichthespeechactoccursisappropriatewhileathirdrequires

thatcertainperformativeverbsareused.Austin’stheorywasrevisedand

modifiedseveraltimesduringhislifetime,butitsweaknessesgraduallybecame

evident(Levinson,1983).Amongtheweaknessesidentifiedinthistheoryare

thedifficultiesindistinguishingaclearsetofverbswhichareperformativefrom

thosewhicharenot,andthosewhichareperformativecanbeusedinother

ways;thisistheconceptfamiliartolinguistsandgrammariansandmentionedin

Subchapter2.5,above,namelythatformdoesnotalwaysequalfunction(p.239).

OneofAustin’scolleaguesatOxfordinthe1940sand1950sworkingon

languagephilosophywasPaulGrice,whoformulatedahugelyinfluentialtheory

withinthefieldofpragmaticswhich,likespeechacttheory,isaimedat

distinguishingtheliteralmeaningofwhatissaidfrom“whatismeant”(Grandy

&Warner,2014:p.1).Griceproposesthat,inutterancesinwhichthereisa

65

layerofliteralmeaningthatcanbeidentifiedasbeingdistinctfromtheother

layersofmeaning,therearetwopossibletypesofimplicatureandhenames

these“conventionalimplicature”and“conversationalimplicature”.Conventional

implicatureoccurswherecertaingrammaticalforms,suchasconjunctions,are

used,forinstancebut,yet,stillandtherefore(Levinson,1983:pp.127-128).In

theutterance:“Sheispoor,butsheishonest”,theuseofbutiscontrastiveandso

carriesanimplicationthatthehonestyofthesubjectoftheclauseswould

otherwisebequestionedbecauseofherpoverty,althoughthisisnotexplicated.

Similarly,with:“SheusedtoworkattheSavoy,thereforewecanexpectherfoodto

begood”,thewordthereforeimpliesthatthesubject’spreviousemploymentcan

beregardedasaguaranteeofherculinaryskills.However,thisseemingly

straightforwardconceptisnotbeyondchallenge.Bach(1999:p.365)claims

thereisnosuchthingasconventionalimplicature,andremindsreadersthat

evenGriceacceptedthatitneededtobeexaminedbeforebecomingwidelyused.

Whilehiscontributionofferssomeclaritywithregardtothesupposedboundary

thatmaydividewhatissaid(thesemantics)fromwhatisimplicated(the

pragmatics),BachtakestheviewthatthephenomenaGriceclaimstobe

conventionalimplicatureshouldberegardedas“examplesofsomethingelse”(p.

365)andnothingmorethanpartofwhatissaid.Bachprovidesanexampleof

thiswiththeutterance:“Shaqishugebutheisagile”(Bach,1999:p.327).Thisis

differentiatedfrom“Shaqishugeandheisagile”(Ibid)byvirtueofthe

conventionalmeaningoftheconjunctionbutbeingcontrastiveratherthan

merelyadditive,asisthecasewithand.

ThesecondtypeofimplicatureGriceproposesisconversationalimplicature,

whichispredicatedonabeliefthat,whenengaginginconversation,human

beingscooperatebymeansofanunspokenunderstandingastotherules25of

theirinteraction.Thereisanunderlyingassumptionthatallpartieswilladhere

totheserules,butsubjecttocertainmutuallyunderstoodexceptions.Therules

existunderanoverarchingprinciplewhichhewordedasfollows:

25Itshouldbenotedthat,inspiteoftheimperativeformusedbyGrice,these”rules”are

intendedtobeusedtodescribetheprocessofcommunicationanditscooperativenatureandshouldnotberegardedasprescriptiveorevenadvisory.

66

“Makeyourcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichit

occurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangein

whichyouareengaged.”(Levinson,1983:p.101)

Subordinatetothisbroadprinciple,Griceproposesfourconversationalmaxims

thatenableparticipantstogenerateandinterpretimplicatureandtheseare:

MaximofQuantity: Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasis

required(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmake

yourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.(ibid)

MaximofQuality: Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.

Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyou

lackadequateevidence.(Levinson,1983:p.101)

MaximofRelation: Berelevant.(Levinson,1983:p.102)

MaximofManner: Avoidobscurityofexpression.

Avoidambiguity.

Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).

Beorderly.(ibid)

Itissuggestedthat,forthemostpart,speakersadheretotheseandassumetheir

interlocutorsaredoingthesame,eveniftheyarenotconsciousofdoingso.

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However,onemayalsofailtoobserveamaximforvariousreasons.Thismaybe

byinfringingamaxim,whichcanoccurwherethefailureisunintentionaland

thereisnoattempttogenerateanimplicatureatall.Inthebelowexample,a

smallchildisattemptingtocooperatebyansweringthequestion,butperhaps

alsoinfringingthequantitymaximbybeingmoreinformativethanwas

required:

Teacher “Didyourdaddybringyoutoschooltoday?”

Child “No,thatwasn’tmydaddy.Heisinprison.”

Thetypeofnon-observanceofmaximswhichismostheavilydependentupon

implicatureisthatwhichisblatant,i.e.wherethespeakerunderstandsthe

implicitrules,expectsthattheheareralsounderstandsthem,willrecognizethe

non-observanceanddrawanimplicaturefromthat.Thisisknownas“flouting”

(Grundy,2008:pp.97-98)oneormoreofthemaximsand,inthiscase,thereis

nointentiontodeceiveormisleadthehearer.Instead,theintentionistoinvite

thelistenertofollowaprocessofreasoningandtoarriveatanintended

interpretationthroughimplicature.Inthecaseofquantity,forexample,a

speakermightfloutamaximasawayofhinting,orbeingeconomicalwith

words,asinthecaseofbothspeakers,below:

SpeakerA.There’squiteabitofwashingupthisevening.

SpeakerB.Iwashedupafterlunch.

SpeakerA’sutteranceconsistsofasimpledeclarativesentenceandmaybe

interpretedassuch,orasahintthatSpeakerAbelievesthatSpeakerBshould

undertakeorassistinthewashingup.Whilethereareseveralpossible

interpretationsofSpeakerB’smeaning,amongthemisthathe/sheisimplicating

68

his/herunwillingnesstowashuponthebasisthatshehasdonesopreviously

thesameday.However,thisalsoillustratessomeoftheproblemswithGrice’s

theory.Intheaboveexample,thereisarangeofpossibleinterpretations

availablefromthefloutingofthequantitymaxim,allofwhicharedefeasible,e.g.

SpeakerB.Iwashedupafterlunch,sothereshouldonlybeafew

dishestowashfromsupper.

Or:

SpeakerB.Iwashedupafterlunch.Todayismydayfordoingthe

washingup.

Theconceptsof“loosetalk”and“faithfulness”,whichstemfromGrice’smaximof

quality,carryassumptionsthatthetruthfulnessanddetailnecessaryforany

interactionisamatterofdegree,accordingtoitsnatureandpurpose.Thisis

discussedindetailinSubchapter3.6,buttheexamplebelowisaquotationofa

Britishnewspaperheadlinewhichprecedesastorypublishedin2014:

“CanterburyCathedral'sgirls'choirtobreak1,000yearsofall-male

tradition”(Anon:2014)

Inthiscase,thefigurecitedof1,000-yearsmayhavebeenprecise–thetradition

mayhaveexistedsincetheyearAD1014.However,itseemsmorelikelythatit

wouldhavebeenanapproximation,andthatmostreaderswouldhave

interpreteditassuch.Thisperceptionissupportedbythesub-headlineofthe

samestory,whichreads:

69

“Tonighta900-yeartraditionofmale-onlychoirsatCanterburyCathedral

willcometoanend,whenthebrand-newCanterburyCathedralGirls’Choir

makesitsdebutatSungEvensong”[Ibid]

Incontrast,CanterburyCathedral’sownwebsiteprovidedfarmorespecific

informationastodates,presumablybecausereaderswhohadaninterestin

historywerepresumedtopreferexactdates:

“1070-1077CathedralrebuiltbyArchbishopLanfranc

1098-1130NewQuirebuiltoveraCrypt(presentWesternCrypt)

1170ThomasBecketmurderedintheCathedral”

(CanterburyCathedralwebsite)

OneofthelimitationsofusingGrice’sapproachinanalyzinganutteranceortext

isthatthereisnosystematicmethodorprotocolfordeterminingwhichofthe

possibleinterpretationsistheintendedone.Anotheristhatthereissometimes

anoverlapintermsofwhichmaximisbeingflouted,asinSpeakerB’sutterance

“Iwashedupafterlunch”,whereadifferentmeaningcouldberecovered

dependinguponwhetherthehearerhadcalculateditasafloutingofquantityor

ofrelation.

Cook,whoseworksonthediscourseofadvertising,publishedin1992and2001,

offersawide-rangingexaminationofthegenreofadvertisingontelevisionand

inprintandheprovidesperspectivesbasedonmodelsfromseverallinguistic

70

sub-disciplines.However,pragmaticapproachesdonotfeatureprominentlyin

hisworksandarelittleusedinhisanalysisofactualadvertisements.Healludes

tothetwoconversationalprinciples,namelyGrice’sco-operativeprinciple,as

describedabove,andGeoffreyLeech’spolitenessprinciple,whichincludesthe

maximsofavoidingimposition,makingthehearerfeelgoodandgivingthe

heareroptions.Cook(2001)pointsoutthatthelatteraremainlyphatic,i.e.

concernedwithestablishingandmaintainingsocialrelationshipsandthat,as

withGrice’smaxims,Leech’smayattimesappeartoconflictwithoneanother.

Heacknowledgesthatthetwoconversationalprinciplesmaybeculturally

universal26,butargues:

“theyarenotequallyapplicabletoallgenres.Theybelongverymuch

tothespokenphaticdiscourseinwhichrelationshipsareneitherof

unequalpowernorofgreatintimacy….Neitheradvertisingnor

literaturecanbeeasilyaccountedforintermsofconversational

principles.”(p.154)

Cook(2001)goesontoproposethatthereisagulfbetweenthepurposeof

phaticdiscoursesandthoseofliterature–therelationshipbetweenthe

addresseeandaddresserbeingoneofextremedistance,asisthecasein

advertising.Modernadvertisingmethods,heasserts,arenomoreconcerned

withconveyingtruththanareworksoffiction.Cook(2001)maintainsthat,

owingtolegalandotherconstraints,advertisersshyawayfromfactualclaims

forwhichtheycanbeheldresponsibleandsotheyadoptotherstrategies.

Withoutrejectinghisviewsoutofhand,itmustbeacknowledgedthatmany

advertisementsaredesignedtomimicface-to-faceconversation.Themodesof

address,grammaticalaspects(suchaspersonalandpossessivepronounuse),

26Thisseemsodd,astherehavebeenmanystudies(e.g.Huang,2008;Spencer-Oatey&Jiang,

2003)whichdescribetheproblemswiththeconversationalprinciplesincross-culturalcommunication.

71

useofimperativeandinterrogativestructures,statementswhichexpress

empathy,solidarityandevenintimacywiththereader,emulatefeaturesof

conversationandarethus,subjecttocertainlimitations,amenabletoanalysisby

useoftheconversationalprinciplesproposedbybothGriceandLeech.Thisis

especiallythecasewhenitcomestotheforegroundedtextsusedtocaptureand

sustaintheinterestofareaderandthefloutingofGrice’smaximsisamuch-

favouredstrategyforachievingthis.TheTommyHilfigeradvertisement

mentionedinSubchapter2.6,above,demonstrateshowadvertisementsmay

floutthemaximofquantityastheyconsistofnothingmorethanacarefully

constructedimagewiththeproductorbrandnamestrategicallyplaced.They

mayuseatextwhichisobscure27or,uponfirstreading,nonsensical28,again

floutingmaximssuchasquantityandrelevance,andperhapsalsothemaximof

mannerastheyfailtobeperspicuous.Insomecases,theyinvitemorethanone

interpretation29andsofloutthemaximofmannerbyvirtueoftheirambiguity.

Asadvertisementsinmagazineshavetocompetewithjournalisticcontentand

otheradvertisementsforreaderattention,theymustalsomakethemselvesboth

conspicuousandrelevanttothereadermoreorlessimmediatelyiftheyareto

avoidbeingpassedover.

WithregardtoGrice,Tanaka(1994)considersGeis’s(1982)contributioninhis

workonthepragmaticsoftelevisionadvertising.Headvancesanddevelops

Grice’snotionthatinferencingasdescribedbyGriceattemptstoofferamore

robustexplanationastohowsuchtextsareunderstood,andhethen

reformulatesthemaximstosomeextentforthatpurpose.Heincreasesthe

numberofmaximstosix,ostensiblybydividingGrice’sQuantityintotwo

maximswhichhecallsStrength(saynolessthanisnecessary)andParsimony

(saynomorethanisnecessary)andhereassignsQualityastwomaxims,namely

Truth(donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse)andEvidence(donotsaythatfor

whichyoulackadequateevidence).Heoffersawayofestablishingwhethera

27AsintheAudicaradvertisementdescribedinSubchapter3.5,below.

28AsintheBoddington'sbeeradvertisementdescribedinSubchapter3.6,below.

29AsinthePlayer'scigarettesadvertisementdescribedinSubchapter3.7,below.

72

sentenceconversationallyimpliesapropositioninthatitcanbeachievedonlyif

theliteralmeaningisunderstood,generalconversationalprinciplesare

observed,thecontextisknownandthereisacommonbackgroundknowledge

sharedbetweenthespeakers.Heproposesthatthereisahierarchyofmaxims

whichoperateswheretwoormoreconversationalmaximsoccurinopposition,

withRelationseeminglybeingsuperiorintheinterpreter’smind(ibid).

Geis(1982)alsonotesthatthosewhodesignadvertisementsareinclinedto

makethestrongestclaimstheycaninfavouroftheirproducts,butusingshort

statementsthatareunprovable,largelybyuseofhedgingexpressionsandwith

wordsindicatingonlyprobability,suchasmodalverbs(Geis,1982,fromTanaka,

1994).Tanaka(1994)highlightswhatsheclaimstobeaweaknessinthis

approach,towit,thatitistooheavilydependentuponrigidrulesand,aswith

semioticapproaches,itfailstoaccountforcontext.

3.3LIMITATIONSOFGRICE/RELEVANCETHEORY

CriticsofGrice(e.g.Thomas,1995;SperberandWilson,1995)arguethathis

attempttoexplaintheprocessofimplicatureisincompleteandvague.Grice’s

explanationissuggestedtoappealmainlytointuitionasopposedtoofferinga

fullyreasonedortestableexplanationastohowutterancesareunderstood.

SperberandWilson(1995)offertheiralternativeproposal,knownas“Relevance

Theory”,andwhichadvancesthenotionthatrelevanceisthekeytoattracting

attentiontoaparticularstimulus.Thisis,theyclaim,achievedthroughanactof

ostensivecommunication:

“anactofostensivecommunicationmustattracttheaudience’s

attention.Inthatsense,anactofostensionisarequestforattention.

Someonewhoasksyoutobehaveinacertainway,eitherphysically

73

orcognitively,suggeststhathehasgoodreasontothinkthatit

mightbeinyourowninterests,aswellashis,tocomplywithhis

request”(p.155].

Whereanactofostensive-inferentialcommunicationoccurs,thecommunicator

intendsthatitwillberelevanttothehearerandthatthehearerwillrecognise

thespeaker’sintentionandthatthespeakerbelievesitisworththehearer’s

attention(Sperber&Wilson,1995).However,theeffortneededbothto

generateastimulusonthepartofthespeaker,andtheeffortneededtoprocess

itbythehearer,arealsoimportantconsiderations.Itisthespeaker’s

responsibilitytoselectthemostefficientandeconomicalstimuliforthepurpose

andtheremustbeapresumptionofthisiftheheareristobereasonably

expectedtomaketheeffortrequiredtoprocesstheutterance,whilethehearer

simplyhastorecovertheintendedmeaningaidedbytheprincipleofrelevance.

WilsonandSperber(2012:p.65)callthismutualunderstanding“the

presumptionofoptimalrelevance”;itiscommunicatedbyeveryactofostensive

communicationand“everyutteranceconveysapresumptionofitsownoptimal

relevance”(ibid).

SperberandWilson(1995)raisethequestionsastowhethercontextisgivenor

chosenandhowtheparticularassumptionsusedininterpretationofaparticular

messageareselected.Contextmaybeunderstoodsimplyastheresultof

whateverutterancesprecededit,assumingtherewereanysuchutterances,ora

combinationoftheutterancestogetherwithanyimplicatures.Sperberand

Wilson(1995)recognisethistobeaninadequateexplanationtoaccountforall

situations,suchaswhereanassumptionmustbepredicatedonknowledge

storedinthememoryintheformofan“encyclopaedicentry”(p.86).For

instance,alludingtoNapoleonwouldinstantaneouslyactivateasetof

assumptionsaboutthathistoricalfigure,assumingthehearerhadsome

knowledgeofhim,andsuchentriesareaddedtothecontexttoexplainthe

operationoftheimplicature.Then,furtherlayersofsuchentrieswouldbe

attachedtotheconceptsmentioneduntilthecontext,consistingentirelyof

74

encyclopaedicmemory,becomesvast.Thetaskofprocessingwouldbe

enormouswereitnotforthementalmechanismbywhichspeakersareableto

accessthosepreciseaspectsthatareneededwhiledisregardingthosewhichare

not(ibid).

Asrelevancedecreaseswiththedegreeofeffortneededtoprocessinformation,

SperberandWilson(1995)assertthatitgraduallybecomeslesspossibleto

achievemorethanminimalrelevance,eventuallycausingthenotiontobe

rejected.Onthatbasis,theymaintainthatcontextiscreatedeitherpriortothe

comprehensionprocesscommencing,orasapreliminarystageintheprocess,

andsothepossibilityremainsthatchoicesandrevisionsmaybeavailablein

contextformation.Thesechoicesare,however,limitedbythe“organisationof

theindividual’sencyclopaedicmemory,andthementalactivityinwhichheis

engaged”(p.137)andprocessingtheinformationaccordingtotheprincipleof

relevancemaybedependentuponthehearer’sabilitytoaddtotheinitial

context.Whatisaddedisinformationrecoveredfromshort-termmemory(e.g.

utterancesimmediatelypriortotheproposition),longer-termmemory

(includingencyclopaedicknowledge)orperception.Inturn,anyinabilitybythe

hearertoprocessthesemaylimittheextenttowhichthecommunicationwill

succeed.Mutuallysharedknowledgeisnotalwaysessentialasthecontextual

implicationcouldbederivedinanotherway,suchaswhereareplycontainsan

assumptionfromwhichthehearercanmakeadeduction,asinthefollowing

example:

aTim:Wouldyoulikeadoughnut?

bBill:I’vejustbeendiagnosedashavingglutenintolerance

TimwouldbeabletoprocessBill’sreplyand,bydrawinginferences,deduceits

relevanceasaresponsetotheparticularquestionasked.Hewouldderivethe

contextualimplicationthatBill’sdiagnosismeansheisprobablyprecludedfrom

eatingfoodssuchasdoughnuts.RelevanceTheoryexplainshow,through

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deductiveinferencing,appropriatereferentsareidentifiedandpossible

ambiguitiesareresolved,thusfillingthegapbetweentheencodedutteranceand

itsultimateinterpretation.Grundy(2008)offersanexamplewiththepossible

interpretationsoftheutterance“Haveyouseenmybook?”(p.139).Amonga

rangeofpossiblemeaningsfromthiscouldincludeanindirectquestionasto

whethertheaddresseehasactuallyborrowedthespeaker’sbookwithout

permission,orwhethertheaddresseehasreadorhadsightofabookthatwas

writtenbythespeaker.Asisthecasewithallotherutterances,thequestion

“haveyouseenmybook?”ismade:

• withaguaranteeofitsownrelevance

• onthebasisofabeliefbythespeakerastothecognitiveabilitiesand

contextualresourcesofthehearer

• inawaythatisradicallyunder-determined,withawiderangeoflogical

andsemanticrelations.

Thus,theaddressee,withtheaidofhisorherowncontextualand

encyclopaedicresources,isabletorecovertheintendedmeaningonlyifheor

shehasfollowedaprocessofdeductiveinferencing.Thereis,however,no

guaranteethatthehearer’sinterpretationwillexactly,orevenapproximately,

mirrorspeakerintentionandmisunderstandingcanthusoccur.Sperberand

Wilson(1995)attempttolookbeyondwhattheyregardassimplisticand

empiricallyunsupportednotionsofmutualknowledgeandsharedinformation

bydescribingthe“cognitiveenvironment”(p.38).Theydescribehoweach

individuallivesinaphysicalworldinwhichheorsheacquiresinformationand

constructsmentalrepresentations,andtheyarguethathisorhercognitive

environmentconsistsoftheaccumulationofinformationthatismanifesttothat

person.Forafacttobemanifest,itmustbeperceptibleorinferable:

“if,andonlyifheiscapableatthattimeofrepresentingitmentally

andacceptingitsrepresentationastrueorprobablytrue.”[p.39]

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Whileaspeakerhasnodirectcontrolovertheknowledgeandthought

processesofhisinterlocutor,heorshemayhavesomedegreeofcontroloverhis

cognitiveenvironmentandthismayindirectlyaffecthisthoughts.Sperberand

Wilson(1995)distinguishbetweeninformativeandcommunicativeintentions

inbothovertandcovertcommunicationandhowtheyareusedin

fundamentallydifferentways.Theinformativeintentionissimplytoinformthe

audienceofsomething,whilethecommunicativeintentiondescribesthe

intentiontoinformtheaudienceoftheinformativeintention.Achievingthis

requirestheproductionofanappropriatestimulus,andonethatbearsa

guaranteeofitsownrelevance.Thisaspecthasparticularsignificancein

advertisingandisdiscussedfurtherinSubchapter3.5below.

3.4DEIXISANDPRONOUNS

Myers(1994)describessentencetypesandstructuresusedinadvertising,

includinghowandwhyadvertisersareinclinedtouseimperativesor

interrogativesinpreferencetoindicatives,andthatwordsorstringsofwords

whichdonotconstitutecompletegrammaticalsentencesareoftenpunctuated

assentences.Hebeginsbymakingfivekeypoints(pp.3–10),thefirstbeing

thatadvertisements“aremadeupofpatternsoftextualchoices”,andhe

exemplifiesthiswithpoeticeffectsemployedinsomecatchphrasesusedinthe

marketingofAerochocolatebars.Hissecondpointadducesthepresenceof

intertextualfeaturesandhowtheseareinterpretedinrelationtoothertexts,

andhedirectsthereadertoaTVadvertisementforbreakfastcerealdepicting

thefamiliarcharactersfromtheRobinHoodfolktale.Myers’thirdpoint

proposesthatadvertisementsare“stereotypicalactsofcommunication”(ibid)

andthusconstituteagenreintheirownright.Inthisrespect,hecompares

advertisementstoliterarygenreswhere,forexample,murder-mysterystories

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followcertainlines,butdistinguishthemselvesatsomepointbypresentingthe

readerwithsomethingwhichdeviatesfromtheirexpectationandwhichmakes

theexperienceentertaining.Hedevelopsthisargumentbyrelatinghowthe

cerealadvertisementmentionedportraysahumoroussituationinwhichthe

producthelpsthefamiliarhero(RobinHood)defeatthevillain.Thisviewaligns

withCook’s(2003)descriptionofadvertisingasbeingadistinctivediscourse.

ThefourthpointofMyers'(1994)pointsisthatanadvertisement“constructs

positionsfortheaudience”(p.6).Hesubstantiatesthisfirstlybyconsideringthe

referentofthepronoun“you”intheAeroadvertisement,andthenhighlights

howaTVviewerwatchingaseriesofcommercialsispositionedseveraltimesin

rapidsuccessionasachocolateeater(Aero),acatowner(Whiskascatfood),a

parent(Fairywashing-upliquid)anadolescent(acnemedication)andayuppie

(FerreroRocherchocolates).WhatMyers(1994)doesnotexploretoanygreat

extentinthisargumentistheexistenceofadvertisementsaimedatapurchaser

whoisnotaconsumer.Thereisclearlyanelementofthiswiththecatfood

example,butthereareadvertisementsthatareaimedatparentswhomaybuy

productsfortheirchildren30,andthosebuyinggifts31.Lastly,Myersreminds

readersofhow“audiencesreconstructadsindiverseways”(p.7).Heexplains

thisbyrelatinghowhisowndaughter,asachild,watchedanadvertisement

portrayingthecharacterRobinHoodwhowas,atthetime,runningaway.The

explanationshegavehimofherunderstandingofwhyRobinHoodwasfleeing

(presumablyfromtheSheriffofNottingham),wasthathedidnotlikethe

breakfastcerealbeingmarketedintheadvertisement.Thiswasalmostcertainly

notthemeaningintendedbytheproducersofthecommercial,butMyers’

daughterwouldperhapshavebeentooyoungtobefamiliarwiththegenreof

advertising,ortohaverememberedtheoriginalTVprogrammethatthe

advertisementparodied(ibid).

30OneexampleofthisisthetelevisionadvertisementbyCadbury’sinthe1980sthatusedajingle:“Afingeroffudgeisjustenoughtogiveyourkidsatreat”.

31Anadvertisementcreatedinthe1960sforArpègeperfumehadthetagline“Promiseheranything,butgiveherArpège.”ThiscanbeseeninAppendix4:Image18.

78

Myers(1994)suggeststhattheuseofpronouns32inadvertisingisafavoured

approachbecauseadvertisementsareattemptingtoreproducesomeofthe

functionsandmethodsofsalespeople,demonstratingempathyandsolidarity,an

awarenessoftheaudienceorreaders’concerns,andthuswinningthetrustof

thepotentialcustomer.Preciselywhatconstitutestheparticularconcerns

whicheachhumanbeingconsiderstobeimportantandevenmostintimateis,of

course,whollysubjective.Thefactthatadvertisementsaremostly

indiscriminateintermsofwhoisaddressedmeansthataproportionofthem

willhavenoconcernsthatareofrelevancetothepurchaser/consumer.

Obviousexamplesmightincludeadvertisementsformaleshavingproducts

whenviewedbywomen,orfemalecosmeticswhenviewedbymen.Cook’s

(2001)notionoftheprojectionoftheselfinothergenresmightoffersome

insightsintohowaddresseesrespondtosuchadvertisementsandhereferstoan

exampleofatraditionalfolksonginwhichthe“I”isthefemaleaddresserand

the“you”themaleaddressee,whoisherlover.Hesuggeststhatthereare

variouswaysinwhichthespecificreferenceforthesepronounsinthesongcan

beachieved,generallyassumingthattherewillbeacorrelationbetweenthe

gendersofthesinger/hearerandtheaddressees.Consequently,awoman

hearingthesongwilladoptthepositionofsinger,whileamalelistenerwill

positionhimselfastheonebeingserenaded.Whilethisseemsrationalatfirst

glance,theclaimisquestionableasitisbothoverlysimplisticandcloseto

impossibletoprove.Thesamemustsurelybesaidforadvertisements.The

parallelisunsatisfactoryforotherreasons,too,owingtothefactthat,while

advertisingreplicatessomeofthefeaturesofothergenressuchasfolksongs

andliterature,ithasentirelydifferentaims.Ifawomanseesanadvertisement

foraman’selectricrazor,itmaybeaskedhowisshepositioningherself.Firstly,

theadvertisementwouldhavetomakemanifesttoheritsownrelevance;ifit

wereunabletodoso,thenitmaybelogicallyassumedthatitwouldbe

disregarded.Incaseswhereafemalereader’sattentioniscapturedbeyond

merecuriosity,shemayconsiderbuyingtherazorforaparticularman,suchasa

partner,adultsonorelderlymalerelative.Theadvertisementservesasa

32TheuseofpronounsinadvertisingisdiscussedfurtherinSubchapter3.5below.

79

reminderofaneedforaproductofthistype,orconveyerofinformationabout

suchaproduct,butitisnotaddressingherasitwouldapotentialconsumerand

sothemechanismbywhichtheadvertisementworksisonlypartiallyactivated.

Whereanadvertisementisclearlyandspecificallydirectedatamalereader,itis

difficulttomaintainthatawomanreaderispositionedinanyrolethatbears

similaritiestothatofaliterarytext.

Myers(1994)claimsthatthewaypeopledefinethemselvesasbeinglikeother

people,andyetretainingdistinctivenessandindividuality,operatesdifferently

inadvertising,dependinguponthegenderoftheaudience.Heexemplifiesthis

withoneadvertisementforanoff-roadcarinwhichamandressedasa

successfulexecutivesays:

“It’sNotEveryone’sChoiceofCompanyCarButIt’sMine.”[p.84].

Hearguesthisisaimedatmen,andsuggeststhatthereadermaytakethemanto

beacityexecutive,perhapswithahomeinthecountrysidewheresuchavehicle

mightbenecessary.Itisnotclearwhyheregardsthisasbeingtiedtogender,as

afemaleexecutivemightalsohaveadesireorneedforsuchavehicle.

AcontrastisprovidedintheformofanotheradvertisementMyers(1994)cites,

thistimeforChampionathleticclothing.Itshowsapassiveyoungman,witha

womanperchedonasofaanddressedinsportsclothing.Themaleisapparently

contemplatingherrunningshoesandthecaptionreads:“He’smycomfort,my

inspiration,mylife.ButIamcaptainofmysoul”(p.84).Thisisaimedatwomen,

andMyersinvitesthereadertoimagineareversalofthesexesofthosedepicted

inthisadvertisement.Hedeliberatesuponhowtheresponseoftheviewer

mightdifferifmanweretoclaimthat,forexample,hisrunningshortsallowed

himtobecaptainofhissoul.Whileclaimingthisasevidenceofthegender

specificnatureofthepositionstheadvertisementoffersthereader,hedoesnot

elaborateuponwhythereversalwouldbehardertoconceive.

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BothMyers(1994)andCook(2001)considertheemploymentofpronouns,

especiallybutnotexclusivelyinquestionsandimperativestructuresin

advertisements,andtheseareconsideredinturn.Myers(1994)explainshow

theuseandselectionofpronounsinaddressingreceiversforcesthemto

constructboththepersonandtheimaginedaddressee,andalsotoforma

mentalimpressionofthesocialworldthatthatpersoninhabits(pp.78-79).In

doingso,theaudienceisimplicitlyinvitedtostepintothepositionconstructed

forthembytheadvertisement33.Theadvantagesofsecondpersonpronounsare

thattheyaddressthereaderinapersonalwaythatcorrespondstonormal

humaninteraction,whilenotspecifyingwhomtheparticularreceiveris.

However,Myers(1994)contraststwodifferenteffectsthatcanbegeneratedby

theuseofyoubytwocaptionsquotedfromwarposters:“Daddy,whatdidyoudo

intheGreatWar?”(Appendix4:image9)and“IWANTYOUFORTHEU.S.ARMY”

(Appendix4:image10).Inthefirst,thecaptionsitsbelowapostershowinga

pensive-lookingmanseatedinanarmchairwithalittlegirlperchedonhislap

andalittleboyplayingcloseby.Myersproposesthattheimplicaturerecovered

whenviewingthisimageisthatitallowsareader:

“toseehimself(anditmustbehimself)inthisposition,notasamale

ofdraftableagebutasafatherofthefuture.Hejoins,notbecausehis

countrytellshimto,butbecauseofthethreatofaveryprivateshame.”

(p.80)

Toadoptthissubjectposition,somedegreeofempatheticidentificationmust

takeplaceandtherebytheadvertisementachievesitspurpose.However,the

advertisementwillclearlybeviewedbythosetowardswhomitisnotdirected,

includingthosenotoftherequisiteage,sex,stateofhealthandcitizenship,and

33Myers(1994)developsapointhereabouthowthisstrategycanbeusedtocarryassumptions,e.g.onaspectsrelatedtogender,classandnation.

81

alsotothosewhoarealreadyservinginthemilitary.Inorderfortheintended

viewerstoengagewiththeadvertisement,theywouldhavetoimaginea

situationseveralyearsinthefutureandtoidentifytheirfutureselveswiththe

mandepicted.Theymayaskthemselveshowtheirself-imageandtherespectof

theirlovedoneswouldbeimpactedbythefacttheyfailedtorespondwhentheir

countryneededthem34.Thesecondshowsanillustrationofastern-looking

American‘UncleSam’caricaturelookingandpointingdirectlyatthereaderand

thetextiscapitalisedforemphasis.Itcanbeassumedthatsomedegreeof

processingoccurssothereaderrecogniseseitherthattheybelong,ortheydo

notbelong,totheapplicablegroup.Toachievethisrecognition,theviewer

wouldhavetorelyuponexisting(i.e.encyclopaedic)knowledgeresources.In

thiscase,havingregardtotheparticulartimeinhistory,itwouldbeunderstood

thattheUSArmywaslookingtorecruitphysicallyableyoungmentofightina

warandthefictionalcharacterUncleSam,thequintessenceofAmericanidentity

andpatriotism,wasappealingtothemtorecognisethisandtovolunteer.Ifa

viewerdoesfitthisprofile,thentheadvertisementisaddressingthemdirectly

andthemainintentionoftheadvertisementhasthepossibilityofbeingfulfilled.

Wheretheviewerdoesnotfittheprofile,thenunderstandingisstilllikelytobe

achievedasthesameencyclopaedicknowledgeresourcesareavailabletothem,

too,buttheresponseislikelytodiffer,astheyknowtheyareineligibleto

volunteer.Theyarenot,asinthefirstexample,confrontedbyahypothetical

futureeventintheformofaquestionbeingposedbyachildwhohasnotyet

evenbeenconceived.

Fairclough(2001)discussesaphenomenonhecalls“syntheticpersonalisation”,

whichhedefinesas“acompensatorytendencytogivetheimpressionoftreating

eachofthepeople‘handled’enmasseasanindividual”(p.52).Helaterexplains

how“you”iswidelyusedinmasscommunicationasanindefinitepronoun,

34Thetacticofpointingouttheriskofshametoyoungmenasameansofencouragingthemintomilitaryservicewasfarfromnewevenwhenthisposterwasdesigned.Itisperhapsreminiscentofthewordsfromawell-knownShakespeare’splay,KingHenryV:AndgentlemeninEngland,nowa-bed,Shallthinkthemselvesaccursedtheywerenothere,Andholdtheirmanhoodscheap

whilesanyspeaks,ThatfoughtwithusuponSaintCrispin'sday.

82

wheretheidentitiesoftheaddresseesareunknown,andhecitesanexampleof

thewordingfromaBachelor’ssoupadvertisement:“Thecreamofthecrop,

whereveryoushop”(p.107).Heclaimsthisuseofthepronounsimulatesa

personaladdressandthisishelpfulinavoidingimpersonality.SomeGermanic

languages,suchasDutch,SwedishandDanishareunabletouse“you”as

indefinitepronounsinthiswayastheyarealwayspersonalpronounsandused

torefertospecificindividuals.Consequently,theygenerallychoosethe

impersonalmen/man/mandrespectively,whichapproximatestotheEnglish

indefinitepronoun“one”inconversationalandformalsituations,althoughthe

intimatepersonalpronoun“du”seemstobethepreferredchoiceinadvertising.

Similarly,inEnglishadvertisingtexts,using“one”inthiswaywouldbeunusual.

AsFairclough(2000)pointsout:

“Firstly,oneunderminesthemeaningof‘peopleingeneral’because

peopleingeneraldon’tusetheword–itis,roughly,amiddle-class

pronoun;itisthereforedifficulttomakeaneffectiveclaimto‘ordinary

people’aboutthecommonexperienceor‘ordinary’peopleusingone.You,

ontheotherhand,isusedtoregistersolidarityandcommonalityof

experienceinworking-classspeech.”[p.149]

Withregardtoweandour,Englishspeakersaregenerallyconsciousofthefact

thatthepluralfirstpersonpronounrefersbothinclusivelyandexclusively,and

thisismentionedbyMyers(1994:p.81).Thus,thewepronouncan

demonstrateanadvertiser’sempathyandsolidaritywiththereader,asin:“We

areconstantlybeingattacked”.Thecontextindicatesthattheagentattackingthe

inclusiveusisgerms.Fairclough(1989)noteshowthispronounisusedby

newspapersandcitesaheadlineintheDailyMailon4thMay1987inaneditorial

duringtheFalklandsWarwhichbegan:“Wecannotletourtroopslosetheir

edge…”(p.127).Hepointsoutthateditorialsoftenusetheinclusivewe,as

thoughtheywerespeakingfortheirreadersandallsupposedlyright-minded

Britishcitizens(p.128).Myers(1994)notesthatthefirstpersonpronounisalso

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usedasawayofreferringtotheadvertiserspecifically,asin:“AtMcDonald’s,we

doitallforyou.”(p.82).Thefirstpersonsingularinadvertisingcaptionscan

refertowhatMyerscallsthe“salespeople”(ibid),bywhichheappearstomeana

realorconstructedentitypicturedormentionedintheadvertisement.Hecites

asanexampleShariBelafonte,anactresswhowascommissionedtoactasa

spokespersonduringthe1990sforthedietsupplementSlim-Fast,andisshown

inaTVcommercialsaying:“IfIcandoit,trustme,youcan”(Myers,1994:p.83).

Myers(1994)finallyconsidersthirdpersonpronounsandviewstheseas

referringtopeoplealreadymentionedorvisuallydepictedintheadvertisement

or“takenforgrantedaspartofthereader’slife”(p.85).Amongtheexamples

MyersoffersisonedirectedatparentsfromtheDepartmentforEducation

bearinganimageorimagesofauniformedschoolgirl’slegs.Thegirlhasone

kneesockfittingproperlyandtheotherslidingdown,withthecaption:“The

sooneryoucanspotwhereshe’sfallingdown,thesooneryoucanlendahand”

(ibid).Assumingallthemetaphorsinthissentenceareinterpretable,itcanbe

seenthatitcontainsanassumptionthatyou(thereader)hasaschool-agechild

and,ifso,thatchildisthereferentforthepronounsheanditisalsoimplicitthat

youwouldwishtoassistthatchild.Myers(1994)arguesthat,unlikewiththe

firstpersonpronoun,thegenderaspectisnotofprimaryinteresttothe

advertiserand,onthatbasis,areadercouldjustaseasilypositionhim/herselfas

theparentofaboyinthesamesituation.

Myers(1994)makeslittlementionofpragmatictheoriesinhisentirework,and

doesnotappeartobeapplyinganyofthesewithinhisanalyses.Withregardto

theuseofpronounsandhowreadersunderstandandrelatetothem,itmaybe

consideredthat,inneglectingthesetheories,hepaysinsufficientattentiontothe

waythatthecontextisgeneratedthroughimplicature.Inthecaseofpersonal

pronouns,theidentificationofreferentsisonlypossiblethroughsuch

implicature,ascanbeseeninthelasttwoexamples:

“IfIcandoit,trustme,youcan”

84

“Thesooneryoucanspotwhereshe’sfallingdown,thesooneryoucanlend

ahand.”

WhileMyers(1994)notesthattheseadvertisementsareassociatedwithimages,

hedoesnotexplaintheprocessbywhichthereaderisexpectedtousethesein

identifyingtheirreferents.Additionally,hedoesnottakeintoaccountthe

advertisers’dependenceonaviewer’sfamiliaritywiththegenreofadvertising

inordertoachievethedesiredunderstanding.Forexample,theword“I”inan

advertisementcouldconceivablyrefertoanynumberofpossibleentities,

includingthereader,theownerofthecompanymarketingtheproduct,the

editorofthepublicationinwhichtheadvertisementappearsorsomeoneelse

entirely.Thegeneralfamiliaritywithadvertisingensuresthatreferentsofsuch

asnon-specificnouns,pronounsanddeterminers,areidentifiedasindended.A

foregrounded“I”pronoun,whichisaccompaniedbyanimageofahumanbeing,

isreadilyundersoodasapersonaladdressbytheindividualdepictedtothe

reader.Inthecaseof:“IfIcandoit,trustme,youcan”thereferentof“I”is

understoodtobethepersonintheimage,inthiscaseShariBelafonte,andthe

“you”entityisthereader.

SperberandWilson(1995)proposethatreceivershaveatendencytopickout

themostrelevantstimuliinthecognitiveenvironmentandprocessthemsoasto

maximisetheirrelevance,andthatthisenvironmentconsistsofthosefacts

whicharemademanifest35.Whenattemptingtounderstandtheprocessby

whichareaderassignsreferentstopronounsinadvertisements,itwouldseem

logicaltoapplythisprinciplebyidentifyingthecognitiveenvironmentinwhich

theyappear.Thisenvironmentcomprisesthegenre,thespecifictext,any

associatedcotextsandalsothenon-verbalcomponentsoftheadvertisements–

thesebeingthefactsthatarebeingmademanifest.Similarly,readersarelikely

tohavefamiliaritybothwiththekindofproductsbeingmarketed,oftenthe

specificbrandsthemselves,andalsothenatureandcommonlyusedstrategiesof

35ThisisexplainedinfurtherdetailinthisSubchapterbelow.

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advertising,andthismustsurelyberegardedaspartofencyclopaedic

knowledge.Asaconsequence,thecombinationoftheenvironmentalfeatures

andencyclopaedicknowledgedescribedenablesthereadertoenrichthetext

mentallyandtherebyrecoversufficientcluessothattheintendedreferentsof

anypronounswouldbecomemanifesttothem.

Cook(2001)alsoconsiderstheuseofpronounsinadvertising.Theexpressions

hementionsarepersonal,possessiveandreflexivepronouns,andheexplores

thewaysthatadvertisersusethese,themeaningsattachedtothemandthe

intendedeffects.AswithMyers(1994),Cook(2001)arguesthatfirstperson

pronounsencouragethereader,havingcalculatedtheimplicature,toidentify

withthecharacterdepictedintheadvertisement;thatcharactermayormaynot

berepresentedbyaphotographorgraphicwhichaccompaniesthetext.His

exampleisanadvertisementforthePhilipscordlessphone(pp.160–161),

whichhasthephotographofaconventionallyattractiveandelegantlydressed

youngwomanintheforegroundalongwiththecaption:“Suddenly,everything

seemssomuchclearer”(p.160).Thesmallertextatthebottomofthepage

consistsofafullparagraphoftextandbeginswiththefirstpersonsingular

pronoun:“IunderstandthatthePhilipsOnis2rangeofcordlesstelephones…”

(ibid).Thepronounusedinthisadvertisementrequiresthereadertodetermine

thereferentorreferentsimpliedbyitandonewaythisisachievedisby

consideringdeicticprojection,whichoccursconversationally,andsomayalso

bepossibleinnon-personal,writtentexts.Theterm“deicticprojection”iscoined

byLyons(1977a)todescribeasituationinwhichaspeakerisenabled“to

projecthimselfintoadeicticcontextcentredontheaddressee”(p.579).Levinson

(1983)expandsthisnotionbydescribinghow“deicticexpressionsareusedin

waysthatshiftthisdeicticcentretootherparticipants,orindeedtoprotagonistsin

narratives"(p.64).Thereferentofthepronounintheadvertisementcitedcan

beassumedtobethecharacterinthephotograph,butareaderisthenableto

projectthatdeicticidentitytothemselves,ortotogglebetweentheidentities

mentally.Cook(2001)proposesthatadvertisementsexploitthehuman

experienceofprojectionoftheselfinothergenres,suchassongsandliterature

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andthattheyemploystrategiestopersuadeusingdirectaddressesand

expressinginterestinthemostintimateconcernsofconsumers.

Intermsofsecondandthirdpersonpronounuse,Cook(2001)reproducesan

advertisementforClearasilfacewash.Itshowsaphotographofaconventionally

goodlookingandmuscularyoungmanandthecaptionsatthetopandbottomof

theimageread,“youridealman”and“youridealfacewash”(p.162).Cook

informsthereaderthatthisadvertisementappearsinamagazineaimedat

teenagegirlsand,ifaworkingassumptionismadethattheyconsist

predominantlyofheterosexualgirls,thenthistimethesecondpersonpronoun

usesuggeststhatthereaderdoesnotidentifywiththecharacterdepicted.The

idealmanofthereadercanbeassumedtobethepersonainthemindofthe

readerasprojectedintoitbytheimage.Cookpointsoutthatthereaderarrives

atanunderstandingastowhomtheaddresseeisbecausetheyoungman“would

notbesovainastodescribehimselfas‘theidealman’,surely”[p.163].

Onthisoccasion,thereader,whoisassumedtobeamemberoftheoppositesex

fromthemodelshown,isnot“I”,but“you”,andthisisreinforcedbysmallertext

atthebottomoftheadvertisement:“Ourmicrobeadswillgentlyexfoliateyour

skin,whileyou’llbeleftfeelingfreshandclean”(Cook,2001:p.162).Inaddition,

ateachsideofthemodelsitsfurthercaptions,andthesesay:“Gentlesoftonthe

skinlikehiskiss”and“Power,toughonspots,likehisarms”(ibid).Thereferent

thirdpersonpronounhere,“his”,maybeassignedbothto“youridealman”

and/orthecharacterdepictedinthephotograph.

3.5OSTENSIVEINFERENTIALANDCOVERTCOMMUNICATION

Thebasicaspectsoftheprincipleofrelevancehavebeenexplainedin

Subchapter3.3,aboveandthissubchapterconsiderstwofurtheraspects,

namelyostensiveinferentialandcovertcommunication.AccordingtoSperber

andWilson(1995),ostensivecommunicationoccurswherethereisanutterance

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which“providesevidenceofone’sthoughts”(p.50)andWilsonandSperber

(2012)claimthatsuchanutterance:“conveysapresumptionofitsownoptimal

relevance”(p.65).Othercontextualelementsmustbeidentifiedandprocessedif

therelevanceistoberecognisedandrecovered.Typicalamongthesenon-

linguisticstimuliarefoodandsex.SperberandWilson(1995)claimtheseare:

“…probablyinnatelydetermined:forinstance,theautomaticattentionpaid

toallsuddenloudnoises…(andare)presumablyanoutcomeofnatural

selection.Othertypesofphenomenapre-emptattentionasaresultofsome

formoflearning.”(pp.151-152)

Theysupplyexamplesofsuchstimuli:

“Thecryingofaparticularbaby,evenifbarelyaudible,pre-emptsthe

attentionoftheparents.Asmellofgaspre-emptstheattentionofgas

users.”[p.152]

Ostensionintermsofintentionalcommunication,suchasdeliberategestures

andspeech,mostlyrequiresthattheintentionofthespeakerismanifesttothe

receiverifthedesiredinterpretationofthemessageistoberecoveredinfull

(SperberandWilson,1995).Thisoperatesintandemwiththeknowledgethat

humanbeingsmaximisetheircognitiveefficiencybyapplyingamentaldevice

thatautomaticallypre-emptsattentiontowardsstimuliwhicharelikelytobe

relevantandfiltersoutthosewhicharenot.Thestimuluswhichisthemost

relevantisthatwhichprovidesthefirstaccessibleinterpretation(ibid).

Intermsofadvertising,Tanaka(1994)suggeststhatreceiversgainpleasure

fromprocessingcertainstimuliandthatadvertisersexploitthisbyincluding

visualimages,oftenoneswhichhavenoobviousconnectiontothecoremessage,

inorderto“reward”(p.36)theirprocessingeffort.Shepointstoafurther

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situationwherecovertcommunicationisappropriateforsocialsituationsand

howthisrelatestoadvertising.Thereareoccasionswhenaspeakermakesclear

thataninformativeintentionmayfrustrateitsobjectiveratherthanaidits

fulfillment;theexampleshecitesisself-praise,asthiswillmoreprobably

conveyanegativeimpressionofthespeaker.Similarly,shemaintainsthat

advertisersareunlikelytoverbalisethatthepurposeofanadvertisementisto

maximisesales.Rather,theyusecovertcommunicationstrategiesby,ontheone

hand,obscuringthepurposeoftheadvertisementsothatitsmainfunction,

sellingsomething,isnotattheforefrontofthereader’smindwhenviewingit.

Thiscanbedone,sheclaims,throughemulatingthehousestyleofthe

publicationinwhichitisprinted,andtoachievethis,theadvertiseravoids

makingtheidentityofthespeakermutuallymanifest.Secondly,covert

communicationisused:“toavoidtakingresponsibilityforthesocialconsequences

ofcertainimplicationsarisingfromadvertisements”(p.44)andthatthismay

applywhere,forexample,advertisersseektoincludesubliminalaspectsof

sexuality.Tanaka(1994)distinguishescovertcommunicationwithin

advertisingfromostensivecommunication,wheretheintentionofthespeakeris

toalterthemutualcognitiveenvironmentofbothoftheinterlocutors.With

covertcommunication,thespeakerseeksonlytoalterthecognitive

environmentofthehearerandwithoutmakingthisintentionmutuallymanifest.

Tanaka(1994)claimsthisisthemainstrategyemployedbyadvertisers,andshe

beginsbyreflectinguponthepurposeandcharacterofadvertisingandtakesa

rathernarrowviewthat

“theadvertiserdoesnotinformforthesakeofimprovingthe

addressee’sknowledgeoftheworld,butonlytosellaproduct”(p.36).

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Sheemphasisesthispoint,claimingtheadvertiserwouldbecontentevenifthis

meantimpartingnoknowledgeatall,solongasthepurpose,namelysellingthe

product,weretobeaccomplished36.

Thekindofcovertcommunicationdescribedmaybeespeciallyeffectivein

advertisementsforgoodswhichaimtoconveyexclusivity.Advertisementsfor

thehigherendoftheperfumemarketmaycomprisesimplyaphotographofa

conventionallybeautifulwomanandthebrandname,butwithnoother

linguisticelement.Insuchacase,thereaderislefttospeculateontheintention

oftheadvertisement,andthiswilllikelybebasedontheirpreviousexperience

oftheadvertisinggenreandtheirawarenessofthestrategiesofmarketeers.

Covertcommunicationcanalsobeachievedwheretherearewordspresent,but

theydonotyieldenoughintermsoftheirsemanticpropertiesfortheintention

ofthecommunicationtobemademanifesttothereceiver,suchaswherethey

arecrypticinsomeway.ExamplesofthismightincludetheAudislogan

VorsprungdurchTechnik,mentionedbyPettyetal(2010:p.482)andshown

usedinanadvertisementinAppendix4:image11,andwhichisaGerman

phrasewhichtranslatesas“progressthroughtechnology”.Thissloganwasused

intheUnitedKingdominspiteofthefactthatGermanisnotwidelyunderstood,

buttheuseofanincomprehensiblestraplinethatwouldberecognizedas

German,andcontainedaGerman/Englishcognate“technic”,helpedtogenerate

animpressionthatthecarswereproductsmanufacturedaccordingtothehighly

respectedGermanengineeringstandards.

36Whilethismaybetrueinmanycases,itcanbearguedthisdoesnotofferafullycompleteand

satisfactorypicture.AsoutlinedinChapters1,2and7,advertisinghasamuchmore

sophisticatedpurposeinthemodernerathanmerelypersuadingpotentialcustomerstobuy

specificitems,focusinginsteadonbrandimage.Thismayhaveoccurredforanumberofreasons.

Firstly,theadvancementoftechnologyinmanufacturing,especiallyindevelopingcountries,has

resultedinincreasedproductionandlowerprices,andconsumersenjoyfargreaterchoicethan

wasavailablepreviously.Alongwiththis,inspiteofintermittenteconomicdownturns,

westernersmaybegrowingwealthierandarethusabletochoosetheproductstheypreferand

arelessconstrainedbywhattheycanafford.Brandthenbecomesassociatedwithconceptsof

imageandstatus,withsocietymovingtoasituationinwhichpersonalidentitiesare,toagreaterorlesserextent,createdandreinforcedbywhatisconsumed.

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SperberandWilson(1995)illustratehowahearer’srecognitionofaspeaker’s

intentionmayinfluencewhatthatheareractuallybelievesandthatthemereact

ofexpressingsomethingrevealstheintention.Theyexemplifythiswithaprison

warderwho,bymerelynotifyingtheinmatesofhisintentiontomakethemfear

himwill,withoutfurtherutterancesoractions,makethemfearhimandanactof

ostensivecommunicationhastherebyoccurred.Ahearerwhotruststhata

speaker’sutteranceissinceremayaidthisprocessevenwhere,asinthe

example,thetrustisnegativeincharacter:itisnotessentialtoinstillbelief,but

ratheritissimplypartofthegeneralcontext.Covertcommunication,onthe

otherhand,seekstoconcealtheintentionofaspeaker(ibid).Asstated,an

advertiserwillnormallyhaveanobjectivewhichrelateseithertoadesirebya

tradertoincreasesalesofaspecificproduct,orelsetoraisetheprofileofa

brand,butrarelyisthisexpresslystated.

Tanaka(1994)claimsthataninformativeintentioninadvertisingtendstobe

covertastheadvertiserseeksto“maketheaddresseeforgetthatheistryingto

sellhersomething”(p.43).Thisclaimis,however,debateable.Itseemsunlikely

thatanadvertiserwouldhaveintheforefrontofhismindwhendesigninga

commercialthathemustmakethereaderorviewerforgethistrueintention.

Evenifthiswerehisintention,itmaybereasonablyassumedthatthe

overwhelmingmajorityofthoseencounteringtheadvertisementwouldhave

instantlyrecognizeditassuchbyvirtueofitslocation,formandfeatures,and

thepresenceofimagesofproducts,brandnamesandtrademarksinprominent

positions.Further,thereadingandviewingpublicarelikelytobesofamiliar

withthegenrethattheprimarypurposeoftheadvertisementoccupiesaplacein

theirmindsforthedurationoftheirengagementwithit.Havingrecognizedan

advertisementforwhatitis,somelevelofskepticismorresistanceisthereby

activatedautomaticallyinthemindofthereceiverasitwouldwhenotherkinds

ofcommunicativeintentionareperceivedtobemotivatedbypecuniaryinterest.

Inspiteofthis,advertisershavetooperateontheassumptionthatreadersand

viewersdo,nevertheless,engagewiththeirworkotherwiseproducing

advertisementswouldbefutile.Ablanketassertionthateverycommercialis

motivatedwhollyandexclusivelybyanaimtomaximizetheprofitsoftheclient

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companywouldconstituteanoversimplification.Whenaworkofartsuchasa

sculptureormusicalcompositionisexperienced,itisentirelypossiblethatthe

workinquestionwasoriginallycommissionedbyanindividualororganisation

for,forexample,thepurposesofenhancingtheirprestige,orforpolitical

reasons.Wherethisisthecase,itwouldnotusuallyinspireresistanceinterms

ofengagingwithorenjoyingtheartwork,norwoulditgenerallybeseenas

detractingfromitsartisticmerits.Onthatbasis,whenTanaka(1994)proposes

thattheadvertiserissimplytryingtosellsomethingandsothecommunicative

intentioniscovert,thiscouldbesaidtobelikeningittoaconjurerusing

misdirectionratherthanaskilledartistworkinginacommercialfield,butstill

producingsomethingwhichhasaestheticvalue.

3.6LOOSETALKANDMETAPHORS

Thissubchapterdescribesthephenomenonof“loosetalk”(Sperber&Wilson,

1995:pp.233-237),andtheassociatedconceptof“looseunderstanding”(ibid),

althoughitisnotablethatWilsonandSperber(2012:p.19)andClark(2013:p.

205)appeartohavereplacedbothtermswithasingleexpression,“looseuse”.A

similarconceptdescribedbyLakoff(1975)concernedthemeaningboundaries

ofindividualwords,andwherethemeaninghadsomedegreeoffuzzinessor

impreciseness.Thisphenomenonisknowninlegalarguments,suchaswherea

residentonanopen-planhousingdevelopmentplantsrowofshrubswhilehis

neighbourallegesitconstitutesahedgeandthereforetheresidentinquestion

shouldhavesoughtpermissionbeforeplantingthem.Lawsdesignedtoprotect

childrenmustdefinetermssuchas“child”and“guardian”,otherwisethedegree

offuzzinessofmeaningcanleadtouncertainty.Fuzzinesscanoccurinsemantic

phenomenasuchascolours,e.g.whetheraparticularshadeisblueorgreen,or

orangeorbrown,andsoforth.Thiscanbecontrastedwithexamplesinwhich

worddefinitionsaredeterminedbyvirtueofspecificsemanticpropertiesthat

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mustbepresentforthewordtobeapplicable,andanexampleofthismightbe

theword“mare”,wherethereferentmustbebothequineandfemaletoqualify

assuch.SperberandWilson(1995)pointtotheconceptofprototypesinwhich:

“themeaningofawordisdeterminednotbyasetoflogical

properties,butbyamentalmodelofthethingthewordisusedto

referto37.”(p.91)

Therearelimitstotheextenttowhichwordscanbestretchedandthatthe

degreeofextensionpermissibleisdependentupontheconcept/sassociated

withit.Theterm“child”,forinstance,couldbeappliedtoa17-year-old,butitis

hardtoimagineiteverbeingsaidofa30-year-old,otherthanfiguratively.

Conceptsarepsychologicalobjectsandaregenerallyconsideredtobeabstract

ratherthanconcretephenomena,andSperberandWilson(1995)proposethat

theseexistinthreedistincttypes.Thefirstoftheseislogical,meaningthat

whichisdeduciblethroughtheapplicationofasetoflogicalrules.Thesecondis

encyclopaedic,whichisinformationstoredinthemindabouttheconceptin

termsofitsoriginsandassociations,andthatgivesrisetoasetofassumptions.

Thedistinctionsbetweenlogicalandencyclopaedicconceptsaregenerallyclear:

“Encyclopaedicassumptionsvaryacrossspeakersandtimes…Logical

entries,bycontrast,aresmall,finiteandrelativelyconstantacross

speakersandtimes“(p.88)

Thelasttypeofconceptisthelexicalentrythat:“containsinformationaboutthe

natural-languagelexicalitemusedtoexpressit”(p.90).Withregardto

37Asimilaritymaybenotedherebetweenthisdescriptionofaprototype,andSaussure’sideaofa”signified”inthatbotharementalrepresentations.

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advertising,Tanaka(1994)considersthatcharacteristicssuchasintelligence

andindividualismmayberegardedasfuzzyorimpreciseconcepts,andshe

contraststhesenotions,andthewaysinwhichthemeaningsareextended,and

offersexamplesfromJapaneseadvertisements.

Metaphorshave,accordingtoKirby(1997),beenasubjectofcuriosityand

examinationsincethetimeofAristotle,andtheirpurposeistoconveyathought

throughanalogy.LakoffandJohnson(1980)pointoutthatmetaphorsarenot

merelydevicestocreatepoeticorrhetoricalflourishes,butarepervasivein

everydaylife.Theyviewmetaphorsasprimarilymentalphenomena,enabling

languageuserstothinkintermsofabstractconceptsbyrelatingthemtothe

physicalworldandcreateandtovisualisemodelsthroughwhichtheycan

reason.Theabilitytocreateandinterpretmetaphorsalsomakesitpossibleto

relayeventhemostabstractthoughtstootherswithgreatprecisionand

economyofwords.

Myers(1994:pp.122–134)describestheuseofmetaphorinadvertisingand

beginsbyexplainingwhatmetaphorsare,andhowtheycarryrisksthatcertain

parallelscouldberecoveredthatwereneverintended.Hemaintainsthat

metaphorisatypeoffigurativelanguageandearlierstudiesofitweregenerally

confinedtopoetryandrhetoric.Morerecently,however,therehasbeena

greaterawarenessoftheextentanduseofmetaphorineverydayconversations

andtexts,andMyersillustratesthiswithaparagraphinanadvertisement

publishedinamagazineaimedattheadvertisingindustryitselfandwhichis

repletewithmetaphors.Hefurtherproposesthatadvertisements“neverreally

die”(p.125)andthatthey“canbringthedeadestofmetaphorsbacktolifeinthe

rightcircumstances”(ibid).Heoffersexamplesfromtheadvertisingworldof

metaphors,similes,synecdocheandmetonymy,andexplainsthedifferences

betweenthesedevicesandhowtheyareusedwithinthegenre.Similesarenot,

accordingtoMyers(1994),oftenthepreferreddeviceinadvertisingastheydo

notimposeaprocessingdemandontheaudiencetomakethedesired

connection,orelsetheyaretoohesitantintheirclaims.Citingthecaptioninan

advertisementforMillerbeer,Miller:TheChampagneofBottledBeers(ascanbe

seeninAppendix4:image12),Myersinvitesthereadertoconsiderwhatmight

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beregardedasaratherfeeblealternativewithasimile:Millerbeerislike

champagne.(p.127).Inthiscase,themetaphoroperatesnotbylikeningthe

tasteofthebeertochampagne,butbyimplicatingthatMillerbeeristoother

beerswhatchampagneistootherwines.Anassociationwhichisprobablyless

desiredwouldbetherelativecostofchampagnecomparedtoordinarywines.

Myers(1994)suggeststhatonereasonmetonymsareusefulincertaintypesof

advertisementsisthat,whereasmetaphorsareforegroundedandrequire

mentalprocessingtorecovertheparallelbetweenthetargetandsource,

metonyms,especiallyvisualmetonyms,areusedinadvertisementstoportray

suchassociationsasbeingnatural.Theexamplehegivesofthisisan

advertisementforalessexpensivebrandofwhiskyanditconsistsofa

photographofaringmarkmadebyaglassonatablenapkin.Hesuggeststhere

isaparallelbetweentheconceptsofimpression,intermsbothofthemarkofthe

glassandthatofpersonality,andpointstotheparadoxthathigherstatus

consumershavenothingtoprove:thosewhoaresuccessful“neednotprojectan

imagethroughconsumerchoices”(p.128).

LakoffandJohnson(1980)categorizemetaphorsasbeingstructural,

orientationalorontological.Structuralmetaphorsoccurwhere“oneconceptis

metaphoricallystructuredintermsofanother”(p.14)aswhenargumentis

correlatedwithwar:“Heshotdownallmyarguments”(p.4).Orientational

metaphorsorientabstractconceptswithspatialpositionordirection.The

notion,forexample,thatthehappyemotionis“up”whileunhappinessis“down”

canbeseeninexpressionslike“perkedup”and“feelinglow”.Ontological

metaphors,ontheotherhand,provideameansofrelatingabstractexperiences

intermsofobjectsandsubstances,asin:“Inflationisbackingusintoacorner”(p.

26).

Griceviewsmetaphorsasconstitutingnon-conformitytothetruthmaximinthat

thepropositionexpressedbyaspeakerisnotidenticaltohisbelief.Thespeaker

insteadreliesuponthehearertorecognisethemetaphorforwhatitisandthen

torecoverthemeaningfromcontext.Aweaknessofthisviewisthatit

envisagesthehearerrecoveringtheone,specificandintendedmeaningwhere

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therearelikelytobeothermetaphoricalmeaningsavailable;theremayalsobea

literalmeaningavailable,too.Anexamplemaybethatofmotherofachildtelling

thechild’sfather:“Thomasisgettingtoobigforhisboots”,whichrelatetothe

child’sattitude,orthatheisgrowingoutofhisfootwear.Contextmaybe

evidenttothehearerwhichresolvestheuncertaintyofinterpretation,andthat

mightconsistofpreviousconversationsaboutthechild’sclothingneeds,orit

mayfollowonfromanincidentinwhichthechildexhibitedinsolence,butitis

entirelypossiblethatnosuchcontextualelementsarepresentatthetime,or

shortlybefore,theutteranceismade.ApplyingGrice'sapproach,themother

wouldfloutingthequalitymaximifshewereusingtheexpression

metaphoricallybut,evenifthispremiseisaccepted,thecooperativeprinciple

appearstofallshortintermsofsatisfactorilyaccountingfortherecoveryofthe

intendedmeaningorthetrueintentionofthespeaker.SperberandWilson’s

(1995)principleofrelevance,asdescribedinSubchapters3.3and3.5above,

mayprovideamorecompleteframeworkforestablishingspeakermeaning.For

relevancetheorists,metaphorsarelikelooseuseandhyperboleinasmuchas

theyprovideothermeansbywhichoptimalrelevanceisachievedand,assuch,

theydonotstandapartfromthenon-metaphoricalutterancesaroundthem.

Levinson(1983)pointstootherproblemswithGrice’sclaimthatmetaphors

constituteafloutingofthemaximofqualityandthatthisisinvariablythe

processbywhichtheimplicaturesarecalculated.Ametaphorcanbeboth

literallytrueandmetaphoricalatthesametime,offeringtheexampleof:“Freud

livedhere”.(p.157).ThisutterancecanbetakentomeanthatFreudinhabited

theplacereferredtobythepronoun,orelseFreud’stheorieswerekeptalive

afterhisdeathinthatplace,orbothsimultaneously.Anotherproblemoccurs

wherethemetaphorismanifestlytrue,suchaswhenitisusedasanegationofa

proposition,andPilkington(2000)exemplifiesthiswith:“Nomanisanisland”

(p.86).Thepropositionsmetaphorsexpressareobviouslynotidenticaltotheir

literalmeaningandsomedegreeofinferencingmaybeneededinorderto

recognizetheparallelsandrecovertheirintendedmeaning.Thisisespecially

thecasewheremetaphorsareoriginalorpoetic.Deadmetaphors,i.e.thoseso

firmlyestablishedbyfrequencyofuse,maybedecodedinasimilarwaytothe

ordinarydecodingofliteralexpressions.Byvirtueoftheirvariednatureand

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potentialforuncertainty,andthefactthattheexactcontentsofimplicaturesare

notfullydeterminedbytheutterancesinwhichtheyarepresent,theymaybe

regardedasanothertypeofloosetalk,asdiscussedabove.SperberandWilson

(1995)describehowmetaphorsoperatewithinarange,fromthemost

standardisedatoneendtothemorecreativeonesattheoppositeend.They

suggesttheutterance“thisroomisapigsty”(p.236)exemplifiesonewhichis

standardisedasitisrecognisedthatapigstyistheculturalstereotypeofaplace

whichisfilthyanduntidyandsoprovidesthehearerwithastrongimplicature.

However,asPilkington(2000:p.93)pointsoutwithasimilarexample,the

utterancewillactivateinthehearercertainassumptionsaboutpigstiesthatare

storedasencyclopaedicentries,butnotothers.Inthecaseofabedroom,the

generaluntidiness,perhapswithitemsofclothingstrewnacrossthefloor,would

beimplicated,eventhoughoneisunlikelytofindsuchasituationinarealpigsty.

SperberandWilson(1995)offeramorecreativeexamplewith:“Robertisa

bulldozer”(p.236).This,theymaintain,offersawiderrangeofpossible

contextualimplications,althoughthefavouredoneislikelytorelatetoRobert’s

persistence,obstinacy,insensitivityandunwillingnesstobedeflectedrather

thanthatheismadeofmetalorthathemoveslargequantitiesofearthand

rocksaround.Atthefarthestendofthescale,theycitearemarkmadeaboutthe

poetLecontedeLislebyGustaveFlaubert:“hisinkispale”(p.237).The

weaknessandwiderangeofthepossibleimplicaturesavailablefromthis

utterancemeanthatthehearermustprocesshisencyclopaedicknowledgein

ordertoestablishsufficientcontexttorecovertheintendedmeaning.

Metaphorsofferarangeofimplicaturesinsteadofjustone,orafixedset

(Sperber&Wilson,1995:pp.230-231).Thereceiverisabletorecoveratleast

someoftheseimplicaturesandthefirstoneaccessedwouldnotnormallybethe

literalonebecauseofthemutualawarenessofthecontextbytheinterlocutors.

Laterrelevancetheoryapproachessuggestaslightlydifferentexplanationfor

theinterpretationofbothmetaphoricalexpressionandloosetalkintheformof

adhocconcepts.Theseassumethatanyconceptutterediscognitivelyadjusted,

perhapsinvolvingadegreeofnarrowingorbroadening,asitisaccessedin

context(Wilson&Sperber,2012;Clark,2013).Thisisillustratedwiththe

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wordssuchas“princess”and“flat”(Clark,2013:pp.250–251).“Princess”is

usedinitsmostliteralsense,tocommunicateafemalememberofaroyalfamily,

anditcomeswithcertainpropertiessharedbyprincesses,suchasthatthe

personreferredtoisimportantandthatothersareexpectedtotreatthemwitha

degreeofdeference.However,dependinguponthecontextinwhichthetermis

used,otherpropertiesmaybeimplied,perhapsincludingonewhichsuggests

thattheindividualisspoiltordemanding,eventhoughnotallprincessesmay

sharethesecharacteristics.Astowhetherornotthesenegativepropertiesare

inferredisdependentuponthehearerbeing“guidedbytherelevance-guided

comprehensionheuristicandthemutualadjustmentprocesswiththemosteasily

accessibleimplicationsderivedfirst”(Clark,2013:p.250).

Theword“flat”isusedbyWilsonandSperber(2012)todemonstrateadhoc

conceptswithrelationtoloosetalk.Theyinvitethereadertoconsiderthe

possiblemeaningsthatcouldbederivedfromtheword“flat”byenvisagingtwo

fictionalinterlocutors,PeterandMary,discussingacyclingtrip.Peterstates

thatheisfeelingunfitandMaryreplies:“WecouldgotoHolland.Hollandisflat”

(pp.72-74).Peter’sexpectationofoptimalrelevancewillcausehimtoinitiatea

processofbackwardinferencing,enrichingthecontenttocarrycertain

implications.Hewouldrecallhispreviousutterancewasthathewasfeeling

unfit,andheknowsthatcyclinguphillismorestrenuousandthereforeless

enjoyable.Consequently,themeaningof“flat”inthesenseofcyclingwouldbe

themostrelevant,whileotherpossiblemeaningsfor“flat”(suchasthekindof

flatnessimpliedwith“flat-screenTV”,orwith“flattyre”)areneveractivatedand

Mary’sintendedmeaningisreadilyunderstood(ibid).

Inthecaseofconceptualmetaphors,somedegreeofsharedknowledgeis

assumedandessentialfortheintendedinterpretationtoberecovered.For

example,certainpoliticianshaveearnedthenickname“Teflon”(Haq,2015),

whichfunctionsasametaphor.Torecognizethemetaphor,thehearermustbe

equippedwiththeknowledgethatthechiefpropertyofthatmaterialisthatit

canbeusedasacoatingforcookingimplementsthatenablesthemtoavoid

foodstuffsstickingtothemandtherebymakingcleaningthemfareasier.Inthe

caseofpoliticians,itisnotfoodresiduethattheyareabletoavoid“sticking”to

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them,butrathertheyareabletoescapeadverseconsequencesfromlosingtheir

positiontodamagetotheirreputationwhentheyhavemadecalamitous

decisionsorbecomeembroiledinscandals.Theuseofametaphorforabrand

orproductinthiswaycouldbesaidtobetothebrand’sadvantage,asitembeds

thenotionofthepropertyintothemindofconsumerstosuchadegreethatthe

conceptsbecomeinseparable.Inthiscase,byvirtueofthebrand’snamebeing

appliedtoentitieswhohavenoobviousconnectiontocookingimplements,a

meaningariseswhichmakestheassociationbetweentheultimateinnon-stick

qualities(ofutensilsandpeople)andthebrandofTeflon™,appearentirely

natural.Thisrepresentsaseriouschallengeforthebrand’scompetitors.

Metaphorsareinvaluableinmarketingastheycanmakeapointbotheffectively

andsuccinctly,andarealsomemorable(Leech,1966;Leissetal,1990;Myers,

1994;Cook,2001;Aaker,2010).Anexampleofthiscanbefoundwiththebrand

nameofatoiletriescompanythatspecializesinshavingproductsandiscalled

“KingofShaves”.Theuseoftheword“king”impliesthisfirmisunsurpassedin

termsofstatus,andmayinviteotherassociations,suchasthefactthatthisisa

traditionalBritishcompanyratherthanoneofitsbetter-knownAmericanrivals.

Scholarshavenotedthewidespreaduseofmetaphorsinmarketingandamong

themareMyers(1994),whocitesthesloganoftheBoddington’sbeercompany

as“TheCreamofManchester”(p.122)andusedinseveraladvertisementswhich

showalinkbetweentheirbeerandcreamorice-cream,anexampleofwhichcan

beseeninAppendix4:image13,andCook(2001),whocommentsonthechoice

ofnamefortheperfumeOpiumwhich,heclaims,invokesconnotationsof“the

Orient,dreams,Romanticpoetryandbohemianillegality”(pp.108-109).

MetaphorsoftheallthekindsdescribedbyLakoffandJohnson(1980)canbe

foundinadvertising.Ontologicalmetaphorsarecommonplace;theserequire

morecognitiveprocessingandagreaterdependenceonencyclopaedic

knowledge.Forinstance,advertisementsbyaporksausagemanufacturerforthe

productPeperamihaveusedthestrapline“abitofananimal”(Brierley,2002:p.

185).Thishastheadvantageofofferingbothaliteralmeaninganda

metaphoricalone.Theformersimplystatestherealitythattheproductis

manufacturedfromanimalflesh,althoughitisdifficulttoenvisageaconsumer

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notrealizingthiswasthecasewhenbuyingaporksausage.Consequently,the

informativevalueinthisregardisminimalandsothesecond,metaphorical

meaning,isforegrounded.Thissecondmeaningonlybecomesapparentwhen

thewordsareconnectedwiththevisualelementsofthecommercialthat

personalizethesausageasmaniacalcharacter.Brierley(2002)explainsthe

metaphoricalpointoftheadvertisementasemphasizing:“themeatinessofthe

brand,challengingthehealth-consciousvegetarianlobbyandappealingto

consumerswhoenjoymeat”(p.185).

Orientationalmetaphorsoccurinordinaryconversationsandaresopervasivein

languagethattheyareoftennotrecognizedasmetaphors.Nevertheless,Tanaka

(1994)offersanexamplefromthefinancecompany,SaveandProsper:“Regular

savingsbuilduptoabigsum.”(p.91).

Thevalueofnostalgiainadvertisingiswellrecognizedandisreadilyobservable

incommercialsforproductsliketea,certainotherfoodstuffs,andsomeproducts

associatedwithculturaloccasionslikeweddingsandChristmas(Cartwright,et

al,2016).Often,thisisinvokedusingimagerydepictingformertimes,but

Tanaka(1994)demonstrateshowmetaphorscanbeusedforthispurposewith

anadvertisementforaperfumecalled“Trésor”38.Itbearsthecaption“Leparfum

desinstantsprécieux”(p.100)(Appendix4:image14)which,shebelieves,is

closeenoughtoitsEnglishequivalenttobeintelligibletowhatsheregardsas

thetypicalBritishconsumerwhowouldalsounderstandthemeaningofthe

nameoftheproduct,i.e.“treasure”.Moreover,shesuggeststhatthisconsumer

mightrecoverfromthecaption:“…anassociationwithMarcelProust’sfamous

novel,‘InSearchofLostTime’”(ibid).Tanaka(1994)isperhapsoverestimating

theabilityofhertypicalBritishconsumer.Whileitisconceivablethatsuchan

English-speakingreaderwouldrecognizeenoughofthecognatestobeableto

translateandarriveatameaningwhichapproximatesto“theperfumeof

preciousmoments”,thelikelihoodofthembeingfamiliarwith(i.e.having

installedintheirencyclopaedicmemory)thetitleofanovelwhichmaybe

regardedashighbrowFrenchclassicalliteratureseemssmall.

38ThisisaperfumeproducedbyLancômeofParis.

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RelevanceTheoryhasdevelopedoverthreedecadesatthetimeofwriting,with

someconceptsbeingrefinedandnewconceptsbeingproposed,suchas

explaininginferencingthroughmodules(Wilson,2004),andadhocconcepts

(Wilson&Sperber,2012).Whilesomescholarshaveappliedthetheorytoother

typesofcommunication,suchasnewspaperheadlines(Ifantidou,2009),

children’sliterature(Zhao&Jiang,2013), televisioncommercials(Martínez-

Camino&Pérez-Saiz,2012)andadvertisinggenerally(Tanaka1994),its

originators,SperberandWilson,appeartodirecttheirinterestalmost

exclusivelytoanalyzingspokeninteractions.Ratherthanpurportingtobea

generaltheoryofcommunication,RelevanceTheoryisconcernedwiththeuse

andinterpretationofutterancesandhowacommunicator“modifiesthephysical

environmentoftheother”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:p.1)bytheiruseoflanguage.

ThereislittleinRelevanceTheorywhichseekstoaccountfornon-linguistic

modessuchastheconstructionofimages,orunderstandinglanguageuse

throughcultureorideology.

3.7AMBIGUITY,PUNSANDPOLYSEMES

Myers(1994)discussestheuseofpunsandhowadvertisersusehomonymyand

polysemytogeneratethem.Hereferstoanearlyexamplefromaseriesof

cigaretteadvertisementswhichwerecommonlysituatedoutsidenewsagents

fromtheearly20thcentury;oneofthesecanbeviewedinAppendix4:image15.

Itconsistedofjusttwowords,generallyjuxtaposedwithvariousimagesand

eachdepictingsomeaspectofBritishlife.Thewordsinquestionwere“Player's

Please”and,asidefromtheobviousalliterativequalityoftheexpression,itisa

punwhichcanbereadasastatementoffact(Player'sarepleasing)orarequest

fromacustomertoashopkeeper(“IwouldlikeapacketofPlayer'splease”).For

somereason,Myersneglectstoinformthereaderthatthestraplineinthese

advertisementswasnormallyaccompaniedbytheimages,andthattheseimages

providedadditionalcontextwhichenrichedthemeanings.Ascanbeseenin

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Appendix4,oneoftheseportrayedabearded,RoyalNavyratinginhisuniform.

Thiswasshownpossiblyinordertoinvokeparticularconnotationsinrelation

totheBritishnessofthebrand,havingregardtothefactthattheadvertisement

wasfirstdisplayedaround1916,duringtheFirstWorldWar,andaroundthe

timeoftheBattleofJutlandwhichresultedinthelossofmanyBritishsailors

(BBCNottingham).OtherPlayer'sadvertisementsbearingthiscaptionshowed

peopleeithercompetingintraditionalsports,suchascricketortennis,or

engaginginotheroutdoorrecreation,addingyetafurtherlayerofpossible

meanings(Alamy,2017).

Myers(1994)offersasimilarexamplewiththecaption:Sunlightisbest(p.64),

andthiscanbeseeninAppendix4:image16.Thisisanadvertisementfor

Sunlightsoapfromthe1890sthatexploitsthecommonstrategyofadvertisersin

usingthefactthataproductnameorbrandoftenhasastandard,common

meaningtoo.Amonghisotherexamplesisacaptiononaposterdisplayedat

railwaystationsforPenguinbooks:Bookatanystation(p.65).Thepunhere

amusesthereaderbyexploitingthepolysemyoftheword“book”wherebyitcan

functionasaverbrelatingtoplanningarailwayjourney,andalsoasanoun

invitingtheinterpretationthatthereadercanbuyabookatanystation.He

furtherdescribesanadvertisementforthehomelesscharity,Shelter,which

presentsanimageofayoungwomanwiththecaption:“WhenEmmatoldusshe’s

beenabused,weputherintoaspecialhome.Herown”(p.67).Inthiscase,Shelter

usesthedifferentsensesofthewords“special”and“home”togeneratetwo

possiblereadings.Myers(1994)offersarationaleforthis:“theadvertiserwants

tomakeusreflectonourownreasonsforourfirstresponse,asinmanyadsfor

charities”(p.67).Thismaybethecase,butamorelikelyexplanationisthatthe

expression,inthecontextofthesentence,isintendedtoimplicatethatEmma

wasaccommodatedinsomesoullessinstitutionandthisisundesirable.

However,thisinterpretationisimmediatelycancelledwiththephrasewhich

followed,“herown”,andthereaderisthusencouragedtoextendthemeaning

into“herownhome”,whichexploitsthemorepositiveconnotationsofboth

“special”and“home”.

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Myers(1994)distinguishesambiguityfromvagueness,whichischaracterised

bycertainfavouredadvertisingwordssuchas‘quality’and‘style’andtheseare

usedforpracticalorculturalreasons,suchasfor‘femininehygiene’,wherethe

precisefunctionoftheproductisnotstatedexplicitly.Advertiserstendtouse

comparativeadjectivesinavaguewayandwordssuchas‘smoother’and‘richer’

areusedtoassigncertainqualities,butwithoutfurtherexplanation(ibid).Itis

notmadeclearpreciselywithwhattheyarecomparingtheirproducts,anditis

lefttothereceivertomakewhateverinferencesseemtobenatural.Thewords

‘smoother’and‘richer’,forinstance,arelikelytoinvitecontrastswithother,

unspecified,rivalproducts.Heproceedstoconsiderwordassociationsasthey

arisefromtheculture,andthelexicalchoicesadvertisersmakeanddescribes

howadvertisersmakeuseofassociationswhich,althoughhedoesnotsaythis

specifically,drawuponwhat,fromaRelevanceTheoryperspective,mightbe

regardedasareader’sencyclopaedicknowledge.Amonghisexamplesofthisis

acaptionfromaholidayadvertisementthatappliesanextendedmetaphor

relatingtoclothingandsuggestsSpainasadestination:“Tailor-madebeaches

withoff-the-pegsunshine”(Myers,1994:p.74).Hecitesafurtherexamplefrom

awhiskyadvertisement:“Williamdroppedby,sowelefttheblackandsunkthe

yellow”(Grant’sScotch)(ibid).Myers(1994)statesthathebelievesthe

advertisement’swordingis“fromsnooker”,andhearguesthatitforcesthe

readertoidentifythereferentsforblackandyellow,whicharetreatedasnouns

ratherthanadjectives.Inadditiontothefactthatthesearethecoloursoftwoof

theballsusedinsnooker,theverbs‘sunk’and‘left’wouldalsoberecognisedby

aplayerassnookermetalanguagedescribingactionswithinthegame.These

enablethemetaphortobeextendedwhenthepossiblealternative

interpretationof‘sunktheyellow’couldcancelthesnookerinterpretationand

beunderstoodtomeantohavedrunktheyellowliquid,namelyGrant’swhisky39.

Myersstates:

39Myers(1994)offersnocorrespondingalternativereferentfor‘theblack’,althoughone

possibilitymightbearivalbrandofup-marketblendedwhiskyavailableatthetimecalledJohnnieWalkerBlackLabel.

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“Itisnotalwaysclearthattheadvertiserwantsalltheassociationsthatthe

registercallsup:ascotchmaywanttobeassociatedwiththerelaxationand

skillofsnooker,butthereisnoparticularadvantagetoaresortbeing

associatedwithclothes.”(ibid)

Myers(1994)thusdescribestheadvertisers’parallelsintermsofscotchand

snooker,andbetweenholidaysandclothing,buthemakesnoattempttoexplain

whyitisnecessaryorevenadvantageoustocreatesuchparallels.Inother

words,onemightaskwhetheritwouldnotbesimpler,andrequireless

processingeffortonthepartofthereader,todescribescotchintermsofscotch

andholidaysintermsofholidays.

Whilesomeseetheadvantagesofpunsinadvertising,therearecriticswithin

literarystudieswhodismissthemas“thelowestformofwit”(Nobus,2004:p.

195)whileHopkins(1917,fromRedfern1982)claimsthatneitherhumournor

frivolityhaveanyplaceinadvertisingascustomerswouldnotbuyfrom“clowns”

(p.269)Redfernhimselfrejectsthis,assertingthat,whilesomeadvertisersmay

holdalowopinionofhumouringeneral,theargumentsfortheusefulnessof

wordplayarestrongerthanthedoubtsexpressed.Tanaka(1994)alsorejects

Hopkins’(1917)view,pointingoutthatitiscontradictedby,amongmanyother

examples,theubiquitousandwidelyrecognisedclownfigureinadvertisements

fortheMcDonald’shamburgerchain(Tanaka,1994:p.60).

Muchhumancommunicationcouldbesaidtobepotentiallyambiguousandthe

ambiguityisresolvedthroughcontextorrather,accordingtosomeobservers,

throughtheprocessofcontextualization.Harris(2010),forexample,asserts

thatcontextsarenotsomuchgivenastheyareconstructedbytheparticipants

withinparticularinteractionsand,assuch,theyarenotabletoberesolved

unproblematically;theythusgiverisetodifferencesofinterpretation.Where

ambiguityfacilitatesapun,ithasfirsttoberecognisedthatitisambiguousand

theavailableinterpretationshavetobemutuallymanifestifitistosucceed.The

advertiserutilisesdevicessuchashomonymyandhomophony(Cook,2001),in

ordertocaptureattentionintheknowledgethatrecognisingandresolvingthe

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ambiguitiesrequiresextraprocessingeffortwhich,whensuccessful,confersa

smalldegreeofself-satisfactiononthepartofthereceiver.Thisstimulates

interestandismemorable,thusachievingagoaloftheadvertiser.

TheoperationofpunscanbeexplainedthroughRelevanceTheorywherebya

singleutteranceisopentomultipleinterpretationsandthespeakerintendsthe

hearertonoticethispossibilityifthepunistobesuccessful.Tanaka(1994)

considerspunsusedinadvertisingasexistingwithinfourcategories,accepting

thattheboundariesbetweenthesemaynotalwaysbeentirelyclear,and

exemplifiesthemwithinstancesofeach.Thefirstisthenonsensicalpun,where

theinitialmeaningmakesnosenseatfirstsightandwithinthecontextinwhich

itappearsandthereadermustsearchforanotherinterpretation,whilethe

secondtypedependsheavilyoncontextualeffects.Putsimply,thisoccurs

wheretherejectedinterpretationcontributestotheintendedinterpretationand

isdependentuponthereader’sencyclopaedicknowledgeforthealternative

interpretationtobeachieved.ThethirdtypeofpunwhichTanaka(1994)

proposescontainssexualinnuendo,althoughonemightquerywhyshebelieves

thisrequiresitsowncategoryandtheonlyexamplesofthiskindofpunshe

offersareJapaneseoneswhichdonotappeartobeapplicabletoexamplesfound

withinEnglishadvertising.Lastly,Tanaka(1994)proposestherearepunsthat

havetwocommunicatedmeanings,eachwithsomedirectrelevanceasa

statementandthereisthereforenoreasontorejecteither.Shecitesan

advertisementforMazdacarsfrom1986bearingthecaption“Theperfectcarfor

alongdrive”[p.79].Theoperativewordinthiscaseis“drive”,wherethe

copywriterhasbeenabletoexploitthispolysemeintermsofmeaningtodrivea

longdistance,orhavingalongdriveway.Myers(1994)suppliesasimilar

polysemicpunwithanadvertisementcaptionforBootscosmetics,“Facethe

world”(p.65).

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3.8REASON/TICKLEANDHARD/SOFTSELLDISTINCTIONS

Simpson(2001)referstothemanyapproachesthathavebeenusedinprevious

studiesofadvertisingandwhichhaveviewedtheparticipantsfromthepositions

ofidealisedreceivers,intheformofreaders,viewersandlisteners(RVLs)and

this,heclaims,isolatesthereceiversofadvertisementsfromtheprocesses

whichgoverntheirproduction.Asstatedintheintroductorychapter,

advertisersemployadiverserangeofmethodsinordertostimulatetheinterest

andcapturetheattentionofpotentialconsumers.Tobesuccessful,however,

theymustpossesssomeunderstandingoftheinterpretivestrategies(cognitive

processes)ofreceiversandhaveregardfortheseintheiradvertisingdesign.A

majorinterestofthisstudyistoexplorehowadvertisersapproachthisandto

uncoverhowitinfluencesanddirectstheirworkingpractices.Simpson(2001)

providesadetailedanalysisofcertainadvertisingstrategiesbaseduponthe

binaryof‘reason’and‘tickle’whichBernstein(1974)proposes.Cook(2001)

makesadistinctionbetweenwhathecalls“productads”(p.15),whicharethose

forcommerciallysuppliedgoodsandservices,and“non-productads”(ibid),

whichincludethoseforcharitiesandpoliticalparties.Similarly,hedistinguishes

thembytechnique,whereheclaimsthereisawell-establisheddistinction

between“hardsell”and"softsell"(ibid);theformeroccurswherethereisa

directappealtobuywhilethelatteroperatesthroughmoodoralludingto

desirablelifestyles(ibid).

Cook(2001:p.15)alsomentionsthesimilardistinctionof“reason”and“tickle”,

asdefinedbyBernstein(1974).AccordingtoSimpson(2001),thereason

approachisdesignedtoappealtothelogicalmindofthereceiver.Itfollowsthe

directrouteofinformingthemoftheparticularqualitiesofaproductandby

foregroundingtheadvantagesofpurchasingitand,assuch,theadvertisementis

easytocomprehend.Acommonfeatureofreasonisthatitmakesuseofa

limitedandspecificsetof"conjunctiveadjuncts"(p.595fromHalliday,1994:p.

36)whicharerecognisedinsystemicfunctionallinguisticsasexpoundingthe

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textualmetafunction40.Theseexpressionsareusedinpresentingthe

advertisementasoperatingonaspecificproposition,andoftenwithanelement

ofcauseandeffect,asinthebelowadvertisementforabrandofpainkiller:“If

painstrikes,thenhitbackwithSolpadeine”(ibid).

Tickle,ontheotherhand,iscalculatedtoappealtotheRVLobliquely,and

throughemotionandimaginativeinputsthatthereforerequiremoremental

efforttoprocess.AnexampleofticklecitedbySimpson(2001)forBushmills

(Irish)whiskeyhas,curiously,averysimilargrammaticalandsyntactic

structure:“Ifyouwanttodrinkwhiskey,drinkwhiskey”(p.599).Ascanbeseen,

thisisalsoapropositionwithaconditionaladjunct,yetoperatesthroughan

expectationthatthereaderwillseekfurthercontextualinformationthrough

exploringtheotherelementsoftheadvertisement.Indoingso,afurtherlayerof

meaningisrevealedbeyondsimplytellingthereadertodosomethingtheywant

todo.Thisinvolvesthereaderassigningaslightlydifferentmeaningtothe

secondinstanceoftheword“whiskey”byaprocessofinferencing.Whilethe

firstiterationof“whiskey”relatestoIrishwhiskeygenerally,thesecond

iterationisintendedtodenotespecifically“Bushmillswhiskey”,perhapsasa

representativeof“properwhiskey”or“goodwhiskey”.Theauthor/softhis

wordinghaveusedtherepetitionof“drinkwhiskey”astherhetoricaldevice

knownas“epizeuxis”,whichoccurswhereawordorphraseisrepeatedtwoor

moretimesinsuccessioninordertogenerateadesiredeffect.Sperberand

Wilson(1995)notethat,whileepizeuxisisusedforemphasis,thepreciseeffects

generatedbysuchrepetitionarenotconstant.Anexampletheyciteis:“Wewent

foralong,longwalk”(p.219).Theystatethatitcouldbeassumedthatthe

speaker,inaccordancewiththeprincipleofrelevance,wantedtoemphasisethat

thewalkmentionedwaslongerthanmighthavebeenexpressedhadtheysimply

40Halliday(1994,inSimpson,2001)identifiesfourmajortypesofconjunctiveadjuncts,namely

additive(adjunctslinkedwithand,also),adversative(adjunctslinkedwithbut,however),

conditional(linkedbyexpressionssuchasintheeventif,otherwise)andcausal(suchasso,then,because).

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describeditas“alongwalk”41.However,thisexplanationdoesnotsatisfactorily

accountfortheBushmillsexamplebecausetherepetitionisasmuchforits

rhetoricalqualityastocreateitsownimplicature.Thechoiceofwording“Ifyou

wanttodrinkwhiskey,drinkwhiskey”operatesthroughitsgrammaticalstructure,

namelythatthewordingbeginswithaconditionalsubordinatingclauseinwhich

thenon-finiteverbphrase,“(to)drinkwhiskey”,takesthesameformastheverb

phraseinthemainclause,whichisanimperative“drinkwhiskey”.Theauthoris

abletoexploitthefactthat,inEnglish,theverbformininfinitivesisidenticalto

itsforminimperatives42andfacilitatestheproductionofaparallelinwhichthe

deviationisstructuralratherthanparadigmatic.

Simpson(2001)likensthisprocesstothesyntagmaticandparadigmaticaxes

fromJakobson’sstructuralisttheoryandwhichisdescribedintheprevious

chapter.Thesyntagmaticaxis,whichSimpsonreferstoasthe“structural”(p.

592)axis,representsdiscourseasalinearsequenceorchainofunitswhilethe

paradigmaticaxis,whichSimpsoncallsthe“strategic”(ibid)axis,consistsofthe

rangeofoptionsavailableateachpointalongthesyntagmaticaxis.Bothofthese

axesareinterdependent,andalsodependentuponcontext.Simpsonassigns

termsforthepolesonthestrategyaxisas“direct”and“oblique”(ibid).Hedraws

aparallelwithGrice’s“maximalefficiency”(ibid)forthedirectpoleasit

conformstoallfourconversationalmaxims,whiletheobliquestrategyinvolves

floutingoneormoreofthemaxims.Advertisementsattheextremeendof

directnessthusmakeexplicitreferencetothegoodsandservicestheyare

marketingandconsequentlyrequireminimalcognitiveprocessing.Conversely,

thoseattheextremeendofobliquenessrequiretheaddresseetoextendthe

contextsothattheyenablehimorhertoachievethedesiredinterpretation

throughtheprincipleofrelevance.Simpson(2001)alsorecognises,however,

41Analternative,yetentirelyplausibleexplanationforthisuseofepizeuxiscouldbesuggested

fromaPeirceansemioticperspective,namelythatitisiconic–theelongationofthephrasebyvirtueofrepetitionparallelstheelongationofa”longwalk”intoa”long,longwalk”.

42ThisisnotthecaseinotherGermaniclanguages.Forexample,inDanishandSwedish,

languagesveryclosetoEnglish,thiswouldnotworkbecausetheinfinitiveformsoftheverb”drink”(drikkeanddricka)aredifferentfromtheimperatives(drikanddrick).

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thatthereisthepotentialforakindofhalfwayhousethatdisplays

“conventionalisedindirectness”(p.593).Asaconsequence,whilesome

advertisementsaredesignedtoappealpredominantlyeithertoreasonorto

tickle,theyinvariablycontainatleastsomeelementofboth,andthissuggestsa

gradation,orcline,withreasonatoneextremityandtickleontheother,andin

whichanygivenadvertisementcould,intheoryatleast,bepositioned.

Thepreviouschaptersurveyedthetheoreticalfieldsofsemiotics,includingthe

basisoflinguisticstructuralismasoutlinedbySaussureandthephilosophical

perspectiveofsignsandtheirtypology,asadvocatedbyPeirce.Latertheoriesof

culturalsemioticsasproposedbyBarthes,Levi-StraussandEco,havealsobeen

discussedaswellasthemethodsofanalyzingtextsthroughmultimodal

frameworksofKressandvanLeeuwen.Thischapterhasoutlinedthe

approachessuggestedwithinpragmatics,includingGrice'smaxims,Relevance

Theory,theroleofdeixisandpronouns,ambiguity,metaphorandpuns.In

additiontocoveringthesubstanceoftheoriginaltheories,themeansandextent

towhichsubsequentscholarshaveattemptedtoapplythemtoexamplesfrom

thefieldofadvertisinghavealsobeendiscussed.Thethesisnowproceedsto

describethemethodologyforauthor'sprimaryresearch,whichcomprisesa

briefexaminationoftheinputadvertisingpractitionersreceiveintheir

professionaleducationintermsofsemioticsandpragmaticsandanoverviewof

thetextsusedorreferredtobystudentsofadvertisingaswellasbythose

alreadyemployedintheindustry.Thisisfollowedbyasummaryofaseriesof

interviewswhichwereconductedforthepurposeofestablishingthecreative

processesandworkingpracticesinvolvedinadvertisingdesign,andhowthese

canberelatedtoconsciousandunconsciousapplicationsofsemioticand

pragmaticprinciples.

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CHAPTER4-METHODOLOGY

4.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION

AsindicatedbythethesisquestionslistedintheIntroduction,thisresearchhas

beendesignedtoestablishhowadvertisersconstructrelevantandappealing

wordsandimagesandtheircombinations;themodelsofcommunication,

meaningandunderstandingthatappeartobeimpliedbythisdiscourse;how

ambiguities,alternativeinterpretations,implicitmeaningsandtheroleof

contextinunderstandingareaddressed(ifatall)inthesediscourses;the

specificterminologyorconceptualframeworksusedbypractitionersandhow

theseterminologiesandframeworkscanberelatedtosemioticandpragmatic

theories.Inordertodiscoverthecommunicationalprinciplesand

considerationswhichadvertisersareguidedby,andexplicitlyappealto,intheir

dailypractice,anumberofadvertisingpractitionershavebeeninterviewed,as

describedinSubchapter4.3below.Accordingly,itwasjudgednecessaryfirstto

obtainsomeindicationastowhattheoreticalinputpractitionersmayhave

receivedduringtheirtrainingandsosomepreliminaryresearchwasconducted

toinvestigatethis.Thefirstelementoftheresearchrelatestotheteachingof

semioticsandpragmaticsinadvertisingcoursesofferedatuniversitiesandby

professionalbodies.Thishadtobe,asamatterofpracticalityandasis

explainedinSubchapter4.2below,animprovisedandlargelyquantitativestraw

pollsurveyaimedatdiscoveringwhethertheseinstitutionsincorporateaspects

ofsemioticsorpragmaticsintheeducationtheyprovideand,ifso,thetitlesof

thetextsused.

Inrelationtothemainaspectoftheresearch,namelyinterviewswith

practitioners,anumberofalternativeapproacheswereconsideredbefore

undertakingthispartoftheresearch,inparticularinrelationtothequestionof

whetherthedataelicitedshouldbeanalysedthroughquantitiveorqualitative

methods.Itwasdecided,inkeepingwiththenatureoftheprimaryresearch

questions,thatthelatterwouldprovidemoreinsightfulinformationfromwhich

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toanswerthethesisquestionsanddrawconclusions.Aqualitativeapproach

wasviewedasbettersuitedforachievingthisfortworeasons:a)becauseofthe

limitedsizeofthesample,i.e.,thesmallnumberofintervieweestakingpart,and

theunsystematicprocedurethroughwhichthesamplewasassembled,andb)

thetypeofinformationtobesought,relatingtotheirindividualbackgrounds,

educationandprofessionaltrainingandtheirpersonaldailyworkroutines.This

choiceofmethodologyaccordswithSilverman'sview,accordingtowhich:“if

youareconcernedwithexploringpeople'slifehistoriesoreverydaybehavior,then

qualitativemethodsmaybefavoured”(2013:p.11).Anotherconsiderationin

choosingaqualitativemethodwastheintendedfocusonparticularexamplesof

advertisingproductswithaviewtounderstanding,fromthepointofviewofthe

relevantqualitativeanalyticalframeworks,howandperhapswhytheywere

createdbytheprofessionalsconcerned.Silverman(2013)contendsthat

exclusivelyquantitativeresearchisinclinedtowardstheuseofrigidoperational

definitionsand,assuch,itriskslosingsightof“thewaythatsocialphenomena

becomewhattheyareinparticularcontextsandsequencesofactions”(p.97).The

useofqualitativedata,ontheotherhand,shedslightupon“thenormative,

ideological,historical,linguisticandsocioeconomicinfluencesonthebeliefs,

objectives,expectationsandtalkofallparticipants”(Yardley,2000:p.220).

Accountingfortheseinfluencesisessentialifthecreativeprocessesofthose

designingadvertisementsaretobeappropriatelyinvestigated.

4.2RESEARCH-ADVERTISINGEDUCATION

Atthetimethispartoftheresearchcommenced,therewerearound160

universitiesandhighereducationalestablishmentsintheUKandahigh

proportionofthemofferingbusinessandmedia-relatedcoursesand,inaddition,

numerousfurthereducationcollegeswererunningarangeofdiversecourses

thatincludedaspectsofadvertising.Tohaveundertakenafullsurveyofall

establishmentsthatprovidedadvertisingtrainingplusallindividualcourses

offereddidnotturnouttobefeasibleforthisstudywhereasitwaspossibleto

111

gainatleastsomeimpressionofwhatistaughtbyselectingandcontactinga

sufficientnumberofthemasasample.Thissamplecompriseduniversities,and

alsotheprofessionalbodiesthatalsodelivertraining.Itwasappreciatedthat

thepreferencesofindividualteacherswithininstitutionswouldlikelyvary,and

sothesourcematerialforthisaspectoftheresearchwasconfinedtocourse

books,specificallythoseusedbyUKuniversitiesandprofessionalbodiesaspart

ofcoursesforprospectiveorexistingadvertisingpractitioners,orthose

studyingmarketingwithanadvertisingcomponent,atBachelor’sorMaster’s

level.Workswithsubstantiallinguisticscontentwereconsideredofparticular

interest,butmoregeneralbookswerealsoreferredtowheretheyhavebeen

foundtocoverassociatedlinguisticphenomena.

Thirtyinstitutions43fromamongthesewereselectedonthebasisofcriteriathat

aimedtoensurevariationintermsoftheirlocation(England,Walesand

Scotland)andstatus,e.g.RussellGroupuniversitiesandformerpolytechnics.At

leastonecourseatMaster’slevelwasincluded.Universitieswerecontactedfirst

bytelephoneandtentativeenquiriesmade,andthenthesewerefollowedup

withemailswhereapplicable.Thesuccessofthislimboftheresearchhinged

uponthewillingnessofstaffworkingintheseestablishmentstocooperateand

providetheinformationrequested.Inaddition,theprofessionalbodiesfor

advertisingprofessionalswerecontactedandinvitedtoprovideinformationas

describedwherecoursebookswereused.Thispartoftheresearchwas

predicatedonanassumptionthatallormostofthoseworkinginthisfieldwould

havepursuedatleastsomeformaltraininginadvertisingateducational

establishmentsorthroughprofessionalbodies.Atthisstage,itwasbynomeans

certainthatthisassumptionwasjustifiedandthatwassomethingwhichbecame

clearerastheresearchprogressed.

43SeeAppendix1forfulllist

112

4.3RESEARCH–ADVERTISINGPRACTICES

AsstatedintheIntroduction,mostresearchconductedonthetopicof

advertisingisfocuseduponexaminingadvertisementsthathavebeenpublished

orbroadcastatsomepointintime,andresearchersarelefttospeculateasto

whatwasthepurposeorintentionofthedesignerwhentheywerecreated.This

thesisaimstoremedythisbyaskingthosewhoproduceadvertisementsto

describetheir'creativeprocess',i.e.theircognitiveprocessesandprofessional

routines.Aspartofthisinvestigation,itisalsonecessarytoestablishhowthey

wereformallytrained,whetherthattrainingincludedasemioticscomponent,

andthedegreetowhichtheycurrentlyandknowinglyapplysemioticprinciples

intheirwork.Itisalsotheaimtodeterminethedegreetowhichtheircognitive

processesasdescribedbythemalignwithexplicittheoreticalframeworkswhich

areconcernedwithcontext,namelythosewhicharetobefoundwithin

pragmatics.

Initialcontactwithadvertisingagencieswasmadethroughaseriesoftelephone

callstoagencieslistedinInternettelephonedirectories.Around30agenciesin

totalwerecalled,butitwasnotbelievedtobefeasibleintermsofthetimeand

resourcesavailabletoconductthatnumberofinterviewsevenifsufficient

volunteershadbeenwillingtomakethemselvesavailabletoanswerquestions.

Inviewofthein-depthandqualitativenatureoftheinterviewstobeconducted,

itwasjudgedthatfiveintervieweeswouldbesufficientforthepurposesofthis

study.Aneffortwasmadetoobtainsomediversityofintervieweesintermsof

thesizeofagencies,andalsothetypesofworkthattheseagenciesundertook.

Forpracticalreasons,alltheagencieswerelocatedinthenorthofEngland,

leavingopenthequestionastohowrepresentativethisparticularsamplemight

beofwiderprofessionalpracticeandexperience.

Interviewsofthecopywriters/creativedirectorswereconductedface-to-faceat

thepremisesoftheirrespectiveagencies.Thesewereelectronicallyrecorded

andwiththeaidofapre-preparedquestionnaire(seeAppendix2).The

questionnairewasdesignedinaccordancewithprinciplesofqualitative

research,asdescribedinSubchapter4.1,andfollowingtheguidanceoutlinedin

113

Silverman(2013).Theinterviewsweredesignedtobesemi-structuredrather

thanstructured,asdescribedbySmith(2014)and,consequently,questions

wereselectedandwordedsothattheyfollowedcloselytheaimsoftheresearch

asdefinedinthethesisquestions,havingregardtopreviousknowledgeand

research,andthedatawaslimitedaccordingly.Theywere,nevertheless,

constructedtobeopen-endedsofaraspossibleandflexibleenoughtochange

directionifthedatasuggesteditwasnecessarytoadjustthefocus,as

recommendedbySmith(2014).Thestructureofthequestionnairewassuchas

toensureconsistencyintermsofthesequenceofthequestionsasked;withthis

inmind,itwasdividedintofourparts,eachofwhichhasaspecificfunctionthat

relatesdirectlytotheaimsoftheresearch.Thefirstpartcomprisedfive

questionsintendedtoprobethebackgrounds,trainingandexperienceofthe

interviewees,theirawarenessofsemiotictheoriesandwhich,ifany,textsthey

hadusedtoguidethemintheirjobofdesigningadvertisementsfortheirclients.

Thesecondpartfocusedonthecreativeprocessesthemselves,howideasarise,

andwhetherpractitionersviewedthepromotionofbrandsdifferentlyfrom

advertisingspecificproducts.Thethirdpartrelatedtospecificworktheyhad

undertakeninthepast,orwhichtheyhappenedtobeworkingonatthetimeof

theinterviewanditspurposewastoestablishtheday-to-dayworkingpractices

oftheinterviewees,includingconvertingtheircreativeideasintocompleted

advertisementstobepublished,distributedorbroadcasted.Thelastpartofthe

questionnaireconsistedofthreequestionsdesignedtoextractasmuch

additionalinformationaspossibleastotheapplicationoftechniquesthatcould

belinkedtosemioticorpragmatictheories.Itwashopedthatthispartwould

informthestudyastothedegreeandmeansbywhichtheirpracticesaccorded

withthetheoreticalapproachesdescribedinChapter2andChapter3above.

4.4ADDITIONALINTERVIEW

Itwasknownthatahandfulofhighlyspecialisedcompaniesexistedwhichhad

thespecificpurposeofusingsemiotictheoriestoassistmajorinternational

114

companies,andtheprestigiousadvertisingagenciesthattheycommissionedto

advertiseforthem,withbrandcreation,re-brandingandaspectsofotherdesign

factorsincludingproducts,trademarks,packagingandlogos.IntheUnited

Kingdom,thesewerealltobefoundinLondonatthetimeofwriting.Itwas

consideredthatitwouldbeinformativetoconductanadditionalinterviewwith

aspecialistcommercialsemioticiantodiscoverthepotentialthatexpertisein

semioticsmightbeabletoofferthewideradvertisingindustry,andhow

methodsthatarepredicatedexpresslyonsemiotictheoriescouldbeusedto

influencemarketingstrategiesatthehigherendofthecommercialworld.

Anadditionalinterviewwasthereforearrangedandconductedwithaspecialist

semioticianwhoworkedexclusivelyinmarketing.Itwasenvisagedthatthis

wouldbeunlikethosewithcopywritersandgraphicartistsasthesubjectwould

notbeacreatorofadvertisements,butratheranadvisoronstrategic

approachesrelatedtobrandcreationandmanagement.Forthatreason,the

questionsputtothissubjectweresomewhatdifferentfromthoseaskedofthe

otherintervieweesandconsequentlythequestionnairementionedabovewas

regardedasinappropriateforthisinterview.Asthisroleishugelyspecialized,

withonlyahandfulofpractitionersnationally,itwasdecidedtointerviewthis

subjectonanadhocbasisratherthanbasingitonpre-setquestions.Thismade

itpossibletoestablishtheprecisenatureofhisjob,thespecificsemiotictheories

heappliedandhowheappliedtheminarealcommercialenvironment.Italso

gavehimmaximumscopetoelaboratewherehebelievedhecouldshareuseful

insights,toexpanduponpointsashewished,andfortheinterviewertoask

furtherprobingquestionsastheinterviewprogressed.

4.5ETHICALCONSIDERATIONS

Allintervieweeswerecontactedinadvancebyemail.Thepurposeofthestudy

wasexplainedtothem;theywereaskediftheywouldbewillingtoparticipatein

thisstudyandtheyrepliedbyemailthattheywerewillingtodoso.Theyare

educatedtograduateorpost-graduatelevel;allareexperiencedprofessionalsin

115

theirfieldandnoneofthequestionsaskedwereofasensitivenature.Inorderto

extractthemostcomprehensiveandaccuratedata,allparticipantswere

encouragedtospeakfreelyandtouselanguageastheysawfit,including

esotericandcolloquialexpressions.Whiletheinterviewswerestructured,with

particularquestionsoccurringatparticularpointsinthedialogue,itwas

regardedasimportantthatthisdidnotconstrainthespeakerorinhibittheflow

inthedialogue.

Tworelatedaspectsconcerningconfidentialityandprivacywereconsideredand

thefirstofthesewasanonymity.Priortotheprocesscommencing,interviewees

wereassuredthattheywouldnotbereferredtobyname,butrathertheywould

beanonymized,i.e.referredtoasSubjectsAtoF.Itwasaconsiderationthat,in

sucharelaxeddiscussion,intervieweesmightrevealinformationabout

themselvesortheiragencythatwouldmakethemidentifiabletoanyonewho

hadsightofthisthesisandwasintentuponinvestigatingthem.This

considerationwasexplainedtoeachofthemindividuallyandtheirviewsand

permissionsoughtinrespectofdisclosinginformationthatcouldindicatetheir

respectiveidentitiesand/oragencies.Priortointerviewstakingplace,they

wereinformedthat,whiletheywouldnotbenamedasindividuals,norwould

theirrespectiveagenciesbenamed,otherinformationincludingdirectand

potentiallyidentifiablequotationsfromtheirwebpagesmayappearinthis

researchandthismightmakeitpossibleforthemortheircompaniestobe

recognizedordiscoveredbyadeterminedindividual.Theirparticipationinthe

interviewswasonthebasisofthatunderstandingandallacknowledgedthisin

writing.

TheinterviewswereconductedinaccordancewithSheffieldHallamUniversity

ResearchEthicsPolicy(6thEdition).

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4.6INTERVIEWS-DATAHANDLING

InterviewsmentionedinSubchapters4.4and4.5abovewererecordedusinga

dictationdevice,storedelectronicallyandretainedforfuturereference.They

weresubsequentlytranscribedandthetranscriptionsareshownattheendof

thisthesisasAppendices.TheresultsaresummarizedandanalysedinChapter5

andChapter6,andthenthewiderimplicationsofthefindingsarediscussedin

Chapter7.

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CHAPTER5–TEXTSUSEDINADVERTISINGEDUCATION

5.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION

Thischapterdescribesresearchconductedwiththeintentionofsecuring

backgroundinformationwithregardtothetraininggiventoadvertising

practitionerspriortoconductinginterviewswiththem.Thisisdoneinorderto

establishtheirawarenessofsemioticsandpragmaticsthatarisesfromtheir

formaltrainingand,fromthat,determinewhetherthetheoreticalapproaches

suggestedwithinthesedisciplinesarelikelytoberelevanttothem.Itinitially

providesanoverviewofthetrainingavailableatthetimeoftheresearchto

thosewishingtoentertheoccupationswithinthefieldofadvertising;the

opportunitiesinrespectofthattrainingwhicharedeliveredbyinstitutionsof

highereducationintheUnitedKingdom;publishedtextsandcoursematerials

usedinadvertisingandmarketingcoursesandthepossibilitiesforentering

advertisingwithouthavingfirstundertakensuchtraining.Itthenexaminesa

selectionofthetextsidentifiedinthecourseoftheresearchtoestablishcontent

relevanttothisstudyspecificallyintermsofsemioticsandsubjectsrelatedto

linguistics,andhowtheseareappliedtoadvertising.

5.2PROFESSIONALBODIES

Thedevelopmentofadvertisingasabusinessdisciplineinitsownrightcame

sometimearoundthe1920sandthisdevelopmentwassignaledbyanumberof

publications,includingClaudeHopkin’sScientificAdvertising(referredtoin

Brierley,2002:p.25)andHarryTipper’sThePrinciplesofAdvertising(1923).In

theUK,socialtrendhasbeenobservedsincethe1990stowards

“professionalizing”certainoccupations,bothtoenhancetheirstatusand,more

importantly,toraisestandardstothebenefitofthewiderpublicandthisoften

118

involvedtheestablishmentofregulatoryand/orprofessionalbodies44.Insome

cases,thesebodieswouldhaveresponsibilitiesandevenlegalpowersthat

includedsettingprofessionalandethicalstandards,disciplinarycodes,

determiningorinfluencingtrainingandtheencouragementandmonitoringof

continuingprofessionaldevelopment(CPD).Advertisingdidnotescapethis

trend,althoughwhilethebodiesestablishedwereconcernedwithworking

practices,ethicsandtrainingofpractitioners,theyhadnostatutorystatus.

TheInstituteforPractitionersinAdvertising,knownastheIPAwasestablished

in1917,althoughitsoriginalpurposewastoassistthegovernmentindesigning

recruitmentandpropagandamaterials(IPA,2014).Sincethen,itspurposehad

changedanditswebsitedescribedtheorganizationas“theprofessionalbodyfor

advertising,mediaandmarketingcommunicationsagenciesintheUnited

Kingdom”(ibid).Likemanysimilarorganisations,theIPAwasfoundtooffer

varioustrainingopportunities,accreditationforbothagenciesandindividuals,

andacontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentprogramme.TheIPA'sstatedits

pinnaclequalificationasitsExcellenceDiploma,describedasbeing:

“designedtocaterforpeoplewith3-5yearsofexperiencein

theadvertisingindustryandwhowanttodevelopabroader

perspectiveonhowbrandsworkandcreatevalueforclients”

(ibid).

InadditiontotheIPA,anorganizationwithevenolderantecedentswasfoundto

exist,namelytheIncorporatedSocietyofBritishAdvertisers(knownsimplyas

“ISBA”).Thisorganizationwasestablishedin1920,butderivedfromanearlier

one,theAdvertisers’ProtectionSociety,thatwasfoundedtwodecadesearlier

(IBSA,2017).ItswebsiteclaimedtheISBAworkedfortheinterestsof

44Thishasincludedadulteducation(Brown,etal2002),nursing(O'Connor,etal2003),

theCivilService(Rutter,2017)andpolicing(Bampton,2017).

119

advertisersgenerallyand,unliketheIPA,itdidnotrestrictitsmembershipto

agencies.LiketheIPA,itofferedtrainingintheformofcoursesandworkshops,

andalsoaccreditedtrainingthatwasrecognizedaspartofCPDandbythe

professionalbody,theCharteredInstituteofMarketing(ibid).Forthesereasons,

boththeIPAandISBAwereoriginallyconsideredpotentialsourcesof

informationfortheresearchdescribedinthisthesis.However,both

organisationswerecontactedbytheauthorandstatedthattherenosemioticor

pragmaticcontentwereincludedinanyoftheirtrainingmaterialsandthey

wereunwillingtoshareanyoftheseforthepurposesofthisresearch.

Atthetimeofwriting,nosingleprocedurewaslaiddownforthosewhohad

chosentopursueacareerinadvertisingandtheywereabletoaccessthefieldin

anumberofways.Ogilvy(1983:p.31)suggestsfourpointsofentryintothe

industryandthefirstoftheseistojoinanorganizationwhichisindirectly

involvedinadvertising,namelyjournalism,retailormanufacturing,andthelast

beingtojoinanadvertisingagency.WhileOgilvyisspeakingfroma1980s

Americanperspective,thecurrentpositionintheUKwasfoundtobesimilar,

especiallywithregardtohisfourthpointofentry.TheIPAwebsitementioned

thepossibilitiesoftakingupa“modernapprenticeship”(IPA:2014)in

advertisingwithanagencyasaschoolleaver,butitacknowledgedthatamore

usualwayintothefieldwasenteringasanundergraduateorrecentgraduateon

anagency’sgraduateentryscheme.

5.3UNIVERSITIES

ManyUKuniversitieswerefoundtoofferundergraduatecoursesinadvertising

ormarketingasapossiblerouteintotheindustrywhileaspectsofadvertising

wassometimescoveredincoursesinBusinessStudies,MediaStudiesor

CommunicationStudies.InthecaseoftheUniversityofBirmingham,advertising

wasincorporatedintoamoduleformingpartofabusinessstudiesdegreeat

Bachelorlevel.Otheruniversities,suchasUniversityoftheArts,London,Edge

120

HillUniversity,UniversityofChesterandAberystwythUniversity,offered

Bachelorleveldegreesspecificallyinadvertising,whilemany,including

LancasterUniversity,combinedadvertisingwithmarketing.LeedsUniversity

(SchoolofDesign),HullUniversityandSouthamptonUniversityprovided

specificadvertisingcoursesatMaster’slevel.Inaddition,manycollegesof

furthereducationrancoursesinmedia,businessstudiesandmarketing,upto

andincludingdegreelevelcoursesandinwhichadvertisinghadfeatured.The

qualificationsobtainedwouldfacilitateaccesstostudentswishingtopursue

careersinadvertising,ortootheraspectsofmarketing.

Inspiteofcontacting30universitiesinScotland,EnglandandWaleswhich

statedontheiruniversitywebsitesthattheyofferedcoursesinadvertising

and/ormarketing,itwasdisappointingthatonlyahandfulwerewillingtoassist

withthisresearch.Frequently,callsweremadewithunfulfilledpromisestocall

back,andemailsweresenttolecturersanddirectorsofstudieswhosimplydid

notrespond.Severaluniversities,includingBrunelUniversity,didreply,but

reportedthatnoaspectofcommunicationtheory(suchassemiotics),ortopics

relatedtolinguistics(suchaspragmatics)wastaughtaspartoftheiradvertising

ormarketingcoursesandnobookswereusedthatwouldberelevanttothis

study.Inothercases,coursebookswerementionedbutwhichitwasdiscovered,

onexamination,madejustacursorymentionofsemiotics.Whilethesubjectof

contextinadvertisingwasbroached,andcouldbefoundinthebooks'respective

indices,itwasinvariablymentionedinageneralsenseandwithoutreferenceto

anytheory,pragmaticorotherwise.Similarly,conceptsfamiliartosemioticians

andlinguists,suchastheuseofmetaphorsinadvertising,werereferredto,

althoughsuchmentionstendedtooccurwithoutbeingdefined,orelsethey

wereexplainedlooselyorsuperficiallyandthusnotinprecisesemioticor

linguisticterms.

OnetextthatwasusedatanumberofUKuniversitieswasabookcalled

PersuasiveSigns:TheSemioticsofAdvertising(2002)andwaslistedasacourse

bookforstudentsatBachelorlevelstudentsofadvertisingand/ormarketingat

theuniversitiesofAberystwyth,ChesterandLeeds.Whileadvertisingisthe

primaryfocusofthisbook,itdealswithmoregeneralcultural/socialissuesthat

121

relatetosemioticsandmarketing,suchaswhywomenwearhighheelshoes,as

discussedinthenextsubchapter.Itisalsoconcernedwithaspectsofthe

marketingprocesswhichprecedesthedesignofspecificadvertisements,namely

branding,selectinganddesigningbrandmarks,productnamingandaspectsof

productdesign,andhowtheseareinformedbysemioticapproaches.Thisbook

isarareexampleofonewhichwasco-authoredbywritersfromtwoapparently

divergentdisciplines,namelyaprofessionalmarketer,RonBeasley,45andan

academicanthropologistwithaknowninterestinsemiotics,MarcelDanesi46.

Theauthorsindicatethattheworkdoesnotintendtoconductdetailedanalyses

ofparticularadvertisements,asmanybooksonthissubjectdo,nordoesthe

bookaimtobeaninstructionmanualforcopywriters.Theystate:

“thepointofthistextbookissimplytoputondisplaythetechniquesof

semioticanalysis,nottoprovideaseriesofcriticalinterpretationsof

adsandcommercials.”(p.31)

Thisbookcomprisesjustfourchaptersandbeginswithageneraloverviewof

advertising,itshistoryanditsentrenchmentinsocialdiscourse.Itmovesonto

providingasummaryofsemiotictheoriesandprinciplesincludingsignification

andtheculturalaspectsofsemiotics,anditbrieflyoutlinestherolesemiotics

playsinmodernadvertisingapproaches.Thesecondchapter,entitled“Creating

recognizabilityfortheproduct”,instructsreadershowtouseinsightsfrom

semiotics,suchassignificationsystems,iconicityandmyths,indesigning

advertisements.Thethirdchapter,titled“Creatingtextuality”,discusses

techniquesincopywritingusingsemioticconcepts.Thefinalchapter,

45RonBeasleyis,atthetimeofwriting,thePresidentofABM,amarketresearchcompanywhichconductsqualitativeresearchinkeyglobalmarketstoprovidedirectionforthecustodiansofglobalbrandswhentheyaredevelopingmarketingandcommunicationsstrategies.TheirmajorclientsarecompanieslikeAB-InBev(producersofStellaArtois,Budweiser,Corona),BurgerKing,BrasilFoods,PepsiCo,Kellogg'sandUnilever.(Pers.2014)46MarcelDanesiisprofessorofanthropologyattheUniversityofToronto.Heisbestknownforhisworkinsemioticsandyouthculture(UniversityofTorontowebpage,n.d).

122

“Advertisingandculture”,outlinesmoreasophisticatedviewofsignification

systems,andmovesontoproposingtheimplicationsofusingsemiotic

advertisingmethodsintheindustry,forpromotingconsumerismandconsiders

advertisingasanartform.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)donotofferanycomment

regardinghoweffectiveanyparticularadvertisementsareinpersuading

viewerstopurchasetheproductstheyarepromoting.

Inquirieswiththoseuniversitieswheretherewasagreementtocooperatewith

thisstudyrevealedthat,whilesemioticswassometimesincludedinthesyllabi

foradvertisingandmarketingcourses,linguistics-relatedsubjectsdidnot

featureinanyrespect.Whenaskedaboutpragmatics,itbecameclearthatthere

wasacompletelackofawarenessamongteachersandcourseadministratorsof

whatthissubjectwasaboutorwhatitencompassed.Noneofthetextbooksor

coursematerialsexaminedwerefoundtomakeanyreferencetopragmaticsand

thetermisnotmentionedintheirindices.Theremainderofthischapter

thereforecomprisesasummaryofthecontentofthebooksmentionedby

universitieswheretheyexplainsemioticprinciples,orwheretheymake

referencetolinguisticphenomena(suchasmetaphors).Thisisinorderto

identifyanytheoreticalframeworksrelevanttothisstudywithwhich

advertisingpractitionersmayhavebeenfamiliar,havingbeenintroducedto

themduringtheirtraining.

5.4SIGNIFICATION

BeasleyandDanesi(2002)considertheuseofsignifiersbyadvertisers,although

notinspecificadvertisements.Theyrefertothenamechosenforarangeofcars

producedbytheJapanesemanufacturers,Honda.Thesevehiclesweremarketed

underthebrandAcuraandthisname,theyassert,combinesanarrayof

associations,orsignifieds,namely:

123

o Accuracy:thelinkis,theyclaim,self-evident

o Japanesetechnology:thecommonviewthatJapanisatthe

cuttingedgeoftechnology

o Italianlanguage:regardedasattractiveandthusthelanguage

oflove,poetryandsong,butalsoart,romanceandstyle

o Femininity:the–asuffixindicatesfeminineinItalian

grammar

Consequently,asignificationsystemisgeneratedbythenameAcurawhich

presentsthecarinquestionasonewhichismanufacturedwithJapanese

technology,andisthereforeaccurate,yetitisalsoItalianandtherefore

melodious,beautiful,poetic,artisticandromantic.Itisnotpossibletoestablish

whetheralloftheassociationsincludedinBeasleyandDanesi’slistwereinthe

mindoftheindividualswhodevisedandapprovedthisnameatthetime.

Certainly,thephoneticsimilaritybetweenthenameAcuraandtheadjective

accuracyisundeniableandtheprobabilityofalinkisstrong;thereisroomfor

doubtthatalloftheotherclaimedsignifiedswereintended,orwouldbe

universallyidentified.Inparticular,theclaim:“thesignifierhasbeenconstructed

atthesametimetobeimitativeofthestructureofanItalianword”(p.23)

appearstobeintuitiveand,assuch,islessconvincing.Itshouldbenotedthat

thisisaJapaneseproduct,andbothJapaneseandItaliannounscanendinthe–a

phonemewithbrandslikeHonda,NomuraandYamaha,butitisonlyinthe

Romancelanguages,suchasItalian,thatitfunctionsmorphologicallytodenote

thefeminine.Thisraisesquestionsastoboththedegreetowhichthiswouldbe

knownbypotentialreaders,andwhetherthiswasintendedinthe

advertisement’sdesign.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)appeartoassumethatthe

sensoryrepresentationofthenameAcuraautomaticallyresultsincertain

connotationsbeingtransmitted,regardlessofanyculturalknowledge.

Anotherexampletheymentioninrelationtothegenerationofsystemsof

significationisthatofadvertisementsforhighheelshoes,whichtheyclaim

occuralmostweeklyinthousandsofmagazinesacrosstheworld.Theypoint

124

outthattheoriginalpurposeofshoeswouldhavebeentoprotectthefeet

evenwhenwalkingondifficultterrain.Onthatbasis,shoesoughttobe

viewedasfunctionalandsocomfortandprotectionwouldbethechief

considerationswhenselectingthem.Inspiteofthembeingboth

uncomfortableandpotentiallyhazardous,high-heelshoeshavebecome

hugelypopularamongwomen47.Theauthorsattributethisphenomenon,

andthesuccessofsuchadvertisements,totheunderlyingsignification

systeminwhichcertaintypesofgarbareassociatedwithsexuality.High-

heelshoesare,accordingtoBeasleyandDanesi(2002),fetishesandthey

claimthatafetishisasignthatevokesdevotiontoitself(p.30).Theysuggest

thatputtingonhigh-heelshoesisassociatedwithputtingonstockingsand

thattheactofdoingthisisitselferotic,sotheyappeartobeimplyingthatthe

“signified”ofhigh-heelshoesissexualpotency.

Thisisunconvincingforanumberofreasons.First,theclaimthat

advertisementsforhigh-heelshoesareprevalentdoesnotappeartobetrue48.

Aperusalthroughahandfulofpopularwomen’smagazinesundertakenby

thewriterofthisthesisuncoveredzeroexamplesofadvertisements

specificallyforhigh-heelshoes.Thisperceptionisconfirmedbythe

advertisingexecutiveforthepopularwomen’sjournalMarieClaire,Angela

Rawstorne,whostatesthat,whilesomebrandmarketingmayoccurfortop

endadvertising,suchasJimmyChooandManoloBlahnik,orgeneral

advertisingforshoemanufacturersandretailerssuchasClark’sandRussell

andBromley,itwouldbeunusualtomakeanadvertisementspecificallyfor

high-heelshoes(Rawstorne,pers.2014).Secondly,whileitmaybe

commonplaceforwomendepictedineroticizedcontextstobewearing

certainstylesofshoeswithveryhighheels,itcouldbedisputedthatthe

correlationbetweentheseanderoticismisstraightforwardorinevitable.Itis

47Thisappliestomoderntimesinwesterncultures.High-heelshoeshavebeenwornbybothsexesinpreviouscenturiesandinothercultures.

48Itappearstobeuntrueatthetimeandlocationofwriting.Ithastoberememberedthat

BeasleyandDanesi’s(2002)bookwaspublishedtwelveyearsbeforethisthesis–andinadifferentcountry(Canada).

125

takenforgrantedinwesternculturesthatthereisanassociationbetween

eroticismandhighheelsandresearchexiststhatsuggeststhisrelatesto

sexualdimorphismandperceptionsofdesiredfemininetraits(Wouters,

2010;Clark,etal.2012).Oneofthetraitsconsideredissmallfeetor,atleast,

theimpressionofsmallfeetthatwearinghighheelscanconvey(Fessleretal,

2005).Othercommentators(e.g.Morrisetal,2012;Young,2013;Guéguen,

2015)reportthatthroughemphasizingsuchtraitsassmallfeetandan

alteredgait,highheelsareassociatedwithattractiveness.Whileitmaybe

arguedthatalinkexistsbetweeneroticizationandattractiveness,theyare

farfrombeingentirelyequivalent.Reasonsevenmoreremotefrom

eroticizationmayalsoexistforwearinghighheels,suchasbeingrequiredto

conformtoacertainstandardofformality(Wendt,1996)ortoshow

conformitytocurrentfashions(Parmentier,2016).Ifthisisthecase,then

thereasonsforwearinghighheelsaremorecomplexthanproposedbythe

claimthattheyarenothingmorethansignifiersofsexualpotency.Itcould

thereforebeadvantageousforadvertiserstorealizethateroticismmaynot

betheonly,orevenforemost,considerationinawoman’smindwhen

choosingherfootwear.

Advertisementsdesignedtoengenderconnotationssuchaseroticisminthe

mindsofconsumersareamenabletosemioticanalysisasassociated

signifiers,signifiedsandsignificationsystemsarereadilyidentifiable.

However,neglectingthecontextualdimensionislikelytoproduceatbestan

incompleteand,atworst,awhollyincorrect,analysis.Thisisbecausethe

analystmaynotbeabletoavoidprojectinghisorherowncultural

knowledgeupontheelementsindividuallyandincombination,asmightwell

havehappenedinthisinstance.Italsohighlightsthepossibilityofa

disconnectbetweentheproducerofanadvertisementandthereceiver,as

theintentionbehindthesignsmaybesomethingotherthanwhatis

perceived.Advertisershavetooperatewithinnarrowconfinesintermsboth

ofthephysicalspaceavailabletothemintheadvertisement(e.g.thepageor

thebillboard)andtheexpectedattentionthataviewerislikelytoafford

them.Thatmeanstheyinevitablyunderdeterminethesignifiersandhope

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thatareaderstillrecoversallthedenotative(information)input,plusmuch

oftheconnotative(persuasion)input,andthereforeitwillstillbeeffective.

Anyadvertisementthatisnotunderstood,orthatdoesnotpromptcloser

attention,wouldhavemisseditsopportunitytofulfillitspurpose.

5.5DENOTATION,CONNOTATIONANDMYTHS

BeasleyandDanesi(2002)considerchoicesofbrandnamesandshowhowthey

areconstructedtogeneratespecificsignificationsystemtypes.Theyclaimthat

oneswhicharefoundedonestablishedmanufacturerorcompanynamesare

abletocapitalizeoncertainqualitiessuchastradition,reliabilityor

sophisticationandciteasexamplesArmaniandGillette(pp.53-54).Other

namesmayappertaintoafictitiouspersonality,e.g.theRonaldMcDonaldclown

character;sometoageographicallocationorarea,e.g.SouthernBell;someto

nature,e.g.Surf,oranactivityinthenaturalenvironment,e.g.FordExplorer;

somearehyperbolic,e.g.SuperFresh;someareblendwords,e.g.Fruitopia;many

aredesignedtosaywhattheproductcandoorcanbeaccomplishedbyit,e.g.

EasyWipeandAirFresh(ibid).Whilethesenameshavelargelydenotative

meanings,i.e.bydenotingtheproductstowhichtheyreferatapracticaland

informationallevel,generatingconnotativemeaningsisaconsciousbrand

strategy,aswithwordsthatareassociatedwithnatureorafictitiouspersonality

andthus,accordingtoBeasleyandDanesi(2002):

“Itcreatesasemiotically-powerfulsignificationsystemforitthatcan

beusedorreusedforvariousadvertisingpurposes.”(p.56).

Aaker(2010)suppliesanearlyexampleofusingfictitiouscharactersfor

brandingwithanexampleoftheKodakcamera.ThisUScompanyhaddeveloped

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camerasaimedforthefirsttimeatamateurswithlittleknowledgeofthescience

ofphotographyandwhich,in1888,borethecaption“Youpressthebutton,wedo

therest”(p.4)andasimilarexamplecanbeseeninAppendix4:image17,below.

Itwentontointroducetwocharacters,theBrownieboyandtheKodakgirl,and

theyshowedscenesespeciallyoffamilies,children,dogsandfriends.Theclear

intentionherewastogeneratesignstoremindthosewhoseethemthat,thanks

toKodak’ssimplecamerasystem,evenachildcouldoperate,importantand

memorablemomentscouldbecapturedforposterity.Theusehereof

charactersassociatedwithabrandiscommonplaceinbrandbuilding.Aaker

(2010)mentionsthePillsburyDoughboyandconsumersarealsolikelytobe

familiarwithfictitious,yetlikable,characterswhoareusedinbrandingsuchas

theMichelinman(usedtoadvertiseMichelintyres)orevenrealpersonalities,

especiallythosewhoareregardedasthefoundersoforganisations,suchasthe

lateColonelHarlandDavisSanders(KentuckyFriedChicken)andSteveJobs

(AppleCorporation).

Connotationthroughbrandcharacteralsorelatestodesignerand

aspirationalproducts.GucciandFerrariare,intermsoftheirdenotation,

simplybrandnames,butthisisextendedthroughconnotationtothekinds

ofpeoplewhoreadersmayassociatewiththemandtheirimpressionsof

thelifestylestheyenjoy.Suchconnotationsarenotinvokedbynameless

brands:ahighqualityhandbagmightbeavailablefromasupermarketasan

ownbrandname,butitwillnotinvokethesameconnotationsasone

bearingtheHermeslabel,regardlessofitsstyleandquality.Mythsare

largelycreatedwiththeaidofsignificationsystemsandBeasleyandDanesi

(2002:p.59)considerthesignifiersforGuccihigh-heelshoes.The

denotationis,theystate,thatthebrandnameallowsreaderstoidentifythe

productforshoppingpurposes.Thisisextendedintowhattheyrefertoas

“extensionalconnotation”(p.59)and,inthecaseofGucci’sshoes,this

meansthebrandnameallowsthereadertofeelsheisbuyinga“workof

shoeart”(ibid).Lastly,theyofferafurtherextensionwhichtheycallthe

“socialconnotation”(ibid)andthiswouldbeeroticperceptionsinvokedby

thehigh-heelshoes.

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BeasleyandDanesi(2002)discusstextandtextualityinadvertising.They

remindthereaderthattheword“text”insemiotictheoryreferstotheputting

togetherofsignifiersinordertoproduceamessageandtheydescribetextuality

inadvertisementsasbeingthemodesbywhichtheyaremadeonthebasisofthe

significationsystemsthathavebeengeneratedforthembytheadvertiser.

Textualityisalteredandrenewedinadvertisementsinordertoperpetuate

neomania,i.e.thecravingsfornewproducts(seeSubchapter2.6).Generating

thisdependsnotjustuponaddingorchangingproductfeatures,butalsoonthe

constantupdatingofthesignifiers.Itcanbereinforcedbyfriendlyorhumorous

slogansandjingles,asintheoneforAlkaSeltzer.“Plopplop,fizz,fizz”,thechoice

ofmusic(inTVandradiocommercials)andthecreationofcharacters,suchas

RonaldMcDonald(McDonald’s).Apartfromneomania,usingthesefeaturesover

aperiodoftimecanbehelpfulinsecuringbrandloyaltybyconstructingastable

productpersonality(Aaker,2010).Theimplicationisthat,foradvertisingtobe

successful,copywritersmustworkonpublicperceptions,constantlyrenewing

publicawarenessandpromotingloyaltybychangingthesignifiersthatreferto

thesamesignifiedssothattheyareseenafresh.WhilenotmentionedbyBeasley

andDanesi(2002),thisconceptisreminiscentofanotionwithinliterarytheory,

namely“automatization”,asmentionedinSubchapter2.5above,andthisis

explainedbyCrawford(1994)inhiscritiqueofShklovsky’stheoryof

defamiliarization:

“Perceptionisthecenterofaestheticexperience,andperceptioncan

onlybeestablishedbyeffectinga(textual)difference:tobreakdown

theindifferentrecognitionofautomatization.”(p.210)

Withtheexceptionofclassifiedadsandcertainspecializedortrade

advertisements,itcouldbeassumedthatthoselookingatadvertisementsin

magazinesaremostly,andatleasttosomedegree,opentoaesthetic

experiencesastheywouldbewithliterature.Thiscanalsoaccountforthe

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useofartistic(imageryandgraphological)andliterarydevicesin

advertisingtexts.

5.6INTERTEXTUALITYANDCONNOTATIVECHAINS

Asubtextthatexistswithinatextisameaningwhichisencodedthrough

connotationswhichtheproducerintendsthereceivertorecover:wheretheonly

intendedmeaningistheliteralone,thereisnosubtext.Asmentioned,almostall

advertisements,withthepossibleexceptionofclassifiedadvertisements,aimto

bestimulatingtosomedegreeandrhetoricaldevicesincludingpuns,ambiguity

andmetaphor,aretoolscopywriterscanemploy.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)

exemplifythiswithaBudweiserbeeradvertisementshowingtwoyoungmen

whoare:

“Hangingouttogether,performingbizarremalebondingritualsand

generallyexpressingculturallybasednotionsofmalesexuality.The

subtextintheseadsis:You’reoneoftheguys,bud”(p70)

Intercodalityoccurswhereasubtextiscreatedbycombiningseveralcodesin

tandem.ThisnotionisillustratedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002:pp70-73)by

wayofanadvertisementinwhichthetextisencodedinthreesegments;these

aretheproductname,whichhasbeencarefullyselectedtogeneratedesired

connotations,theartcode,whichincludeslogosandtrademarks,andthemusic

code,whichwouldincludethecompositionofjingles.Themakerand

interpreterofanadvertisementmusthaveaccesstothesamecodesifitistobe

successfullydecoded(interpreted).BeasleyandDanesi(2002)continuewitha

detaileddescriptionofanadvertisementforIroncologne,whichappearedin

Cosmopolitanmagazineduringthe1990s.Inthisadvertisement,amanis

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depictedinapassionateembraceofawomanandthisimageisaccompaniedby

anothershowingthebottlesprayingsomeofitscontents.Alongsidesitsthe

capitalizedtext“PUMPSOMEIRON”.Theyclaimthat,“atthedenotativelevel”(p.

72),themessageappearstobeurgingthereadertoenjoyanenergeticand

satisfyingsexlifethrough“pumpingiron”,andbyeitherusingthecologneor

buyingitforamalepartner.Fromtheelementspresentintheadvertisement,

theydrawaseriesofinferenceswhichpointtosexualconnotations,including

suggestingthatthesprayfunctionsasametaphorforejaculationandthe

referencetopumpingironinsinuatesmasturbation(p.73).

ApossiblecriticismwhichmaybeleveledatBeasleyandDanesi(2002),and

otherswhoattempttoaccountforthereasoningprocessesadvertisers,is

thattheyconsistofassumptionsderivedfromtheiranalysisofthe

advertisementsandtheelementsfromwhichtheyarecomposed.These

assumptionsrelatetomeaningsbeyondthosewhicharepresentatthe

surfacelevel.ThesubtextssuggestedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002)forboth

theBudweiserandtheIroncologneadvertisementsmayormaynotreflect

theintentionsoftheadvertiserandtheinterpretationofthereceiver.This

cannotreasonablybeestablishedanditisnotwithintheaimsofthisthesisto

attempttodoso.Itcan,however,beproposedthatitisentirelypossiblethat

theseauthorshaveover-interpretedtheirtexts,thattheyhavemisidentified

metaphorsandrecoveredlayersofmeaningthatwereneverintended.From

thepointofviewofthereceiver,noattemptismadetoexplaintheprocessby

which(a)themessageofsolidarityintheBudweiseradvertisementand(b)

thesupposedadditionalsexualmeaningsintheIroncologneadvertisement,

whichareclaimedtobesubtexts,areactuallyrecovered,ortheroleplayed

byanypre-existingknowledgeinachievingtheintendedunderstanding.

Whileintertextualityisatopicreferredtobymanyauthorsofadvertisingtexts,

itspresenceinadvertisingisdescribedinthecontextoftheoryratherthan

taughtasatechnique.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)relatehowthisisusedina

coupleofadvertisementsandthefirstoftheseisforasparklingwinecalled

MarilynPeach.This,theyclaim,hasanobvioussubtextrelatingtotheBiblical

notionoftemptation,withsignifierspresentincludingabackgroundwhich

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includesaGardenofEdenscene,EvetemptingAdamandaserpentintheform

ofabracelet.TheseconddescribesaTVadvertisementforMillerbeerinwhich

ayoungmaninabarseesayoungwomanwhomaybeconsideredattractiveand

headsforher,blockingapossiblerivalintheprocess.Thereisavoice-over

duringthiscommercialwhichprovidescommentaryontheactioninthestyleof

anAmericanfootballannouncerandendingwiththemessage“Loveisagame”

appearingonthescreen.Thevieweristhusinvitedtodrawtheparallelsand

recognizetheintertextbetweenwinningasexualcontestandwinninginsport;

thisappliesnotjustintermsoftherealworld,i.e.thebehaviourssuchasmoving

andblocking,butalsolinguistically,assportsmetaphorscanbeusedinsexual

contexts,asin“makingaplay”and“scoring”.Inadditiontothis,thereisa

furtherintertextbetweentheloveandsportthemes,andthegenreoftelevision

sportscommentary(ibid).

ConnotationandsubtextsarefurtherdiscussedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002)in

anattempttoexplainhowadvertisementsareabletotapintowhatiscalledthe

“buyingmotive”(p.96).Theydistinguishbetweenthesurfacelevelof

advertisingtexts,namelythetechniquessuchascharactersandjingles,andthe

underlyingsubtextinwhichthesignificationsystemisstructuredaround

connotativesignifieds.Thereafter,theyattempttodemonstratetheroleplayed

bytextualitythroughdecodingaselectedadvertisement,identifyingits

connotativestructureofsubtextsandexaminingtheverbalandnonverbal

elementsusedinconstructingthesesubtexts.Theadvertisementanalysed

illustratedtheuseofarangeoftechniquesincludingitslayoutanddesign,and

theuseofambiguity.Itwasaprintedadvertisementwhichwasdominatedby

animageofagroupofyoungmeninblack,yetcasual,attirewithopencollars,

andwasforacolognebyVersacecalledVersus.Intheanalysis,theauthors

highlightrangesofconnotationsachievedthroughsignificationandamongthese

isopposition.Thenameofthecologne,Versus,whichcrossesovertheentire

advertisement,impliesthisopposition.ItisspeculatedbyBeasleyandDanesi

(2002)that,astheyoungmenareabletoaffordfashionableclothingandan

exclusivebrandofcologne,theyarelikelytobeaffluent.Assuch,themen

depictedprobablywearbusinesssuitsduringtheday,buttheycrossoverintoa

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mysteriousandsomewhatdarkerrealmintheirleisuretime,signaledbytheir

sartorialchoicesandadashofVersus,andareabletoaccessanunderworldof

carnalpleasures.BeasleyandDanesi(2002:p.99)proposefurther,yethidden,

signifiersandsignifiedsassociatedwiththeadvertisementshouldbeconsidered,

includingtheprevalenceoftheletter“V”anditsshape.Asidefromthewords

VersusandVersacebothbeginningwiththisletter,theshapeofitisalsoevident

inotherelements,suchastheopen-neckedshirtsofthemodels.Ithasthe

possibilityofconnotingafissureorcleftthatconjuresamentalrelationto

femalesexualanatomy,andremindingthereaderthattheword“vagina”also

beginswitha“v”.Ontheotherhand,theysuggestthepresenceofmalemodels

only,onemodelwearingablackleatherhatandanotherablackleatherjacket,

maybeunderstoodtoimplyhomoeroticgratification,especiallyiftheviewer

recallsthatthelateGianniVersacewasadeclaredhomosexual.Anumberof

allusionsaremadetotheAncientGreekgodofwineandcarnalpleasures,

Dionysus,andparallelsaredrawnbetweenthecarefreeandshamelesslifestyle

oftheimaginedcharactersasportrayedbythemodels,andthismythicaldeity

(ibid).Theauthorsintimatethatperfumeandcolognebottlesaremostoften

designedtobelittleartistictokens,sometimesevensculpturedandwith

meaningsembeddedthatsuggestthepersonalitythemanufacturerintendsfor

theproduct,andthatthisfacilitatesthesemeaningsbeingtextualisedintheir

advertising.Amorerecentexampleofthisphenomenoncanbeseenwiththe

maleandfemalebodyshapesusedinperfumebottlesbyJeanPaulGaultier.For

perfumeandotherproducts,thedistinctivedesignofbottlesandotherkindsof

packagingmaybeacentralfeatureofthesignificationsystemthemanufacturer

hasdevised.BeasleyandDanesi(2002:p.100)refertotheclassicbottleshapes

ofCoca-ColaandChanel,whileBritishreadersmaybeequallyfamiliarwith

thoseofHPSauce,MarmiteandDimplewhisky.Theygoontoclaimthatthe

multiplicityofpossibleinterpretationsofadvertisements,e.g.theambiguityof

theVersusadvertisementanditspotentialtobereadfromaheterosexualor

homosexualperspective,imparts“ahighconnotativeindextotheproduct’s

textuality”(p.102)andthustheopportunitytorepeatedlyusethesame

signifiersinfutureadvertisementsandachievethesameeffects.Theyclaim:

133

“Themoreinterpretationsthereare,themorethemoretheproduct

canbeshieldedfromhavingitssignificationsystem‘unmasked’.

Becausethevariousconnotativemeaningsgeneratedbythesubtext

areinterconnectedtotheothernetworksofmeaningsthatarepresent

inaculture,thead’ssignificationsystemis,ipsofacto,intertextual,

linkingitsviewertothisnetwork…”(ibid)

ThisassertioninrespectoftheVersusadvertisementislessthancompellingfor

reasonsthatareexplained.Allenpointsoutthatmoderntheoristsregardtheact

ofreadingasplungingthereaderintoanetworkoftextualrelations.The

interpretationofatextthusinvolvestracingthoserelationsandmoving

betweentexts(Allen,2000:p.1).Fairclough(1992)drawsadistinction

betweenmanifestandconstitutiveintertextuality.Manifestintertextuality

referstothatwhichisoftensignifiedbyquotationmarks,andcantakeforms

suchasparodyandnegation.Constitutiveintertextuality,ontheotherhand,isa

farbroaderconceptwhich:“referstothecomplexrelationofgenresordiscourse

types’conventions”andis“theconfigurationofdiscoursetypeswhenthetext

produced”(p.85).Clearly,theformerdoesnotapplyintheVersusexampleas

nodirectorindirectquotationsorevenallusionsaremade.Theclaimfor

constitutiveintertextualityisalsotenuous.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)assume

theexistenceofadialoguebetweenthistext,theadvertisement,andothertexts

yettheyareobviouslyunabletospecifywhichtextstheyareastheyvaryfrom

readertoreader49.

TheVersusadvertisementisre-examinedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002)from

theaspectofconnotationandsuggestedcognitiveprocesses.Theseprocesses,

whichconsistofsimilarity,difference,contiguity,intensityandassociation,are

49Fromapragmaticperspective,therangeofinterpretationsavailableduetothe'indirectness'usedinsuchadvertisingprovidesthepossibilityofdeniability,especiallywhereinnuendoispresent(Tanaka,1994).

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saidtoworkintandeminordertogeneratecognitivechainsasthehumanmind

isdisposedtolinkmeaningstogetheraccordingtoitsownculture-specificlogic

Thefirstchainsuggestedisexplicatedasfollows:

“V-shape=femininity=sexuality=forbiddenpleasures=sado-

Masochisticeroticism=etc”(p.104).

TheDionysusallusion,whichissupposedlypresentinthesubtextoftheVersus

advertisement,ismentionedagainaspartoftheconnotativeprocessinthat

VersusisameanstofulfillDionysianurges(ibid).BeasleyandDanesi(2002)

supplementthisbydescribinganumberofotheradvertisementsthattheyhave

foundinpopularlifestylemagazinesinthelate1990s.Theseincludethemes

andimagesrelatingto:

• ThestoryofNarcissus(DooneyandBurke,manufacturerofbagsand

fashionaccessories)

• Thepresenceofasatyr,ofwhichtheauthorsclaim“inGreekmythology

wasaminorwoodlanddeity,attendantonBacchus”50(RemyMartin

cognac).

• Hermes,sonoftheRomangod,Zeus,andwhowasreputedlyheroic,

cunningand“anembodimentofextrememobility”(ibid).(FTDFlorist)

• Aphrodite,Greekgoddessofloveandbeauty(Givenchy)

• Apollo,theGreekgodofmusicandpoetry,andDaphne,thenymphwith

whomApollowasinfatuated(GennyBoutique)

• TheGreekgoddessGaia,whowasthepersonificationoftheearth

(Prada)(pp.105-107)

50Thismaybeanerrorbytheauthors.Bacchuswas,infact,agodoftheAncientRomans,althoughhewasequatedwithDionysus.SatyrswereafeatureofGreekmythology.

135

BeasleyandDanesi(2002)claimthepoweroftheartworkswhichprovide

thenarrativesfortheseadvertisementsistobefoundthrough“evokingthe

connotativechainsthatmythsinvariablygenerate”(p.107).

Thechoiceoftheword“invariably”byBeasleyandDanesi(2002)is

optimistic.Evokingthedesiredconnotativechainsmustsurelydepend

upontheexistenceofthenecessaryencyclopaedicknowledgeinthemindof

thereader:withoutsuchknowledge,theallusionsarewastedandany

connotativechainisbroken.Thismightnotbeanissueforareaderwho

hasbenefittedfromaclassicaleducation,butwhethercharacterssuchas

Dionysus,DaphneorGaia,andthelegendsassociatedwiththem,wouldbe

recognizedbyatypicalreader,orasEco(1979)referstosuchanindividual,

a“modelreader”(seeSubchapter2.9,above),ifsuchanentityexists,isa

mootpoint.Thepossibilitiesfortherangesofmeaningsoffered,alongwith

intentionalambivalences,byintertextualityandconnotativechainscan,in

theoryatleast,beexploitedbyproducersoftextswhoareabletodesign

themsoastoofferdifferentinterpretationstodifferentreaders.Theyare,

however,reliantuponassumedpre-existingknowledge,including

knowledgeofothertexts.Withagenresuchasadvertising,wherethereare

veryspecificandpracticalgoalsintermsofchangingreaderbehaviour,itis

surelydangerousforanalyststomakesuchassumptionsaboutreaders,let

alonepresentthesetostudentsasanythingotherthanconjecture.Beasley

andDanesi(2002)mayhavebeenentirelycorrectwhentheyidentifiedthe

intendedsubtextsandmultiplemeaningsavailable,andtheirmappingof

theconnotativechainsintheVersusadvertisement.Ontheotherhand,

someoftheintertextualityandconnotationsperceivedbyBeasleyand

Danesi(2002)maynothaveeverenteredthemindsoftheirproducers.

Whatisperhapsmoresignificantisthatonecannotfullyascertainthe

extentofunderstandingorthevariationsofinterpretationsofthosewho

haveviewedthisadvertisement.Arguably,thishighlightsalimitationthat

appliestoallsemioticandlinguistictheoriestovaryingdegreesaswellas

theadvantagesofundertakingpracticalresearchtotestandvalidate,or

refute,theoreticalapproaches.Therecanthusbenotruescienceof

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advertising,sinceitisultimatelydependentuponthevagariesofthe

interpretativecapacitiesandpropensitiesofbothpractitionersand

consumers.Theories(bothsemioticandpragmatic)whichattemptto

accountfortheinterpretativeprocessesare,asaconsequence,themselves

characterizedbyvaguenessandlackofcorroborationorverification.

5.7PRODUCTANDBRANDNAMES

Oneofthewaysbywhichtextualityiscreatedinanytextisbytheuseof

figurativelanguage.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)considertwootherperfume

advertisements,beginningwithVolupté,byOscardelaRenta.Theynotethe

name,whichtheyclaimistheFrenchwordfor“voluptuousness”(p.113),the

shapeofthebottleandthephrase“Trustyoursenses”(ibid)positionedbelow

theimageofthebottle.Theyalsoclaimtheshapeofthebottlecap:“ishighly

suggestiveofanarousednipple–asignofsuccessfulsexualforeplay”51(p.114).

Thisassociationisreinforcedbythemultipleinterpretationsofthephrasefrom

theonewhichismoreliteral,i.e.encouragingthereadertotrustherolfactory

senseinconfirmingthehighqualityoftheproduct,toaloosersetofmeanings

thatencompassallthesensesandthesensualitywhichisassociatedwith

voluptuousness.TheVoluptéadvertisementiscontrastedwithonefora

fragrancecalledL’Effleur,andwhichfocusesinsteadonromanceandloverather

thansexuality.Itusesvisualsignifiersincludingflowers,butterflies,angels,a

littlegirlandamodelinawhitedress,tocreateanimageofidyllicloveandthis

isreinforcedmetaphoricallybythepresenceofashortlovepoematthebottom

(ibid).Thepoemusesmetaphors,suchasmentioningthatloveis“fragrant”and

refersto“theonewhogaveusyesterdays”.BeasleyandDanesi(2002)notehow

brandnamescanalsooperatemetaphorically,andinwhichthedenotative

51ThisauthorhasnotedthatthebottleshapeappearstohavealteredsinceBeasleyandDanesi’sbookandbelievesthenew,straightershapeismuchlesslikelytoinvokesuchanassociation.

137

meaningsareintendedtobeignored,whereasarangeofconnotations

associatedwiththatnameareinvokedandtheseconveyinformationor

impressionsoftheproduct.AmongtheexamplesgivenarePoisonperfumeand,

inthisexample,thereceiverisnotexpectedtobelievethattheproductisalethal

substance,butrathertheyaredesignedtoelicitmoreglamorous,and

particularlyculture-specific,connotations,suchasmysteryandsorcery(ibid).

Theyshowhowthisstrategyisusedtoconveyspecificanddesiredconceptions

ofcarmodelswithincertaincategories.Theyincludethosewhicharesuggestive

ofmovementandexplorationwithproductnameslikeProbeandRangeRover;

thosewithsocialconnotationsrelatedtoanimalssuchasBeetle,Coltand

Mustang;thosewhichsuggestthecarisafriendorhelpersuchasEscort;those

whichimplyalifestyle,likeMetro;artisticconnotationssuchasSonataand

Prelude;thosewithchicorexoticconnotationslikeCavalierandGrandPrixand,

lastly,thosewhichinvitethoughtsofnatureortribal-mythicalprimordiality,

suchasFirebirdandSundance(pp.116-119).

Itcanbeseenthatmanyproductnamesforcars,andothercommodities,are

wordswhichhaveapre-existinglinguisticmeaningsemanticallyunrelatedto

theproductandBeasleyandDanesi(2002)saythisposesasemioticdilemma.

Forexample,aRabbit52isawordwhichdenotesatypeofcaraswellasan

animalso,theyargue,theword“rabbit”hastworeferentsratherthanjustone.It

is,therefore,assertedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002)thattheproductname

functionsinasimilarwaytoametaphor,wherethedenotationoftheword

remainsunaltered,butcertaindesiredconnotationsaretransferredfromthat

meaningtoanotherreferent.Atypicaldenotationfor“metaphor”asalinguistic

phenomenonisofferedbyMcGregor(2009)“…thesenseofanexpressionis

extendedtoanotheronthebasisofaresemblance”(p.131).However,ingeneral

parlance,thisisfurtherextendedbeyondexpressionsto,forexample,physical

objects,asBrierley(2002)notes:

52TheRabbitcarismanufacturedbyVolkswagenandismarketedinEuropean

countriesastheGolf.

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“Advertisersalsotrytoestablishtheirproductsandbrandsas

metaphors.Ahighperformancecarcanbecomeametaphorfor

success.Advertiserstrytomaketheirbrandsomnipotent.In

doingsoadvertiserstrynotonlytoattachmeaningstotheir

brands,buttoattachbrandstomeanings…”(p.144)

InthecaseoftheRabbitcar,thedenotationoftheword“rabbit”remainsthatof

alargerodent,butthehumanmindautomaticallylooksforinterconnectedness

whereonereferentisnamedafteranother.LakoffandJohnson(1980)illustrate

howthehumanconceptualsystemisattunedtowardsfindingexperiential

similaritiesandarelationcanbequicklyidentifiedbetweenthequalitiesofa

rabbitandthoseofasmallyetsprightlycar.Takingforgrantedtheintended

associationsbetweenthecarandtheanimal,whetherBeasleyandDanesi

(2002)arecorrectinclaimingthatproductnamessuchasthisaremetaphorical

isperhapsstretchingthedefinitionofmetaphortoofar.Inexploringthis

assumption,anothertechnologicalobjectnamedafterananimal,namelya

computermouse,canbeconsidered.Thedevicedoessharecertain

characteristicswithitsnamesakeintermsofitssize,roundedshapeandits

cable,thelattercouldbeperceivedassimilartoatail.However,itcouldnotbe

claimedthat“mouse”,whenusedtorefertoacomputerperipheral,is

metaphorical.Whileitcouldbesaidthereisadifferenceinthatthe(car)Rabbit

isabrandedproductwhilea(computer)mouseisnowagenericproduct,that

doesnotimpactuponwhatametaphoris,i.e.itisaconceptwhichplaysarolein

howhumansunderstandabstractrealities.Itseemsfairtoassumethat,whena

computermouseisused,nothoughtisgenerallygiventotheanimalfromwhich

ittakesitsname:theword“mouse”functionsinasimilarwaytoahomonym

andanyparallelswhichwereimaginedwhenthisdevicewasendowedwithits

namearenolongerreadilyapparent.Itmaybethecasethataprospective

buyerofaRabbitcarwouldneverdirecttheirmindstowardsthesomewhat

largerrodentfromwhichthevehicle’snamederives,butthepossibilitythat

suchanassociationismade,andthatthisinsomewayinfluencesthepurchasing

decision,cannotbecompletelydiscounted.

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Metaphorfunctionsinthesamewayasanalogy,i.e.makingparallelsbetween

twootherwiseunrelatedphenomena,whereasmetonymsofferakindofverbal

shorthandbywhichonephenomenoncanbesubstitutedforanother,thistime

related,phenomenon.Therelationshipcanbethesubstitutionofeffectforcause,

objectforuser,substanceforformandnumerousothers(Chandler,2009).

Metonyms,andtheiruseinadvertising,aredescribedbyBrierley(2002)

althoughhisexamplesarefarnarrowerand,arguably,confusing.Theyraise

doubtsastowhetherhehasfullyunderstoodthepotentialofmetonymyasa

linguisticphenomenon.Oneofhisexamplesisfromanadvertisementwhich

appearedinthelate1990sorearly2000sforthenewspaperTheSundayTimes:

“TheSundayTimesistheSundaypapers”(Brierley,2002:p.147).Hestatesthat

thisstatementseekstoestablishthebrandbyusingmetonymy,sothatthe

readerorhearerassociatesthisonenewspaperwiththeentireproductgroup.

Whilethisisvalid,itcouldbecontendedthatconsumersmostcommonlyapply

metonymytobrandsandproductsthroughcoinage,asoccurswithproprietory

namessuchasaspirin,heroinandKleenex,andthrougheponymywithexamples

suchashooverandleotard.Someoftheseexamplesareold,butadvertisers

appeartobeawareofthebenefitsofusingmetonymytoassociatetheirbrand

withallproductsorservicesinthesameline.Morerecentexamplesmight

include:

“YoucandoitwhenyouB&Qit”(B&QStoresadvertisement,1987)

“ItallstartswithaNescafé”(Nescafécoffeeadvertisement–2015)

5.8RHETORICALDEVICES

Textswhichdescribethemethodsemployedbyadvertisers(e.g.Dyer1982;

Vestergaard&Schrøder;1985;Myers,1986;Myers,1994)generallydevote

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somespacetodiscussingtheuseofrhetoricaldevicessuchasjingles,rhyme,

alliterationandparallelism,andBeasleyandDanesi’s(2002)PersuasiveSignsis

noexception.BeasleyandDanesi(2002:pp120–121)pointoutthatjingles

andslogansreinforcetherecognisabilityofbrandnames.Imperatives,they

claim,givetheimpressionofanunseenauthoritativevoice53,whileformulas,as

in“Triumphhasabraforthewayyouare”(p.120)makemeaninglessstatements

thatsoundconvincing.Alliterationandparallelismarementionedseparately,

whichisperhapssurprisingastheformerisamanifestationofthelatterata

phoneticlevel.Absenceoflanguageisalsomentioned:

“Someadsstrategicallyavoidtheuseofanylanguagewhatsoever,

suggesting,byimplication,thattheproductspeaksforitself.”(ibid)

Areadermayrecallseeingadvertisements,especiallyinglossymagazines,

whichconsistoflittlemorethanverycarefullycrafted,enhancedandretouched

photographsdepictingparticularproducts,andusuallyaccompaniedbyoneor

morehumanmodels.Thisstrategyisgenerallyemployedforproducts

associatedwithlifestyleorglamour(Martínez-Camino&Pérez-Saiz,2012),and

isclearlyatthefarendoftheticklecline,asdescribedinSubchapter3.8above,

astheymakenoappealtoreason.Instead,theyarecalculatedtoattractthe

interestofthereceiverobliquely,throughsuchasemotionalappealand

aestheticappreciation,andtoachievethiswithminimalinformativecontent

requiresthattheviewerisalreadyfamiliarwiththespecificproductorbrand,

andtheimagerysimplybringsthesetomind.Theyalsomaximisethepotential

fortheviewertoaccessanalmostinfiniterangeofpossibleinterpretationsand

perhapsselectoneormorethatheorshefindsthemostrelevantorinspiring.

Unsurprisingly,thisstrategyseemstobefavouredforthosekindsofadvertising

53Imperativesarealsousedinanattemptatfriendlyorevenintimatepersuasion,asinaTVadvertisementforBailey’sIrishCream(2009)whichurgedviewers“Treatyourselftonight”.

141

thatareheavilyorexclusivelybrandoriented,suchastheGucciadvertisements

mentionedinSubchapter2.8above.

5.9RATIONALANDNON-RATIONALADVERTISING

BeasleyandDanesi(2002:pp.10-11)notethedistinctionbetweenwhatthey

callrationaladvertising,i.e.thatwhichappealstotheobjectiveandtherefore

rationalmind,andnon-rationaladvertisingthatappealstotheemotionsand

whichtheyclaimismoreassociatedwithelectronicmediasuchasradio,

televisionandtheinternet.Theyfurtherclaimthatthisdistinctionhasbeen

disappearingasmoreandmoreadvertisementsaredesignedtooperatealmost

exclusivelythroughemotions,thefocusbeingonproductpersonalityand

aspectsoflifestyleassociatedwiththeproduct.Thereissomecorrelationhere

withBernstein’s(1974)notionofreasonandtickle,ordirectandoblique

advertising,asmentionedinSubchapter3.5above.Thatisnottosaythereisa

perfectalignmentbetweenthembecausethatisnotthecase.First,whilethe

notionofrationaladvertisingseemsidenticaltoreason,thereisalessthan

perfectmatchbetweennon-rationalandtickle.Whilenon-rationalissimplyany

advertisementthatappealstoemotionratherthanreason,theobliquenessof

tickleinvolvestheaddresseeextendingthecontextwhichenablesthemto

achievethedesiredinterpretationthroughtheprincipleofrelevance.Afurther

differenceisthatBeasleyandDanesirefertothe“dichotomy”(Beasleyand

Danesi,2002:p.11)ofrationalandnon-rationaladvertisingapproaches.This

appearstocorrespondlooselywithSimpson(2001),whoconsidersreasonand

tickletobeaclineinwhichtheprocessislikenedtothesyntagmaticand

paradigmaticaxesfromJakobson’sstructuralisttheoryandthereforeoffersthe

possibilityofahalfwayhouse.WhileSimpsonisalinguisticsscholarandhasnot

beenfoundmentionedinadvertisingtrainingtexts,hisreasonandtickle

distinctionoriginatesfromtheworkofBernstein(1974),whowasan

advertisingexecutive.

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5.10BRANDBUILDINGANDBRANDRECOGNITION

Brandsactassignifiersinthesemioticsense,withbothadenotationandarange

ofpossibleconnotations.Theyinvokecontexts,relyinguponconsumers'

encyclopaedicknowledgeasSperberandWilson(1995)describeintermsof

previousexperienceof,orencounterswith,theirproductsand/orrecognitionof

previousadvertisingandbrandreputation.Onceestablished,brandshavea

valueoftheirown;thisvalueisanassetbelongingtothecompanyorindividual

whoownsitandhasmonetaryvalueinthesamewayasphysicalassets(Aaker,

2014).Takingawell-knownexample,asubstantialpartofthevalueoftheApple

Corporationisintheformofthebrandnameandthetrademarksassociated

withit.Itisthereforeintheinterestsofcompaniesandtheirshareholdersto

createstrongbrandsandmaintaintheirpowerassignifiers,andthisisachieved

bydevelopingbrandstrategies.Brandshavetheadvantagethattheycan

operateacrossarangeofproductsusuallyofsimilarorassociatedtypesandthe

significationandcontextarethustransferable.InthecaseofApple,theirrange

extendsacrosselectronicgoodssuchascomputers,notebooks,tabletsand

mobiletelephones.Thereare,however,brandswithevenmorediverseranges

ofproductsandservicesandtheirbrandsignificationistherebyexpansive.A

notableexampleofthisistheVirginGroup,whichmarketsawidearrayof

productsandservicessuchasrecordedmusic,othermediaincludingaradio

station,airtravelandholidays,hotels,trains,winesandsoftdrinks–allunder

thesamebrandnameandlogo(Finkle,2011).

Oneaspectofbrandbuildingdiscussedisbrandpersonality,andthisoccurs

whereanattemptismadetoassociateabrandwithasetofconsistentand

desiredhumantraits(Aaker,2010).Thisenablesabrandtoestablishakindof

remoterelationshipwithcustomers,invitingdesiredconnotationsand

increasingitsbrandequityatthesametime.ThewebsiteInvestopediaoffers

examplesofthesetraits:

Excitement:carefree,spirited,youthful

Sincerity:genuine,kind,family-oriented,thoughtful

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Ruggedness:rough,tough,outdoors,athletic

Competence:successful,accomplished,influential,aleader

Sophistication:elegant,prestigious,pretentious(Investopedia,2014)

Aaker(2010)pointstothePepsibrandasseekingtoportrayitselfasspirited

andyoung,andsorelatingtothe“Excitement”category,whiletheMarlboro

cigarettebranddepictsitsusersasrugged,outdoortypesandLexuscarsasa

sophisticatedandprestigiousbrand.WhileAaker(2010)doesnotsaythis,

thesecategoriesmaybeseentosomeextentasaspirationalintermsoflifestyle

andtheadvertisingthatisproducedwhichadvancesthesepersonalitiesis

highlydependentuponcarefullychosensignifiersinordertoinvokespecific

culturalmyths54.Anothermanifestationofbrandpersonalitycomesintheform

ofaquesttomakebrandsappeartobeasincereandtrustworthyfriendofthe

consumer.Inotherwords,thenaturalsuspicionthatconsumershaveofthe

motivesofadvertisersandtheveracityofclaimstheymakecanbeovercome

wheretherelationshipbetweenbrandandcustomerimitatesthatofpersonal

friendships.Thisisperhapsexplainabletoapointbecauseoftheway

consumerismhasevolvedoverrecentgenerations,asnotedbyCross(inTurow

&McAllister,2009).Sainsbury(1973)notesthat,untilthemiddleofthe20th

century,shoppingfordailyprovisionsandconsumerdurableswasmostly

somethingundertakenwithpeopleknowntotheconsumertosomedegree,such

as“familygrocers”.Supermarketsanddepartmentstoreswereunknowntoall

butlargecitydwellersandsofoodstuffswerepurchasedfromlocalshops,

bakeries,butchersandhardwareshops,andalsofrommarkets.Traders,whose

productswerejudgedtobeoverpriced,orbelowparintermsofquality,orthe

tradeservicestheyprovidedwereunreliableorinflexible,wouldearnapoor

reputationandbeforcedtomendtheirwaysorgooutofbusiness.Those

traderswhoweresuccessfulgenerallybuiltuptheirregularcustomerbaseover

manyyears,andevengenerations,andwereknownpersonallytoallmembers

inanycommunityandwereintegralpartsofsuchcommunities(ibid).This

54Furtherdiscussedbelow.

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degreeofmutualtrustislikelytooccurtoafarlesserextentwithimpersonal

supermarketsandretailchains.Consequently,brandadvertisingisusedto

compensateforthisbycreatinganartificialrelationshipbetweenbrandand

consumerandthisisknownas“brandrelationshipquality”(Aaker,2010).In

ordertoactivateconsumerrecollectionofbrandpersonality,brandowners

oftenuseiconsandsymbolswhicharereadilyidentifiedwiththebrand,and

whicharesuggestiveofoneormoreofthepersonalitytraits.Aaker(2010:pp.

167-168)givesexamplesoftheseandwhichareveryevidentintheirlong-term

advertisingstrategies;amongthemaretheMichelinman’senthusiasm,strength

andenergy,andtheEnergizerbattery’srabbit,whichisbothupbeatand

indefatigableandthesecouldbesaidtobegeneratingthekindsofcultural

mythsdescribedbyBarthes(1957)asdescribedinSubchapter2.6,above.

Aaker(2010:pp.170-173)alsoarguesthatabrand’spersonalityas

characterizedinadvertisingmay,ormaynot,bedesignedtocoincidewithuser

imagery.Nike,forexample,oftendepictsbothprofessionalandamateurathletes

andsportsmenandwomenusingorwearingtheirproductsinthewaythat

consumerswould,andtherebythereaderorviewerisencouragedtoidentify

withthemodelbyvirtueofthemparticipatinginthesameactivityandinsimilar

surroundings.Ontheotherhand,thedifferencesbetweentheimageryusedin

projectingbrandpersonalityandtheconsumermayalsobeexploited.The

examplerelatedbyAaker(2010:p.170)isthatofadvertisementsforLevi’s

jeansandshowingthembeingwornbyminersandbycowboysassignifyingthat

thesearetoughanddurablegarments.Theexpectationis,however,thatbuyers

aremorelikelytobefashionconsciousteenagersofbothsexesandthehigh

quality,resilienceanddurabilityisbothguaranteedandamplified.Someofthe

attributesintermsofthebrandreputationintermsofthequality,authenticity

andresources(theytendtobemoreexpensive),areconferredfromtheproduct

andontotheperceivedimageofthewearer.

Companiesmaywishtotransmitthattheyhavecertainorganizationalvalues

whichareintrinsictothebrandandconnotedbyit,andwhichthecustomerwill

interpretandbuyintowhenpurchasingtheirproducts.Oneexamplecanbe

foundinAaker(2010),wherehedevotesachaptertodescribingthe

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developmentbytheGeneralMotorsCompanyofSaturncarsintheUnitedStates

inthemid1980s.Thebrandwascreatedinlargeparttocompetewithforeign

manufacturerswhohadbeendominatingthesmallcarmarket.Oneofthekey

marketingstrategiesadoptedbySaturncarswasthefactthattheseweremade

inAmericabyAmericansforAmericanstodriveandthebrandthuscarrieswith

itassociationsofpatriotism.

Aaker(2010)notesthedistinctionbetweenproductandbrand(pp.72-73),and

thatabrandismorethanjustaproduct.Productcharacteristicscaninclude

whatitismadefromandtheprocessesinvolvedinitsproductionor

manufacture(forexample,thatitisnatural,orproducedinanenvironmentally

friendlyfriendlyway),itsattributes(suchasVolvo,whichmarketsitscarswith

anemphasisonsafety),thequalityoftheitem,itsvalueformoneyandits

versatility(suchasSubaru,whichmarketsvehiclesexpresslydesignedtobe

drivensafelyonsnowandice).However,asAaker(2010:p.73)notes,abrand

invitesarecollectionofmanymore,andwider,connotations,suchasthetypeof

personwhoisdepictedasatypicaluseroftheproductandthelifestylethey

supposedlyenjoy(e.g.thewomanwhousesaparticularperfume),thecountry

oforigin(e.g.acaradvertisementsuggestingthevehiclehasthebenefitof

Germanengineering)andemotionalbenefits.Withregardtoemotionalbenefits,

anexampleofthismightincludeanadvertisementforshowergelwhich

includessignifiersorcontextualcuessuggestingitwillmakethewearerfeel

freshandalert.Anotherexampleinvolvesinvokingnostalgicassociationsthat

relyheavilyuponencyclopaedicmemory.AtelevisionadvertisementforHovis

from1973,describedbyBillen(1986),depictsaboyinearly20thcentury

clothingstrugglingtowheelhisbicycleupaparticularlysteep,cobbledhillina

ruralvillagetodeliverthebrand’swholemealbread.Theadvantageofthe

nostalgiahereisthatitinvitestheviewertomakeanassociationbetweenthe

breadbeingmarketedandatimewhenbreadwasmadebylocalbakersfrom

natural,andthereforehealthyandtasty,ingredients;theymightalsocontrast

thatwiththefactory-madebreadofferedbytheircompetitors.

Thischapterhasconsideredthetrainingofferedtostudentsandpractitionersof

advertisingchieflythroughtextspublished,andfromsomeoftheearliest

146

attemptstoexpoundtheprinciplesofadvertisingasfarbackasthe1920s,upto

themodernday.Researchfoundthat,atthetimeitwasundertaken,universities

variedenormouslyintermsofwhethertheywereteachingthistopicatall,or

whetheritwastaughtasacomponentofabroadersyllabusofmarketingor

businessstudies,oraspartofcoursesincommunicationstudiesormedia

studies.Somepublicationswereregardedastextbooksforthispurposeasthey

werelistedasrequiredcoursebooks,yettheymainlyfocusonprinciples

formulatedonthebasisofexperienceofpractitioners,includingthoseoffamous

figuresintheindustry,ratherthanontheoreticalframeworks.

Asdescribedabove,othersworkshavebeenidentifiedthatarebasedupon

theoreticalapproachesandtheseexplaintheoperationofadvertisements

specificallythroughsemiotics.Oneworkofthisnaturestandsoutinparticular

asitwaswidelyusedinuniversities;thisbookisPersuasiveSigns:TheSemiotics

ofAdvertising(2002)byRonBeasleyandMarcelDanesianditisdeemed

particularlyrelevanttothisstudy.Theco-authorsofthispublicationconsistof

anadvertisingpractitionerandanacademicsemioticianandsotheapproach

andcontentsofthebookhavebeenexploredinsomedetailinthischapter.As

brandingandbrandrecognitionareseenaskeyaspectsofadvertisingandare

mentionedthroughoutthisthesis,anotherworkfamiliartotheindustrywhich

coversthistopic,Aaker’s(2010)BuildingStrongBrands,isalsodiscussed.

Thischapterhasbrieflyexaminedtheeducationofadvertisingpractitionersin

termsofsemioticsandpragmatics,andithasreviewedthesomeofthekeytexts

usedorreferredtobystudentsandpractitionersintermsofthesedisciplines.

Thenextchapterdescribesandanalysesprimarydataintheformofrecorded

interviewswithindividualsworkingascreatorsofadvertisementsanddiscusses

howthesemayberelatedtoconsciousandunconsciousapplicationsofsemiotic

andpragmaticprinciples.

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CHAPTER6–INTERVIEWS-RESULTSANDANALYSIS

6.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION

AsexplainedinChapter4,itwasdecidedtoobtaindataintheformofrecorded

interviewsfrompractitionerswhoproducedadvertisementsandthemain

purposewastoinvestigatetheextenttowhichthetheoreticalmodelsof

communicationcorrelatewiththeactualcreativeprocessesandworking

practicesofadvertisingprofessionals.Wheresuchacorrelationwasfoundto

exist,theauthorhasattemptedtoascertainwhetherthisisaconsciousprocess

ofapplyingthetheoriesbroughtaboutasaresultoftheirawarenessofthem

throughtheirtraining,orelseanunconsciousprocesswhichoccurredmore

throughcombinationofintuitionandexperience.

Around30agencieswerecalledandahandfulrespondedwhileotherswereless

willingorabletohelp.Itwasultimatelypossibletoarrangeatotaloffive

interviewswithcopywriters.Apre-designedquestionnairewasusedtoprompt

thequestionsandthiscanbeseeninAppendix2;thequestionnairewas

intendedtobeusedlooselyratherthanstrictlyanditwastherebyhopedto

avoidconstrainingthequestionsaskedortointerrupttheinterviewee’sflow.

Thequestionnaireconsistedofeighteenquestionsintotal,andthesewere

dividedintofoursectionswhichwereheaded:

• IntervieweeBackground.Thissectionincludedquestionsaboutthe

interviewee’srouteintotheadvertisingindustryandanyformaltraining

theyhadreceived.Italsosoughttoestablishwhat,ifany,awarenessthey

hadofsemiotictheories,withwhichtheoriestheywerefamiliar,and

fromwheretheyhadgainedtheirknowledge.

• FormingIdeas.Thissectionexploredtheformationofideaswhichledthe

subjectstocreatingadvertisements,andinquiredwhethersemiotics

playedaroleinthis.

148

• Strategy–YourLastAdvertisement.Thissectionwasintendedto

encouragetheintervieweestorecalltheirlastadvertisement,andthe

questionsweredesignedtoelicitinformationabouttheiractual

processesinvolvedfromideatocompletedadvertisement,includinghow

thereaderorviewerwouldbeexpectedtomakesenseofit.

• MoreGenerally.Thissectionconsideredtheuseofsemioticconcepts

consciouslyorunconsciouslyused,includingsymbolism,stereotyping

andfolklore,andcontextualfactors,suchasencyclopaedicknowledge

andrelevancetotheconsumer.

Thepreviouschapterexplainedhowsemioticswasasubjectthatwas

beingformallytaughttosomestudentsofmarketingandadvertising,and

whichisalsocoveredtosomedegreeinmanyadvertisingtextbooks.

Intervieweeswerethereforeaskeddirectlyabouttheirknowledgeof

semiotictheoriesandframeworks.Italsomakesclearthatpragmatics

doesnot,atthetimeofwriting,featureinanypartofmarketingeducation

orthetextbooksused,andthatindividualsconsultedpriortothe

interviews,includingseniorfiguresintheprofessionalbodies,were

entirelyunfamiliarwiththeterm“pragmatics”orthefieldtowhichit

relates.Havingestablishedthis,itwasdecidednottoincludetheterm

directlyinthequestionnaire,butinsteadtherewouldbequestions

includedthatrelatedexpresslytothesubjects’awarenessofcontext.The

interviewerwasalerttoanyresponsesfromsubjectswhichindicated

eitheraformallyacquired,orintuitive,knowledgeofpragmatictheories,

whichwerefurtherprobedasandwhentheysurfaced.

Oneofthechiefaimsoftheinterviewswastoexplorehowideas

originatedinthemindsofpractitionersandwhetherthisprocessinvolved

aconsciousapplicationofsemiotictheories.Itmaybeusefulatthispoint

tomentionwhatismeantby“ideas”inthecontextofthisstudybefore

movingontodiscusshowtheyareformed.Forthepurposeofthisstudy,

ideasarethepotentialassociationsandimplicationsthatoccurtothe

149

practitionerandfromwhichtheycanselectthemostpropitious

advertisingangles,thewordsandimagestheymayuse,thewayinwhich

aproductispresentedanddescribed,andhowtheirchosenapproachis

designedtoinviteorelicitparticulardesiredresponsesintheconsumer.

Interviewswererecordedusingdictationequipmentandfulltranscriptsofthe

interviewswithcopywritersaretobefoundinAppendix3,below.Some

diversityintermsofthesizeandtypesofagencieswhichformedpartofthis

studywasachieved:oneconsistedofasoleoperator,twowerepartnership-type

companiesandtheremainingtwowerelargeandestablishedcompaniesintheir

ownright.AlltheagencieswerelocatedinthenorthofEnglandandSubchapter

6.2belowdiscussestheagenciesconcerned.Subchapter6.3describesanswers

suppliedinrelationtotheinterviewees'backgroundintermsofhigher

education,specializedtrainingandexperienceinadvertisingorrelatedfields.It

alsosoughttoestablishwhethertheintervieweeshadanyknowledgeof

semioticsand,ifso,itsextentandhowitwasacquired.Subchapter6.4describes

responsestoquestionsconcerningtheinterviewees'approachtocreativityand

sourcesofinspiration.Subchapter6.5followsthisbyinquiringintotheactual

processesofadvertisingdesign,bothconsciousandunconscious,whetherand

howsemioticswasconsideredandappliedandhowthesepractitionersfactored

contextintotheirwork.

AnadditionalinterviewwasconductedwithaLondon-basedspecialistwho

describedhimselfasa“commercialsemiotician”.Theinterviewee,referredtoas

SubjectF,hadfoundedandwasmanagingabusinessspecificallydesignedto

applysemioticapproachestocreate,developandenhancebrands,andto

resolvebranding-relatedproblemsformajorcompaniesandpublicsector

organisations.Theinterviewwithhimwasintendedtoelicitinformationthat

wouldmakeitpossibletoascertaintherangeofpossibleapplicationsfor

semioticsinmarketingandadvertisingasviewedbyaspecialistworkinginthat

particularandnarrowfield.SubjectFprovidedwrittenmaterialwhich

supplementshisanswersandthisformspartofthisanalysisandcanbeseenin

Subchapter6.6,below.

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6.2ADVERTISERS-AGENCY

Itwasintendedthatsomediversificationwouldbeobtainedintermsofthetype

ofagenciesinvestigatedandtheworkundertakeninordertomaketheresearch

applicableacrosstheadvertisingindustryandtherebymorerepresentativeofit.

Thissubchapteroutlinesthenatureoftheagencieswheretheinterviewees

workandtheinformationwasobtainedfromtheirrespectiveagencywebsites,

aswellasfromanswersgivenininterviews.

6.2.1SUBJECTA

SubjectAranasmalladvertisingagencyinDoncaster,SouthYorkshire.The

firm’swebsitesaidofthebusiness:

“We’reamixofcurious,creativeandsomewhatnerdymindsandwe

allhaveourowntalentsandskillstocontribute.Wecertainlydon’tfit

themarketing‘norm’.Welookatthingsdifferently,lovediscovering

newthingsandwedon’ttakeourselvestooseriously.”55

Whilehewasnota”onemanband”,thoseheemployedwerein

supportingrolesonly.Thismeanstheadvertisingdesignprocesseswere

somethingheundertookaloneandthishadimplicationsforthewayhe

formulatedhisideasandexecutedhisbriefs,asisexplainedinthis

subchapter.Hisworkwasbusiness-to-business,encompassingtechnical

equipment,componentsandbusinessresourcesandservices,ratherthan

beingdirectedatthewiderpublic.Itwasalmostentirelyprint-based,

mainlyappearingintradejournals,althoughhehadbeencommissioned

toproducepostercampaignsandalsoonlineadvertising.Hedidnot

undertaketelevisionorradioadvertisingbriefs.

55Companywebsite-accessed17.6.2015

151

6.2.2SUBJECTB

Thesecondcopywriterinterviewed,SubjectB,workedforasmallmarketing

companyemployingsixpersonnelinanindustrialareaontheoutskirtsof

Sheffield.Itswebsiteprovidedaprofilewhichstated:

“Wehelpbrandssellmore.Andwemeanthatinthebroadestsense:

sellingproducts,launchingorreinvigoratingbrands,creating

behaviourchangeoralteringattitudes.

Weworkacrossawiderangeofprojectsfromcomplex,multi

stakeholdercampaignstoadhoc,lowbudgettasksthatstillrequire

creativeexcellencealongwithspeedyandefficientdelivery.Many

projectsweworkonaremultifacetedcombiningbrand

developmentwithcampaigndevelopment,designanddigital

integration”.56

Italsoboastedthatitcould:

“delivercreativeadvertisingthatissecondtonone,offerafull

rangeofintegratedservices,projectmanagebothefficientlyand

effectivelywhilstprovidingapositive,friendlyandfruitfulworking

relationship.”(ibid)

6.2.3SUBJECTC

Thethirdinterviewee,SubjectC,wasacopywriterandthecreativedirectorfora

smallmarketingcompanyclosetothecentreofLeeds.Itswebsiteprovideda

56Companywebsite-accessed1.7.2015

152

profilewhichstatedthefirmwasestablishedin2009and,whenviewedforthis

research,itswebsiteclaimedthatithad:

“grownintoanagencywithareputationfordevelopingcreative

contentwhichneverlosesfocusonachievingyourbusinesses(sic)

aims.”57

Itprovidedfurtherdescriptionasfollows:

“Ourcontentcanbefun,inspiring,cool,imaginativeordownright

surrealbutitisalwaysclear,eloquentandeffectivein

communicatingyourmessage.”(ibid)

ThewebsitenamedSubjectCasresponsibleforensuringthatthecreative

outputoftheagencymetthecompany’sstandardsforinnovation,imagination,

impactandclaritywhilehisstrongclientrelationshipsdemonstratedhis“hands-

onapproach”todeliveringcreativecontentthatfittheclient’sneedsand

deliveredvalue.

6.2.4SUBJECTD

SubjectDwasthecreativedirectorforsizableagencywhichformedpartofa

marketinggroupofcompaniesbasedinYorkshireandLondon.Thiswell-known

andlong-establishedfirmofferedcompletedigitalmarketingstrategies,online

campaignsplusafullrangeofmulti-channelservicesandhadasubsidiary

marketresearchcompany.Itswebsitestated:

57Companywebsite-accessed6.7.2015

153

“Wecombinethebestindigitalthinkinganddeliverywith

specialistskillsinresearch,advertising,design,PR,shopper

andpromotionalmarketing.Clientscometousfornew

insight,freshthinking,compellingstrategyandbrilliant

delivery.Wetakeleaps.Butnotinthedark.”58

Furthermore,thecompanyproudlypointedoutitssuccessesinwinninganumberofprominentindustryawards.

6.2.5SUBJECTE

SubjectEwasthechiefexecutiveofalargeandadvertisingagencyclosetothe

centreofManchesterandthathadbeeninexistenceforaroundtwentyyearsat

thetimeoftheinterview.Thisfirmundertookadvertisingcommissionsfora

numberofmajorcorporationsthatwerehouseholdnamesinBritainandabroad.

Theagencyhaditsownstrapline“ThePowerofSimple”anditswebsite

describeditsapproachasfollows:

“Inourfast-pacedworld,catchingsomeone’sattentionishard.

That’swhybrandscan’taffordtoovercomplicatetheirmessage–it

justgetslostinallthenoise.Withsimplicityatourheart,wedon’t

stopuntilwefindtheclear,engaginganddistincttruththatsetsa

brandapart.Onlythenwillconsumersknowwhatabrandstands

forandwhyit’srelevanttothem.We’vetransformedthefortunesof

someoftheUK’sleadingbrandsbyuncoveringsimple,powerful

messagesandcommunicatingthempersuasivelywhateverthe

channel.”59

58Companywebsite-accessed17.7.2015

59Companywebsite-accessed22.7.2015

154

Itexplaineditsstrategiesintermsofbranding,advertisinganddesign

thus:

“(Brand)isourstartingpointforallournewclients.Weuseour

BrandDNAtoolinordertomapthebrandstrategyonasingle

chart.OncetheDNAiscrackedwedevelopstrikinglysimpleideas

andspreadthemacrosstherightchannelsinordertomakethem

famous….ourworktodayshowsthatwestillknowhowtograbthe

public’sattention.Therehasneverbeenatimewhenmasteryofthe

simplebutengagingmessagehasbeenmoreimportantthan

the21stcenturywhencut-throughcontentissovaluable…Wehave

ateamofspecialistswhoarepassionateaboutGraphic

Design.Theirwork–coveringpackaging,literature,corporate

identity,postersanddigital–isbasedonacorethoughtandis

broughttolifethroughtheircraftsmanshipandattentiontodetail.”

Amongthemanymetaphorsusedinthistextisanexpressionthatisworthyof

particularconsideration,namely“ourbrandDNAtool”.Theassociationof

commercialbrandsandDNAisnotparticulartothisinstanceofit.Abookwas

publishedin2010entitled“BrandDNA:UncoverYourOrganization'sGenetic

CodeforCompetitiveAdvantage”byCarolChapmanandSuzanneTulien,and

therearenumerousotherexamplesofthisassociationthatcanbefoundin

marketing-relatedtextsandoftenappearingalongsidetermslike“brand

personality”.Astheagency’sself-description(citedabove)wastakenfromits

ownwebsite’shomepage,itcouldbesafelyassumeditwasaimedatpotential

clients.Thiswasaprestigiousagencysituatedintheheartofamajorcityandit

acceptedbriefsformedium-sizedandlargercompaniesandpublicsector

organisationsthatgenerallyhadtheirownmarketingdepartmentsthatwere

responsibleforcommissioningtheiradvertising.Theexpression“DNAtool”

maythusbeviewedasmetalanguageinrelationtomarketing,withan

interpretationthatwouldbespecifictoprofessionalsinthatfield,andwhich

155

facilitatedbothinternalcognitiveprocessesandalsocommunicationbetween

practitioners.Ontheotherhand,thisallusiontoDNAmayalsobeconsideredas

apoeticmetaphor,andonethatcanberecoveredbythenormalprocessesof

implicature.Processingtheterm“DNA”insearchofrelevanceelicitsthe

recollectioninthereceiverthatitreferstothemolecularcodethatdetermines

thecharacteristicsofeverylivingentity,andisthusunique.Thisreadingofthe

term,alongwithexpressionssuchas“brandpersonality”,andthemetaphorin

thefinalsentenceinwhichtheagencydescribedhowtheirworkwas“brought

tolife”(suchasbyartistryandcraftsmanship),appeartoillustrateastrong

tendencytopersonalizebrands,andtheparallelisexpressedsystematically

throughmetaphor.Consequently,animpressionwasconveyedthatapplyinga

metaphorical“tool”providedanin-depthunderstandingofeachandevery

featureofthebrandthatwouldenabletheagencytoconstructthebespoketype

ofadvertisingwhichaccordedwiththesupposeduniquenessoftheclient’s

brand.

6.3INTERVIEWEEBACKGROUND

ThissubchapterfocusestheanswerssuppliedinPartAofthequestionnaire,and

primarilyontheindividualinterviewee'sbackground,trainingandworkexperience.

6.3.1SUBJECTA

Whileheworkedprimarilyasacopywriter,SubjectAstatedthathehadnot

studiedeitheradvertisingormarketingintertiaryeducation.Hisbackground

wasoriginallypublicrelations(PR)afterstudyingatBournemouthUniversity,

andithadbeenhisintentioneventuallytoworkinjournalism.Thiscareerpath

didnotmaterialiseforhimand,afteraperiodworkinginPR,hefound

employmentwithamajoradvertisingagencyinLeeds.HewasassignedtoaPR

roleonacampaignforamulti-nationalindustrialmanufacturingclient,but

reportedthatheworkedcloselywithacopywriterandfoundtherewassome

crossoverbetweentheirrespectivefunctions.Havingdecidedthathepreferred

copywritingworktoPR,SubjectAdecidedtoleavetheagencyandsetup

businessonhisown.Hehadbythistimeestablishedarelationshipwiththe

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clientmentionedandwasabletotakethatclientwithhim,alongwithdealers

whoalsosoldtheproductsforthem,whenhelefttheemployment.Inhisdaily

workroutine,whilecopywritingwascentraltohisbusiness,heperformeda

widerrangeofactivitiesrelatedtomarketing.Althoughhewasopento

producinganytypeofadvertising,atthetimeoftheinterviewhisworkconsisted

ofprintcommercials,particularlyspecialisttradejournals,brochures,posters

andflyers,andhisworkcombinedimagesandcopy.

Intermsofhisformaleducation,hegraduatedatBournemouthUniversityand

hisdegreewasaBachelor’sinCommunication.Thiscourseintroducedstudents

toeditingandpublishing,andwasassociatedwiththejournalismdegreesalso

offeredatthatuniversity.Thesyllabusofhisdegreeincludedsomeaspectsof

advertisingandhewasabletorecallusingcertaintextsinhisstudies,someof

whichhestillowned.AmongthesewasEffectiveUseofAdvertisingMedia60.

Semioticswas,hestated,aminorpartofhisstudies,thoughhisrecollectionsof

thetheoriesatthetimeoftheinterviewweresomewhatvague.Nonetheless,it

didoccurtohimthattheyincludedaspectsoflanguageandalsosomeelements

ofliterature.HementionedthattheworksofNoamChomskywerediscussedand,

inonelecture,anamusingstorywasrelatedwhichshowedhowarailway

warninglightsignalwasmisinterpreted.WhilethenamesofSaussureand

Bartheswerenotrecognizedbyhim,hewasfamiliarwiththenotionofcultural

mythsasdescribedbyBarthes,althoughhestatedthathe“onlytouchedon”this

(07.09–07.25).

Hewasclearthathedidnotrefertothesetheoriesortextsinhiscurrentwork

andheattributedthistothefactthatheoperatedinasmall,provincialtown,

namelyDoncaster,andonlywithandforcertaintypesofbusinesses.Thiswas

interpretedasmeaninghisapproachhadtobeperceivedbyclientsasdown-to-

earthandpredicatedonpracticalexperienceandcommonsenseasopposedto

applyingwhatmightbeconsideredtobe“exotic”theories.However,helater

disclosedthathehadrecentlyusedaparticularbookcalledTheA–ZofVisual

Ideas:HowtoSolveanyCreativeBriefbyJohnIngledewasasourceofideas.

60ThisbookisEffectiveUseofAdvertisingMedia:APracticalApproach(1992)byMartyn

PDavis

157

6.3.2SUBJECTB

SubjectBenteredadvertisingobliquely,havingfirstworkedinadministration.

Oneofhisfirstjobswasforamajornationalizedindustrywhichwasinthe

processofbeingprivatizedandithadsetupafledglingmarketingdepartment

whichinterestedhim.Thispromptedhimtoenrolforeveningclasses,wherehe

tookhisCharteredInstituteofMarketingqualificationandthisenabledhimto

gainthemovehecravedinthenewdepartment.Heworkedinthefieldof

marketingforadecade,includinginthecomputervideogamesindustry.After

thisperiod,heswitchedjobsandbeganworkingforanadvertisingagencygroup,

initiallyasanaccountdirector.Itwaswhileworkinginthisemploymentthathe

methiscurrentbusinesspartner.Thetwofinallyagreedtoleaveandestablish

thefirmtheyranatthetimeoftheinterview.Hedidnotholdanyqualifications

thatspecificallyrelatedtoadvertising,andhestatedthatadvertisingwasnot

coveredatallinhisprofessionalmarketingcourses.Asaresultofthis,hehad

neverstudiedanyformaltextsrelatingtoadvertisingtheoryorpracticesandhe

wasentirelyunfamiliarwithsemiotics.

Atthetimeoftheinterview,though,SubjectBstatedhewaswritingaMaster’s

dissertationandthisrelatedtothecreativedecision-makingprocessesinvolved

inconstructingadvertisements.Hehadalsobeeninvolvedinteachingthe

advertisingmoduleforstudentstakingadegreeinmarketingatalocal

university.

6.3.3SUBJECTC

SubjectCexplainedthathehadalwayscultivatedaninterestinartanddecided

fromanearlyagetoworkingraphicdesign.Uponleavingschool,heenrolledat

collegeforafoundationcourseinart.Aftercompletinghiscollegecourse,he

158

studiedattheUniversityofHumbersidewherehecommencedadegreecourse

ingraphicdesignand,ongraduation,heenteredtheadvertisingindustryasa

graphicdesigner,althoughwithleaningstowardsbeinganartdirectorashe

consideredthisofferedmorescopefororiginalandcreativework.Inthis

employment,hehadnoresponsibilityforwritingcopy.Herecalledreading

RolandBarthes’workMythologiesduringhisstudiesand,whilemostofthe

courseworkrelatedtographicdesign,20%orsoinvolvedwriting:

“onthetheoryofgraphicdesignandwriteaboutthatkindoflike

mythologiesstyle,sortofthinking.”(39.29–39.35)

Hestatedthathecompletedhisfinalthesisonthelanguageandvisualthemes

usedinelectionadvertising.Itwaswrittenjustpriortothe1992General

Election,andhecitedexamplesofhisapplicationofculturalmyths,including

howtheLabourPartyreliedupontheirperceiveddevotiontotheNational

HealthServicewhiletheConservativesexploitedtheperceptionthattheycould

betrustedonmatterssuchasdefence.Anotherworkheusedwascalled

UnderstainsbyKathyMyers,andwhichhesaidwasregardedasaseminalwork

byhistutorsandwidelyreferredtoinhiscourse61.

Subsequently,hestartedhisownbusinessingraphicdesignandranthatfor

aboutayearbeforehedecidedtofindjobsinadvertisingagencies.Thefirstof

thesejobslastedonlyafewmonthsbeforethebusinessceasedoperatingand

thesecondhedescribesas“quiteawell-knownagencyinLeeds”andwhichwas

61UnderstainsbyKathyMyers(1986)haslongbeenoutofprint,butacopyhasbeenobtained

forthepurposeofthisstudy.AsmallsectionisincludedinthebookentitledSemiology:inside

thefantasyfactory.Thisoffersacritiqueofadvertisingfromacriticaldiscourseanalysis

perspective,anditfocusesonimagerydirectedbygovernmentandcorporationsatthepublic.It

alsodiscusseshegemonyandthepower,andmakesreferencetotheworksofMarxand

Althusser.Inviewofitsparticularfocus,aswellasthefactsthatthisworkisnolongercurrently

usedandhasnot,sofarasitispossibletotell,beenusedaspartofacourseinmarketingoradvertising,itwasdecidednottoincludeitwithintheliteraturereviewofthisthesis.

159

thefirsttimeheworkedinwhathecalled“aprofessionalagencyenvironment”

(05.51–06.07).Inthisjob,hebegantoappreciatethedifferencebetween

advertisingcopyanddesign;hebelievedhehadanaturalaptitudeforwriting

copyandhisabilitiesinthiscametothenoticeofhismanagers.Heprogressed

fromtheretoworkingasadesignerforamajornationalmarketing

communicationsagency,basedinManchester.Thiswasthefirsttimehe

encounteredprofessionalcopywriterswhoserolewasjusttowritecopyand

nothingelse.Inthisemployment,hewasdeployedasadesignerinasmallteam

thatwasassignedparticularbriefsandhisteamincludedsuchacopywriter.The

teamworkedonafashioncatalogue,revisedandreprintedtwiceayear,and

whichconsistedofthedesignaspectofthecatalogueplusvariousmarketing

functions,includingTVadvertisinganddirectmail.

Afteraperiodwiththisemployer,hereturnedtoLeedsandwasoffereda

positionwithadirectmarketingcompanywithseveralbranchesacrosstheUK.

Thisfirmappearedtoridethewaveofpopularityofdirectmarketinginthe

1980s,andwhichtailedofftowardstheendofthe20thcenturyastheinternet

supersededit.SubjectC’sjobtitlewasartdirectorandhismainresponsibility

wastodrawlayoutsinroughform(called“scamps”intheadvertisingjargon–

seeSubchapter6.8)whichhewouldthengivetoanartworkerwithinstructions

ondetails,suchascolours.Again,hefoundhimselfasoneamongacreative

team,thistimeofaroundtenindividualswhichincludedcopywritersandart

directors.Hedescribedhowcopywritershaddifferentstrengths,stylesand

expertise.Oneofthecopywritershementionedwasaspecialistinfinancial

servicesadvertisingwhowouldwritelengthyanddensecopyincludingfor

headlines,andSubjectCwouldreducethewordingdownforhimtomakeit

“snappier”(24.38–25.10).Anothercolleaguehementionedwasacopywriter

whohedescribedasbrilliantathisjobandthatwasbecause:“Hehadatotal

abilitytocutthroughallthebullshitaroundabrief”(29.53–30.03).He

elaboratedthatbriefscouldbeseveralpageslongandoneoftheskillsofa

160

copywriterwastodecipherbriefsandidentifythekeymessage62.Aftersome

yearswiththeLeedsagency,thesubjecthadrisenthroughtheranksandbeen

promotedtoheadofart,afterwhichhewasheadhuntedbythesamefirmhehad

workedforpreviouslyinManchester,butthistimeattheirLeedsbranch,and

wasappointedcreativedirector.Oneofthememorablecopywritershe

managedinthisrolehadaparticulardispositiontowardswritingadvertising

copyinaconversationalandempathetic,evenintimate,style.Aroundthree

yearslater,heestablishedhisfirstbusinesswithapartnerandfoundhimself

havingtoperformalltheaspectsofdesigningadvertisementshimself,including

copywriting.Followingacoupleoffalsestarts,hesetuphisthirdandfinal

businesswhichhehadbeenrunningforapproachingsixyearsatthetimeofthe

interview.

6.3.4SUBJECTD

SubjectDwasintroducedtoadvertisingasaHigherNationalDiplomacoursein

acollegeoffurthereducation.Inthiscourse,hestudiedagreatdealofart

historybutwasalsoimmersedintheconspicuouscommercialsofthatera,

includingadvertisementsforHäagenDazsice-creamandBoddingtonsbeer.

Thesewereverymuchhisinspirationandhewantedtobelikethepeoplewho

producedthem.Herecalledcertaintextsthatheusedatthetimeandstillheld

insomeesteem,includingDavidOgilvy’spopularworkOgilvyonAdvertising,

andbooksbySirJohnHegarty,oneofthefoundersofthemajorinternational

agencyBartleBogleHegarty,andtherenownedAmericanadvertisingcreator,

BillBernbach.Uponcompletionofhisstudies,hewastopofhisyearin

advertisinggraphicsandalsowonanindustrystudentawardforhiswork.

62Itwasnotedthatthissamesentimentwasexpressedbyotherinterviewees,andthiswillbediscussedinthenextchapter.

161

Goingontouniversitywasanoptionatthatpoint,buthewasadvisedagainst

thisbyhislecturerwhoinsteadadvisedhimtocapitalizeontheaccoladethat

accompaniedtheawardhehadwonandtousethattolaunchacareer.He

pointedout:“No-onewilleveraskyouwhatgradesyougotinmylineofwork.”

(07.49–07.54)

Inpreferencetoacademicgrades,heclaimed,thoseintheindustrywould

advancetheircareersandachievetheirreputationsthroughtheir

portfoliosofwork.Whatmatteredmostofall,hesaid,washaving“agreat

mind”,andhelikenedcreativedepartmentstofootballteamsintermsof

havingeclecticskillsetsasdifferentpeoplewiththeirowndiverserange

ofskillsplaydifferentroles.Havingidentifiedhisownstrengthsinthis

respect,hehadobtainedhisfirstpositionwithamultinationaladvertising

companybytheageof21.

Hehadbeentaughtsomebasicaspectsofsemioticsinhisformalstudies,but

statedhehadlearnedmoreaboutthissubjectovertheyearsinthecourseofhis

work.Hecouldnotrecallspecifictheorists,butexplainedhisunderstandingand

applicationofsemioticprinciplesasfollows:

“Ithink…individual,cultural..thewaypeopleare,thewaythey

react,…howculturalreferencescan…impactonthose…the

differenttrendswhicharecomingthrough.Allthoseneedtoinform

howyouactuallygoabouttalkingtopeopleinacertain

way…sometimesnoonemessagestrikeseverybody”(11.43–

12.21)

Aftermorethantwentyyearsofexperience,SubjectDstatedhenolonger

referredtotextstohelphimindesigningadvertisements,butinsteadhewas

162

abletotapintohisexperience.However,hewentontosay“theD&Ads63ofthis

worldhavebeenmyBible”.(13.10)

6.3.5SUBJECTE

HavinggainedaPhDinAncientGreekfromEdinburghUniversity,SubjectE

realizedtherewerenotmanycareeropeningsfromthatsubject,soitoccurred

tohimthatworkinginadvertisingwouldaffordhimadifferentkindof

opportunitytoworkwithwords.Hehadnotreceivedanyformalspecialized

highereducationineitheradvertisingormarketing,althoughhehadlearned

aboutsomeaspectsoflinguistics,includingsemiotics,duringhisundergraduate

studiesmanyyearspreviously.Heexplainedhisunderstandingofsemioticsas

follows:

“Imayhavegotthiscompletelywrongbut,tome,semioticsisthe

linguisticsofimagesandpicturesandsigns…forexample…I

remember…’TheNameoftheRose64’–Ithoughtthatwasa

wonderfulbook…UmbertoEco”(3.07-4.06)

SubjectEwouldnotstatethathehadformallystudiedsemioticsasasubject,but

hewascertainlyawareofitand,whenculturalmythswerementioned,he

recalledthathemayhavereadsomeworksbyRolandBarthes,perhapswhile

workingonhisdoctorate.OncethebasicconceptofaBarthesmythhadbeen

explainedtohim,itmadesensetohimintheadvertisingcontext,butitwasnot

63The“D&ADs”referstoanawardingorganisationfortheadvertisingindustry–ithasbeen

describedasakintotheOscarsforadvertisers.“D&AD”wasformerlyknownasthe“DesignandArtDirection”,butthistermisnolongerused.

64WhileEcowas,amongotherthings,asemiotician,hisbookTheNameoftheRoseisamysterynovel.Inthisbook,Ecodrawsuponhisknowledgeofsemiotics,theBibleandliterarytheoriesinordertocreateastorywhichhasanintellectualappeal.

163

somethinghementallyretainedforuseinhiswork.Intermsofadvertisingtexts,

hestatedthathehadreadanumberofauthorsincludingOgilvyonAdvertising,

andessaysandarticlesbycopywriterswhosenameshedidnotmention.Hewas

interestedinwhattheywerewritingintheircopyasopposedtotheircomments

onadvertisinggenerally,althoughheexpressedtheviewthateachadvertiser

shouldtrytocreatetheirownstyle.Assuch,whendesigningadvertisements,he

tendednottorefertotheworkofothers,butwouldgohisownway.

Whenitcametorecruitingstaff,SubjectEalsoexplainedthathiscompanyoften

chosenottoemployapplicantswhohadadegreeinadvertisingormarketing

unlesstheywereotherwiseoutstandingintermsoftheirpersonalityand

intelligence.Asarule,hepreferredthosewhohadstudiedfieldssuchashistory

orgeographybecausehebelievedtheseweregenerallyofahighercalibre.

Havingsaidthat,anyonewishingtoenterhiscompany’sCreativeDepartment

wouldberequiredtohavebeenawardedadegreeinacreativedisciplineashe

sawthisasessentialforstaffwhowereemployedspecificallytogeneratefresh

ideas.

6.4FORMINGIDEAS

Thisaspectoftheresearchconsidersthesourcesofinspiration,andthepractical

andcognitiveprocesseswhichtheintervieweespursuedinordertogenerate

creativeandeffectiveadvertisements.Itrelatesmainlytoanswerssuppliedto

questionsinPartCofthequestionnaire.

6.4.1SUBJECTA

SubjectAstatedthathedidtakeaninterestintextsonadvertising(e.g.

Ogilvy)andreadthemfromtime-to-time,buthisapproachinformulating

164

advertisementswasinherentlypracticalandhewouldnotnormallyrefer

toorotherwiseconsidertheoreticaltextsaspartoftheprocess.Hethen

talkedthroughthestagesofcreatingideas,beginningwiththebrieffrom

theclient,andthisheexplainedasanattemptto“boildowntheessenceof

theadasmuchaspossible”.Onewayofachievingthiswastocomeup

withacoremessageorstrapline(10.17–10.53).Hebelievedhewasat

hismostcreativewhenhewasunconsciouslyprocessingthemessage,

immersinghimselfinthedetail,butwithout“tryingtoforceittoomuch”

(10.59–11.04).A“keytheme”wouldthenemergeandthelayoutand

othercomponents,includingwording,wouldflowalmostnaturallyfrom

that.Thiswouldnothavesucceededunlesshehadbeencognizantofthe

brandvaluesandheensuredtheywereexpressed.Hesaiditwould,for

example,havebeeninappropriatetousetermslike“good,oldfashioned

service”foracompanythatsoughttoprojectitselfasatthetechnical

cuttingedge.Thelookandfeelofthefinaladvertisementwouldhaveto

reflectthesevalues(11.40–11.57).Severalversionsofanyproposed

advertisementwouldbeproducedfortheclientoncethe“message”had

beendistilledandrefinedandthesewerepresentedinanacceptable

format.

SubjectAregardeddesigninganadvertisementasabuildingprocess

ratherthansomethingwhichwasvisualisedfromthestart,although

sometimeshisideasseemedtoariseinafully-formedstate.Asan

example,hedescribedthedevelopmentofanadvertisementforaforklift

trucksmanufacturercalledDoosanandthethemewasaroundtheideaof

“doingmore”,withemphasisonthesyllable“do”,whichwasthefirst

syllableofthebrandname(12.45–13.51).Thiswastheexception,

though,asproducinganadvertisementwasmostlytheprocessof

“chippingaway”and“shaping”untilaresultwasachievedthat“looks

right”(13.53–13.59).

SubjectAdescribedanothercampaignforanengineeringcompanythatbegan

locally,buthadevolvedintoalargeroperationwithbranchesacrosstheUK.

165

Thecompany’sownersstatedtheyunderstoodlocalbusinessesbecausethat

washowtheystartedandtheyviewedtheirlocalismascentraltotheirbrand.

Thumbingthroughabookoncreativeideas65,SubjectAthoughtofastrategyto

depictthestaffasbeingpeoplewithstrongconnectionstothelocality,andthis

promptedthetaglineof“localservicenationwide”.Graphicswereproducedfor

thecampaign,andtheseconsistedofaUKmapadornedwithamontageofmany

photographsofthefirm’sstaffalongside,orinfrontof,well-knownlandmarksin

theirlocale.Heexplaineditthus:

“Weunderstandlocalbusinessesbecauseweareone….Wetriedto

makeheroesofthepeopleinthedifferent…partsoftheworldand

puttheminfrontof….somethingthatwassymbolicofthatpartof

theworld,sotheguyfromNottinghamwasstoodinfrontofthe

statueinNottinghamofRobinHood;theguyfromHullwasstood

undertheHumberBridge…”(14.32–15.01)

Inmovingfrombeingasmall,localoperatorwhichhadestablishedrelationships

andtrustwithasectorofbusinessinonelocality,theclientregardedthisasa

valuableassetwhichshouldnotbelostintheprocessofthecompany’s

expansion.Thestraplinecouldbeviewedasbeingambiguous,dependingupon

whethertheword“nationwide”wasinterpretedasanadjective,asin“weare

nowanationwideoperatorasopposedtomerelyalocaloperator”,orelseasan

adverbasin“wearestillalocaloperator,butnowweareoperatingnationwide”.

Theimplicationwiththelatteristhat,inspiteofthecompanyoperating

nationwide,ithadnotabandoneditslocalvalues.Customerscouldbeconfident

thatthestaffemployedatanybranchwouldhavelocalknowledgeandan

interestinthearea.Arangeoffurtherimplicaturesmayberecoverableeven

thoughthesewerenotexplicatedandoneexampleisthat,asstaffwerelocals,

65ThiswasthebookTheA–ZofVisualIdeas:HowtoSolveanyCreativeBrief(2011)byJohnIngledew

166

theyhadastakeintheprosperityoftheareaandthesuccessoftheircustomers’

businesses.Consequently,theimpressionwasconveyedthattheservice

providedwaslikelytobefriendlyandefficient.

Next,SubjectAwasaskedhowhisapproachdifferedaccordingtowhetheran

advertisementwastofocusonbrandorproduct.Herespondedbystatingthat

hehadalwaystendedtopushhisclientstowardspromotingbrandratherthan

product.Thiswasforaparticularreason,namelythatmostofhisclientswere

effectivelydealerswhoofferedawiderangeofdifferentproducts,someofwhich

aretechnicaland/orspecialised.Thisalsoappliedwhenworkingfora

manufacturer,suchastheDoosanforkliftcompany,astheywereprimarily

competingwithother,andbetterknown,manufacturers.Whereaclientinsisted

onpromotingaparticularproduct,theprocesswasbroadlysimilarexceptthat,

insteadoftryingtopromotethecorevaluesofabrand,inthiscaseitwasthe

corefeaturesandbenefitsoftheproductwhichwereinfocus.Hecontended,

however,thatbrandadvertisingcouldbemoresophisticated,andwouldmakea

betterimpressionthanaproductadvertisement,andthiswasbecauseaproduct

changesovertime,unlesstherewerefeaturesofitwhichwerestaticandhighly

distinctive,likespecialprices(16.59-18.53).Whenformingideas,SubjectA

admittedhedidnotconsciouslylooktotheoriesofsemioticstoassisthim.He

explainedthathewouldseekapracticalanswertoaproblemandhisminddid

notconsciouslyturntosemiotictheoriesforthatanswer,regardlessofwhether

hewasadvertisingabrandoraproduct.If,however,hethoughtthatre-visiting

thetheorieshehadlearnedinthedistantpastwouldhelphimfindtheanswer,

hewouldrefertothem.Nevertheless,asbecomesevidentwhenexamininghis

strategyinthenextsubchapter,SubjectAhadanunconsciousawarenessofthe

valueofcertainsemioticphenomenainhisworksuchassymbolism,

paradigmaticchoicesandinvokingculturalmyths,aswellasarecognitionofthe

needtogeneratedesiredandrecoverableimplicatures.

167

6.4.2SUBJECTB

SubjectB’smentioningofhisdissertationpromptedhimtodescribehowthe

initialideasforanadvertisingcampaignbeginbyhisfirmfollowingwhathe

calleda“creativebriefingprocess”whichhedescribedasa“well-wornroute”and

whichhehaddiscernedfromtextbooksandexamplestherein(03.15–03.38).

Theseideaswereformedbyfirstdeterminingwhotheaudiencewas,whothe

competitionwas,thepurposeoftheadvertisingandthespecificrequirements

containedwithinthecommission.Whencombined,theyprovidedtheinsight

necessaryforthestartingpointofthecreativeprocess.Inaddition,theremay

havebeensomepracticalconsiderationsinrelationto,forexample,budgetsor

media.Hepointedoutthat,whilethesewerementionedintextbooks,theywere

notderivedfromacademicstudies,butrathertheyoriginatedwithinthe

industryandweresuggestedbytheInstituteforAdvertisingPractitioners.

Thedevelopmentprocesswasnotmappedoutbeyondthis,butwasrather

regardedasa“blankpieceofpaper”,andSubjectBwasaskedhowhewould

completethisintermsofadvancingtheproject.Herespondedbycitingan

exampleofabrieffromadiscountsupermarketchainforwhichhisfirmhad

beenresponsibleforallthepressadvertisinganddigitaladvertising.More

recently,theyhadbeenaskedtoreviewthecompany’stelevisionadvertising,as

theywantedtomakesomesubstantialchanges.Hedescribedtheexisting

advertisingstyleas“entrylevel”,meaningtheiradvertisementsconsistedof

nothingmorethanpresentingcurrentoffersaidedbyavoice-overand:

“anicebitofmusic,andhereisatinofbakedbeansandthisishow

muchwe’resellingitfor”(05.39–05.45).

Thenewbriefwastomovetowardsadvertisingthatwasmoreemotive,and

thatwouldbuildthebrandandbemoreengaging.Unfortunately,thisledtoa

differenceofviewbetweenSubjectBandtheclient,astheformerbelievedthe

168

aimshouldbetomakecustomerswanttovisitthisparticularsupermarketasa

“shoppingexperience”,whilethelatterintendedthefocustobeonselling

specificproducts.Oneofthechiefreasonstheclientwaskeentopushthe

productwasthatthemanufacturerhadpaidtheclienttoadvertiseiton

television.Whensomethinglikethisoccurred,theidealwayofapproachingthe

advertisingdesignwouldbefortheaccounthandlertowriteacreativebrief

basedontheclientbriefandthiswouldgivedueconsiderationtowhomthe

audiencewere,whattheobjectiveswereandwhatwasproposed.That

propositionwouldthenbecheckedbySubjectBpersonally.Inthespecificcase

mentioned,thebriefwassummarizedinameetingbythewholeagencyand

ideasweresoughttodetermine“howcanwebringthattolife?”(0709–07.13).

Theythenengagedinanactivityhereferredtoas“leapfrogging”,whichhe

explainedasfollows:

“…wedon’tdiscussthequalityoftheideas:thereisaphrasethat

weuseandit’scalled‘gettingtheshitout’.Youhavetosaythe

mostobviousandthemostbanalstuff.You’vejustgottogetitout

becauseifyoudon’t,thenitdoesn’tleadtoanythingelse.So

someonemightsaysomethingthat’sreallycrapandverypoorand

we’dneverdiscussitwithaclient,butthat’sfinebecausewithout

removingthatbarrier,itdoesn’topenthefloodgates”(07.19–

07.42)

SubjectBheredescribedacreativeprocessofinwhichtheemployees

wereencouragedtopullrawideas,whichhereferredtoas"theshit",

fromtheirmindsandexpressthemwithoutanyseriousconsiderationas

totheirfeasibility.Ultimately,mostoftheseideaswouldbedismissed

andthoseremainingwouldbeexplored,modifiedinanumberofways,

combinedwithotherideasandhoneduntiltheyresembledsomething

whichcould,induecourse,hadfulfilledtherequirementsofthebrief.

SubjectBwasaskedifhis“leapfrogging”techniquewasakinto

169

brainstormingandheconfirmedthatitwasasitinvolved“throwing

around”ideas.Duringthisprocess,theymighthaveusedtheinternet

andthosepresentmighthavesuggestedlookingattheworkofother

advertisersinordertostimulatethethinking.Afterfollowinganumber

ofsuchideas,manyofwhichhedescribedas“cul-de-sacs”,hesaidthey

wouldprogressonto“mind-mappingandwritingideasdownonbitsof

paperwithpencils”andthentheywouldbeabletobuildupa“flow”,

probablyendingupwithabouttwelve“routes”,whichhedescribedas

“veryhighconcepts”(08.02-08.23).ItwasevidentthatSubjectB’s

conceptualisationprocesseswerehighlydependentuponontological

metaphors,withexpressionssuchas“leapfrogging”,“gettingtheshitout”

“removingthatbarrier”,“openthefloodgates”,“throwingaround”(ideas),

“routes”,and“veryhighconcepts”.Howmuchthesecouldberegardedas

specializedmetalanguageusedinadvertising,ormarketing,orevencan

beconsideredasgeneralbusinessjargon,appearstovary.Itissuggested,

however,thatallcouldbereadilyunderstoodinthecontextinwhich

theyoccur,unlikeexpressionsthatarefoundinmoretechnical

specialismssuchasmedicineandelectronics.Ofthosecited,the

orientationalmetaphor“highconcepts”isofparticularinterestasit

appearstooriginatefromliteraryandfilmstudies.Kaire(2016)

suggeststhedefiningfeaturesofhighconceptincludeapitchthatis

originalandunique,hasmassaudienceappealandhassomekindof

storylinenarrativeatitscore.

ExperiencehadtaughtSubjectBthatsomeideaswouldbeexpensive,others

wouldbecheaptoproduceandsomewouldbeenormouslychallenging.

Similarly,hewouldbeawarethatsomeoftheseideashadbeendonebeforeby

someoneelse,perhapsforadifferentmarket,andthatofferedpossibilitiesof

borrowingthemandapplyingtheminhisownbrief.Eventually,theideaswould

bedistilleddowntoaboutfiveorsixoptionswhichwould,atthatpoint,be

presentedtotheclient.Thebriefwasthenleftaloneandallstaffmovedonto

workonsomethingelse;thiswasdoneinordertolettheideas“settle”and“sitin

yourbrain”,andtheycouldlaterberevisitedwithfresheyes.Thedirectors

170

returnedtothemafterasuitableinterval,selectedthosewhichhesaidhad“legs”

(i.e.theybelievedhadpotentialtoberealizedasviableadvertisements)and

thenwouldbegintheprocessesofdesignincludingscriptwriting,copywriting

andvisualresearch.Theymayhavedecidedtorefertoaproductioncompany

aboutthecostsofthevariousalternativesandafterwardstheywouldbeina

positiontodiscusstheideaswiththeclient.

6.4.3SUBJECTC

Askedabouthiscreativeapproachwhenhereceivedabrieffromaclient,

SubjectCstatedthatthesewererarelyinwrittenformasthatwasnothowhis

currentbusinessworked.Instead,hewouldspeakdirectlytohisclientsand:

“dragabriefoutofthem…justusingmyexperience,really,butI

thinkthere’salways…apointtoabriefandit’saboutfindingwhat

isrelevanttothecustomerortheprospectortheclient”(43.56–

44.43)

HeexplainedthattherewereprobablyahandfulofagenciesinLondonwho

producedallthe“cleverheadline-driven,highconcept,multi-millionpoundbudget

stuff”andthentherewastherest,ofwhichhisbusinesswasapart.Manyofhis

commissionswerefrombusiness-to-businessclients,andwereoften

international,soanyadvertisingthatwastooobtusewithlanguage,ortoo

dependentupononeparticularcultureasitsframeofreference,wasatriskof

notbeingunderstood.Hereiteratedamoregeneralpointhehadmadeearlier,

stating:

171

“Mostclientshavegreatdifficultyincondensingwhattheydointoa

simplestatement,andIseethatasmyjob…Forme,abriefisalways

aprocessofsimplifyingsomethingtoitsbasic,broadestterms”

(46.05–46.40)

ThesimplificationSubjectCdescribedinthiscaseinvolvedreframingthebrief

byidentifyingthoseaspectswhichwereconsideredthemostcrucialand

directingthefocusontothose,arguablybyrepresentingthemthroughaprocess

ofsignification.Hewentontosayhewouldrarelyattemptto“doanything

cleverwithlanguage”inhisadvertisingandthatwasbecausehisclientsdidnot

wantthat;hisworkintermsoflanguageconsistedofshortstatementsinstead

ofthe“intellectualspins”whichheknew,fromexperience,hisclientswouldnot

appreciate.Ratherthantheconceptdrivenmethodsofthehigh-end,high-value

agencies,hismethodwasto:

“deliverthemessageto(consumers)inaverystraightforward,clear

way….Ithinkit’saprocessofactuallystrippingawayallthebullshit

aroundabrief,drawingitdowntobrasstacksandtryingtogetin

theshoesofaconsumerandunderstandingwhattheirmotivation

willbetomakethepurchase…orbuythatservice…”(47.54–

48.18)

Asseenwithotherinterviewees,SubjectCdemonstratedthathisconceptual

thinkingwasaidedbymetaphorssuchas“strippingaway”,“thebullshit”,“brass

tacks”and“getintheshoesofaconsumer”.Theseare,forthemostpart,

recognizableaspopularidiomsratherthanspecializedjargon,buttheyfacilitate

areadymeansofimaginingandrelatingacomplexprocess.Individualfeatures

172

oftheprocessarerepresentedbymetaphorswhichinteractwitheachother

withvaryingdegreesofsystemacity.Theprocesshedescribedisagainlargely

thesameasoutlinedbybothSubjectAandSubjectB,inthatitbeganby

selectingthecorerequirementsanddiscardingperipheraldetails.Partofthis

processinvolvedattemptingtounderstandtheconsumer,theirconcerns,needs

andpreferences,inordertoproduceanadvertisementwhichwasthereby

relevanttothem.

Creatingadvertisementswasnot,inSubjectC’sview,abuildingprocessashe

wasmostlyabletovisualizethecompletedcommissionquitequicklybecause

hehadundertakensuchworkseveraltimesinthepast.Eachcommission

essentiallyfollowedthesameprocedure,butforadifferentclientordifferent

product.Heexpandeduponthisinsomedetail,citinganexampleofworkhis

firmwascurrentlyundertakingforaninternationalshippingconsultancy.His

agencyhadrebrandedthisclientinthepreviousyear,designedthemanew

websiteandhadpreparedanemailadvertisementtobesentoutonthevery

morningoftheinterview.Whenthiscompanygavehisagencyabrief,he

claimedtheywouldsaytheywantedtheiradvertisementtodiscuss,forexample,

pre-purchasevesselinspections,dry-docking,flagadministration,thefactthat

theyhadapresenceinvariousportsandahostofotheraspects.SubjectC

repeatedhispointthat,whileaclientoraccounthandlerwouldwanttocover

manybaseswiththeircommunication,oneofhisjobswastocondensedown

themessageandthiswascrucialwherethepromotionwasbyemail:

“…someone’sgoingtoreadanemail.Atbest,they’regoingtoglance

atitinthewaythatpeoplewillglanceatthatletter,thatdirect

mailletter,andthere’salotofsimilaritiesbetweenwhatdirectmail

didandtheskillsIlearnedthen,andwhathappensnowinonline

comms”(54.35–54.50)

173

Withtheemail,therecipientwouldfirstsee“avisual”whichwouldtellthem

whatthethemewas,alongwithaheadlineandsub-headlineswithinthat

communicationthattheycouldquicklyscan.Withthisinmind,insteadof

simplyrelatingaseriesoffactsaboutthebrandorservice,thefocuswouldbe

ononekeyaspectandthatwasonthebasisthattheviewerwasonlygoingto

devoteafewsecondstolookingatitanddecidingwhethertodeleteit,or

insteadtopursueitfurtherand,hopefully,pressonalink.SubjectCbelievedit

wasonlypossibletowrite(inthesenseofcopywriting)wellonasingle

attributeforthemessagetomaximizeitseffectandsoselectingthatattribute

wastheprimarytaskandonewhichhehadtohelptoidentify.Indoingthis,

SubjectC’sapproachwasrequiredtotiecloselywithSperberandWilson’s

(1995)theoryasitisapparentthathewasattemptingtoproduceastimulus

thatconveyedapresumptionofoptimalrelevance,thatstimuluswasrelevant

enoughtomakeitworthwhileforthereceivertoprocessit,anditwasthemost

relevantonecompatiblewiththecommunicator’sabilitiesandpreferences(p.

270).

Hebrieflydescribedhowheaccomplishedthis:

“…it’saprocessofsayingthisiswhoyouare;thisiswhatyou’re

goodat;thisiswhatyoudo;thisiswhatyouwanttheclienttodo

…andit’sonething”(56.24–56.32)

SubjectCobservedthathisapproachdifferedaccordingtowhetherhewas

promotingabrandoraspecificproductandheexplainedoneofthemain

reasonsforthiswasthat,whenadvertisingaproduct,muchofthefocuswould

inevitablyfallontheservicewhichwasofferedaroundthatproduct.This

answerisperhapsbestunderstoodwhenitisrememberedthathisadvertising

wasmainlybusiness-to-business,andtheexamplehesuppliedillustratesthis.

Hedescribedabriefforadvertisingsoftwaretocontroltechnicalequipmentfor

thebakingindustryandthemachinerequiredforinsertingjamintotarts.The

174

jamhadtobeatpreciselytherighttemperature:ifithadbeentoocoolthenit

wouldnotset,butifitweretoohotthenitwouldburnthepastry.Suppliersof

suchsoftwarecouldsimplydeliveritandthenforgetaboutit;itwasimperative

thatongoingsupportwasprovidedtothecustomer.Theadvertisinghadto

convinceprospectivepurchasersthatsuchsupport,andtraining,wouldbeon

handandefficientbecausetheirbusinessdependeduponit.Indeed,inrelation

toproductsaimedatbusinesses,theytendedtobedefinednotsomuchbythe

physicalitemstheysupplied,butbythelevelofsupportofferedaroundthem.

HelikenedthistoUKsupermarketchainswherebyonewouldhaveprices

significantlyhigher,buttheircheckoutshadmorestaff,storeswouldbecleaner

andtidierandstaffmorehelpful;conversely,thealternativesupermarketwould

becheaper,butqueuesatcheckoutswouldbelongerandcustomerservicewas

almostnon-existent.Ontheotherhand,focusonproductratherthanbrand

couldbeapproacheddifferentlywhenthetargetaudiencewasthegeneral

public.Anothercommissionwascitedtoillustratethecontrast,thistimefora

clientwhowasalargefurnitureretailerinthenorthofEngland:

“…whenwedoworkforthem,it’sallaboutproduct.Sofas,basically.

Andit’sallaboutthissofa,atthatprice,that’showmuchyousave

andisn’tthisagreatsofa?Like,theotherconcernsaroundtheir

servicelevelsandtheirshopsbeingthisstandardorthatstandardis

irrelevanttothem…”(1.02.20-1.02.40)

Hestatedthathisagencyhadencouragedthiscompanytoengageinbrand

building,buttheyhadbeenuninterestedinthisapproachastheyhad“asales

mentality”andanyattempttopersuadethemtodeliverabrandedcampaign

with“intellectualcontent”hadprovedfutile.

Thisintervieweemostlydidnotthinkdirectlyaboutsemiotictheorieswhen

designingadvertising,buthedescribedhowheconsideredthemasbeing

presentinhismindintuitively.Thiswasperhapsduetohispreviousreadingon

175

thesubjectandhisexperienceinthebusinessratherthanconsciously

attemptingtoapplythetheoriesinhiscreativeprocesses.Hewasalso

consciousthatmostofhisclientswantedasimpleapproachwhichtheycould

understand:“Ithinkvery,veryfewclientswantasortofcleversemiotickindof

approachtowhattheydo.”(1:04:57–1:05:02)

Heseemedheretobemakingadistinctionbetweenwhatheregardedasthe

practicalaspectsofadvertisingthathisclientswanted,andwhatheconsidered

tobe“cleversemiotic”advertising.Oneinterpretationofthisisthathehad

misunderstoodpreciselywhatsemioticsisbut,inviewofhispreviously

expressedknowledgeofthisfield,amorelikelyexplanationisthathewas

referringtothetypeofadvertisinghehadpreviouslycalled“highconcept”.

6.4.4SUBJECTD

Intheprocessofformingideasforadvertising,SubjectDoutlinedhisgeneral

philosophyasconstantlystrivingtobebetter,notbelievingheknewallthe

answersandlookingawayfromhiscomputerandfindingoutwhatwas

happeningintherealworld.Hegavetheexampleofcheckingoutwhathis

childrenweredoing,howtheywereinteractingwiththeirfriendsandtryingto

experiencetheworldfromtheirperspective.Hisconstantendeavorstoimprove

whathedidandtolearnrequiredhimtobeopen-mindedandtobewillingto

learnfromanyone.

Theprocessofvisualizingideasvariedintermsofhowspontaneouslytheideas

hadarisen.Sometimeshewasabletogeneratehisideasveryrapidly,buthe

recalledsomeonemakingwhatheregardedasanextremelyvalidobservation:

“Thedifferencebetweensomeoneoffthestreetandsomeone

professionalinthebusinesswe’reinisthatsomeoneoffthestreet

cancomeupwithsomethinggenius-ornothing;someone

professionalwouldcomeupwithsomethinggenius–orsomething.”

(15.56-16.10)

176

Whileanadvertisersoughttofindthegeniuswitheverybrief,thiswasnot

alwaysfeasibleforanumberofreasonsincludingthetypesofbriefs,

certaincontraintsonthatbrief,budgetaryconsiderations,timefactors,

thecomplexityofthebriefandhavingseveralpropositionsratherthan

justone.Thesimplerthebrief,hesaid,themorequicklytheideaswould

formandthemorescopetherewouldbeforcreativework.Henotedthat,

withmodernbriefs,therewasatendencyforclientstoover-thinkthem

andhepreferredthoseclientswhounderstoodthatthebriefis“a

springboard–acatalystforthecreativeimagination”.Thecomplexityand

qualityofabriefultimatelydictatedtheoutcomeandthefinalproduct

thatisdeliveredtotheclient.Fromtheagency’sside,abrief’s“brilliance”

requiredextensiveworkintermsof:

“…strategy,insight,distillingalltheclientinformation,lookingat

thesemiotics66…lookingatallthethingsoutthere;beingculturally

aware;beingawareofthelandscapeofthecompetitors…”(17.01-

17.13)

A“greatbrief”was,hesaid,thetokeysuccessingeneratingthenecessary

creativethinkingfortheagencytoproducethequalityadvertising.Clients,he

claimed,sometimesmadebriefsconvolutedbecausetheywerenotwillingtolet

goofaspectstheyhadinmindandthishinderedthedistillationprocess

necessarytorevealthecriticalcoremessage.

SubjectDdiscussedhowhecalledupontheexpertiseofdifferentmembersof

histeamaccordingtowhetherhewaspromotingabrandoradvertisinga

specificproduct.Heregardedhavingtheseresourcesasoneoftheadvantages

66Thesubject’suseoftheterm“semiotics”inthiscasewastakentorefertohisgeneral

impressionofthecompanyanditsproductsratherthanassuggestingtheapplicationofspecific

theorieswithinthefieldofsemiotics.Inhindsight,itmayhavebeenrevealingtohaveprobedhisuseof“semiotics”furtherinrelationtothiscontext.

177

ofworkinginalargeagencyanditenabledhimto“buildthedreamteam”to

addressanyparticulartask.Nevertheless,thethoughtprocessesand

approachesadoptedinbrandversusproductadvertisinghadmanysimilarities.

Bothtypesofadvertisingrequiredtheadvertiserstoimmersethemselvesinthe

client’sbrief,tounderstandthebrandandthecompetition.Inthecaseofanew

productlaunch,suchasanewchocolatebar,themanufacturerwouldalready

havetheirownwayofcarryingthisout,suchashighlightingtheenjoymentof

consumingsuchproductswhile,inthecaseofahigh-endfashionbrand,it

wouldthenbenecessarytotune-intotheworldoffashion.Theybothrequireda

clearawarenessofwhatexactlyanyadvertisingwasintendedtoachieve,butit

wasalsofundamentaltodeterminewhotheaudiencewasandhowtoengage

withthem.Inthatrespect,eachadvertisingcommissionhaditsownparticular

featuresandrequirementstowhichtheendproductoftheagencyhadtobe

tailored.Hedidnotbelieveitwasfeasibletomarketsomethinginhiswork

withouttheinvolvementofbrandingtosomedegree:

“Peoplebuyingabrandbuyintosomething...Whetherthatbrandis

established,likeaCadbury,orastart-upthatneedstohavevoice.

Youneedtostandforsomething…”(22.38-22.50)

Whatabrandstandsformightbevalue,oritmightbeitspremiumnature.He

gavetheexampleofDoveproductswhich,heclaimed,had“reinvented”someof

thenotionsaroundnaturalbeautythatdefineditspositioninthemarketand

howitwasdistinguishedfromotherbrands:

“Wehavetocleverlyworkoutwhereyousitandwhatmarketplace,

whoyouaretalkingto,whatdemographic…”(23.47–23.54)

178

Fromthat,itwouldbepossibletoworkouttheappropriatestrategy,andwhat

theagencycould“unravel”fortheclient.Anotherexamplehecitedwas

advertisingforcarmanufacturerSkoda,andherecalledthequestionaskedin

theiradvertisementsastowhytherewasawaitinglistforSkoda’svehicles67.

Thiswas,hebelieved,remarkableasitsignaledacompletere-inventionofthe

brandfromonewhichhadbeenregardedascheapandinferiortoonethatwas

respectableanddesirable.Brandcouldnot,inSubjectD’smind,bedisregarded

evenwherethefocusofaparticularcampaignwasontheproduct:

“There’snotoneclientthatcomesthroughthedoorthatisn’ta

brandinsomeway,shapeorform.Theymightnotbelievetheyare,

buttheyareabrandbecausethatiswhatwedo…”(24.34–24.44)

Whetherabrandwasaproductoraservice,itwasofparamount

importancethattheadvertiserwasabletoconstrueanddefinethebrand’s

natureandfeatures.Abrand’schiefstrengthmayhavebeenthatitwas

cost-effective,orefficient,oritmayhavehadqualitiessuchasbeing

“super-tasty”or“cheekyandlovable”.Whileproductadvertisingwasan

elementofhiswork,thisintervieweeregardedbrandpresentationand

promotionasthekeytosuccess.

ThechallengesSubjectDmostrelishedstartedwith“lookingatablankpieceof

paper”andmovingonfromtheretostimulatehiscreativeinstincts.His

inspiration,whichherepeatedlyreferredtoas“themagic”,mayhavecomefrom

spendingtimesearchingpagesontheinternet,lookingoverpastworksand,as

mentioned,havingthe“greatbrief”fromtheclient.Asideascame,hesaidhe

“push(ed)”themand“squeez(ed)”themuntilhereachedapointatwhichhe

67TheallusionhereisthatSkodahad,forseveraldecades,occupiedamarketpositionatthevery

bottom.Theircarsareclaimedtohavemassivelyimprovedinqualityandperformanceandthe

brandimageenhancedaccordingly.AccordingtoMurden(2001):“Aproductorservicecanlive

ordiebyitsbrandimage,thoughtheexampleofSkoda-whichnowhasawaitinglistforitsFabiaestate-provesthatnewlifecanbebreathedintoseeminglylostcauses.”

179

stopped,andbeingabletorecognisewhenthathadoccurredwasalsoacritical

factor.ThemetaphorsSubjectDchosehereareinterestinganditmaybe

suggestedthat,followingtheexhaustingandperhapspainfulprocessof“pushing”

and“squeezing”,aviableideaisborn.

6.4.5SUBJECTE

Uponreceivinganewadvertisingbrief,SubjectEstatedhisfirstthoughtwould

probablybetoascertainwhatthepublic’sexistingperceptionoftheparticular

productorservice,andwhatwashappeningintheirlifewhichcouldhave

significancetothat.Fromthere,hewouldattempttodiscern“somesortoftruth”

withwhichthemanorwomaninthestreetwouldidentifyandsay“that’sme”.

Sometimesthiswouldsuggestcomingupwithsomekindofwordplay;thismay

havefitwellwiththeproduct,buttheintervieweesaidhetendednottodothat

becauseitfailedtotakeaccountofthepeoplethemselves,i.e.thosehewas

tryingtopersuade.Nevertheless,hediduselanguagewhichaimedtointrigue

thereceiverandthiswasillustratedbyhimwithanexamplefromabouttwenty

yearsearlierwhenhisagencyreceivedacommissiontopromoteagolftraining

courseandwhichculminatedinagolfmagazinecarryingtheadvertisement

bearingtheheadline“playlessgolf”.Theheadlinewasintendedtosurprise

readerswhowereclearlyplayersofthesportandonewouldassumewantedto

playmoregolf.Theideawasthatthiswouldstimulatesufficientcuriosityto

investigatetheadvertisementfurtherandthusextractthefullmeaning,which

heexplainedthus:

“Ofcourseyoudoactuallywanttoplaylessgolf.Youwanttogo

roundin72shotsratherthan82shots.”(10.45–10.50)

Fromthatheadline,theskillofthecopywriterwasmanifestintheabilityto

communicatethecleverlyobscuredkeymessage,inthiscasethattheproduct,

i.e.thecourse,wouldenableaplayertoplaythegamewithgreateraccuracyand

180

success.Inordertobecertainthatthereaderwouldunderstandthemessage,

andrelateittotheproduct,theheadlinewasaccompaniedbyexplanatorytext

andbyarecognisablelogo.SubjectEbelievedthatthe“playlessgolf”linewas

ofakindthatwasenduringandcouldbeusedinfutureadvertising.

Approachestodesignvariedaccordingtowhethertheadvertisingformedpart

ofacampaign,perhapswhereaclientwishedtopointoutmorethanjustone

mainfacetorattribute.Wherethiswasthecase,hewouldattemptatanearly

stagetodeterminewhatheconsideredtobetheappropriate“toneofvoice”,

includingwhetherseriousnesswasneeded,oranoptimisticorlivelytonewould

bemoresuited.Withsomebriefs,theideascameveryquickly:

“Youthinkaboutthepersonyouaretryingtopersuade…youput

yourselfintheirshoesifyoucanand…youarewritingandyouget

up,walktothelooandbythetimeyou’vecomebackyouhave

solveditbecauseyouhavemovedawayfromyourseat.Ifindthat

happensalot.”(14.23–14.52)

Onetacticthisintervieweeusedtoarouseideaswastomakehimselflistento

musicwhichhebelieveshadthesame“tone”asthemessageheaimedto

reproduce.Forexample,ifhewantedtoinspireamoodthatisaggressive,he

wouldlistento,forexample,Mars–theBringerofWarfromGustavHolst’ssuite

ThePlanets.Hefoundthistobeasuccessfulwayofinstallingtherequisite

thoughtsandattitudesinhismind.Conversely,theremayhavebeenoccasions

wherehewantedtocultivatea“sweet”moodandhesaidhemighthaveturned

tosomethinglikethePastoralSymphony68.Anothermethodheemployedto

generateideaswastowriteon,forexample,yellowpaperasthecolourofthe

papersomehowmadehim“feeldifferently”.Bydeviatingfromwhitepaper,and

68ThewriterassumestheintervieweewasreferringtoBeethoven’sSixthSymphony,otherwiseknownasthePastoralSymphony,althoughthiswasnotexplicitlyconfirmed.

181

perhapshavingsomemusicinthebackground,hewastakinghismindaway

fromtheusualandmundane69:

“Itmightjust…takeyououtofthehumdrum;takeyououtofthe

…whatyou’reusedto.That’sofcoursewhatI’malwaystryingtodo.

GetoutofwhereIusuallyamandputmyselfsomewhereelse”

(16.24-16.39)

Thenextpartoftheinterviewinquiredintothedifferentapproachesadopted

accordingtowhetherSubjectEwasaimingtopromoteabrandoraproduct.He

confirmedthat,whilethiswascontingentuponpreciselywhatthebrandor

productswere,thenormalanswertothatwouldbe:

“thebrandonewouldbemoreemotionallybiasedandtheproduct

onewouldbemorerationallybiased.”(17.25-17.32)

Heelaboratedthat,whendevisinganadvertisementwheretheemphasiswason

theformer,theaimwastocausetheaudiencetoformsomekindof“emotional

attachment”tothatbrandinquestiontotheextentthatitoccupied“aprivileged

position”inthereaderorhearer’smentalrepositoryofbrands.Thiswasan

exampleofpurerelationalmarketingasopposedtothetransactional

marketing70wherebytheonlyaimwastoconvinceacustomertobuyaspecific

productataparticulartime.Wherethisthistypeofmarketingwassuccessful,

theoutcomewouldbetheachievementofthemuchdesiredphenomenonof

69ThisbehaviourcouldberelatedtoShklovsky’sconceptof“defamiliarisation”,inthatSubjectE

istryingtopropagateoriginalideasandinspirationbyremovinghismindfromthemundane,andfromautomatizedresponses,asdescribedinSubchapter2.5,above.

70Thetransactionalversusrelationalmarketingdistinction,andthesemioticsofit,isdiscussedfurtherinSubchapter6.7.3,below.

182

brandloyaltyandthiswas,hesaid,essentiallyanemotionalresponse.Thatis

nottosaytherewasnorationalelementtobrandloyalty:consumersgenerally

usedtheirownexperienceofparticularbrandsanddecidedwhichperformedto

theirliking.Inthecaseofadvertisingaproduct,SubjectEwouldperceivethe

audienceasneedingdetailsoftheproductandasbeing:

“inadifferentmode,wheretheyhavegotaproblemthatneeds

solving,andthissolvesit…inthat…itdelivers”(18.52-19.04)

Hefollowedthiswithanexampleofhimselfhavingrecentlypurchaseda

rucksackwhichwassuitableforcommuting.Werehetohaveadvertisedthis,he

would,heinsisted,havemadeapointoflistingtheexcellentproductbenefits

andfeatures.Insodoing,heimaginedthataninterestedreaderwould,after

readingoftheseattributes,haveappreciatedthattherucksacktheywere

currentlyusingwasinferiortotheonehewaspromoting.SubjectEcommented

thatheagreedwithBernstein’s(1974)viewthattherewereprobablysome

advertisementswhichwerecompletelydevoidofemotionandothersthatwere

equallydevoidofreason,butmostconsistedofamixtureofemotionandreason.

6.5STRATEGY

Thissubchapterrelatestoquestionswhichinquiredintothepracticalactivities

andprotocolsundertakenintheinterviewees'advertisingdesign,andit

summarisesanswerssuppliedtoquestionsaskedinPartCandPartDofthe

questionnaire.

183

6.5.1SUBJECTA

OnceSubjectAhadreceivedabrief,hestatedhisfirststepwouldbeasfollows:

“…Youwouldprobablytryandputdownonpaper,oratleastgetsettled

inyourmind,allthedifferentanglesofwhatwe’relookingat…youtry

tocomeatitfromadifferentapproachandoftenyouwouldthrowout

lotsofideas…”(20.04–20.26)

Inhiscircumstancesatthetimeoftheinterview,heformulatedhisideas(as

definedintheprevioussubchapter)onadvertisingdesignsmainlyonhisown,

whichhesaidaffectedthisprocess.Headdedthathewasnotconvincedthat

brainstormingwasaneffectivewayofformingideas,buthedidcollectasmany

ideasaspossible,manipulatedtheseinhishead,allowedthemto“settle”and

thentriedtoarriveatconclusionsastowhichoneswouldworkandwhich

wouldnot.Afterthis,hewouldattempttovisualisetheseideasandpresentthe

clientwitharangeofpossibilitiesinavisualformattoconsider(20.20–21.42).

Anadvertisementhehadbeenworkingonpriortotheinterviewconsistedofa

photographshowingdiscardedelectronicequipmentpiledup;itwasalludingto

ascrappageschemethatwasapproachingtenyearsold.Thephotographhad

superimposedinlargeprintthephrase“Endofthedecayed”andanyreaderhere

wouldhavetofollowaprocessinordertorecoverarelevantmeaning.This

processwouldbeginwithanexpectationthattheviewer,aidedbythe

photograph,wouldrecognisethenearhomophonyofdecayed/decade,accrue

thementalrewardforsolvingthepunandthenbemotivatedtolookforamore

generalrelevance.Next,asthisadvertisementappearedinatradejournal,it

waspredictedthattheviewerwouldrecognisethatrelevancespecificallyin

relationtotheirownbusiness.

SubjectArelateddetailsofanothermajorcampaignhehadbeencommissioned

toundertakeandthatwasforaSwisscompanywhichhedescribedasone

marketing“solutions”ratherthanparticularproducts.Thiskindofenterprise

184

wouldnormallybeapproachedbybusinessesorpublicsectororganisationsthat

hadaparticularproblemorprojectandoffereddesignservices,technical

expertiseandadviceasapackage.Theissueforhiminthiscasewasthatthe

clientexplainedtheywantedto“boildown”theircoreandbrandvalues.After

somedifficultiesinclarifyingwhatwasneeded,heeventuallyproposedan

alliterativecompanystraplineof“Design,Develop,Deliver”whichwasthe

essenceofwhatthecompanydidanditsethos(24.35–25.39).Thechoiceof

wordswassufficientlynon-specificsothattheycouldberelevanttovirtually

anyorganisationalprocessinwhichtheirclientwasengaged.Similarly,the

orderoftheseverbswascertainlynotrandom,butrathertheysuggesteda

logicalprogressionfromdrawingboardtofinishedarticle.Itwasalsonoticed

thattheword“deliver”hadarangeofmeanings,themostliteralofwhichwas

thephysicalactofbringingsomethingtosomepersonorplace.Atthe

metaphoricallevel,oneofthemorecolloquialinterpretationsof“deliver”,used

intransitively,connotedwithsuccessandsatisfaction.

ThenextaspectconsideredrelatedtohowSubjectAformulatedhisadvertising

sothatitwasaccuratelydirectedtotheintendedtargetaudience.Hepointedout

thathisexperienceinworkingwithbusiness-to-businessmarketinghadtaught

himthatsuchadvertisinghadtoaddresspersonnelatmultiplelevelswithina

business.Theindividualorderingatechnicalitem,theenduserofthatitemand

thepersonpayingforit,werelikelytobedifferententities.Toalargeextent,

appropriatebrandingalleviatedsomeoftheissueswhichstemmedfromthis

andthetechnicalpublicationsinwhichtheadvertisementsappearedwere

mostlyaimedatsuchpeopleaslogisticsmanagers,managingdirectors,financial

directorsandspecifiers(25.51–26.44).Inthecaseoftechnicaljournals,these

werepitchedataveryspecificsectorandanadvertiserwouldidentifythat

sectorandselectthemostappropriatepublication.Itwould,hesaid,be

improvidenttoinvestincostlyadvertisinginamasspublication,suchasRadio

Times,whenaimingatsuchaspecialistmarket;oneaimofadvertiserswasto

ensureleastwastage.Thisexplainedwhyheproducedrelativelyfewbillboard

typeadvertisementsasthesewerelessefficientattargeting.Hewasprompted

185

torecallapossibleexceptiontothiswhereheproducedadvertisingdesignedto

promoteawarenessofaparticularevent,suchasanexhibition(26.45–28.40).

Theuseofsymbolismandfolklorewerediscussed.SubjectAassertedthathe

deliberatelyusedtheseandthattheexampleoftheRobinHoodstatuein

Nottinghamasaculturalsymbolofthatcitydemonstratedthis71:

“…thesymbolismofthelocalareas,Iguess...wetriedtouseitasashort

cuttosaying’we’reinyourpatch’”(34.21–34.39)

Itmaybeassumedherethattheexpression“symbolism”wasnotspecifically

intendedtocorrespondwithaparticularsemiotictheorysuchashowsymbols

aredefinedbySaussureorPeirce,butwasinsteadusedinageneralsense,orin

asensewhichiscommonlyunderstoodwithinmarketing.Aaker(2010),for

example,proposesthatsymbolsconstitutea“keyingredientofbrand

development”(p.84)andadvocates“elevatingsymbols”(ibid)sothattheyform

partoftheidentitywhichreflectsthepotentialpowerofbrands.Whilenot

definingsymbolsassuch,Aaker(2010)suggeststheyfallintothreecategories

forthepurposeofbranding,specificallyvisualimagery,metaphorsandthe

brandheritage.Visualimageryconsistsofimagesthatarememorableand

powerful,capturethebrand’sidentityandhavebeenestablishedovertime

(ibid).SubjectA’smentionofsymbolismdid,however,indicatehisappreciation

ofthesemioticvalueofarecognizableimageofthelocalityandthereby

demonstratedtheuseofakindofsemioticmetalanguageindescribingand

conceptualizinghisworkingmethods.Hischoicetousesymbolismas“ashort

cut”,whichtoldtheviewer“we’reinyourpatch”,reinforcedthispoint.The

symbolinthisinstancewasthemeansofconveyingamessageinawaywhereby

71ThecharacterofRobinHoodis,ofcourse,internationallyknown.Whilethelegendclaimshe

livedinSherwoodForest,justtothenorthofNottingham,thestatueissituatedwithinthecity

andadjacenttoNottinghamCastle’swalls.Theuseofthisfigureintheadvertisingispredicated

onanassumptionthatviewersofitacrosstheUKwillrecognisehisassociationwithNottinghamshireorwiththecity.

186

thesignifierwouldbearnoobvioussimilaritywiththatwhichitrepresented,

andyetitwasentirelynon-linguistic.Inaddition,comprehendingthemessage

requiredtheviewertofollowthecognitiveprocessofassumingrelevance,

drawinguponencyclopaedicknowledgeandrecoveringtheimplicatures.

SubjectAstatedthatotherpeopleheknewwhoworkedinadvertisingdidnot

generallythinkwithahighlevelofsophisticationandthisdifferentiatedthe

serviceheofferedfromthatofothers.Asanillustration,hedescribedaseriesof

advertisementshewasshownwhenhewasstudyingatcollegewhere“women

wereshownasbits”.Themostmemorableand,inhisview,worst,examplehis

lecturercouldfindwasanadvertisementforcarpetunderlaywhichdepicteda

womaninjustherunderwearandthewords“Whatmattersiswhatyou’vegot

underneath”.Heregardedthisas“suchatenuouslink”totheproductmarketed,

andwenton:

“OneofthethingsIoftensaytotheclients…becauseit’squitea

narrowfieldbut…youdon’twanttolooklikeeverybodyelse.The

wholepointistostandout.”(33.40–34.16)

AswiththeimageoftheRobinHoodstatue,itwasevidentthatSubjectA

appreciatedhowalinkbetweenasignifierandthatwhichitrepresented

hadtobeunderstoodifthemessageweretobesuccessfullytransmitted.

Imagerywasoneofthemodesemployedintheadvertisementandcertain

paradigmaticchoicesweremadebytheproducer;amongthesewerethe

factthatthemodelwouldbeafemaleofaparticularageandappearance,

herattire,andtheposesheadoptedandthebackdrop.Theimage

providedastimulusinthatitattractedattentionbyvirtueofthemodel

beingcladonlyinherunderwear.Italsoinitiatedtheprocessofconveying

thesubstantivemessageoftheadvertisement,namelythathighquality

underlayisessentialforgoodcarpeting.Forthisaimtobeachieved,the

imagehadtobeaccompaniedbylinksthatwerelesstenuousintermsof

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theirrelationtotheproductbeingmarketed.Inthiscase,itconsistedofa

linguisticelementintheformofacaptionwhichwasmadedeliberately

ambiguous,i.e.thatitcouldbereferringtoawoman’sstateofdressas

wellastocarpets.Whileitwasnotspecified,otherproductorbrandlinks

mayhavebeenpresentinthecommercial,includingtextand/ortrade

marks,whichwouldhaveensuredthatthemessagerelatingtothe

advertisedunderlaywouldhaveemergedasthemostprominent.Other

messages,suchthosewhichmighthaveoccurredfromthesexually

suggestiveimagery,wouldhavebeenrelegatedinthemindoftheviewer.

SubjectAexplainedthat“lookinglikeeverybodyelse”relatedtothe

commonpracticeatthetimeforshowingallproductsinassociationwith

suggestiveorsexualisedpartsofwomen’sbodiesandusingthoseto

attractattentiontotheadvertisement.Itwasnotablethatheregarded

thisapproach,widelyusedintheindustryatthetime,asbeingso

commonplaceastoloseitseffectasastimulusandthat,inorderto“stand

out”,anadvertiserhadtoapplyoriginalitywhendesigningthe

foregroundedelementsofadvertisements72.

Thefinalquestioninquiredhow,whenmarketing,SubjectAattemptedtodraw

uponthereader’spre-existingknowledge.Hefoundthataratherdifficult

questiontoanswerandpointedoutthattheaimwasmorelikelytoseekto

challengewhatwasalreadyknownalthough,toachievethis,itwouldbe

necessarytoconfirmwhatthatknowledgeconsistedof.Hegaveanexampleof

theforkliftindustryandadvertisingcopyheproducedforaKorean

manufacturer,includingaphotographofthecapitalofKoreaaccompaniedby

thestrapline:“Seoul.LikeTokyo,onlycheaper”(35.47-35.59).Whilethis

particularadvertisementwasneverpublished,itwasbasedonassumptionsthat

potentialcustomerswouldknowthat:

72Acontemporaryreadermayrecoilattherepresentationofgenderhereandwonderwhythis

wasnotmentionedasanobjection.However,itshouldberememberedthattheinterviewee

wouldhavebeenundergoingthiseducationintheearly1980s,atimewhensuchadvertisingmethodswerecommonplaceandsounremarkable.

188

• TokyoisthecapitalofJapanandJapaneseproductswerehighquality

andbrandleaders.

• SeoulisthecapitalofSouthKorea,andKoreantechnologyand

manufacturingwasexpanding.

Fromthatunderstanding,itwouldbepossibletointerpretthemetonymicuseof

therespectivecapitalsasrepresentingtechnologicalproducts,inthiscase

forklifttrucksand,withtheaidofotherelementspresent,namelythecontext,

(includingtheparticularpublication,imagesandsignifierssuchasrecognizable

companylogos)anenrichedmeaningwouldhavebecomemanifesttothereader.

Whenitcametopromotingaproduct,anactivitywhichhedidnotbelievecould

bedetachedfrombrandpromotion,herepeatedhisethosmentionedearlierof

“boilingdown”thecoremessageandcraftingthisintoamemorablestrapline.

Onehedevisedforaforkliftmanufacturerbecamewidelyrecognized

throughouttheindustrybydealersandend-usersastheessenceofthebrand

anditsproductswas“Simple,Powerful,Performance”.Thisstraplinewas

conceivedapproximatelytenyearspreviouslyandwasstillbeingutilizedatthe

timeoftheinterview.

6.5.2SUBJECTB

SubjectBwasemphaticthathisstrategydidnotdifferaccordingtowhetherhe

wasmarketingabrandoraproduct;hiscompany’sapproachwasalwaysto“tell

astory”.Productsandbrandshad,sofarashewasconcerned,thesame

attributes,includinga“personality”,andtheyhadtotaketheconsumerthrough

theAIDAprocessofawareness,interest,desireandaction.“AIDA”isan

acronymforabehaviouralmodelusedinadvertisingandmarketingandthat

attemptstoshowthelistofeventsthatwouldideallyoccurwhenan

advertisementisviewedbyaconsumer.Thisisnotamodelbasedonany

specifictheory,butratheronewhichevolvedfromearlyapproachesto

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advertisingpracticegoingbacktothe19thcentury,andhasbeenmodifiedand

refinedbypractitionersintothefour-partmodelshownbelow:

“A–attention(awareness):attracttheattentionofthecustomer.

I–informthecustomer.

D–directbenefit:convincecustomersthattheywantanddesirethe

productorserviceandthatitwillsatisfytheirneeds.

A–action:leadcustomerstowardstakingactionand/or

purchasing.”(Brierley,2002:p.151).

Thismodelhasaclearstructure,orsyntagmaticcharacter,which

illustratesaprocessofactionsthatmustfollowaspecificsequence.The

“attention”aspectistobeachievedbymeansofasignorseriesofsigns

actingasthestimulus,promptingtheconsumertoengagewiththe

advertisement.Itmayalsoservetoensuretheconsumerrecognizesitas

suchratherthanassomeotherkindoftext.Toachievethis,the

advertisementmayutilizealinguisticsign(foregroundedcopy)ornon-

linguisticsign(suchasanimage,thelayout,musicorsound),ora

combination.Informingthecustomermeansrelatingsufficientfactsabout

thebrandorproduct,orremindingthemofthosefacts,oratleast

conveyingadesiredimpression,sufficientfortheinitialaimofthe

advertisementtobeachieved.Amorecompellingcaseforbuyingthe

productismadeoutwiththethirdelementofAIDAwhiletheaction

componentisintendedtochangetheviewer’sorhearer’sbehaviorina

concreteway.

SubjectBcitedanexampleofanongoingcampaigntopromotetourismata

localcastle.Amongtheattractionsatthecastlewereawallwalk,aVictorian

prisonandacollectionofvaluableartefactsstoredinavault;everyoneofthese

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attractionsheviewedasanindividualproduct.Thecreativedevelopment

processwasappliedtoeachproductwhilethebrandaspectwasthatofthe

castleitself.Theremay,hesaid,havebeenashiftofemphasiswithregardto

brandversusproductadvertisingastheformeravoideddiscussingaspectssuch

aspriceorplace,butratherthefocusshiftedtoencouragingthecustomerto

engagewiththebrand.Thishedescribedasa“craftdifference”,asinusing

marketingskillstoexecuteaparticularidea,andhedistinguishedthecraft

aspectfromthecreativeprocess.Itwassuggestedtohimthattheremustbe

radicallydifferentcreativeapproachesemployedwhen,forexample,abriefwas

toproduceadvertisingfortechnicalcomponentsinatradejournal,withallthe

detailsoftheproductincludingspecification,priceanddelivery,ascomparedto

alifestylebrandsuchasVersace,wheretheaccentwasnotplacedonspecific

products,butpurelyonthebrandpersonality.SubjectBdiscountedthisand

arguedthat,whilethemotivationvariedenormously,theprocessofcreation

wasstillthesame,butdeliveredinadifferentway.TheVersaceadvertisement

“maynotobviouslysayanythingbutactuallybynotdoingthat,itissayingquitea

lotaswell”(14.23-14.31).Aseeminglyinappropriateapproach,e.g.tryingto

designatradeadvertisementinthesamewayasalifestyleadvertisementfora

lifestylebrand,wouldraisethequestionastowhethertheaudiencehadbeen

properlyunderstood.However,thatdidnotmeanitwouldnecessarilybeamiss

tousethelifestylebrandingmethodforatechnicaladvertisement.Itmay,for

instance,beemployedtohighlightapointofdifference,generatingattention(as

proposedbytheAIDAmodel)andtherebyencouragetheviewertoengagewith

itforthatreason.SubjectBconfirmedthatsemiotictheoriesdidnotplayapart

inhisthinkingwhendesigninganadvertisement,becausethishasnotformed

anypartofhiseducationinmarketing.However,whenthebasicnotionsof

signs,symbols,culturalmythsandfolklore,wereexplained,heinsistedthat

thesedidplayanimplicitroleandthiswouldbeintuitive,arisingfromhis

existingawarenessoftheprevailingculture.

Thisisofparticularinterestforthepurposeofthisstudyasitimpliesthatthe

relevanceofatleastsomeofthetheoriesofsemiotics,andespeciallythosethat

areincludedinthetrainingofmarketingandadvertisingpractitioners,canbe

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tested.Italsoindicatesthedegreetowhichthecreativeprocesses,the

conceptualisationsthatoccurandhowthesearediscussedamongmembersof

advertisingteams,dependheavilyuponasharedmetalanguage.

Neartheendoftheinterview,hesaid:

“Ibetifyoubrokedownourprocesses…ifyoucouldlookintoour

heads…we’dbeusingsemioticsinsomeway,butnotactively…not

explicitly”(27.47–27.59)

Insupportofthis,heproducedanadvertisementdesignedafewmonths

previouslyforanautomotivecompany.Theheadlinetextread“FirstAid

forcars”anditwasjuxtaposedwithanimageofacarwiredtoadiagnostic

machine.Parallels,includingthechoiceofwords(FirstAid)andtheimage

ofanitemoftechnicalequipmentwiredtotheinternalworkingsofa

vehicle,invitedtheviewertorecognizesimilaritiesbetweenvehicle

diagnosticequipmentandaheartmonitor.Theysuggested,accordingto

SubjectB,thatthewireswereproducingdataabout“theheartofthecar,

almost”(30.04–30.06).Heviewedthisassymbolism,althoughitcould

bearguedthattheparallelswereimplicatedratherthanmademanifest.A

furthernoteworthypointwasthat,asseenintheprevioussubchapter,

SubjectBmadeextensiveuseofmetaphorsinexplaininghisown

processesandinthisexamplehewasusingconceptualmetaphorsdirectly

inhisadvertisingwhenhereferredto“firstaid”and“theheartofthe

car”73.

Thenatureanddegreeofdetailinbriefsfromclientsvariedconsiderablyand

dependedupontherelationshiphehadwithhisclients.SubjectBstatedthat,

withmostclients,agreatdealoftimewasinvestedinattemptingtoshapehow

73ThisexampleisdiscussedfurtherinChapter7.4belowintermsoftheuseofmetaphorsinadvertisingbyallinterviewees.

192

theclientthoughtintermsofhowtheyshouldbebriefedandwhattheagencies

requiredfromthem.Oneofthefirstkeymattersaboutwhichtheyhadtoreach

earlyagreementwastoestablishwhattheobjectivesoftheadvertisementwere.

Thisthenledtofurtherquestionssothattheaudiencecouldbeidentifiedandit

couldbeascertainedhowwelltheclientunderstoodtheaudience.This

intervieweealsosaidheaimedtodiscoverwhethertheclienthadinminda

positioningofthemselvesasabrandthattheywantedtoreinforce(18.31–

18.40).Itwasusuallyeasierwiththoseclientswithwhomhisfirmhadworked

overtime.Theywouldgenerallybeginbriefingtheagencyontheirmaingoals;

theywouldbeclearastowhattheyweretryingtoachieve,andwhetherthey

wantedanewapproachorjustmoreofthesame.Normally,aclientexpected

thecreativeaspecttocomefromtheagencyratherthaninstructingthemasto

exactlyhowtheadvertisementwastoappear.

Onefunctionofabrief,asmentioned,wastodiscusswhowerethetarget

audienceand,tosomeextent,thatcouldbecontrived.Anexampleofthiswas

occurringatthetimeoftheinterviewandconcernedthediscountsupermarket

mentioned.Theyhadcommissionedaseriesofradioadvertisementsto

promotelineswheretheywerestrongandwantedtoexpandsalesspecifically

inbarbecuemeats,sauces,andalsoalcoholproducts.Itwassuggestedthatit

couldbepropitioustodirectadvertisementsspecificallyatmalebuyersandto

dosoonradiostationsthattheyknewhadapredominantlymaleaudience.

SubjectBstated:

“weputtogetheraverymale-orientatedadthatwasverytongue-in-

cheekaboutbarbecuemeatsandstufflikethat,andalcohol,andso

weidentifiedtheaudienceveryclearly”(22.40–22.52)

Somethingsimilarcouldalsobeachievedwhenadvertisingwithnationalmedia,

includingnewspapers,astheyoftenhadalifestyleorafoodsectionthatSubject

Bbelievedwouldhaveappealedmoretowomen,orinthemainpartofthe

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newspaperwhereitwouldhavereachedalldemographiccategoriesequally.

Whenadvertisingtothegeneralpublic,segmentation74ofanaudiencehas

limitations;anadvertisementaimedatwomenisessentiallydirectedatall

womenor,morespecifically,allwomenwhoshopforfamilies.Inthecaseofmen,

thosemenwholikewatchingsportmaybethetarget.Toachieveanykindof

finesegmentationinvariablyinvolvesstereotyping75or,touseanotherofhis

metaphors,“takingbroadbrushstrokes”(22.36).

Effortsweremadetotesttheconsumers’understandingofproposedorongoing

advertisementsbyvariousmeans.SubjectBstatedhesometimesundertook

whathereferredtoasa“testcreative”,whichwasconductedthroughfocus

groups.Hegaveanexampleagainwiththesupermarketadvertisinghehad

describedpreviouslyandwasinprogressatthetimeoftheinterview.A

specialistcompanyhadbeencommissionedtoinvestigateandreportonthe

client’smarketing.Thisincludedanalysingtheiradvertising’seffectivenessfrom

severalangles,includingaudiencecomprehensionandbrandrelevance,andwas

tobeconductedonlinewith100to150testsubjects.Conductingsuchresearch

wascontingentupontheclient’sbudgetbeinglargeenough,andalsowhetherit

wasconsideredworthwhile:

“Soifyou’respendinghalfamillionpoundsonmedia,thenit’s

probablyworthdoingsometesting.Ifyouarespendingamillion

poundsoverayear,thenit’sprobablyworthdoingsometesting”.

(26.40–26.48)

74SegmentationisdefinedbyBarthes(seeChapter2.8above).Thetermhasalsobeenadopted

asmetalanguagerelatingtomarketingandreferstothecategorisingconsumersintotypesin

orderthatadvertisingandothermarketingpracticescanbemoreaccuratelydirectedtopotentialcustomers(Brierley,2002).

75Stereotypinghasbeenmentioneddirectlyorindirectlybymorethanoneintervieweeduringtheresearchandthisaspectwillbefurtherexploredinthenextchapter.

194

Hethenreferredbacktothecastlebriefthatwasmentionedpreviously.

Inacaselikethat,wheretheadvertisingwaswhollynewandinnovative,

andthebudgetstendedtobefarmorerestrictive,thennosuchresearch

wasfeasibleandassessingcomprehensionhadtobeajudgmentwhich

wasbasedupontheclient’sviews(includingbysimplytestingitouton

staff)andalsorelyingontheagency’s“craft”experience.Heconsidered

thismethodofassessingunderstandingtobeequallyvalid,evenifitwas

notasrobustastheformalizedresearch.SubjectBsaidhereliedheavily

onaclient’sknowledgeoftheirmarket,theircustomersandtheabilityof

customerstorecognizeproducts,alongwithanyperceivedproblemswith

theproductimage.

6.5.3SUBJECTC

SubjectChadpreviouslysummarisedhisbackgroundasbeingmainlyconcerned

withdirectmarketingandmuchofhispresentworkwasthroughthischannel.

Themethodshehadlearnedandemployedaredescribedinmoredetailbelow,

buthefoundthismediumofadvertisingespeciallyinsightful.Hestatedthathe

regardeditasacraftratherthananartisticpursuit,althoughhisjobwas“to

overlayasheenorabrandoverit”(23.22-23.29).Heviewedthismethodasan

“almostscientificprocess”anddescribedhowitcouldworkusingdifferent

strategiesandtestingthemamongdifferentgroups.Sometimesthevariations

wereoffer-based(e.g.discountvouchers,giftsorotherincentives)whileatother

timestheywouldtrylanguage-baseddifferences.Heexplainedthelatterin

somedetail,beginningwiththefirstimpressioncreateduponreceivingdirect

mail,namelytheenvelope.Iftheenvelopefailedtocapturetheattentionofthe

recipient,itwouldbeimmediatelydiscarded,andthefirstbarrierwastoensure

thereceiverwouldopenit.Havingopenedit,thenextstepwouldbeforthe

recipienttodiscoverthatitcontainedoneorperhapstwoleafletsalongwitha

letterpersonalisedtothemandwiththeirnameonitwhich,heemphasized,was

spelledcorrectly.Thisensureditwaspersonaltothem,addingtoitsapparent

195

relevanceandtherebyensuringtherecipientwillcontinueengagingwithit.He

describedthereceiver’sassumedbehaviouratthispoint:

…whattheywouldthendoisscantheletter.Sowhattheywould

typicallydoisscantheheadlinesandsub-headsandthink’isthis

relevant.Ifitisn’t–bin.Ifitwas,thentheywouldreadfurther.At

thatpoint,theywouldputdowntheletterandtakeuptheleaflet

andreadtheleaflet.”(21.21-21.40)

Leafletswerenowpersonalizedandtheirpurposewaslargelyreinforcement,to

re-presentthesameinformationastheletter,butinadifferentformat,and

perhapsinamorevisualway.Thelogicofthiswasthat,oncethereceiverhad

beguntoscantheleaflet,theywouldlookagainattheletterandreadits

contents.Letterswereproducedintwobasicforms:onewasalengthyand

detailedletterwhichdescribedthebenefitsoftheproductandoftenraninto

twopageswhiletheotherformwasshorterandpunchier,perhapswithmore

“visuals”onit.Thesewouldbeproducedsimultaneouslyandtestedfor

comparisontodeterminewhichwasthemosteffective.Theaspectofthe

opening,ordiscardingwithoutopening,ofdirectmailwas,accordingtoSubject

C,amuchtestedandresearchedareawithinmarketing.Itisalso,however,one

whichappearstohavebeenneglectedbysemioticians.

Itisobservedthatwhatisoccurringhereisafullylinked-upcommunication

approachwhichincludesallaspectsofthematerialdesign(materiality)ofthe

relevantsignsandtheirtemporalsuccession.Eachcommunicationrevealsaset

ofparadigmaticchoicesmadebytheproducerandtheseincludeaspectsofthe

designoftheletterintermsofthemodesemployedincludingwordsand

graphics,thetypeofpaper,andevendowntoensuringthecorrectspellingof

therecipient’sname.Inaddition,eachcommunicationoccupiesapositionalong

asyntagmconsistingofaseriesofsuchlettersindividuallycraftedand

dispatchedatspecificintervals.Thefunctionofeachletteristhusintegrativein

196

thatitseekstocombinetherecipient’spresentexperience(i.e.ofreceivinga

correspondence)withboththeirpastexperienceandalsowithanticipatedor

possiblefutureexperience(Harris,2010)andmaximumeffectisthereby

generatedthroughasophisticatedprocessofsemiosis.

SubjectCelaboratedonthedetailsofthecampaignhehadbeenworkingonthat

dayasfollows:

“Theemailthatwentouttodayisthefirstofafive-stageemail

communication.Sooneisanemailgoingoutonceaweekforthe

nextfiveweeksandthat…programmeisgoingtobuildupastoryof

allthethingstheydoandworkasakindofdrip-feedintermsofall

ofthefifteenthingstheydoaregoingtobeencapsulatedintoallof

theseemails,butnotallatthesametime.”(56.49–57.17).

Aswiththeletters,thecompositionofasubjectlinewithemailcommunication

wasseenascriticalindeterminingwhetheritwasopenedordiscardedonsight.

Therewerecertainpracticalfactorsthathadtobeconsideredwhenwording

thesesuchastheuseoftriggerwordsthatarepopularwithadvertisers,but

whichhadtobeavoidedwithemailshots.Theseincludedwordssuchas“free”

and“sex”,andtheyelicitan“automatized”response(seeSubchapter2.5,above)

inthemindsofreadersbasedonassumptionsthattheywereofhighrelevance

andimmediatelyinterpretable.However,inemailshotstocompanies,the

presenceofthesewordsislikelytoresultintheemailinwhichtheywere

includedbeingfilteredoutanddepositedintothespaminbox,andsotheemail

inquestionwouldlikelyneverbeopened.

Identifyingandtargetinganaudience,orwhathereferredtoas“dataselection”,

appearedstraightforwardforthekindofdirectmailadvertising,particularly

business-to-business,thatSubjectC’sfirmundertook.Thisworkwasaimed

towardsseniordecision-makers,suchasatdirectorlevel,incompaniesin

certainsectorsandofacertainsize.Whenitcametodirectmailtothewider

197

public,suchasthefurnitureretailermentionedpreviously,thisconsistedof

identifyingparticulardemographicsincludingpeoplewithinpredeterminedage

bands,atacertainincomelevel,certainhousetypesandsizesincertain

geographicallocations,andwithincertain“drivetimes”ofthestoresthatwere

beingpromoted.Therewasnoquestionofassessingtherecipients’intellectual

capacities,e.g.bytryingtoestablishthekindsofnewspaperstheywerelikelyto

read.Instead,assumptionsoftheireducationallevelweremadeonthebasisof

thedemographicsmentionedinordertocategorisethemintermsoftheirlikely

lifestyleanddecidewhethertheywere“thetypeofpersonwhobuysfurniture

fromthisstore”(1.13.23–1.13.28).Anothermeanshementionedwhichwas

employedasdataselectionwassocialmediaand,specifically,Facebook.He

explainedthisasfollows:

“Now,ifyoudoFacebookadvertising,youcanselectveryspecific

agegroupsandaudiences.Sowe’re,atthemoment,doinga

campaignthatisprovingtobeverysuccessful,veryeffective,fora

universitywhodoacertaintypeofvocationaldegreebasedaround

musicandtheentertainmentindustry…wearetargeting17to18-

yearoldswho’vegotinterestsinmusicincertaingeographic

locations….Youwon’tseetheseadsifyouare22;ifyou’re18you

will.”(1.14.24–1.16.07)

Facebookisattractivetoadvertiserspreciselybecauseitcandirectits

advertisingtoitsintendedaudiencewithhugeprecision.Inordertoachieve

this,SubjectChadtoensuretheadvertisementwaswritteninsuchawaythat

itssignificancetothereaderwouldbereadilyapparentandpotential

candidateswouldbethusencouragedtoenrolforthedegreecoursesoffered.

Theadvertisementwasbuiltaroundasloganthattheeducationbeingoffered

wouldleadtocareersthatwere“anythingbutordinary”.Inotherwords,young

adultswereofferedtheprospectoftakingadegreethatwouldenablethemto

gainapositionasastagemanager,touringtheworldandmeetingpopular

198

artistsandrockstarsandcelebritiesandtappingintotheiraspirationsfora

well-paidandvariedcareer,andnotendingupinamundanejobsuchasinan

officeorsupermarket.Heregardedhisworkasamatterof,tousehismetaphor,

“boilingdown”(1.19.01)thecoremessage.Conveyingtheessenceofthe

messagethroughsimplicitywashiskeystrategyinthisadvertisementand

consequentlyaudiencecomprehensionwouldnotbeamajorconcern.

Intermsoftheuseofsemiotics,SubjectCrecalledBarthes’“Italianicity”notion

andhowhehadusedthattoexplaintheconceptofculturalmythstohis

businesspartner.Hethengavehisownexampleofhowhehadapplieda

similarmyth,i.e.thatofthenotionoffivestarsrepresentingtheultimatein

efficiencyandluxury,inthecommissionfortheshippingconsultancythathe

relatedearlierintheinterview:

“There’sfivepointswhytheirserviceisbetterthaneveryoneelse’s,

andIwrappeditupasafive-starguarantee.Sotheopeningline

was‘guaranteedby(companyname)’.AndthenI’dgotfivestars.

SoIamusingvisuallanguagetoreinforce…..andIverymuchdoubt

anyonewillreadthroughthefivepointsbutthey’llseeafive-star

guaranteeandfivelovelybrightsilverstarslookingniceandclassy.”

(1.20.56-1.21.22)

Thesignificationofthestariconscombinedwiththeword“guarantee”would,

hesaid,beinterpretedasindicatingthatthiscompanycouldbetrusted.He

wentontosay:“Whenitgetsvisual,andcombineswithlanguage,that’swhenit’s

atitsmostpowerful”(1.24.28-1.24.28).Thisechoessomeoftheclaimsof

Barthes(1957,asdescribedinSubchapter2.7)intermsofcombiningimagery

withwordsinthatthesignifiedsoftheformer,whicharepolysemous,have

theirmeaninganchoredtosomeextentbythetextintheformofacaption.

ItisnotablethatSubjectCwasfamiliarwithBarthesand,whilethiscannotbe

establishedwithanycertaintyhowmuchhehadbeeninfluencedbyBarthes'

199

work,itappearstobethecasethattheintervieweehasbeenunconsciously

applyingatleastsomeaspectsofthetheory.

SubjectCexpressedhisbeliefthattherehadbeenaradicalshiftinthenatureof

advertisinginrecentyearswhichhad,hesaid,become“brainless”whilemore

sophisticatedapproacheshadbecomelesscommon.Heexplainedthe

implicationsforhisworkasfollows:

“Whereasitusedtobeanindustryfullofprofessionals,Iwouldsay

nowIwouldsayitisanindustrythathasprofessionalsatvarious

levels,butitisfull…ofpeoplewhodon’treallyknowwhattheyare

doing….soIthinktheindustryhasbeende-skilledandde-

intellectualised…andthecontentisalmostbecomingless

impressive...andthat’swhyIthinkmyskillsareactuallybecoming

morerelevant”.(1.06.32–1.07.42)

Heperceivedthattherewasnowalackofapplicationofacademicrigour

informingmarketingmethodsandthattheinternethadexacerbatedthis.

Anyone,heclaimed,couldputtogetherawebsiteandcallthemselvesadesigner

evenwheretheyhadalmostnoprofessionaleducationortraininginartor

design.Theabilitytobeabletoproducewebsiteswasnowachievedthrough

familiaritywithinstantwebdesigntoolssuchasWordPress,andeventhe

specialistsoftwarethathisfirmoperatedhadbecomesimpler.Theindustry

hadthusbeenmassivelyde-skilledand,withtheexceptionoftheprestigious

agenciesworkingwithmajorbrands,therehadbeenamovetowards

businessescreatingtheirownadvertisingin-house.Consequently,firmssuchas

hiswereonlyabletochargeabouthalfofwhattheyusedtochargeadecade

earlierfortheirworkandthestandardofmuchoftheadvertisingproducedhad

becomedismallylow.

Lastly,SubjectCwasaskedhow,whendesigningadvertising,hetriedto

ascertainandworkwithhisaudience’sbackgroundknowledge,howhechecked

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thatknowledgeoutandwhatassumptionshemade.Herepliedthatitwas

mostlya“gutfeelthing”,whereassometimesanadvertisementalsoinvolved

educatingtheaudience.Heexemplifiedthisbyreferringtosomeadvertisinghis

firmhaddevisedforacuttingedgehealthsupplementscompanywhichworked

alongsidemedicalprofessionals.Inthiscase,somesupplementswouldbe

entirelyunfamiliartoconsumers,sotheadvertisinghadtobeinstructiveaswell

aspersuasive.Aproductsuppliedbythiscompanywasbasedonfishoilsand

thenutrientomega3.Whilemostconsumerswouldhaveavagueideathatthis

wouldbegoodforthem,theymaynotbeentirelysurewhy,andsowhenthey

didbuyit,theywouldoftenpurchasethecheapestproductavailable.He

claimed,however,thatthecheaperproductsconsistedmostlyoffishfatrather

thanomega3andhistaskwastoeducateconsumersastothedifference

betweentheseandthepremiumproductwhichhisclientwasmarketingand

whichwasfarmoreexpensive.Inaddition,theadvantagesoftakingthis

productwouldbeverylong-termandvaried,andthiswouldbedifficultto

transmitinadvertisements.Anadvertisingchallengeofthiskindwould,he

suggested,bestbeachieved“inastagedway”,butunfortunatelytheclientwas

notabletoaffordsuchacomprehensivecampaigninspiteoftheexcellenceof

hisproducts.

6.5.4SUBJECTD

Uponreceivinganewbrief,SubjectDwouldfirstclearallothermatters

fromhishead.Hebelievedhehadtrainedhimselfto“departmentalise”his

mindsothatotherconcerns,includingfamilymatters,couldbeputaside

whenhearrivedatworkandhecoulddevotehisenergiestohisjob.Once

hehadreadandabsorbedhimselfinabrief,hebelievedhewasmentally

“inadifferentzone”.Anyuncertaintieswiththebriefwouldbediscussed

atanearlystagewiththeaccountmanagersandthenhewouldbeginthe

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processofimmersinghimselfinthebrand.Thiscouldconsistofonline

research,delvingintotheactivitiesandperformanceofbothcompetitors

andothersectorswhomayhavebeendoingsomethingsimilar.He

believedthiswasthefirststageinhiscreativeprocessandtheseedsof

ideaswouldbegintogerminateashebecameexposedtoimages,wordsor

phraseshefoundonline.Acceptingthatsomeofhiscolleaguesfoundit

necessaryto“bounceideasaround”or“talkandtalkandtalk”,hestated

thatheneededsomementalspacetodevelophisideasbeforehewould

begindiscussionsaboutthem.Hedescribedonetechniquethatheapplied:

”alwaysdoanovernighttestonanidea,becausewhatyoumight

thinkisagreatideaattheendofplaywhenyouaretiredandyour

brain’sprobablyhadabitofa…highs,lows,peakoftheday,my

bestthinkingisalwaysdonemid-morning”(31.03–31.16)

Ifanideastillseemedpromisingthefollowingmorning,whenhewasat

hismentalpeak,thenhewouldhaveconfidenceinit.SubjectD

emphasisedtheimportanceofhavingmanybreaksduringthethinking

phases;thisincludedbrainstormingdiscussionswhentheseideaswere

beingexploredand,whenthesewereheld,hewasalwaysmindfulthatthe

attentionspanofparticipantswouldbelimitedandsotheywerekeptbrief.

OnemethodfavouredbyJapanesebusinesseswhichhebelievedwas

beneficialforensuringfocusinmeetingswastoholdtheminroomswhich

hadnochairs,andinwhichdistractionssuchasmobilephoneswere

prohibited.Atthetimeoftheinterview,SubjectDwasworkingona

numberofcommissions.Oneofthesewasforacakecompanywhichwas

promotingacompetitionwhichrelatedtoacurrentmoviethatwasdueto

bereleased,whileanotherwasforacharitylinkedtoalocalprofessional

sportsteam.HewasmakinganumberofTVcommercialsandwasalso

involvedinmakingafilm.

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SubjectDnextexplainedthemethodsbywhichadvertisementswere

directedtowardsspecificaudiences.Therewerealreadyestablished

categoriesofpeopleandhealludedtothesocio-economicgroupsusedby

governments,marketresearchorganisationsandothers,andwhich

classifythepublicasfallingintogroupsA,B,C1,C2,DandE.Withinthese

groups,hehadtotargetpeoplemorecloselyandhesupportedthiswithan

exampleofamajorclientthatisauniversity.Hesaidofthem:

“Theyhavetopositionthemselvesintherightway.They’renot

OxfordnorCambridge.Theyhaveto…sellto….theirstrengthsand

placetheirstrengthsinthatarea.Theystillhaveverybrightpeople

butjustwantingmoreofavocationalapproach.”(35.05-35.18)

Thekindsofwordsthatwereselectedinordertoreachaparticular

audiencedependeduponpinpointingthataudiencewithprecision,and

understandingwhatmediatheyusedandhowtheyusedandinteracted

withit:

“TotalktoaSunreader,who’sabrickie,who’s23-yearsoldis

differentfromtalkingtoaguywho’saconsultant…neurosurgeon.

You’vegottorecognisehowpeoplereact….Butthewordsyouuse

havetobeconsideredandrepresentativeofthepeopleyou’re

talkingto.”(35.49-36.11)

AlthoughSubjectDappreciatedthatwordplaysuchaspunshaveaplace

inadvertising,theywerenotatoolhegenerallychosetouse.The

“crafting”ofthewordswas,nevertheless,importanttohimandherecalled

winningacopywritingawardforanadvertisementhehadproducedfora

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restaurantthathadopenedinpremisesthatwereformerlyanoldpolice

stationandthelineheproducedwas“rhubarbandcustardy”.

Intermsofsymbolismandculturalmythologies,hewasawareoftheir

significanceforsomeadvertisingstrategists,buttheywerenotsomething

hechosetoexploit:

“Ipersonallydon’tgetthatdeepintomythologyandsymbolismand

thingslikethat.Ithinktherearecertainpeoplethatbelievethatit

works..Ipersonallydon’tuseitverymuchasatechnique…Ithink

whatyoufindinadvertising…that..photography,styles,typefaces,

colours,techniques,animation,illustration,icons–theyallgoin

cycles…”(37.49-38.18)

Aswasevidentwhenhementioned“aSunreader”and“brickie”,

stereotypingplayedaroleinSubjectD’sapproach.Whilehestatedhe

triedtoavoidit,heclaimedthiswasnotalwayspracticableifhewas

workingtoachieveaparticularaim;itwas,andhebelieveedalwayswould

be,aninherentfeatureofadvertising.Hesuppliedanexampleofacurrent

campaignbytheCarlsbergbeercompanywhichpridesitselfonbeing

“probablythebestintheworld”andtheconceptofthisstraplinehasbeen

extendedinanongoingTVcommercial(Beenstock,1998).Thisdepictsa

hypotheticalCarlsbergsupermarket,showingittobeastereotypicalmale

utopiaandallthecustomersbeingmen.Theuseofastereotype,ora

culturalmyth,enablesanadvertiserinstantlytoactivateasetofmemories

andmentalresourcesinthemindoftheviewerandsays“sometimesit

helpsyoutoconnectAtoBquicker”.Similarly,theaudience’sexisting

knowledgeof,andperceptionsabout,theclient’sproductsandbrand

reputationcanbehighlighted.Thisheexemplifiedwithwhatheregarded

asthepublic’sbeliefandfaithinVolkswagenintermsoftheirvehicles’

qualityofbuildandreliability.

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Hisagencyhadanassociationwithamarketresearchcompanywhichwaspart

ofthesamegroupandSubjectDconfirmedthiswasusedtocheckuponthe

effectivenessofthewordsandotherelementsintheiradvertisements.It

frequentlyusedbothquantitativeandqualitativeresearchinordertoinformthe

agency’sadvertisingpractices.

6.5.5SUBJECTE

SubjectEwasaskedtoexplainhisstrategicapproachwithacampaignonwhich

hewascurrentlyworking.Hesuppliedanexampleofaclientwhowas

marketinganinnovativeproduct,namelyanewformofinstantnoodles.These

noodleswere,hesaid,“excellent”;theywereverydifferentfromtheusualkind

ofmicrowavablenoodlesowingtoanewtechniqueinthewaytheywere

processed.Heexplainedthemasfollows:

“IfIservedyouthemupnow,eventhoughtheytake90secondsin

themicrowave,you’dthink’wow!’Howcouldmicrowavednoodles

beasgoodasthat?”(23.29-23.39)

ThequestionwhichwasintheforefrontofthemindsofSubjectEandhisteam

centredaroundhowtheycouldovercomethestigmaassociatedwith

microwavablefoodandinstantnoodles.Aparticularphrasewaseventually

devisedwhichwasintendedtohighlightthedifferenceandthiswas“Wok

qualitynoodles”andhelikenedthistoasimilarphraseusedinanearlier

campaignforGarnierhairproductswhichwas“Salonbeautifulhair”76.Thehope

wasthatthiswouldencourageanaudiencetoinferthatthesewere

76IthasnotbeenpossibletoverifythisparticularphrasebeingusedinadvertisingGarnier

products.However,thesimilarityintermsofthegrammaticalstructureof”wokqualitynoodles”

and”salonbeautifulhair”isstriking.Whilethisgrammaticalaspectwasnotmentionedexpresslybytheinterviewee,hisrecognitionofthegeneralsimilaritywasapparent.

205

microwavablebut,atthesametime,havingthesametastequalitiesasifthey

hadbeencookedinawokandhecontinuedthatthisphraseincorporated:“a

littlebitoftherationalandpossiblyabitofthepragmatic”.Itwasvitalthat,as

thiswasaimedatwhathecalled“thesnackingmarket”,theaudiencewould

havetobeconvincedthattheproducttastedgoodandwasthereforeworthyof

trying.Toensureconsumers’fullengagementwiththeadvertisingandthat

theywouldtakenotice,hebelieveditwasalsoimportanttoinstilabrand

character.Herecalledthebrandingstyleofthesnacksausageproduct

Pepperami,andthewaythatitwasportrayedashavingan“attitude”.Thebelief

wasthattheconsumerwouldbuyintothiscapriciouspersonalityatthesame

timeasbeingtemptedbytheproduct’smorerationalcharacteristicsintermsof

beingeasytoprepareandenjoyable.Eventually,itwasdecidedthatthe

advertisingwouldbebasedonthepropositionthat,owingtotheconvenienceof

these“wokquality”microwavablenoodles,consumerswouldnolongerhave

anyusefortheirwoks.Thisthenprogressedintoafurtherideaofinviting

consumerstoconsiderwhattheymightwanttodowiththisredundantpieceof

kitchenequipment.Somehumorousideasastohowtheymightrecycletheir

woksforanotherpurposeoccurredtothemandaneologismwascreatedfor

this,namely“wokcycle”.Videosweremadetoshowtheseideasincluding

depictingpeopleplayingtenniswithwoks,andusingoneasa“dogchariot”,i.e.

onewithwheelsfittedtoitandbeingusedtotransportasmalldog.Thehope

wasthatthiswouldcapturetheaudience’simaginationandviewersmight

inventtheirownpossibleusesforthisutensil.

Identifyingaparticularaudiencewas,accordingtoSubjectE,moreamatterfor

theclient,theaccountmanagerandmediaspecialists,thanforthecopywriter.

Technologyhasbeenabletooffersophisticatedmethodsofsegmentation,

especiallyforonlineadvertising:

“Particularlynow,inthisverydigitalage,itiseasiertoworkout

whoisconsumingwhattypeofadsorproducts.”(28.35–28.46)

206

Hementionedanewconceptcalled“programmatics”whichusesadvanced

computersoftwareinordertoautomatethetargetingofparticularsubsetsof

consumersbyfollowingthemaroundthedigitalenvironment.Thissystem

collatesvastquantitiesofdataonconsumerswhichisprocessed,andtheresults

areusedtodeliveradvertisingtailoredtoindividuals.

SubjectEexplainedhowthemostfundamentalquestionsthathiscreativestaff

hadtoaddresswhenconsideringtheaudiencewereexactlywhatwerethey

tryingtosell,andwhatwasthebestwayofsellingit.Thisbroughtclaritytothe

processashisstaffwereprovidedwiththesimplestandmostaccuratewayof

perceivingtheaudience.Itinformedthemofthebestmeanstoaddressthe

audienceevenwhereotherpartieshadtobeconsideredinthewiderprocess,

suchastheclient,themediacompanyandtheaccounthandler.Hence,he

claimedagoodcopywriterwouldbeabletoreducethemessagetoitssimplest,

paringbackthebriefto“whatismykeymessage,andwhoamIsayingto?”andto

envisagetheintendedtargetcustomer.SubjectErecalledhowbriefswere

writteninsectionsand“Point4”askedwhatwasthekeythingtheclientwanted

theadvertisementtosay,andhewouldreadthatfirst.Havingexplainedthat,he

offeredasanexampleworkforaspecificclientwhichwasawell-known

sportswearmanufacturer.Atthetime,thelate1990s,footballerMichaelOwen

wasatthepeakofhiscareerandtheplayerworethismanufacturer’sboots

whiletheclientwastryingtopromotearangewithanamehecouldnot

remember,butwassomethinglike“velocity”.HerecountedseeingPoint4on

thebriefaswrittenbytheaccounthandler.Thiswasaboutthreesentenceslong,

buthebelievedhecouldhavereplacedallthosesentenceswithasimple

statementtotheeffectthat“MichaelOwenislightningfast”.Theaimwas

therebytocreateadvertisingcopywhichexploitedthepublicknowledgeof

Owen’samazingspeedandtoassociatethemwiththeboots.

“Wewantedtosaythesearethebootsthatyouneedfor…Michael

Owen.He’slightningfastandwe’resayingthey’rereallylightand

thingslikethatso…ifyou’reagoodfootballerandyouwouldliketo

207

beasfastasMichaelOwen,atleastyoucanwearthesamebootsas

him”(32.38-32.52)

Thecopywriterhadthenformedaclearimpressionofthecoremessagein

termsofwhathadtobeconveyedandhesaidthat,inthiscase,itcouldbe

summedupinasingleword:“speed”.

Audiencecomprehensionforanynewadvertisementhadtobecarefully

consideredand,wherepossible,tested.Onewaytheintervieweecouldcheck

howtheirworkwaslikelytobeinterpreted,andthedegreeoflucidityofthe

coremessage,wouldbetoapplyanin-housemethodwhichwasnamedaftera

formeremployeeandhedescribedherasnotbeing“thebrightesttoolinthe

box”.Thiswassomethingheclaimedsherecognisedinherselfandmadeajoke

ofit.Shewasdelightedtoactaskindofguineapigformessagesinproposed

advertisementsasstaffwouldshowherthemandaskherwhatshethoughtthey

meantinordertoassesswhatmeaningshehadrecovered.Ifthisemployee

understoodit,theyknewthemajorityoftheaudiencewouldalsounderstandit;

ifshehadnotunderstoodit,oratleastbeensufficientlyintriguedtoread

furtherintoit,thentheywouldinvestigatewhy,andaskwhether“itwastoo

cleverforitsowngood”andthatobscuredthemessage.Sincethatemployeeleft

thecompany,theyhadbeenusingotheremployeeswhomtheyregardedas

suitabletofulfillthisrole.Theethosoftheagency,expressedinitsownmotto,

“thepowerofsimple”whichwasdisplayedintheoffices,onthewebsiteand

stationery,alsoinfluencedtheapproachesitadoptedwithanybrief.More

formaltestingalsotookplaceinsomecases,includingtheuseoffocusgroups.

SubjectEwasaskedabouttheuseofsymbolsandiconsindesigning

advertisementsandheconfirmedthatthesewereatooltoprovide“ashortcut

forwhatyouwanttosay”.Heexpandedonthisasfollows:

“Thereisawell-knowntechniqueinadvertising,andawellused

techniqueinadvertisingwhereyoucombinetwosymbolstohelp

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yougetacrosswhatitisyouwanttocommunicateandthishas

beengoingonforaslongasIhavebeeninadvertisinganditisone

thatIthinkworkswellbecauseyoudogetquitealot….enjoyment

outofseeingit.”(41.13–41.47)

Hementionedaspecificexampleofanongoingcampaignhisagencywas

workingonatthetimeofinterviewforamajorclient,amanufacturerofbeds,

andtheadvertisementsweredesignedtopromotethelatest“memoryfoam”

latexmattress.Inthiscase,themainsellingfeatureofthesemattresseswasthat,

whenusedinsummer,theyweredesignedtobecool.Thecontrivedimageused

toconveythismessagewasamattressonalollipopstickanditwas

accompaniedbytextwhichassistedthereaderfirstinmakingsenseofthe

imageandthenrelatingittotheproduct.Atfirstglance,theimagewouldjust

beperceivedasalollipopandthefactthatamattresshadbeensubstitutedfor

theconfectionerypartwouldbecomeapparentoncloserinspection.He

mentionedthatmergingvisualcomponentsinthiswaytogenerateacombined

meaningwasacommondeviceemployedbyhisownagencyandmanyothers.

Theuseofimagessuchasthisinadvertisingiswelldocumentedinmarketing

studiesandreferredtoas“visualrhetoric”and“visualmetaphors”(e.g.Philips,

1997;Philips&McQuarry,2004;vanMulkenetal,2014).Thelollipopexample

describedbySubjectEappearstoconformtoatypewhichvanMulkenetal

(2014:p.334)refertoas“fusion”metaphorsandtheseoccurwheretwoor

moreobjectsarecombinedandtheresultisasingleobjectwhichisnot

completeinitsownrightandintheexpectedcontext.Theimagementionedby

SubjectEconsistedoffusingalollipopwithamattress;theresultwasa

hypotheticalobjectwhichborrowedtheattributeofcoolnessfromtheformer

(thelollipop)andbestowedthemonthelatter(themattress).

Thefinalquestionrelatedtothedegreetowhichhewouldrelyordrawuponan

audience’spre-existingknowledgeinordertomakesenseoftheadvertisinghe

produced.SubjectE’sfirstthoughtwasinrelationtopromotinggoodsor

brandstoconsumerswhohadsomekindofspecialinterestandtherebysuch

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knowledgecould,toalargedegree,betakenforgranted.Herecalledsome

advertisinginthepastforamanufacturerofupmarketoutdoorclothingand

mountaineeringwearandequipment.Hecommentedaboutthisaudience:

“ThelastthingyouwoulddoisgivethemJanetandJohn

advertising…thesepeopleknowmoreabouttheoutdoorsthanwe’ll

everknow”(46.43–46.56)

Whenproducingtheseadvertisements,theintervieweestatedthathealways

showedthemtohisfriendsintheBritishMountaineeringCouncilbeforethey

wereusedtoensuretheywouldbeinformative,yetnotsomuchastobe

perceivedaspatronising.Whilehepersonallyenjoyedsomeoutdooractivities,

herecognisedthathisownexpertiseinthiswaslimitedanditwasimportantto

himthathisadvertisementslookedasthoughtheyhadbeenwritten“by

mountaineersformountaineers”.Carmanufacturerswerementioned,andhe

agreedtheyoftenhadalongbrandheritageintermsoftheiradvertising;this

wouldbesafetyinthecaseofVolvo;Volkswagenwouldrelyonitsnamefor

reliabilitywhileBMWwouldcapitaliseonitsreputationforexcellencein

engineeringqualityanddesign.Accordingly,whenreceivingbriefsfor

establishedbrandssuchasthese,thecopywriterwouldhavetobecognizantof

suchreputationsandpastadvertisingandthiscouldinfluenceinterpretation

andcomprehensioninnewadvertising.

6.6COMMERCIALSEMIOTICIANINTERVIEW

TheintervieweeforthecasestudymentionedwasSubjectF.Thisindividual

wasnotanadvertisingcopywriterbut,havingstudiedsemioticsformallyunder

210

MarcelDanesi77,hehadacloseunderstandingoftheprinciplesofsemiotic

theoriesandtheirrelevancetothecommercialworld.

6.6.1AGENCY

SubjectFwastheownerofasmall,LondonbasedagencycalledCreative

Semiotics,whichspecializedintheuseofsemioticsforbranding.Thefirm’s

websitedescribedtheirbusinessasfollows:

“CreativeSemioticsisaboutiqueconsultancy,whichusessemioticsas

afuelfordrivingstrategicdirectionandcreativeinnovation.”78

Hehadworkedforarangeofcompanies,agenciesandbrandconsultancies79and

had,shortlybeforetheinterview,beenacceptedontotheBBCrosterasa

potentialserviceprovidertothem.Hisworkconsistedofpreparingreportsand

“visuals”(graphicpresentations)as“inspirationdocuments”togivecompanies

ideas,andanindependentviewonhowtheycouldmoveforwardwiththeir

brands.Thiswasintendedtomaketheiradvertisingagenciesmoreeffectivein

communicatingandpromotingtheirrespectivebrands.Hementionedthelogo

fortheOlympicGamesasanexampleofhavingtodesignthebrandingperfectly.

Thislogowouldbeusedmillionsoftimesacrosstheworld,havetolastformany

yearsandyetretainrecognitionandappealtoawiderangeofstakeholders,

shareholders,thepressandotherinterestedparties.

77Co-authorofPersuasiveSigns,awidelyusedtextbookmentionedextensivelyinpreviouschapters.

78http://www.creativesemiotics.co.uk/-accessed17.6.2015

79“Brandconsultancies”areaphenomenonwhichstartedinthe1990swhichSubjectFlikenstopolitical“spindoctors”fromaroundthesametime.

211

Thisbriefcasestudyconsistsofasummaryofhisbackgroundandtraining,his

methodsandrationaleinapplyingsemioticsasinformedprimarilybya

recordedinterviewandalsobyapaperhewroteonthisandwhichiswas,atthe

time,unpublished.Citationsappearinparenthesesshowingeitherthetime

fromtherecording,orthepagefromhisunpublishedpaper.

6.6.1PERSPECTIVEOFACOMMERCIALSEMIOTIOCIAN

Inhispaper(page2),SubjectFsummarisesthescopeofcommercialsemiotics

asincludingbrandcreation,makingabrandappealtoaparticularsectoror

demographic;advertisementpropositiondevelopment,whichinvolvessituating

abrand,havingregardtotheexistingbrandorproductawarenessrelativetothe

culture,andalsoaspectsofproductdesign,logodesignandpackaging.A

frameworkthathereliesonisGreimas'snarrativemodelandthefour

modalitieswhichhelistsas“wanting-to-do,having-to-do”,knowing-how-to-do”

and“being-able-to-do”.Hespecifies“knowing-how-to-do”asthecorecompetence

ofacommercialsemiotician,being-able-to-do”asthelatentaptitudeand

“wanting-to-doasthemotivation.Inthecaseofthelatter,hepointstothe

“pleasureofdecoding”andhowthis“fostersacravingtobefreshlyconjoinedwith

morepleasurabletexts”(page4).Whileheexpressesthisintermsofhisown

passionforsemiotics,hisperceptionmighthaveinadvertentlyofferedaninsight

intomotivationsandunderstandingoftheviewerand,indirectly,theencoding

processesundertakenbythesemiotician.Inotherwords,itispertinenttoask

whetheraviewerofanadvertisementalsoexperiencesthe“pleasureof

decoding”,whetherthroughsignsorthroughimplicature.Ifso,itisreasonableto

supposethatthedesigneroftheadvertisementintendsthispleasuretooperate

asamotivatortoengagewiththeadvertisement.

Intheinterview,whilerecognizingthatanin-depthgraspofappliedsemiotics

wasneededtoworkinthefieldofcommercialsemiotics,SubjectFacceptedthat

212

muchofthetrainingadvertisingpractitionersreceivedatuniversitywas

somethingtheyhadtogothroughinordertoobtaintheparticulardesired

qualification.Hetooktheviewthatpractitionersalreadyinthefieldwouldhave

forgottenthesemioticsandinstead“freestyle”(04.44-05.21),i.e.generate

meaningintuitively.Theirapproachmightlaterbejustifiedretrospectivelywith

theories,eventhoughtheiractualengagementwiththematthetimehadbeen

superficial.Hereportedhavingencounteredactiveresistancetothereferencing

ofsemiotictheories.Arecentinstanceofthisinvolveda“fairlyjuniorresearch

person”workingforaclientwho,havingheardhisproposalforabrief,was:

“WhyareyoumentioningRolandBarthesinyourproposal?That

scarespeoplethatyouaregoingtocomeupwithallthisacademic

verbiagewecan’tunderstand”(07.5408.07).

Thishesawasillustrativeoftheanti-academicandanti-intellectualattitudeshe

encounteredinbusiness.Nevertheless,heunderstoodhowthisattitudehad

arisen.Insomeinstances,semioticmethodshadbeentriedbutwithoutsuccess

andthiswasduetolaziness,alackofknowledgeortheapplicationofrigour,and

hasresultedinthem,ortheirclients,being“burnt”;hesupportedthisby

referringtoapaperbyMick(inBrown&Turley,eds.1997:p.249)whichhe

claimedshowshowsemioticsisnotproperlyunderstoodorusedrigourously

enoughinthecommercialworld.

6.6.2EDUCATIONANDCERTIFICATION

Intermsofsemioticeducation,hementionedintheinterviewthattherewas

onlyahandfulofplacesthatarededicatedtothestudyandteachingofsemiotics,

AarhusUniversityinDenmarkbeingone.Whileestablishmentstaughtallmain

213

strandsofsemiotics,eachtendedtogravitatetowardsoneparticulartheoryor

approach.Hestatedthat,inthecaseofAarhusUniversity,thefocuswasmainly

onPeirceandthishebelievedwasduetothe“continentalphilosophical”

tradition,andalsototheScandinavianregardfor“designthinking”(06.40–

06.57).Peirce,hebelieved,offeredausefulwaytothinkarounddesignissues,

withhisnotionsoficonicityandindexicality,andhowtheperceptionofan

objectrelatestomeaning.

Inhispaper(page9),SubjectFindicatestheroutesintoacareerincommercial

semiotics.Theygenerallyinvolvesometraininginsocialsciencesandcritical

theory,andalsotherarepossibilityofapprenticeshipthroughwhichtraining

andexperiencecanbepassedon,alsoarise.Qualificationforthespecificroleof

commercialsemioticiandoesnotappear,atthemoment,tohavebeen

formalized,althoughhestatesthatGreimassuggestedqualifyingtestsforthose

wishingtoundertakethisrole.Asaconsequence,SubjectFreportsthatitisthe

trackrecordofindividualsinthisfieldwhichenablesthemtobefairly

evaluated:

“…theatomizednatureofcommercialworkmeansthatcommercial

successismoreimportant:satisfiedclients,recommissionedprojects

andglowingtestimonials.Competenceisoftenassumedsolongas

theworkhelpsgivetheinspirationorthedirectiontheclientneeds.”

(SubjectF)

Whileasoundgraspoftheoryisaprerequisiteforacommercialsemiotician,

SubjectFexpressedintheinterviewabeliefthatthataspectshouldnotbeover-

emphasizedandthatself-awarenessandanongoingprocessofquestioning

one’scompetenceandaimingforself-improvementareequallycrucial.

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6.6.3BRANDING

SubjectFstatedthat,whilemarketingandbrandingweredifferentactivities,

marketinghadbecomemorelikebrandingovertheyearsastherehadbeena

shiftfromtransactionaltorelationalmarketing(00.12–00.24).Where

transactionalmarketingfocusedonpersuadingcustomerstomakeaparticular

purchase,relationalmarketingwasconcernedwithbuildingrelationshipswith

customersand,consequently,therewerelikelytobedifferenceswhenitcameto

thechoicesofsignifiersused.Itisperhapsworthnotingherethatthisappears

toaccordwithnotionsmentionedpreviouslyinthisthesisthatdistinguish

betweensellingproductutilityversussellingbrandimageandreputation.

Brandingwas,hesaid,“moresubtleandemotional”thanmarketing,buthedid

notthinkitwaspossibletocreatea“cut-and-driedbinaryoppositionbetweenthe

two”(15.21–15.32).However,asageneralrule,marketingwasmore

transactionalinitsapproachwhereasbrandingwasmorerelational80.He

describedthewayconnotativeindexeswereamongthetechniquesoftenusedin

marketingandreferredtothefamiliarObamalogousedintheUSpresidential

campaignin2008.Connotativeindexeswere,accordingtoSubjectF,“different

propositions,differentassociationspackedintoaverysmallarea”(14.40–14.49).

TheObamalogoconsistedofanimageinthe“O”shape,theinnerpartofwhich

couldbeinterpretedasthesun,withwavylinesalongthebottomsuggestiveof

cultivatedfarmland,butinthecoloursoftheUnitedStatesflag.Connotations

thathesuggestedwereassociatedwiththisincludedtheNewDealinAmerican

politics81but,evenforthoseAmericanswhodidnotassociatetheirownpolitics

withthisera,thelogoanditsconnotationswouldstillresonatewiththem,

offering“atimeofhope,prosperityandaffluenceforbaby-boomersatatimewhen

Americawassuffering”(15.07–15.12).Luxurygoodslikeperfumesweremore

80ThisdistinctionisfurtherdiscussedinChapter7.6,below.

81The“NewDeal”wasthetermwhichrelatedtoPresidentFDRoosevelt’sdomesticprograms

(1933andbeyond,followingtheconsequencesofWorldWar1andinresponsetotheGreat

Depression).Thesefocusedonwhatwerelaterreferredtoasthe"threeRs",i.e.Relief,Recovery,andReform.

215

dependentupongeneratingarangeofconnotationinthiswaywhereasproducts

likeinsurance,bankingandclassifiedads,weremoreinclinedtobeexplicitly

informative.Thebrandingprocessformundaneproductsrequiredlessdensity

ofmeaningastheyappealedmoretotherationalmind.SubjectFexpoundedthe

viewthatthekeyindicatorofthesemioticdifferencebetweenmarketingand

brandingwastherelianceontheuseofconnotationsinbranding.

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CHAPTER7–DISCUSSION

7.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION

Semioticsoffersasetofanalyticaltoolsbywhichlinguisticandnon-linguistic

elementsfoundwithinexamplesofadvertising,andtheirintended

interpretation,canbeunderstood.Barthes(1957)explainshowculturalmyths

canbeinvokedinadvertisingevenwhentheirpresenceisnotimmediately

apparent,whilemultimodalityaccountsfortheeffectsachievedbyjuxtaposing

languagewithimagery.Nevertheless,asdescribedinSubchapter2.12,above,

semioticanalysisisgenerallyunsystematicandmustinevitablyinvolveloose

andsubjectiveinterpretationswhilefailingtoaccountfortherangeofsemantic,

stylisticandcontextualfeaturescontainedwithinsophisticatedtextssuchas

modern,professionallycraftedadvertisements.Pragmaticapproachessuchas

thosesuggestedbyRelevanceTheory,ontheotherhand,originatesfrom

semanticsandtheorieswhichrelatetotruth-conditions(Levinson,1983:pp.12-

15),andtheyofferacognitivesystemofinterpretationwhichappealstothe

rationalmindthrough,forinstancehighlightingtheuniquesellingpoints(USPs)

ofproductsorbrands.RelevanceTheoryseemstomirrorhumanconsciousness

inthatpeopleexperiencephenomenathroughthesensoryorgans,andthe

sensationsarethenrelatedtomemoryinaparticularordersothattheconscious

mindcanmakesenseofthem.Attentionispaidtothem,andthosephenomena

whicharedeemedthemostrelevanttosurvival,well-beinganddesires,are

prioritizedwhilethosewhichhavelessrelevance,ornorelevance,arede-

prioritizedorfilteredoutaltogether.Advertisingisexperiencedinthesame

way:advertisershavetobecognizantofhowconsumerstendtoexperienceand

respondtoadvertisingandtheydesigntheirworkaccordingly.Whilesome

attemptshavebeenmadetoanalysewrittentextsandbroadcasted

communicationsusingpragmaticapproaches(e.g.Tanaka,1994;Simpson,2001;

Martínez-Camino&Pérez-Saiz,2012),themainfocusofpragmaticshasbeen

exchangesbetweenindividualspresentinconversations.Non-linguistic

componentssuchasimages,soundandmusicfeatureheavilyinadvertisingand

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attemptstoaccountfortheseusingpragmaticframeworkshavesofarbeen

limited.

Themainpurposeofthischapteristoexplorethewiderimplicationsofthe

researchintermsofwhatitrevealsabouthowideasoriginateamong

advertisers;theroleofthebriefinshapingadvertising;thedegreeandvalueof

inputofsemiotictheoriesinthetrainingofadvertisingprofessionals;the

consciousandintuitiveapplicationofsemioticprinciplesbythosealready

workingintheindustry;thecognitiveaspectsofcalculatingandexploiting

contextwhendesigningadvertisementsandhowtheserelatetosomeofthe

theoreticalapproachessuggestedinpragmaticsand,lastly,howthecodeversus

contextdichotomycorrespondswiththechoicesadvertisersmakeintermsof

productversusbrandadvertising.Thefindingsastheyrelatetotheindividual

thesisquestionsissummarizedinthelastsubchapter.

7.2.LINGUISTICCONTENTINADVERTISINGEDUCATION

Itcanbestatedattheoutsetthatnoacademicestablishmentorprofessional

bodyinvestigatedincludedteachingforundergraduatesorpractitionersany

aspectofthesubjectofpragmatics.Alargenumberoftextbooksdesignatedas

formalcoursebooksorreadingmaterialwerealsoexaminedandnotasingle

referencetoanypragmatictheorywasfound.Occasionalmentionsoflinguistic

phenomena,suchasmetaphor,werefoundinadvertisingandmarketing

textbooks.Intheinterviews,itwasestablishedthatnoneofthepractitioners

hadanyknowledgeofpragmatictheoriesalthough,asisdiscussed,allwere

acutelyawareofcontextandwereabletoexplainhowtheycontextualizedtheir

advertisingcopy.

Semioticsisreferredtoinsomemarketingtextbooksandjournalsinrelationto

signsandtheirmeanings,butwithrarelyanymentionofanyofthekeytheories,

orofitspioneersandscholarssuchasSaussure,Peirce,Barthes,Lévi-Strauss

andEco(e.g.Ogilvy,1983;Brierley,2002;Aaker,2010).Ifitistobeaccepted

218

thatthedefinitionissomethingakinto“ageneraltheoryofsigns”(Nöth,1990:p.

13),thenthereisnoreasontoquarrelwiththeiruseoftheterm.Forthe

purposeofthisthesis,however,thetermisusedonlywithinthecontextof

specifictheories,namelythosewhichappeartooffereithersystematic

approachesortoolsbywhichtheuseofsignsasfundamentalunitsforencoding

anddecodingmessagescanbeunderstood.

Structuralistsemioticsisvulnerabletothecriticismthatitfocusesonstructure

ofmessages,referredtobySaussure(1916)asthe“langue”(Subchapter2.3,

above)andappearstohavelittleconcernwiththeirmotivationorproduction,

orthecontextinwhichtheyoccur.Inadvertising,however,theaimisto

persuadeandsomorecomplexfactorswhichunderlietheintentionofthe

communicator,andalsoculturalaspectswhichmayinfluenceinterpretation,

havetobetakenintoaccount.Socialsemioticians,suchasBarthes,extendthe

conceptofthesignbeyondthelinguisticsignproposedbySaussure.Theonly

semioticianmentionedinmosttextbooks,andtheoneknownbymostofthe

advertisingprofessionalsinterviewed,wasRolandBarthes.Ithastobepointed

out,however,thatBarthesviewssignsthroughapoliticallensandregardsthem

asthemeansbywhichpowerfulinstitutionsconstructtheirownrealities,and

thatincludesfalserealitieswhereitisintheirintereststodoso.Such

institutionsincludecorporationstryingtoselltheirgoodsandservices,aswell

astheadvertisingandmarketingfirmsthatworkontheirbehalf.Onewaythey

seektoachievetheiraimis,heproposes,throughthecreationofmythswhich

projectwhatappearstobeanaturalorder,yetwhichservetheinterestsofa

capitalistsociety,andthesemythsfunctionasakindofcodethroughwhichthe

worldcanbeunderstood.Suchanapproachcouldbesaidtobelimitinginthe

sensethattheunderlyingintentionofthecommunicator,inthiscasethe

advertiser,isidentifiedasworkingintheinterestsofcapitalismthrough

presentingnotmerelyaproductorbrandinafavorablelight,butamajor

distortionofreality.Whilesuchdistortionsdoindeedoccurandhavebeen

describedinthisthesis,anynotionthattheyareinevitablewouldbeatbest

unreasonable.Insomecases,whatispresentedissufficientlyfactualandclose

torealitythatnodistortioniseitherpresentorintendedwhile,inothercases,

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thedistortionisdesignedasnothingmorethanastimulusandisintentionallyso

extremeastobeviewedassurrealorevencomedic.Similarly,thereisno

questioninBarthes’(1957)mythologytheoryofthereceiverhavingthecapacity

forindependentthoughtortheabilitytoevaluatewhatispresented;instead,he

orsheisassumedtobeapassiveconsumerofmyths.Nevertheless,itiseasyto

appreciatewhythepossibilitythatanalternativerealitycanbegenerated,as

wellastheabilitytocauseaconsumertoaccessawholenarrativewithwhich

theyarefamiliar(i.e.amyth,inBarthes’terms)instantlythroughabriefglimpse

ofasingleimage,expressionortune,wouldbeappeallingtoadvertisers.

MostoftheuniversitiescontactedintheUKthattookthetroubletorespond

whenaskedaboutthis(thevastmajoritydidnotrespond)statedthattheydid

notincludeacomponentofsemioticsintheircoursesformarketing.Thismay

havebeenthecasebecausecoursedirectorswhohadenteredteachingonthe

basisoftheirexperienceintheindustryratherthanthroughapurelyacademic

routeregardedthesubjectaseitherirrelevant,ortootheoretical,andtherefore

remotefromthepracticalitiesofmarketinginabusinessenvironment.This

mindsetwassuggestedbyseveraloftheinterviewees,includingthecommercial

semiotician,SubjectF.NoneofthethreeUKbodiesthatpurportedtorepresent

andtrainprofessionalsinmarketingandadvertising(theInstitutefor

PractitionersinAdvertising,theIncorporatedSocietyofBritishAdvertisersand

theCharteredInstituteofMarketing)includedsemioticsinanyaspectoftheir

training.

Therewereuniversitiesthatdidincludesomesemioticcontentintheir

advertisingandmarketingcourses,andthemoreadvancedaspects,which

encompassedculturalsemiotics,featuredatBachelor’sandMasters’level,and

thesehavebeendescribedinthepreviouschapter.Thecoursebooksin

marketingandadvertisingthatwereexaminedvariedenormouslyintermsof

semioticcontent.Wheresemioticswastaughtasacoursecomponent,abook

foundtobewidelyusedwasBeasleyandDanesi’s,PersuasiveSigns(2002).This

bookisnotaninstructionmanualforcopywriterssomuchasaworkwhich

offersinsightsintothewayadvertisementscanbedeconstructedusingsemiotic

tools.Inotherwords,BeasleyandDanesihaveauthoredabookthatanalyses

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existingadvertisementsfromasemioticperspectiveinthewaysomelinguistic

textbooksexplaintheoriesthroughreal-worldexamplesoftextsandthus

facilitateadeeperawarenessbystudentsofthecognitiveprocessesinvolvedin

interpretinganadvertisement.Foraprospectivecopywritertoutilizethisbook

whenconstructingadvertisements,heorshewouldhavetoapplyakindof

reverseengineering,consideringthecreationsofotheradvertisers,usingthese

tograspasemioticpoint,andthenemployingthisasakindofthoughttoolwhen

designinganewadvertisement.Othertextbookswerementionedbythe

intervieweesintheresearch.SubjectC,forexample,statedthatadvertisingwas

amodulewithinhisdegreeincommunicationandthecoursebook,Understains

(1986),doescontainasubchapterentitledSemiology:InsidetheFantasyFactory,

whichdiscussesnotionsofsignificationwithacriticaldiscourseanalysisangle

andhowadvertisingsignsrelatetoconsumerism.Thisworkisacommentaryon

advertisingandcannotberegardedasanykindofmanualforthedesignof

advertisements.

AnotherstandardtextusedinmanyinstitutionsisBrearley’sTheAdvertising

Handbook(1995).Asthetitlesuggests,thisisabookwhichprovidesabroad

overviewofadvertising,exploringwhybusinessesengageinit,thevariousroles

ofthosewhoworkintheindustryanditevendiscussescertainlegaland

regulatoryaspects.Muchofthebookisconcernedwiththepracticalitiesof

producingadvertisingincludingtheprinciplesofpersuasionandthe

appropriateuseofstyle,formatsandlanguage.Semioticsisverybriefly

discussed,butthisislimitedtoacoupleofsentences.Someofthetechniques

suggestedcouldbeobliquelyrelatedtosemiotictheories,butthetheoriesare

notspecifiedandanysuchrelationwouldhavetoberecognizedbyareaderwho

isalreadyfamiliarwiththem.Itwasnotedintheinterviewsthatonlyoneofthe

copywritershadreceivedanyformaleducationspecificallyinadvertising,while

theothershadeitherstudiedrelatedsubjects,namelycommunication,graphic

designormarketinggenerallyor,inonecase,awhollyunrelatedsubject,namely

AncientGreek.Someknowledgeofsemioticswasevidentamongallbutoneof

theinterviewees,althoughittendedtobecursoryandincomplete,was

sometimesself-taught,andrequiredthemtochallengetheirmemoriesinorder

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torecallwhattheyknew.Evenwhereitwasnotexpresslystated,itwas

apparenttheintervieweesdidnotconsciouslyapplytheoreticalsemiotic

principlesintheiradvertisingcreationprocess.Thatdoesnotmeantosay,

however,thattheintervieweeswhohadlearnedsemioticsinhighereducation

hadderivednobenefitsfromsodoing.SubjectArelatedhowhisclasshadbeen

shownanadvertisementwhichreducedwomentobodypartswhichhad,inhis

view,madeonlyaweakassociationwiththeproductbeingmarketed.Thatleft

animpressiononhimanditwasclearthatwouldnotbeanapproachhewould

favourinhisownwork.

7.3THEBRIEF

Oneaspectthatwasmentionedconsistentlyintheresearchwasthebriefand

howthatwaspreparedandused.Alltheintervieweesemphasizedthe

importanceofdistillingthebriefdowntoacoremessagebeforeideascouldbe

formulated,althoughtherewassomevariationinhowtheyachievedthat.Itwas

notedhowtheintervieweesidentifiedthekeysignifierswhichstemmedfrom

thebrief.Itappearedthatthebriefguidedtheirchoiceanduseofmetaphors

andmetalanguageinboththeirconversationanddesign,andinhowthey

attemptedtocontextualizetheirmessage.Evenwherethecommissioningfirm

wantedtoconveyacomplexmessage,oronethathadnumerouselements,the

intervieweesexpressedadeterminationtoreduceitdown,simplifyingitand

keepingittoasingle,coreelement.Itwasstressedbyseveralofthe

intervieweesthatthequalityofthefinishedadvertisingwasdeterminedtoa

considerableextentbythequalityofthebrieftheyweregiven.Oneinterviewee,

SubjectC,usedaseriesofmetaphorstoexplainthisprocessasconsistingof

“strippingawayallthebullshit”and“drawingitdowntobrasstacks”and“trying

togetintheshoesofaconsumer”.SubjectAexplainedhowhewouldattemptto

“boildowntheessence”ofabriefandtosettleinhismind,andperhapsputon

paperallrelevantanglesandasmanyideasashecouldmusterfromthebrief

whileworkingwithandtryingtoexpresstheparticularbrand’svalues.He

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foundithelpfultoreduceabriefdowntoasinglestrapline,oftenwithwordplay,

e.g.hisalliterativemottofortheSwissproblem-solvingcompanywhichread

“Design,Develop,Deliver”,andtheonehedevisedforthefork-lifttruck

manufacturerwhichread“Simple,Powerful,Performance”.

SubjectBwaslessemphaticonthisaspect,buthedidstressthatanearlypartof

theprocesswastoclearlydefinetheclient’smainobjectivesfortheadvertising.

SubjectCstatedthatbriefscouldbeseveralpageslongandoneoftheskillsofa

copywriterwastodecipherbriefsandidentifythecoremessage;thisinvolved

simplifyingittoitsmostbasicformandcuttingawayeverythingelse.Herelated

howmostofhisbriefswereoralratherthanwritten,andthatsometimeshehad

to“drag”abriefoutofaclient.Whereabriefhadbeenprovidedorelicited,he

commentedthatthesimplerabriefwas,themorequicklyideaswouldemerge

andthemorescopetherewouldbeforcreativity.Abrief,forhim,wasa

“springboard”andasa“catalyst”whichwouldstimulatethecreativeimagination,

butheregrettedthetendencybysomeclientstooverthinkthem.SubjectD

mentionedhowtheinterpretationofthebriefinvolvedaprocessofdistillation

inordertofindthekeymessageuponwhichadvertisingwastobecreated.He

wentontoexplainhowhisagencyhandledbriefs,andhowthismighthave

includedoptimizingthequalityofthebriefthroughacollaborativeprocess

betweentheclientandtheagencyratherthantheagencysimplyreceivingthe

briefasafully-formedassignmentfromthestart.Liketheothers,SubjectE

describedhowhewouldseekto“pare”thebriefdown,removingtheextraneous

aspects,inordertopickoutthe“keymessage”.

Twooftheintervieweesmadeconnectionsbetweenthepublicperceptionofthe

productsorbrandswiththoseofrivalfirms,andinitiatingthecreativeprocess

atthepointofreceivingthebrief.SubjectBstressedthewayinwhichhis

agencyfollowedtheindustry’s“creativebriefingprocess”,havingregardto

whomthetargetaudiencewas,thecompetition,theaimsoftheadvertisingand

otherrelevantfactors.Wheretherewasnoalignmentofviewbetweenthe

requirementsoftheclientandtheusualstrategyoftheagencyinthisregard

(suchaswheretheclientwantedtodirectattentionexpresslytowardsaspecific

productasopposedtoabrand),thentheadvertisingdesignwouldbeprepared

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bytheaccounthandlerbasedontheclientbrief.ForSubjectE,receivingabrief

wouldtriggeraprocessofconsiderationandresearchwhichexploredthe

public’spre-existingperceptionoftheproductorservicetobemarketed,and

anyothercurrentfactorsinsociety,orrelatingtothosetypesofconsumers,

whichcouldbesignificant,thusenablinghimtoidentifytheseconsumersinhis

mindandgenerateakindofempathywiththem.Thelinkbetweenthebriefand

thecreativeprocesscouldbeover-emphasised.Abriefwastheinspirationthat

gaverisetoideaswhilepoorlyconsideredbriefs,orconstraintsplacedonbriefs

byclients,wouldinhibitthescopeforcreativitybytheadvertiser.

Themainconstraintsdiscussedincludebudgetarylimits,especiallywherethe

clientwasasmallbusiness,andwhereaclienthadaveryfirmideathatthey

wantedsimplyapromotionbasedontheirlowprices.

7.4APPLICATIONOFSEMIOTICPRINCIPLESINADVERTISING

ThemostrevealingstatementfromanyoftheintervieweescamefromSubjectB,

whostated:

“Ibetifyoubrokedownourprocesses…ifyoucouldlookintoour

heads…we’dbeusingsemioticsinsomeway,butnotactively…not

explicitly”(27.47–27.59)

Thissubchapter,aswellasSubchapter7.7below,discussestheextenttowhich

theabovestatementisechoedbytheotherintervieweesandverifiedbythe

findings.Thevalidityofsemiotictheoryasatoolforadvertisersintermsof

generatinganddevelopingideasistestedbyexploringwhethertheircreative

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processesareamenabletoexplanationinrecognizable,i.e.theory-based,terms

andthissubchapterbeginsbyconsideringtheoristsmentionedinChapter2.

Saussure's(1916)modeloffersaninsightfromwhichtounderstandlanguage

throughtheconceptofthelinguisticsign,describingthesignbeingmostly

arbitrary,thatitcoexistsalongsideandcontrastswithothersignswithina

particularsystem,andthatsystemismanifestasacode.Knowledgeofsucha

codeisessentialforanyonewishingtouseitasameansofcommunication.

Williamson(1978)invitesreaderstoviewproductsasbothsignifiedsasthey

areobectsreferredtoinadvertising,butalsoassignifiersinthattheyare

depictedasrepresentingaparticularquality,asinawayoflifeormembership

ofaparticulargroup.WhileSaussure'semphasisuponstructureisauseful

startingpoint,itdoesnotaccountforallthecomplexitiesofhuman

communication.Cook(2001)warnsthatanoverrelianceondecodingtechniques

torecovermeaningmaycauseananalystto:

“…jettisonallconsiderationofwhatisparticulartothesurfaceof

thediscourse,oraparticularsignifier,andthusmissmuchofthe

complexity,skillandhumour”(p.68):

Saussure's(1916)workhasalsogivenrisetomoresophisticatedideas,leading

totheculturalsemioticsofsuchastheworksofBarthes(1957,1977)andEco

(1976,1979)and,fromthese,arangeofmethodshavebeendevelopedwhich

canbeappliedtospeechandtext,andalsotootherphenomenawhichcanhave

aroleincommunication,suchasimagesandmusic.Peirceansemiotics,as

describedbyNöth(1990),advanceswaysofviewinganadvertisementanditis

possibletoidentifyandcategoriseelementsfromadvertisementsasbeingicons,

indexesandsymbolsinhistriadictypology.Peircefamouslydeclares:“nothingis

asignunlessitisinterpretedasasign”(Nöth,1990:p.42)andthis

understandingofasignisorientedtowardsthereceiverratherthanthe

producerofasign.SubjectF,acommercialsemiotician,statedthatheregarded

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Peirceasofferingusefulperspectivesintermssuchasiconicityandindexicality.

Inhisview,Peirce’stheorieshadpracticalapplicationsinindustrialdesign

issues,branding,andthewideraspectsofmarketingofwhichadvertising

constitutesasmallpart.

BothCook(2001)andBignell(2002)pointtothedistinctionwhichmustbe

madeinanysemioticanalysisofanadvertisementbetweenthesyntagmaticand

paradigmaticselection.Whereaslanguageoperatesbycreatingmeaningina

linearwayandsothesyntagmaticaspectisafundamentalaspectofthemessage,

non-linguisticcomponentsofprintedadvertisements,namelyimages,maywork

withoutsuchneedforcontinuity,i.e.whatBarthes(1977)referstoas

“discontinuoussigns”(explainedinSubchapter2.6,above),andthefocusis

predominantlyontheselectionaspect,i.e.theparadigmaticchoices.Thisstudy

hasuncoveredhowlinguisticandnon-linguisticsignscanbeusedatahigher-

levelsyntagmaticallyaspartofacampaignstrategyandanillustrationofthis

wasprovidedbySubjectC,wherehedescribedtheprocessofengagingpotential

customersthroughaseriesofemailsormailshots.Eachemailorlettersenthad

aslightlydifferentfunctiontothepreviousoneasasequenceofactivities,or

signs,toproduceaparticularcognitiveeffectbyvirtueoftheirorderand

relationtotheotherswithinaseries.Thefirstofthesemayhavebeennomore

ambitiousthantoopenanenvelope,ortoreadbelowaheadline,whilethefinal

onewaslikelytoconsistofanencouragementtomakecontactwiththeclient

withaviewultimatelytoplacinganorderforgoodsorservices.

Bignell(2002)findsthatadvertisementsrarelyusesignssimplyfordenoting

something,preferringinsteadtoinvokeconnotationsthroughmeaningswhich

areculturallyderived.This,itcouldbeargued,providestheadvertising

practitionerwiththeopportunitytoexercisetheircreativetalentsand,asthe

interviewsshow,yieldssomedegreeofjobsatisfactionfortheeffortexpended

andtalentsemployed.SubjectAdemonstratedthiswhenhestatedthatthe

formulationofideasbeginswith“ablankpieceofpaper”andheexplainedthe

contemplationprocessthroughaseriesofmetaphorsi.e.“allthedifferentangles

ofwhatwearelookingat”;“comeatitfromadifferentapproach”and“throwout

lotsofideas”.Inspiteofhisclaimthathedidnotconsciouslyapplysemiotic

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principlesinhiscreativepractices,thesesuggestthathesearchedhismindfor

connotationsthathecouldincorporateintohisadvertisingandthatviewers

wouldrecognize.AnexamplefromhisworkwouldbetheRobinHoodstatuein

thecityofNottingham,wherethelegendarycharacterisassociatedwiththe

countyofNottinghamshire.Eco(1968:p.108,fromNöth,1990:p.102)regards

connotationsasspecifictypesofculturalunitandthey“areinstitutionally

associatedinthereceiver’smindwiththesignifier”(ibid).Connotationsareoften

invokedbysymbolsand,inrespectofthisadvertisement,SubjectAreferredto

thesewhenhealludedto“thesymbolismofthelocalareas”andhowthiscouldbe

used“asashortcuttosaying‘we’reinyourpatch’”(Subchapter6.5.1).

Insomeinstances,clientshavelittleinterestininvokingconnotationsas

agenciesarebriefedtoproducecommercialswherebytheinterpretationisas

denotativeaspossible.Subchapter6.4.2reportedSubjectBreferringto

advertisingforadiscountsupermarketthatwaschainseekingtopromotecans

ofbakedbeansslightlycheaperthantheircompetitorsas“entrylevel”while

urgingtheminsteadtobuildtheirownbrandasasupermarketbystressingthe

“shoppingexperience”.ThisaccordedwiththeviewexpressedbySubjectC,who

wasfrustratedbywhathereferredtoasa“salesmentality”inthecaseofa

furnitureretailclientwhosimplywantedtodrawthepublic’sattentiontoa

“greatsofa”atanexceptionallylowprice,whileanyattemptonhispartto

suggestabrandedcampaignwith“intellectualcontent”provedfutile.Itcan

thereforebesuggestedthatadvertisingwhichfocusesonproduct,especially

whereitstressesalowprice,islikelytohaveahigherdenotativecontentthan

advertisingwhichismoreconcernedwithbrand.Thismightnot,however,beas

straightforwardasitfirstappears.SubjectB’sdescriptionofanadvertisement

fortinsofbeansseems,onthefaceofit,tobenothingmorethanan

advertisementforasingleproduct,buttheclientwasasupermarketchainand

notamanufacturerofcannedfoodsandtheywouldbeunlikelytorecoupthe

costoftheadvertisementfromincreasedsalesofbeansalone.Also,itissurely

unlikelythatashopperwouldbeexpectedtotraveltoaparticularsupermarket

justtosaveacoupleofpenceononeortwocansofbeans.Onthatbasis,itcan

beassumedtheadvertisementhasawiderpurposethanpurveyingjustthis

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productandthevieweroftheadvertisementwouldautomaticallyregardthe

priceofthebeansasbeinganexemplarofotherdealsonoffer.Inotherwords,

thebeansweretheparadigmaticselectionandcouldhavebeenreplacedin

anotheradvertisementelsewhere,oratsomefuturedate,withdealsonbottles

oflemonade,jarsofpickleorboxesofsoappowder.Itwasthusinformingthe

readersthatthesupermarketconcernedwascommittedtoofferingitsproducts

atapricethatwassocompetitivethatitwouldbeworththeirwhilemakinga

journeytooneoftheiroutletsandtherebymakingsignificantsavingsona

trolleyfullofvariedgroceries.Similarly,thesofathatwasmentionedatan

exceptionallylowpriceinvitedtheviewertoconsidertheretailerasbeingworth

avisit,eveniftheywerelookingforadifferentkindofsofa,oradiningtable,ora

bed.Itcouldthereforebededucedthatthesewereconnotationswhichwere

intendedtobedrawnconcerningthebrandratherthanthespecificproductand

itaccordswithSubjectD’sclaim:“There’snotoneclientthatcomesthroughthe

doorthatisn’tabrandinsomeway,shapeorform”(Subchapter6.4.4).

SubjectCbemoanedhisclients'negativeattitudestowardswhathereferredto

as“intellectualcontent”and“intellectualspins”(Subchapter6.4.3),andthede-

professionalisationofhisfunctionasacreatorofadvertisingowingtohis

industryhavingbeende-skilledandde-intellectualised,withtheresulting

declineinthequalityofadvertising.Heattributedthis,atleastinpart,tothe

existenceofwidelyavailableandinexpensivesoftwarethatenabledfirmsto

producetheirownadvertisingin-houseandsosaveonthecostsof

commissioninganagencyorevenhavingtoemployspecialiststaffsuchas

graphicartistsandcopywriters.Withthesoftwarementioned,andamodicum

ofskill,itwouldbepossibletoproduceelegant,professional-lookingadvertising

incorporatingenhancedandretouchedphotographicimages,photographsand

illustrationsfromapicturelibrary,ahugevarietyoffontsandotherlayout

possibilities.However,thoseproducingthisadvertisingmayhavereceivedno

traininginmarketingoradvertisingandmayhavepossessedfew,ifany,artistic

skillsandtheresultoftheireffortswouldlikelyhavebeenproduct-orientedand

unsophisticated,andwithlittleintellectualcontent.Anotherreasonforthisthat

isapparenttotheauthoristhedeclineoftraditionalmedia,namelytelevision

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andprintednewspapersandmagazines,infavouroftheinternetasasourceof

entertainmentandnews.Internetadvertising,andthenatureofaviewer's

engagementwithit,arelikelytobedifferentfromthatofothermedia,although

researchbeyondthescopeofthisthesiswouldbeneededtodeterminewhether

thisisthecase.SubjectC'sconcernaboutthede-intellectualisationof

advertisingwassharedbySubjectF,whodescribedtheanti-intellectual

attitudesheencounteredinbusiness,aswellasthelackofknowledgeandrigour

which,insomecases,hadcausedadvertisingtofail.Thisispertinentwhen

consideringthetheoreticalunderpinningofadvertisingdesign,andhas

implicationsintermsofboththetrainingofpractitionersandfortheir

subsequentprofessionalpractice.Italsohighlightsfundamentalquestionsasto

thepurposeofadvertisinganditsrelationtoscienceandacademia,specifically

intermsofadvertisingasameansofmanipulatingthepublicandtheethical

questionsarisingfromthat.Onecouldreasonablysupposethatusing

sophisticatedlinguistictoolsthathavebeendevisedovermanyyearsby

theoristsforreasonsofscientificinquirytodiscouragepeoplefromsmoking,or

toencouragesafedriving,isethicallyjustifiable.Suchjustificationwouldnot,

however,beavailabletothoseapplyingthesetechniqueswhenurging

consumerstospendtheirlimitedfinancialresourcesonthelatestmodelofa

smartphonethattheydonotneedtothefinancialadvantageofanelectronics

manufacturer.Nevertheless,theintervieweeswhomentionedtheintellectual

aspectwereamongthosewhowerefamiliarwithsemioticsand,inparticular,

theworkofBarthesanditmaybethecasethatBarthes'ideasabout

consumerism,neomania,connotationsandculturalmyths,doindeedoffersome

kindofanintellectualbackdropfortheirwork.Advertisingdesignisthereby

elevatedintheirmindsfrombeingmerelyamechanical,money-orientedactivity

towardsonethatistoberegardedasartisticandprofessional,andconsequently

deservingofrespect.Asimilarargumentcouldbemadewithregardtotheories

ofpragmatics,andthisisoutlinedinSubchapter7.5,below.

Returningtotheapplicationofsemioticapproachesinadvertising,the

interviewsrevealedhowcreatorsactivelyanddeliberatelyuseacombinationof

picturesandtextinthewaysuggestedbyBarthes(1977)whenheexplainshow

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imagesarepolysemousandtheirmeaningisthenanchoredbythelinguistic

elementaddingessentialmeaningandbanishinganyunintendedsignifieds,

althoughoftenthisconsistsoflittlemorethanarelativelymeaninglessheadline

andabrandname.SubjectAgavetheexampleofdisplaying“doingmore”to

accompanyimagesofDoosanforklifttrucks.Inthisinstance,itishardtosee

howthestraplinewasinanywayinformativebeyondbeingapun,asitwould

surelyhavebeenunlikelytocauseapotentialcustomertocommittoabelief

thattheycoulddomoreworkwithaDoosantruckthananyotherbrandof

forkliftsuchasCaterpillarorYale.IftherehadbeenanchorageasBarthes(1977:

pp.38-41)describes,thenitwouldhavebeentoenablethereadertoidentifythe

textasanadvertisementratherthanassimplyaphotographbeingshownfor

someotherpurpose,andthatitwasspecificallyanadvertisementforDoosan.

Whereenigmaticwordingshavebeenused,suchasinthecaseofthe

advertisementheadline“playlessgolf”,mentionedbySubjectE,anotherfunction

wastointriguethereadersufficientlytoimpelthemtoreadthesmallprint

whichwouldfirmlyanchortheimagetoasinglemeaningwhile,atthesametime,

facilitateanunderstandingoftheverbalpuzzlejuxtaposedwiththeimage.

Barthes(1957)attributesconnotationswithinadvertisementstoabasichuman

tendencytowardsmakingsenseoftheworldthroughculturalmyths,andhe

claimsthatthesemythsplayaroleinenablinghumanstodefinethemselvesand

thegroupstowhichtheybelong.Inaccessingaculturalmyth,peopleareableto

graspanentirenarrativefromarelativelysmallnumberofsignifiersthrough

theprocessofconnotation.SubjectD,whohadalsostudiedbasicsemioticsin

histrainingfortheadvertisingindustry,wasremindedofBarthes’snotionof

culturalmythsandstatedthat,whilehepersonallydidnotattempttoapplythe

theoriesofculturalmythology,hewasawarethatsomeotheradvertisersdid

that.SubjectC,wasalsoacquaintedwithculturalmythsasherecalledreading

Barthes’classicworkMythologieswhilehewasastudent.Althoughhedidnot

sayheactivelyreferredtothisworkasasourceofinspirationwhencreating

advertisements,thepossibilitythatitformedpartofhismentaltoolsetwhenhe

engagedinhiscreativeprocesseswouldhavebeensignificantandhisawareness

ofculturalmythologymaywellhaveinfluencedhimsubliminallyevenifthis

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cannotbeprovedfromthepresentstudy.Ithastobesaidthattherewasno

evidenceamonganyoftheintervieweesofthelevelofsophisticationin

constructingadvertisingbasedonsuchas“theDionysianunderworldofcarnality”

asdescribedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002:p.74)82.SubjectE,whowasawareof

semiotics,buthadneverstudiedanyaspectofitformallypriortoenteringthe

advertisingindustry,disclosedabehaviorheengagedinasawaytogerminate

ideaswhengivenabrief.Thisinvolvedlisteningtomusicwhichhewas

convincedcapturedsomethingofthemoodoressenceofwhathewantedto

market,andhementionedbothMars,fromHolst’sPlanetSuiteandBeethoven’s

“Pastoral”symphony.Theformerisveryevidentlybaseduponamythinterms

ofaRomangod,andtheassociationwiththemilitary,masculinityandviolence.

Thelatterconjurestheidealofarcadianexistence,withconnotationsof

tranquility,thechangeofseasonsandclosenesstonature.Whetherornotthis

intervieweeactuallyexploitedculturalmythsbyinvokingtheminhis

advertising,itisofsomeinterestthathegatheredinspirationfromthemandit

seemsfairtoassumethathisfinishedworkwasatleastinfluencedbythem.

SubjectDpointedoutthat“peoplebuyingabrandbuyintosomething”

(Subchapter6.4.4)andthat“something”couldcertainlyberegardedas

dependentuponamythwhichthebrandsoughttoestablishandreinforce.He

citedtheexampleofDoveproductsandhowthisbrandassociateditselfwitha

naturalratherthanartificialbeautythroughsignifierssuchaswhiteness,andan

absenceofperfumes.InSubchapter6.5.4,indiscussingmyths,SubjectDlisted

someofthesignifiersheusedinhisadvertisingas“photography,styles,

typefaces,colours,techniques,animation,illustration,icons”.Itwasnotablethat

theintervieweesreliedontheexistenceandawarenessofwhatBartheswould

haveregardedasculturalmythsnotjustforbrandsandproductsstrongly

associatedwithbrands,butalsoforproductpromotionwherebrandseemed

hardlyrelevant.AnexampleofthiscanbeseenwhereSubjectCexplainedan

advertisingcampaignhedesignedthroughFacebookforauniversitycourse

whichinvitedyoungpeopletoundertakeadegreecoursethatwould,itwas

82ExplainedinSubchapter5.5

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implied,leadtoacareerintherockmusicindustry.Theaimofthe

advertisementwastorecruitstudentsbytappingintoaculturalmyth,inthis

casethepublic’sperceptionoftheglamorouslifeofastagemanageror

technicianforarockgroupandallthatentailedincludingtravellingtheworld

andmixingwithcelebrities,allwhileearningahighsalary.Whetherthis

reflectedtherealityofthelifeofa‘roadie’wouldbeadifferentproposition,asis

whetherallthestudentswhohadcompletedthecoursewouldhavehada

realisticprospectoffindingfull-timeemploymentwithasuccessfulbandonce

theyhadgraduated.

Thepotentialforinvokingamythinthemindofavieweriswell-establishedand

almostcertainlyrecognizedbymanyconsumerswhenitoccurs.Itisexploited

inthetraditionalsensewithfolktaleswhichseemtorecurinadvertising.One

oftheseisthetaleofRobinHood,referredtobyMyers(1994)83anditwas

fortuitouslymentionedbySubjectA,whereastatueofthelegendaryoutlawwas

usedasasignifierforthecityofNottinghamowingtohisassociationwiththe

cityandsurroundingarea.Inothercases,thisparticularcharactermaybeused

withagreaterdegreeofintertextuality84todenoteotherqualitiesrelatingtohis

life,hisfriendsandexploits,alongwiththebeliefthathestolefromtherichto

givetothepoor,orhisromanticinvolvementwithMaidMarion,althoughthese

particularaspectswerelessrelevantinSubjectA’scampaign.Amore

contemporaryexamplecanbeseeninSubchapter5.9,above,whereitwas

mentionedthatsportswearmanufacturersdepictedathleteswearingtheir

products,thusencouragingareadertoidentifywithanindividualshown

engaginginaparticularphysicalactivity.Wheretheathleteshownhadcelebrity

statusowingtotheirreputationinthesport,thatindividual’sdepictionactivated

amythastotheirspecialtalents,andperhapsalsotheirimaginedlifestylein

viewoftheirwealth.SubjectEreportedhowhe“boileddown”abriefto

advertisefootballbootswhichexploitedthepublicknowledgeoffootballer

83SeeSubchapter3.4above.

84IntertextualityisexplainedinSubchapter2.9above.

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MichaelOwenand,inparticular,hisbreathtakingspeed,byshowinghimeither

wearingthemorendorsingthem.Aviewerassimilatingsuchamythintotheir

consciousnessmightbepersuadedtoregardthemasafactorinOwen’ssuccess

andthat,bypurchasingtheboots,someofwhatOwenenjoysintermsofhis

footballingachievements,andtheperhapshissupposed(mythical)glamorous

sportsstarlifestyle,wouldbemadeaccessibletothem.

Myers(1994),Cook(2001),Bignell(2002)andvanLeeuwen(2005)areamong

thosewhousesemioticsasatoolininterpretingselectedadvertisements,yet

nonehave,sofarascanbeascertained,consultedtheproducersofthese

commercialsinordertoconfirmthethoughtprocesseswhichtheysupposeled

totheircreation.Thedegreetowhichtheintervieweestendedtoapplycreative

approachesandmethodswhichcouldconceivablyberegardedasaligningwith

semioticprinciplesisconsideredinthissubchapter.Itcanfirstbestatedthat

noneoftheintervieweeswhoworkedasdesignersofadvertisementssuggested

theyevermadeaconsciousdecisiontoapplytheseprinciples,orthattheyrelied

uponthemingeneratingordevelopingideas;itwasclearthattheyinstead

reliedupontheirexperienceandintuition.SubjectFreinforcedthiswhenhe

pointedoutthatsemioticswasatopiccoveredsuperficiallyinsomeuniversity

courses.Herecognizedthat,wheresemioticshadbeenpartoftheirsyllabus,

advertisersregardedknowledgeofthissubjectassomethingnecessarytopass

theirdegreecoursesratherthanatooltheycouldapplyintheirdailywork.

Ratherthanattemptingtomakeuseofsuchtheories,hesaid,advertisers

preferredto“freestyle”,bywhichhemeantworkingintuitivelyandbasingtheir

approachonexperience.

Consequently,itmaybeconsideredwhether,andifso,how,conceptsrelatedto

semioticssuchassignificationandconnotationareappliedunconsciouslyfrom

theanswerstheintervieweeshavegivenandthisverypointwasexpressedby

SubjectB,asshownatthetopofthissubchapter.Whendeconstructingan

advertisementinordertounderstanditsoperationanditsingenuity,itcannot

beautomaticallyconcludedthatitscreatorhasheavilyengagedwithandapplied

semioticprinciples,evenifthatimpressionisgivenintextbooks.Similarly,in

thecaseofadvertisingpractitionerswhohavereceivedsometrainingin

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semiotics,orreadaspectsofitoutsideofformaleducation,theevidenceinthe

interviewsshowsitisunlikelythattheywouldcommencethetaskofcreating

advertisementsbyreferringtosuchtheoreticalframeworks,orthatthey

activelyconsiderapplyingthemduringtheprocessofdevelopment.Thefactthat

advertisingprofessionalsdonotseemtobeexpresslyapplyingsemiotic

methodsintheirworkmaybeaccountedforinanumberofways.Ontheone

hand,practitionersarefoundtoreceivelittle,ifany,traininginthesubjectand

thatwhichtheydoreceivetendstobebasedontheretrospectiveanalysisof

pastadvertisementsratherthantutoringinthepracticalitiesofadvertising

design.Itwouldbefarfromthetruth,however,toviewsucheducationasofno

value.Fornovices,thisintuitionhastocomefromsomewhereanditmaybethe

casethatexaminingadvertisementsandconductingsemioticanalysesofthem

enablesstudentstoacquiresomekindoffeelingorimpressionforhow

advertisingcanworkthroughsignificationandthussomeformoflearning

occurssubliminally,inasimilarwaytolearningacraft.Performinganalysescan

aidstudentsinunderstandinghowmeaningshouldnotbeunderstoodasstatic

orinert,butratheritisdynamic,multi-facetedandcomplex,andits

interpretationhastobenegotiated.Conductingtheseanalysesmayaidstudents

inappreciatingthepossibilitieswhichareavailableforthemtoutilizetheir

creativetalents.Forexample,modernadvertisersmakeuseofmediainallits

forms,andthevariousmodeswhichexistwithineachmedium(Kress&van

Leeuwen,2001)andsemioticsoffersa“unifyingconceptualframeworkandaset

ofmethodsandtermsforuseacrossthefullrangeofsignifyingpractices”

(Chandler,2014:p.15).Semiotictheoriesofferinsightsintohowsignsreferto

reality,buttheyalsosuggestthewaysbywhichsignscanframeandeven

constructtheirownrealities,andthisisadistinctadvantageforproducersof

messagesaimedatpersuadingpeopletobelievesomethingorbehaveina

particularway.

Alltheintervieweeswereclearlyawareoftheconceptofmetaphorsinthe

generalsenseanditbecameapparentthattheyusedthemintheiradvertising,

evenwheretheydidnotmentiontheexpression.Theseweresometimes

employedfortheirpotentialinenablingtwoormoresignifiedstobe

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representedbyjustonesignifier,andthiswasmadepossiblebyvirtueofthem

sharingaparticularcharacteristic.AmongtheexamplesofthiswereSubjectA’s

expression“deliver”,whichcouldbeinterpretedasphysicaldeliveryaswellas

operatingasanontologicalmetaphor(Lakoff&Johnson,1980:pp.25-29)

meaningtofulfillapromise.Anotherwaymetaphorwasusedcreativelybythe

intervieweeswastoconstructananalogyinanadvertisementbydrawing

parallels,butpresentingthemasreality.Anexampleofthiscanbeseenin

SubjectB’sadvertisementdesignedforanautomotivecompanywherethe

headlinetextread“FirstAidforcars”,andthistextwasjuxtaposedwithanimage

ofacarwiredtoadiagnosticmachine.Understandingtheadvertisement

requiredtheviewertobeabletorecognizetheparallelanddrawasetofdesired

inferencesfromthem,perhapsincludingthenotionthatthecarwaslikealiving

creature,thatitwasconsequentlycomplexandinneedofthekindofcare

normallyextendedtohumanbeings.Thisadvertisementfacilitatedthe

exploitationofanother,closelyassociatedmetaphor,butthistimeonebasedon

thepolysemicqualityoftheword“heart”in“theheartofthecar”.SubjectB

referredtothisas“symbolism”,althoughonemightreasonablywonderifitis

morelikelytobecomprehendedthroughpragmaticawarenessbasedonthe

viewer’sencyclopaedicknowledgeofwhatfirstaidis,thefunctionoftheheart,

somedegreeofrecognitionofmedicalandautomotivediagnosticequipment,

andlinguisticmemoryintermsoftheliteralandfigurativemeaningsof“heart”.

Aswithestablishedmetaphors,metonymsaresuchafundamentalpartof

everydaylanguagethatspeakersandwritersarelargelyoblivioustotheir

existenceorunderstandhowtheydifferfromtheliteraluseoflanguage.Itwas

thereforeunsurprisingthattheexpression“metonymy”wasnotmentionedby

anyoftheinterviewees.Nevertheless,acoupleoftheintervieweessignaledan

unconsciousawarenessofhowmetonymscouldbeusedtoconveyan

advertisingmessageeconomicallywithwords,andhowtoassociateanentire

productlinewiththebrandtheyweremarketing.AnexampleofthiswasSubject

A’sproposedheadline“Seoul.LikeTokyo,onlycheaper”.Athemeraisedbya

coupleoftheintervieweeswasthatofstereotyping,anditwasacceptedbythem

thattheydidpractisestereotypinginsomeoftheiradvertisingmessages.

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Stereotypesandarchetypesoffertheconvenienceofanimmediateframeof

referenceforcharactersandsituationsandactivatingtheseconveysahostof

assumptionsinstantaneously.Thiscanbehighlyadvantageousinadvertising,

wheretheamountoftimeandeffortaviewerwilldevotetolookingatan

advertisementisoftenminimal.Stereotypescanbeactivatedbycombining

particularsignifiers,asinasingleimagesuchasaphotograph,andtheoption

existstobolsterthelikelihoodofitsrecognitionwithaword,phraseorsentence.

Anexampleofthiscanbeseeninatelevisionadvertisement(pub."MrMadman",

2009)inwhichawell-knownfootballer,VinnyJones,isseendrivingalonga

remotecountryroadwithayounggirlpassengerwhoiswearinganelaborate

fairycostume,andhiscarbreaksdown.Jonesisdepictedasastereotypical

fatherdutifullytransportinghisfemalechildtoaneventand,almostinstantly,

theviewerscomprehendthescenarioandmayevenrelatetoitfromtheirown

lifeexperienceinbeingachildorcaringforachild.Nowhereinthe

advertisementdoesitstatethatsheishisdaughter,northatheistakingherto

anevent:theseareassumptionstoberecoveredbytheviewerwhomayreadily

identifywiththesituationandconsequently“fillinthegaps”.Onepossible

explanationforhowsuchgapfillingisachievedissuggestedbyan

ethnomethodologicalapproachusedwithinconversationanalysisandknownas

“membershipcategorizationanalysis”(MCA);thisisadvancedbySacks(1972,

fromBilmes,2008)inexplainingtheuseofcategoriesinconversation.Awell-

knownillustrationofthisistobefoundinSack’sanalysisofthephrase“The

babycried.Themommypickeditup”.Unlessaheareristoldotherwise,theywill

naturallyassumethe“mommy”isthemotherofthatchildandnot,forexample,

akidnapper.Theobviousrelationof“baby”and“mommy”,includingthefact

botharehyponymsof“familymember”,wouldleadahearerwhoisanative

speakerwithinthesameculturetowardsmakingthatassumption.

WhileMCAmaygosomewaytowardsexplainingstereotypesinconversation,

exploitingthem,especiallyinmedia,canbecontroversialandrisksencountering

disapproval.Forexample,anadvertisementwhichportrayedayoungblackman

asadrugdealer,oroneshowingamanwhoissupposedlygayexhibitingovertly

femininemannerisms,wouldalmostinevitablyattractcriticismandcomplaint

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andsoadvertisersmaybeinclinedtobecautiousandusestereotypes

judiciously,ensuringtheyarealwaysabletooffersomejustificationiftheyare

challengedforsodoing.SubjectBpointedoutthatclearlydefiningmarket

segmentsandaimingadvertisingtowardstheminvariablyinvolvesstereotyping,

whichhedescribedas“takingbroadbrushstrokes”.Inthemodernera,as

FurnhamandPaltzer(2010)andOlson(2013)note,objectionsaremadetothe

portrayalofawomandoingthelaundryinanadvertisementforwashing

powderasitallegedlyreinforcesstereotypesofwomen.If,however,market

researchshowsthat80%ofwashingpowderissoldtowomen,thenthismaybe

adepictionofrealityandsomebasisofjustificationforitcanbeclaimed.Subject

B’sownexamplesofthisincludedacampaignforsellingbarbecuemeats,sauces,

andalsoalcoholproducts,withadvertisementsspecificallydirectedatmale

buyersonradiostationsthattheyknewhadapredominantlymaleaudience.

Thesuppositionhere,arguablypredicatedonaculturalmyth,wasthat

barbecuingwaspredominantlyamasculineactivity.SubjectDexpresseda

similarlyambivalentviewofstereotypingwhenheadmittedthatitplayedarole

inhisadvertisingandwas,tosomeextent,unavoidableinspiteofhiseffortsto

resistit.HesuppliedtheexampleoftheCarlsbergutopianworldinwhichallthe

customersweremen,andwerebeingofferedgoodsandservicesthatmen

stereotypicallywant;thesewerethesignifiersofadultmalenessthataviewer

wouldquicklyassimilate.Inthiscase,thestereotypingworkednotjust,as

SubjectDsaid,tohelptheviewer“toconnectAtoBquicker”,butwasactuallythe

driverofthehumour.Inotherwords,thedegreeofstereotypingasmanifested

bythenumber,rangeandselection,ofsignifierswassoextremeastoconstitute

aparodyofrealityandhencebecomedic.Theimplicationofthisisthat,ifthe

viewerisaman,thenthegoodsandservicesshownrepresentperfecthappiness

forthatviewer,andCarlsbergbeerisoneamongthese.

Certaininadequaciesinusingsemioticanalysisasameansofinterpreting

advertisementshavebeensuggestedandsomeoftheseisoutlinedbelow.This

beginsbyconsideringanadvertisementcreatedbySubjectEanditisrecalled

thattheintervieweemarketedwhathereferredtoas“wokquality”

microwavablenoodlesandtheanglechosenwasthatconsumerswouldno

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longerhaveanyusefortheirwoks.Viewerswereinvitedtoconsiderwhatthey

otherwisemightdowiththeirnowredundantwokswhentheyhadnofurther

usefortheminmakingnoodles.Theywerepresentedwithhumorousimages,

includingdepictingpeopleplayingtenniswiththeirwoksoradaptingthemasa

kindof“dogchariot”.Inorderfortheadvertisementtoworkasintended,a

viewerwouldhavetoconstructamentalbridge,wherebyalogicalconnection

couldbefoundbetweenplayingtenniswithwoksandbuyingmicrowavable

noodlesandsomementaleffortmustbeundertakentoachievethis.Onemay

deconstructthisadvertisementusingsemioticmethods,identifyingand

classifyingsignifiers,connotationsanddenotationsthatarepresent,thetypesof

messageclaimedbyBarthes,namelythecodediconicmessage,thenon-coded

iconicmessageandtheverbalcomponentintheformofforegroundedcaptions,

productnamesandlabels,andanysmallerprintedtexts(Barthes,1977).There

are,however,shortcomingswiththisapproachwhenitcomestoofferinga

comprehensiveunderstandingofthementalprocessesinvolvedintheactual

productionofthisadvertisement.Oneimagedepictedpeopleplayingtennis

withwoksanditwasaccompaniedbythecaptionwhichmayhaveread

somethinglike:“thefutureofyourwok85”.Barthes(1977)contendsthat

messageslikethishaveatwo-folddenotationandconnotationdistinctionbut,as

Tanaka(1994)pointsout,thisdistinctionisnotalwaysclearcut.Inthiscase,a

denotationcouldonlyberetrievedbyaddingwordstocreateapropositional

speechactintheformofthegrammaticalstructureofanindicativesentence,

somethinglike:thisisthefutureofyourwok.Syntacticallyincompletelinguistic

itemsarecommonplaceinadvertisingandtheirincompletenessoffersthe

readerwiderinterpretativechoicesthanwouldotherwisebethecase.Aside

frombeingeconomicalwithwords,whichisanadvantageforadvertisersasit

facilitatessnappymessages,theyalsoavoidthelimitationsimposedbytruth

conditionality.Inotherwords,theycannotbecontradicted,sotheyaresimply

offeredasideaswhichare“outthere”forthereadertoperceiveand

contemplate.AnotherproblemwithBarthes’(1977)thesisonthe

85Itisnotclaimedthiswastheactualcaptionusedasthisisnotknown.Thewordinghereisasuggestedcaptionforthepurposeofprovidinganexample.

238

connotation/denotationdistinctionis,asTanaka(1994)pointsout“perceptual

knowledgeisnotindependentofculturalknowledge”(p.23).Ifthecaptionis

interpretedasafactualstatementwhenjuxtaposedwiththeimage,i.e.“Thisis

thefutureofyourwok”,thereisanimmediaterealisationthatthedenotationhas

noseriousvalidity.Theadvertiserisnotexpectingthereadertoholdany

seriousbeliefthatwhatisdepictedisarepresentationofanyreality.Inorderto

understandthatthisadvertisementisintendedashumour,letalonetobeableto

processitfurtherandunderstandthelinkbetween,ontheonehandthe

linguisticandnon-linguisticelementsand,ontheother,theunderlyingmessage

oftheadvertisement,asignificantamountofculturalknowledgeonthepartof

thereceiverhastobeaccessible.

Itisfurtherpossibletorecoveranunlimitednumberofpossiblemeaningsfrom

theimageofthepeopleplayingtenniswithwoks,andthesemightinclude,for

example,thatthisisanewversionoftennis,orthatwoksaremoreefficient

thanraquetsforplayingtennis.Barthes(1977)claimsthatimagesarethereby

polysemousandthewordswhichjuxtaposeanimageinanadvertisement

“anchor”theinterpretationtoasingleanddesiredmeaning(seeSubchapter2.7

above).Whilethismaynarrowtherangeofinterpretations,itcertainlydoes

notcompletelyprecludeothersaswordsandphrasesusedarealsopolysemic,

andcanbeambiguousorposeuncertaintiesoverissueslikereference

assignment.Theimageandthecaptiontogetherdonottellthereadereventhat

thisisanadvertisement,letalonewhatisbeingadvertised,sothereisareliance

onthepresenceofothersignifiers,usuallyintheformofaproductimage,a

trademarkoranaccompanyingtext,inordertoensuretheadvertisingformat

isrecognisedandthepurposeoftheadvertisementisachieved.Nevertheless,

evenwhenallthesearepresent,Barthes(1977)stilldoesnotaccountforthe

visualhumour,howitworks,whyitattractstheviewerorthegenerationof

meaningbytheassociationofwoktennisandmicrowavablenoodles.

AsimilarexamplewasshowninwhichSubjectAdescribedanadvertisement

forascrappageschemeconsistingofaphotographofderelictelectronic

equipmentandwhichhadsuperimposeduponitinlargeprintthephrase“End

ofthedecayed”.Thisexploitedthenearhomophones“decayed”and“decade”to

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createapun.Aswiththepreviousexample,someofBarthes’anchoragecanbe

saidtobeoccurringwherebytherangeofpotentialmeaningsthatcanbe

recoveredfromthepolysemousimageislimitedbythecaption,butnothing

fromwithinhistheoryexplainstheoperationofpunsorhowtheyattracta

reader’sattention.Asafurtherpoint,inMythologies(1957),Barthesismainly

concernedwiththoseadvertisementswhichconnectimagesandtext,andhow

thejuxtaposingofthetwoelementsfacilitatesaparticularanddesiredreading.

Manyadvertisements,however,donotfunctioninthiswayastheyconsistof

nothingmorethananimageandperhapsatrademark,whileothersarepurely

linguisticincontent.

Tosumup,thosewhodeviseadvertisementsrelypartiallyatleastonpre-

existingbodiesofknowledgewhicharesharedbyboththeproducersand

consumersofadvertisements.Theinterviewsshowthatatleastsome

practitionersareawareoftheworkofBarthes(1957)concerningcultural

myths.Nevertheless,theydonotrefertoBarthesintheircreativeprocessesand

thismaybebecausetheyhaveaconsciousorunconsciousawarenessofthe

limitationsofrelyingsolelyuponsignifiers,includingsophisticatedonessuchas

culturalmyths.Semioticapproachessonot,forexample,accountforthe

appreciationofthehumourinSubjectE'simageofpeopleplayingtenniswith

woks,letaloneexplainhowencounteringsuchacommercialwouldbelikelyto

impelacustomertobuyacertainbrandofnoodles.Nordotheysufficiently

explainmanyoftheothercomedic,stylisticorrhetoricalstrategiesthatthe

intervieweeshavechosentouseintheirwork.

7.5APPLICATIONOFPRAGMATICPRINCIPLESINADVERTISING

Inthissubchapter,itisproposedthattheresearchdescribedinthisthesis

demonstrateshowcontextualfeaturesthatarenotreadilyexplainableby

semioticprinciplesareconstituentpartsofmodernadvertisements;thatan

advertiser’sawarenessofcontext,includingtheenvironmentinwhichthe

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advertisementappears,co-texts,andencyclopaedicknowledge,areheavilyand

intuitivelyappliedintheconstructionofadvertisingtexts;thatthecognitive

processesinvolvedinthecreationofadvertisementsalignwithrecent

developmentsinpragmatics,andthereforethatpragmatictheoriesmaybeas

relevanttoprospectiveandpractisingadvertisingprofessionalsassemiotic

theories.

Thedistinctionbetweensemioticsandpragmaticsisnotalwaysentirelyclear-

cutandthereareoverlapsbetweenthetwoapproaches.Thissectionbeginsby

referringtotheworkofanothersemiotician,RomanJakobson,andhisattempt

toclassifythefunctionsoflanguage,asdescribedinSubchapter2.5,andwhich

describeshowJakobsonproposessixfunctionsofverbalsigns,namelythe

referential,theexpressive,theconative,thephatic,thepoeticandthe

metalingual(Nöth,1990:pp.185-187).Morethanonefunctioncanbe,andoften

is,presentinanycommunicativeactbut,whenthisoccurs,thereisahierarchy

wherebyonefunctionisdominant.Differentgenrestendtorankcertain

functionsaboveotherssothatinpoetry,forexample,thepoeticfunctionis

dominant.Ifthepremiseisacceptedthattheprevailingintentionofan

advertisementistopersuadeareaderorviewertopurchaseaproductor

service,ortobeloyaltoabrand,thenthedominantfunctioninadvertisingmay

bearguedtobetheconative.Theconativefunctionaddressesorappealstothe

addresseeandis,accordingtoSerban(2012),definedintermsofitseffectson

theirbehaviour;ifthisisaccepted,thenanyotherofJakobson’sfunctionsare

subordinatedtothis.SubjectA’sagencywebsitedescribedhowhiscompany

“help(s)brandssellmore”,whileSubjectB’sagencyassertedthattheyworked

towards“creatingbehaviorchangeoralteringattitudes”(seeSubchapter6.2.2).

Similarly,ontheirwebsite,SubjectE’sagencyclaimedtheirapproachinvolved

“uncoveringsimple,powerfulmessagesandcommunicatingthempersuasively”.In

theinterviews,itwasevidentthatpractitionerswerelesskeenonpromoting

goodsusingwhatSubjectBreferredtoas“entrylevel”advertisingandhis

exampleofasupermarketpromotingtinsofbeanswheretheonlysellingpoint

wastheprice.Whiletheconativefunctionofadvertisingislikelytofeaturein

theirmotivation,thisfunctionappearslesslikelytobeforegrounded.Inother

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words,theconativefunctionmaybeimplicit,butitisacovertpartofthe

communicationandthestimulusismorelikelytobedesignedtooperatethough

oneofJakobson’sotherfunctions,specificallythephatic,poeticandreferential.

Evenwithsimpleclassifiedadscomposedbyordinarymembersofthepublic,

suchasforhouses,carsandsecond-handgoods,thismaystillapply.Mostly,

theseareostensiblydesignedtoconveyfactualinformationandsotheir

appearanceisreferentialinspiteoftheunderlyingconativefunction.Several

intervieweesexplainedhowtheymadeuseofimaginativemetaphorsand

stylisticdevicessuchasalliterationastheirchosenvehiclesofpersuasionand

thesemaytherebyberegardedasutilizingthepoeticfunctionastheyare

literaryincharacter.ExamplesincludeSubjectA’sparallelisminthe“doing

more”straplineforDoosantrucksandhishomophonyin“endofthedecayed”.

ThesemanticdevicesmentionedwouldincludeSubjectA’s“localservice

nationwide”,wheretheantonymybetween“local”and“nationwide”was

foregrounded,andSubjectE’senigmatic“playlessgolf”.Itmayalsobeargued

thatthechoiceofpersonalpronounscanaddsomedegreeofphaticfunctionto

anadvertisement.Theuseof“we”and“you”issuggestiveofasimulated

personal,empatheticandsometimesevenintimate,relationshipbetweenthe

advertiseror,perhapsmoreaccurately,theadvertiser’sclient,andtheconsumer.

SubjectAmentionedanoldadvertisementforcarpetunderlaywhichborethe

headline:”Whatmattersiswhatyou’vegotunderneath”(Subchapter6.5.1)and

whichdepictedawomaninherunderwear.Viewerscouldthusassignthe“you”

tothemodelortothemselves.Wherethelatteroperated,theywereableto

selectapreferredmeaningbetweenthebenefitsofgoodqualityunder-garments,

thebenefitsofahighqualitycarpetunderlay,orboth.

Austin’sspeechacttheory,describedinSubchapter3.2,offerscategorisationsof

utterancesfirstintolocutionaryandillocutionaryacts,anddefinestheseas

beingunderstoodintermsoftheirperlocutionaryeffects.Thefirstofthese,

locutionaryacts,consistsofassemblingastringofencodedsignsintheformof

phonemes,lettersandwords,toproduceanexpressionintermsof,forexample,

ensuringthereferentsareaccuratelyidentifiedanddeicticmeaningscanbe

resolved.SelectedsyntacticstructuresinEnglishcanbeindicativewhen

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establishingatypeoflocutionaryact,sotheline“playlessgolf”isreadily

comprehendedasaninstructionbyvirtueofitbeingagrammaticalimperative.

Itiscommonforforegroundedtextsinadvertisingtobestructuredas

imperatives,andthesefrequentlybeginwithonefromafairlylimitedsetof

single-syllablewordswhichengagetheconsumerandperhapsevenconvey

urgency,suchas“buy”,“choose”and“get”(Leech,1966:p.154).

Anothercommonlyusedlocutionarystructurefoundinadvertisingisthe

grammaticalinterrogative,wheretheadvertiserhailstheconsumerwitha

foregroundedquestion,suchas“Areyoupayingtoomuchforyourcarinsurance?”

Clearly,theentityaskingthequestionisnotanticipatingananswerandsothe

questionmayberegardedasrhetorical:itspurposecanonlybetoengagewith

theconsumerandstimulateathinkingprocessdesiredbytheadvertiser,ora

desiredbehaviorsuchasreadingfurtherintotheadvertisement.Itspurpose,in

thiscasetheintendedeffectofthequestionasdescribed,wouldbeitsillocution.

Searle(1976,inLevinson1983:p.240)proposesatypologyoffiveillocutionary

actsandheliststheseas:representatives,whichcommitthespeakertothetruth

ofaproposition;directives,whichattempttomaketheaddresseerespondina

desiredway;commissives,whichcommitthespeakertodoingsomething;

expressives,whichexpressapsychologicalstateanddeclarations,whichare

intendedtochangeastateofaffairsformallyandbymeansoftheutterance.

Foregroundedadvertisingtextsconsistingofimperativesorinterrogativesmay

beregardedasdirectiveswithinSearle’stypology.Alternatively,oneswhichare

grammaticaldeclaratives(e.g.“Wecan’tbebeatenonprice”)maybeviewedas

representatives,astheycanbeassessedintermsoftruthconditionality,oras

commissives,astheyaremakingapromisewhichisperhapsunderpinnedby

somekindofguarantee.

Anotablestratagemappliedbycopywriters,andwhichismentionedinthe

previoussubchapter,istheuseofnon-grammaticalformsinadvertisingtextsor,

atleast,formswhichdonotconformtoformalandcompleteEnglishsentence

structure.Theyoccurmainly,butnotexclusively,intheforegroundedtextand

theycanconsistofanythingfromasingleword,oraphrase,orafull

subordinatingclause.Asinglewordmaybeabrandnamewhereitisjuxtaposed

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alongwithanimage,usuallyshowingaproductthatrelatestothebrand.Itmay,

ontheotherhand,consistofapopularadvertiser’sbuzzword,like“Sale”or

“Now”.Theseisolatedlinguisticparticleshavecertainadvantagesforthe

advertiser:theyexpressapropositionwithmaximumeconomyofwords,

enablingthecopywriterto,asseveraloftheintervieweesputit,“boildown”a

coremessage,butwhilenotcommittingtheadvertiser’sclienttothe

proposition’struth.Theyalsosupplyscopeforlinguisticplayandstylistic

creativitytoattractattentiontotheadvertisementandofferflexibilityin

interpretation.Thisenablesthereceivertochoosethemostrationalor

preferredmeaning,ormentallytogglebetweenpossiblealternativemeanings.

AmongtheexamplesoftheseareSubjectA,whenheusedthephrase“doing

more”forDoosanforklifttrucksandwhichbecamethebrand’sstrapline,hisline

“localservicenationwide”fortheengineeringcompanyclientandhispunning

line“endofthedecayed”.Thesearephrasesandnotclauses:theyhaveno

subject-verbstructureandsomakenoliteralclaim,forcingtheviewerto

negotiatetheirownmeaningthroughaprocessofmentalenrichment.The

expectationofsuchenrichmentoccurringisevidentinthemindofthe

copywriterascanbeseenwithSubjectB’sexamplewiththediscountfurniture

retailermarketingasofaandhestated:

“Andit’sallaboutthissofa,atthatprice,that’showmuchyousave

andisn’tthisagreatsofa?”(Subchapter6.4.3).

Itisunlikelythesewerethewordsusedintheadvertisement,buttheywere

probablythemessageheexpectedthereadertoreceivewhenseeingapictureof

asofaanditsprice.Insuchexamples,therewasacleargap,oranunder-

determination,occurringbetweenwhatwasencodedbythewordsandthe

meaningtheproducerintendedtoconvey.Thiswouldinevitablyoccur

irrespectiveofthepresenceofanassociatedimageofthekindthatBarthes

(1977)claimsanchorsthemeaning,andthisappliesevenifmorelinguistic

codingisadded.Transmittersandreceiversofsuchmessagesmusttherebyrely

244

uponanotherfacultyhumanbeingspossess,namelytheirabilitytoconsider

messagesincontext,andtodrawconclusionsaboutacommunicator’sintentions

throughtheprocessofinferencing.

Inordertoanalysetheinferencingprocess,theline“doingmore”when

advertisingDoosanforkliftsagainprovidesanexampleanditcanbeconcluded

thatthephrasecontainedlittlemeaningwhenstandingalone.Inthecaseofa

full-pageadvertisementinaperiodical,thecontextisprovidedbyanumberof

signifiersandtheseincludetheimageandarecognizabletradename.Other

essentialcuesthataddtocontextwouldbethosethatsignaltothereaderthat

thetextrelatestoanadvertisementasopposedto,forexample,ajournalistic

article;thesecuesmayhaveincludedthelayoutofthepage,theplacementof

tradenames,thetypefacesusedandthestyleoftheimage.However,evenwith

allthese,thephrase“doingmore”wasobliqueinthatithadalimitlessrangeof

possiblemeaningsandthebestthatanalyzingthroughimplicaturecouldachieve

wouldhavebeentosuggestthosewhicharemostlikelytobeaccessed.While

theaimofaspokenutteranceispredominantlytodeliverasingleandcoherent

meaning,advertisersareabletoexploitambiguitytoinviteoneormoredesired

inferences.Possiblemeaningsrecoverablefrom“doingmore”mightinclude:

“We(Doosan)trucksaredoingmoreforourcustomers”

“Thepeopledepicteddrivingthetrucksaredoingmorework

becausetheyareusingDoosantrucks”

“YoucouldbedoingmorebusinessifyouwereusingDoosantrucks”

Thelackofafulldeclarativesentencecontributedtoboththevaguenessand

ambiguityofthephraseandthismightbeconstruedasthecopywriterhaving

failedtoabidebyGrice’smaximsofquantity(Makeyourcontributionas

informativeasisrequiredforthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange)and/or

manner(avoidambiguity).Wherethisisdoneblatantly,i.e.insuchawaythat

thefailuretoabidebythemaximsispurposelymademanifesttothereceiver,

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andthereasonwastogeneratesomefurtherimplicatures,suchasthose

suggestedthen,inGrice’stheoryofconversationalimplicature,thesemaxims

havebeenflouted.Ifthecopywriterhadinsteadusedoneofthesuggestedlines

above,however,theapproachwouldhavebeendirectratherthanoblique,and

themaximsobserved.Floutingquantityinthiscasesignaledtothereceiverthat

morethanoneinterpretationwasavailableandheorshecouldselecttheone

whichismostapplicabletothem,mentallytogglebetweenthem,oreven

mentallyholdallthreeasmeaningfulandrelevanttotheirinterests.

AsexplainedinSubchapter3.3.above,SperberandWilson(1995:pp.36-38)

pointoutwhattheyregardasdeficienciesinGrice’stheoryandofferinitsplace

analternativeexplanationforimplicaturethroughRelevanceTheory.Intheir

firstmajorworkinwhichtheyoutlinetheirtheory,theybeginbyposingthe

followingquestion:

”Howcanaphysicalstimulusbringabouttherequiredsimilarityof

thoughts,whenthereisnosimilaritywhatsoeverbetweenthe

stimulusandthethoughtsitbringsintocorrespondence?”(p.2)

Thetheorytheygoontodevelopisrepletewithexamplesofspoken

communicationintheformofisolatedutterancesandbriefexchanges,butit

requireslittleimaginationtorelatetheirnotionofphysicalstimulustoan

advertisementandbringingthoughtsintocorrespondenceasthedesiredeffect.

OneoftheprinciplesofRelevanceTheoryrelatestowhatisreferredtoas

“ostentiveinferentialcommunication”(Sperber&Wilson,1995:p.50).Underthis

principle,astimulusisproducedwhichisintendedto“makemanifestormore

manifestasetofassumptions”(p.63)whilenotexcludingthesituationwhereby

thestimulusisintendedonlytoinform.Theyofferbywayofexamplesomeone

feigningayawntocommunicatetheyaretired.Adistinctionismadebetween

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informativeintention86andcommunicativeintentioninthat,whiletheformeris

intendedtomakemanifestcertainassumptions,suchasrelatingfacts,thelatter

intendstomakethereceiverawareofthespeaker’saimtocommunicate

something,specificallybymakingmanifesttheirintention.

Accordingly,aspeakerinitiatinganactofostensivecommunicationhastosecure

theattentionofahearerandso,accordingtoSperberandWilson(1995:p.155),

anactofostensionisalsoarequestforattentionand,bysuchaction,the

utterancecarrieswithitaguaranteeofitsownrelevance.Thisisclearly

applicabletoanadvertisementwhereitsfirstpurposeistoattractattentionto

itself;ifitfailsinthisregard,thecostsandeffortexpendedindesigningitand

publishingorbroadcastingitarewasted.Everyadvertisementseeksattention

andis,bydefinition,an“actofostension”.Acopywriterknowshemustmakeany

advertisementheisproducingrelevanttotargetedindividualssuchthatthe

receiverswillrecognizeitisworthyoftheirattentionandtheireffortin

interpretingit.Tothisend,theadvertisermustgenerateanappropriate

stimulus,andonethatcancompetewithotherstimulipresentinthe

environmentsoastoattractandsustainthetargetaudience’sattentionand

convincethemthattheireffortinprocessingtheinformationisworthwhileby

virtueofsomereward.AsClarke(2013)explains:

“Cognitiveresourcesarepreciousandwedonotwanttowaste

theminpayingattentiontophenomenawhichwillnotrewardus

withenoughcognitiveeffects”.(p.108)

Successisthuscontingentupontheapplicationofeffortby,andtheskillof,the

advertiserinselectingandtransmittingthemostefficientandeconomicalstimuli

forthedesiredpurpose.

86Adetailedaccountofinformativeintentionisprovidedbelowinthissubchapter.

247

Theprocessingeffortrequiredinordertoproduceadesiredcognitiveeffect,

thatistoachieveoptimalrelevance,isakeyconsiderationinadvertising.Living

creaturesarecontinuallyreceivingnewstimulifromvarioussourcesintheform

ofphenomenadetectedwithintheirenvironmentandbytheirphysicalsenses.

Thesearethenrelatedtoexistingknowledge,includingimmediateandshort-

termmemory(e.g.whathasjustbeenexperienced,seen,readorheard)and

longer-termmemory(e.g.whatisbelievedtobefactualinformation).This

processmustoccurinhumansinordertobeabletointerpretutterancesina

conversationorbroadcastadvertisement,oranadvertisingtextinanewspaper

ormagazine.SperberandWilson(1995)state:

“Someonewhowantstoachieveaspecificcognitiveeffectmust

thereforetrytoproduceastimuluswhich,whenoptimallyprocessed,

willachievejusttheintendedeffect”.(p.153)

Inalaterwork,thesameauthorsdefinewhatisoptimallyrelevantastheir

“secondprincipleofrelevance”.Theyexplainthisasfollows:

“Anutteranceisoptimallyrelevanttothehearerif:

a. Itisrelevantenoughtobeworththehearer’sprocessing

effort;

b. Itisthemostrelevantonecompatiblewiththespeaker’s

abilitiesandpreferences.”(Wilson&Sperber,2012:p.65)

TheapplicationofRelevanceTheoryrequiresthatimplicatureiscalculated

throughfactorsthataremutuallymanifestbetweenthetransmitterandreceiver

ofamessage.Thesefactorsincludephenomenadetectableintheenvironmentin

whichacommunicationoccurs,andasharedresourceofencyclopaedic

knowledge.Itmustfirstbeestablishedwhatthefeaturesofthatenvironment

248

areastheyrelatetowhatissaid.Thisincludesresolvinghowreferents,

includingpronounsanddeictics,areassignedandambiguitiesareclarifiedby

virtueofwhatismanifesttothereceiver.Asanexampleinconversation,where

twostrangersarestandingatabusstopandonesays:“Ijustsawonegoingthe

otherway”,allelementsofameaningfulstatementmaybepresentsothe

receiverunderstandsthethespeaker’sintentionandthemessageheorshe

intendstorelay.Inthecasedescribed,theenvironmentisabusstopandthose

standingatthatlocationareknowntobe(generally)waitingforabustoarrive.

Thespeakerassumesthereceiverpossessesthenecessaryencyclopaedic

knowledgefromwhichtoidentifythereferent“one”,i.e.abus,andfromthe

words“goingtheotherway”asanintentiontoinformthemofarelevantfact.

Thatnewknowledgewill,whenaddedtoexistingencyclopaedicknowledge,

equipthereceivertomakeanestimateastohowlongitwillbebeforethe

awaitedbusarrives.Theenvironmentinadvertisingcanconsistofthelocation

ofanadvertisement(e.g.magazine,newspaper,flyer,radioadvertisement,

televisioncommercialorInternetadvertisement),thetimeitispublishedor

broadcastandanyeventsknowntobeoccurringatthattime,andanyassociated

co-textpresentwithorclosetotheadvertisementinquestion.WhenSubjectE

mentionedtheadvertisementforgolfingcourseswhichhadtheheadline“play

lessgolf”,thefactthatthiswaspublishedinagolfingmagazinewascrucialforit

toinvoketherequiredtypeofrelevance.Haditappearedinamagazinefor,for

example,competitioncyclists,notonlywouldithavegeneratedlessinterest,i.e.

itwouldhavebeenalesseffectivestimulus,butthemessagemayhavebeen

misinterpreted,perhapsassomethinglike:“playinggolfcaninterferewithyour

cycling”.Mutualityofknowledgeisakeyrequirementforthisadvertisementto

generatetherequiredimplicature,andthismeans:

• thoseadvertisinginitwouldhaveknownthatthereaderslikeplaying

golf

• readerswouldhaveknownthatadvertisersarewellawarethatthe

readerslikeplayinggolf

• advertisersknowthatreadersknowthattheyknowthis,andsoon

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Inaddition,thereaderswouldalmostcertainlyhaverecognizedthetextasan

advertisementastheadvertiserintended.Accordingly,ratherthanrelyingupon

makingthemessagesuchthatitwouldrequireminimalefforttobe

comprehended,SubjectEpresentedthereaderwithariddletobesolved.A

readercouldassumefromexperienceofsuchtextsthatthemessagecarried

withitaguaranteeofitsownrelevanceandtherewasthereforeanexpectation

thattheextraeffortrequiredtointerpretitwouldprovidesomekindofmental

reward.Consequently,inthiscase,theadditionalprocessingeffortmadethe

messagemorerelevantratherthanless.

Insomesituations,contextispredicatedonknowledgestoredinthememoryin

theformofanencyclopaedicentryinthememoryof,andaccessibleto,the

readerorviewer,andadvertisershavetomakeassumptionsaboutwhatthey

arelikelytoknoworthinktheyshouldknow.Thiscanrelatetoshort-termor

long-termmemory,andtogeneralaswellasspecializedknowledge.Advertisers

routinelyrelyonthepublic’sfamiliaritywithbrandnames,well-established

products,trademarks,straplinesandevenpreviousadvertisingcampaigns,and

thisappliestotheirownproductplusthoseofcompetitors.Theyhave

expectationsastothereaderorviewer’sgeneralknowledge,awarenessofmajor

andrecenthistoricaldevelopmentsandcurrentaffairs,recognitionofcelebrity

namesandfacesand,insomecases,morespecializedknowledgeand

terminology.Viewersandreadersarepresumedtohavealifetime’sexperience

ofencounteringandprocessingadvertisementsthattheycandrawuponto

facilitateadesiredinterpretation.Severalintervieweesgaveclearexamplesof

this.OnewasSubjectA’sproposedheadline“Seoul.LikeTokyo,onlycheaper”.

Thisrelieduponasupposedsetofencyclopaedicentriesconsistingoffactual

knowledge,suchasthatSeoulisthecapitalofKoreaandTokyoisthecapitalof

Japan,whichwouldbesharedbytheadvertiserandthereader,anditalsorelied

oncertainsharedassumptionsaboutthese,perhapsincludingthebeliefthat

Japanesegoodsarehighquality,buttendtobeexpensive.Secondly,SubjectE

providedanexamplewithhisadvertisementforfootballbootsdepicting

footballerMichaelOwenandhis“lightningfast”skills;thetargetconsumerhere

wouldhavelikelybeenespeciallyawareofOwenandtheadvertisementwas

250

mostrelevanttosuchanindividualonthebasisofthempossessingsuch

knowledge.Thirdly,SubjectCdescribedhowmatterssuchaspre-purchase

vesselinspections,dry-dockingandflagadministration,weremattersofinterest

toshippingfirms,whiletheseissues,andthetermsusedwithregardtothem,

wouldbelittleunderstoodbymostpeoplewhodidnotworkinthatindustryor

associatedfields.Lastly,SubjectDdescribedadvertisementsforSkodacarsand

thefactthattherewasawaitinglistforthem,thesignificanceofwhichwould

onlyregisterifthereaderwerealreadyawareofthebrand’sformerreputation

forproducingvehiclesthatwerecheapandundesirable.

Asshownabove,under-determinationmayoccurbetweenwhatisexplicitly

encodedandthemeaningtheadvertiserintendstoconveythroughimplicature.

Withanyadvertisement,arangeofimplicaturescanbegenerated,some

inadvertently,andsomearestrongwhileothersareweakastheyhavemoved

furtherfromtheexplicatureandrequiremoreprocessing.Theinterviews

provideevidencethatthisisaphenomenonpractitionersintuitivelyunderstood

andofwhichtheyweremindfulwhenconstructingadvertisements.Anexample

ofthiscanbeseeninSubjectA’scommercialdepictingthestaffinan

engineeringfirmasbeingpeoplewithfirmconnectionstothelocalitybyvirtue

ofthemstandingalongsidewell-knownlocallandmarkswiththetaglineof

“Localservicenationwide”.Somedegreeofexplicaturecouldbederivedfrom

thetaglineemphasizingthatservicecanbeaccessedlocally,andthiswas

availableacrossthecountry.Strongimplicatedconclusionsmighthaveincluded

thefactthatthecompanywasofferingassistancenomatterwhereintheUKthe

customerwaslocated,andthattheclient’sstaffwerelocalpeopleandfamiliar

withtheircustomers’area.However,itwasnotablethatSubjectAwentfurther

thanthis:hesaidtheaimwasto“makeheroes”ofthepeople,andshowing

imagesofrealhumanbeingsalongsidelocallandmarkssuggestedtheyhadlocal

interestsandapersonalstakeintheirarea.Theselatterconclusionsthathe

hopedviewersoftheadvertisementwouldreachhavehighdegreesof

indeterminacyandwerethusweak.SubjectAneverthelesshopedthatthey

wouldbesuccessful,andthisrequiredthathisintendedimplicatureswouldbe

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selectedoverothersonthebasisofthembeingrelevant.AsWilsonandSperber

(2012)explain:

“Thegreatertherangeofalternatives,theweakertheimplicatures,

andthemoreresponsibilitythehearerhastotakefortheparticular

choiceshemakes.”(p.16)

SubjectBandSubjectDdescribedthesomewhattortuousprocesstheir

respectiveagenciesundertookwhendevelopingideasanddevisingstimuliinan

efforttomaketheiradvertisementseye-catchingandeffective.Thisconsistedof

techniqueswhichtriggeredwhatissometimesreferredtoas“outsidethebox”or

“blueskythinking”while,atthesametime,theyhadtobepreparedtoborrow

ideasfrompreviousadvertisements.SubjectEmentionedthatheattemptedto

empathisewithconsumersbydiscerning“somesortoftruth”withwhich

ordinarypeoplecouldidentifyandsay,“that’sme”.Philosophersand

psychologistsattemptingtoexplainhumancreativitymayconsiderthataspect

hasbeentoucheduponinSubchapter2.5above,whereformalistconceptssuch

asdefamiliarizationarebrieflyexplained.Thecopywritersinterviewedwere

clearlytryingtoensuretheirworkwasnoticed;theirstimuliwereappropriate

andeffectiveinproducingthedesiredcognitiveeffectsbypresentingwhatwas

likelytobefamiliartothereader,butinawaywhichisunfamiliarand/or

unexpected.Thecreativityelementcouldnot,however,betheironly

consideration.Asidefromthepracticalaspectssuchasclientbrief,budgetsand

legalconstraints,theyalsohadtomaketheadvertisementsrelevanttothelives

oftheirconsumersbydisplayingsomeappreciationof,andindeeddrawing

upon,theirownknowledge,experienceandlifestyle,inordertomakethem

relevantinthebroadestpossiblesense.

Grice’sconversationalprinciplesarementionedaboveinthissubchapterwith

referencetohismaximsofquantityandmanner.Thesecondofhismaximsis

thatofquality,andthisrelatestothespeakerstatingonlywhathebelievestobe

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true,andhasevidencetosupportthatbelief.Itmaybesupposedthat

advertisersmakeonlyrepresentationsthatadheretotruthfulness,andtheycan

supplyevidencetoverifytheirclaimsifneeded,inordertoprotectthemselves

fromlegalconsequencessuchascriminaldeception87,falseadvertising88,action

bytheregulatorybody,theAdvertisingStandardsAuthority,orbreachof

contract,oreventheadverserepercussionsofbeingpubliclyexposedas

untrustworthy.Whilethisisnodoubtaccurateintermsofintentionally

misleadingrepresentationsbeingpresentedasfactual,manyofthewordsand

phrasesusedinadvertisementsfallshortofmakingexplicitstatements,perhaps

forthereasonssuggested.Inaddition,examplescanbeseenwithinadvertising

oftheuseofsuchaspuns,hyperboleandpoeticelements,whicharenotmeant

tobetakenliterally.SperberandWilson(2012)rejectGrice’sviewregarding

thequalitymaximthatafailuretocommunicatealiteraltruthis“adeparture

fromthenormsofcommunication”(p.219).Theyargueinsteadthatthereare

twodiscreteformsofrepresentation,namely“descriptive”and“interpretive”(p.

218).Theformerrepresentsastateofaffairs,asinasupermarket

advertisementstating“XBeans–nowonly48pence”;thelatter,ontheother

hand,representsathoughtwhichitonlyresemblesintermsofcontentandthis

resemblanceiscontext-dependent.WhenanadvertisementforRedBullenergy

drinkclaimeditwould“giveyouwings”(Duggan,2012),andoneforsoftdrink

Irn-Bruclaimedtheirproductwas“madefromgirders”(Hodge2016),these

wereneverintendedtobeinterpretedastruthfulorstatementsoffact,butwere

ratherexamplesoftheadvertisersattemptinghumourthroughthelooseuseof

languageandimagery.Similarly,whenSubjectEdescribedanexampleofa

campaigntopromotethelatestmemoryfoamlatexmattressandtoillustrate

howtheyweredesignedtobecool,thecontrivedimageofamattressona

lollipopstick,itwasnottheaimofthecopywritertoimplythattheitemlooked

likealollipop,wasedibleorwouldbeanythinglikeascoldasalollipop.Rather,

thegraphicartistwasconveyinganidearatherthanadescriptive

87InEnglandandWales,thisiscoveredbysection15oftheTheftAct1968

88Forexample,theTradeDescriptionsActsof1968and1972,andtheBusinessProtectionfromMisleadingMarketingRegulations2008

253

representation.Inthiscase,thisconsistedofapropositionthatthemattresshad

certainspecificpropertiesofalollipopintermsofbeingabletocoolonedown

whenatriskofoverheatingowingtowarmweather.

Moregeneraltextsaimedatstudentsofadvertisingarefoundtoattemptto

explainmetaphors.AnexampleofthisisBrierley’sTheAdvertiser’sHandbook

(2002),abookwhichiswidelyusedintrainingandasareferencefor

advertisersstatesthatmetaphorsare:“partofoureverydayspeech”(p.144).

Brierleygoesontoinclude,asexamplesofmetaphors,redrosessentasasignof

loveanddrivingahighperformancecarasrepresentingsuccess;thisindicatesa

possibleconflationofmetaphor,whichisaphenomenonbasedonmakingor

invokingparallels,andsymbolism89.Metaphorsandlooselanguageare

describedintheprevioussubchapterfromasemioticperspectivebut,as

explainedinChapter3,pragmatictheoriesalsoofferexplanationsforthese.

Griceviewsmetaphorsasofferingakindofimplicaturewhicharises“fromthe

exploitationorfloutingofthemaxims”(Levinson,1983:p.147).Themain

maximexploitedorfloutedmightbeassumedtobequality,asthemessageis

notliterallytrue,andaseriesofmentalstepsissuggestedtoaccountforhow

themeaningisdeduced.Thisisunconvincing.Ifoneimaginestwopatientsina

hospitalwardandonesaystotheother:“Thenurseondutytodayisawitch”,it

isdifficulttobelievethehearerwouldentertainaninitialbeliefatanypointthat

thespeakergenuinelybelieves,andwishesthehearertobelieve,thenursein

questionpractiseswitchcraft,onlyforhimorhertorejectthatbeliefandthen

eventuallyarriveatamorelikelyinterpretation,suchasthatthespeakerwas

simplyintimatingshewasadeeplyunpleasantcharacter.RelevanceTheory

offersamoreplausibleexplanationbyreplacingthenotionoftruthfulnesswith

faithfulness–thatis,whatissaidisguaranteedbythespeakertobeafaithful

representationofathoughtwhichhewishestocommunicate(Wilson&Sperber,

2012).Consequently,ittreatsmetaphorasjustanothertypeoflooseuseof

languagewhichisentirelycontextdependent,creatingrelevanceby:

89AsdefinedbyPeirce,whodescribedsymbolsas“arbitraryandconventionalsigns”(Nöth,1990:p.45)

254

“awidearrayofweakimplicatureswhicharethemselvesweakly

implicated”andareconsequentlyidentifiableaswhattheyreferto

as'poeticeffects'”(p.118).

Conventionalmetaphorsoccurinadvertisingastheydoinnaturalconversation;

astheybecomeestablished,littleprocessingeffortisrequiredandtheywould

notberegardedaspoeticandtheirvalueinengagingahearerorreaderwould

beminimal.Bycontrast,metaphorswhichareoriginalpresentthereaderwith

conceptualparallelsthatrequiremoreeffortandthereare,thereby,greater

rewardsforresolvingthem;SubjectB’s“Firstaidforcars”exemplifiesthis.

OthermanifestationsoflooselanguageusedescribedbyWilsonandSperber

(2012)andmentionedinSubchapter3.6above,occurinadhocconcepts,which

aresufficientlybroadtoenablearangeofinterpretationstobemadeand

inferencestobedrawn.SubjectC’sFacebookadvertisementforauniversity

courseforrockgrouproadmanagersusedthetagline“careerslessordinary”.

Asidefromthesuppositionwithinthephrasethatothercareerswereordinary,

theinterpretationofthatexpressionislefttothereader.Onereadermay,for

instance,havedrawnameaningfrom“ordinary”assynonymouswith“boring”

andlackingexcitement,perhapscomparingthecareerwiththatofworkingina

supermarketoraclericaljob.Anotherreadermayhaveviewed“ordinary”as

meaningaconventionaljob,i.e.somethingseveralpeopleheorsheknowsdoes.

Thisleftopenthequestionofthedegreeofordinariness;thejobofahairstylist

inacitysalonmayhaveseemedlikeanexcitingcareertosome,whiletoothers

itwouldbelittlemorethanameansofearningaliving.Inonerespect,the

advertisementpresentedthereaderwithadichotomyofexcitementversus

banality,bothofwhichwerecontingenttosomedegreeatleastuponinvoking

myths,i.e.themythoftheglamorouslifeoftheroadieforasuccessfulrock

groupandthemythofthedrudgeryofspendingone’slifeinamundaneand

modestly-paidjob.Mythssuchasthese,whichofferaclearbinary,constitutea

setofparadigmaticrelationshipsaboveasproposedbyLévi-Strauss

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(Subchapter2.7above)andasexemplifiedbythesuggestedanalysisofthe

Floraadvertisement.Inthiscase,thechoicepresentedwasthatbetween

signingupforthecourseofferedandendingupinaboringjob.Therewasno

thirdoption.

Itissuggestedabovethatthemainfunctionofadvertisementsis,inJakobson’s

terms(asdescribedinNöth,1990:p.187),conative,i.e.topersuadeconsumers

tobehaveinadesiredway,butthisintentionisinitiallyconcealed.Thestrategic

useofcarefullycomposedimagaryisafavouritemethodforadvertisersto

concealtheirpurposeandisthusakindofcovertcommunication.Sometimes,

theimagealoneconveysasmuchastheadvertiserneedstotransmittofulfillits

purpose.Thereceiversimplyviewsanimageandnaturallyrecoverswhatever

implicaturescomeintotheirminds,althoughthesemayrelatetotheirown,

individualwants,needs,aspirationsandlifestyle.Inthisway,theadvertisement

functionswiththeultimatelevelofcovertness.Thepotentialofthiskindof

advertisingwasnotedbySubjectBwhenhereferredtoVersaceadvertisements

which“maynotobviouslysayanythingbutactuallybynotdoingthat,itissaying

quitealotaswell”(Subchapter6.5.1).Preciselywhatwasmeantby“quitealot”

isunclear,andthismeansitwouldvaryfromviewertoviewerandanyattempt

toanalysesuchacommercialrisksbeingsubjectivelyreportedasperceived

fromtheintuitiveviewpointoftheanalyst,assuggestedbyLeissetal(1990).

Whenjuxtaposedwithacaption,therangeofimplicaturesanimagetransmits

maybereduced,buttheintentionbehindtheimageislikelytobecomeclearer.

TurningagaintoSubjectEandhisimaginativeusesforwoksbeingdepictedin

anadvertisementformicrowavablenoodles,thecovertcommunication

occurredwherebytheinformativeintentionwasnotmademanifestbythe

foregroundedpictureandtext.Instead,thestimuliconsistedofaseriesof

picturesandtherewardforprocessingthesewastobefoundinthehumour,and

inthepuzzleofrelatingthemtothecaptionandthentheproduct.Thereader

wastherebydistractedfromthemainpurposeoftheadvertisementalmostasa

meansofdrawingthereader’sattentiontoit.Awarenessoftheitembeing

marketed,thefulfillmentofthemain,i.e.conative,function,wasachieved

ostentiblyasaby-product.

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AsexplainedinChapter3,DavidBernsteinwasacopywriterwhopublisheda

bookin1974inwhichhemakesadistinctionbetweentwostrategiesof

advertisingwhichhereferstoas“reason”and“tickle”,andthisdistinctionisa

toolheusedinhisdailyworkofdesigningadvertisements.Simpson(2001)

referstoBernstein’sreasonandticklehypothesisandattemptstorelatethisto

theoreticalmodelsfromlinguistics.HeevaluatesBernstein’sdistinctionfrom

twomainperspectives,namelytheHallidayansystemic-functionallinguistics

methodaswellasabroadlypragmaticoneanddrawsanumberofconclusions

inrelationtothedistinction.Heproposesthatso-called“reason”advertisements

prioritisecertainmotivationsforbuyingtheproductandthewordingtendsto

beformulaic,i.e.byusing“aspecificandrestrictedsetofconjunctiveadjuncts”(p.

603).“Tickle”advertisements,bycontrast,require“agreaterexpenditureof

processingeffort”(ibid)bythereader,listenerorviewer,whomhereferstoas

the“RVL”,andtheybringwiththemtheproblemofbeing“specificabout

inferencingpathwaysforallRVLs”(ibid).Thismeansthat,havingrecognizedthe

communicationasanadvertisement,theRVLwillatsomepointhavetoidentify

theactualsellingpropositioninordertoachieveafullcomprehension.

Reason“equalsfact,clinicaltruth,needs”(Bernstein,1974:p.119)and,asitis

concernedwithrelatinginformationtothereaderorviewer,thecontentwould

bepredominantlyreferentialintermsofJakobson’sfunctions.Reasonmight

inclinetowardsabidingbyGriceanmaximsor,inRelevanceTheoryterms,asthe

degreeofrelevanceisininverseproportiontotheamountofprocessingeffort

requiredtorecovertheintendedmeaning,ithasstrongrelevance.SubjectB’s

supermarketadvertisementpromotinganofferfortinsofbakedbeans,and

SubjectC’sadvertisementforafurnitureretailerofferingasofa,aretwo

examplesofthis.Bothofthesemightbeassumedtobewhollyreason-basedas

theyfocusonprice,butBernstein(p.118)claimsthisdoesnotoccurinany

advertisement.Hestatesthat,whilesomeadvertisementsarealmostallreason

andothersarealmostalltickle,noadvertisementcanbeahundredpercentone

ortheother:thereareproportionsofbothingredientsineveryadvertisement.

Thetickleelementinwhatmightberegardedasapredominantlyreason-based

advertisementmaycentreupongeneratingasenseofexcitementaboutalow

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priceandsavingmoney.Thisissomethingthatcanbeseenwithadvertisements

forsuchasthoseforendofseasonandclosingdownsales,orthosepromoting

'buyonegetonefree'(BOGOF)deals.WithregardtoSubjectCandhissofa

commercial,thiswasapparentintheattemptbyhisclienttomakethedeal

offeredappearoutstandinglygood:

“Andit’sallaboutthissofa,atthatprice,that’showmuchyousave

andisn’tthisagreatsofa?”(Subchapter6.4.3)

Onemightsupposethatbusiness-to-businessadvertisementswouldbe

heavilyorientedtowardreasonastheyareaimedathard-headed

merchantsandbusinesspeople.Thisdoesnot,however,appeartobethe

case.SubjectC’sshippingconsultancyadvertisementappealedtotickleby

wayofemotionwhenhesaidtheirservicewas:“afive-starguaranteeand

fivelovelybrightsilverstarslookingniceandclassy”(Subchapter6.5.3).

Similarly,SubjectA’sagencywasconcernedalmostentirelywith

business-to-businessmarketing,andyetheappliedpoeticsinstraplines

like“doingmore”(withDoosan)and“Design,Develop,Deliver”forthat

typeofspecialistcompany.Conversely,tickleadvertisingisobliqueand

usesindirectapproachesasitaimstoappealtotheemotions.Assuch,

tickleadvertisementsaremorelikelytobeexpressionsofJakobson’s

phaticorpoeticfunctionsratherthanthereferentialfunction,althoughall

areultimatelydeployedintheserviceoftheconativefunction.Inviewof

theindirectnessmentioned,itisproposedthatadvertisementswhich

makeheavyuseofticklestrategiesaremorelikelytooperatethrough

generatingimplicaturesandthereforefloutGriceanmaxims.Froma

RelevanceTheoryperspective,agreaterdegreeofeffortisrequiredto

processatickleelement,sotheimplicaturesgeneratedareweak.

Subchapter7.4,above,discussesthelossoftheoreticalunderpinningin

advertisingandtwooftheinterviewees,SubjectsCandF,expressedconcern

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withregardtothisand,byextension,tothelossofintellectualcontentand

sophisticationinmodernadvertisements.Asimilarargumenttothatmadefor

theinclusionofsemiotictheoriescanalsobemadewithregardtopragmatic

theoriesintermsoftheirpotentialvalueintrainingofpractitionersandthe

developmentoftheirprofessionalskills.AdvertisersmayfindRelevanceTheory

insightfulinthatitprovidesamodelthataccountsforhowaspeaker'sintended

meaningisunderstoodfromevidencepresentorprovidedintheformof

observablephenomenaandmemories.Itcouldbearguedthat,asageneralrule,

thoseaimingtohavetheiroccupationcreditedforhavingintellectualsubstance,

andthereforeheldinprofessionalesteem,havetobecognizantofcurrent

academicthinkingthatisrelevanttotheirprofession.Whetherornotone

acceptsthatRelevanceTheoryoffersacomprehensiveandirrefutable

explanationfortherecoveryofmeaningthroughimplicature,thistheoryfocuses

inpracticespecificallyonlinguisticinterpretationincontextand,assuch,itis

abletoilluminateaspectsoflinguisticcommunicationofwhichthisresearch

indicatesadvertisingprofessionalsareclearlynotaware.Fromthatpointof

view,suchanexplicitlinguistic/pragmaticfocusmaywellbeusefuland

interestingintheirprofessionalwork,encouragingcreatorstodevisemore

intellectuallystimulating,andtherebymorerelevant,advertisingthatoperates

withinthecontextofthelives,andhasregardtothevaluesandconcernsof

thosewhoexperienceit.

7.6PRODUCTVERSUSBRAND

Itisperhapsunsurprisingthatthereisanapparentdissimilaritybetweenthe

wayadvertisingispresentedinlinguisticstextbooksandtheperceptionsof

advertisingheldbythosewhoworkintheindustry.Inthecaseoftheformer,

existingadvertisementsaredeconstructedandtheiroperationand

interpretationexplainedusingsemioticsorlinguistictheories.Advertisingtexts

arethusasourceofdatatoillustrateordemonstratetheoriesandthe

applicationofthesetheoriesandtheanalyticaltoolsassociatedwiththem.In

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thecaseofthelatter,advertisingisacommercialactivityandadvertisersarein

thebusinessofproducingaproduct,namelyadvertisementsforpublicationor

broadcast,inordertoenabletheirclientstoselltheirowngoodsandservices.

Thisdisconnectisespeciallyevidentwhencomparingadvertisementswhich

focusentirelyonbrandrecognitionagainstthosewhichaimprimarilytomarket

aspecificproduct.

Astrikingdifferencewasnotedinrelationtobrandsandbrandingbetweenthe

textbookswhichdealtwithadvertisingfromoneormorecommunicativeor

linguisticperspectives,andgeneraladvertisingtextbooks.Inthecaseofthe

former,workssuchasVestergaard&Schrøder(1985),Myers(1994),Tanaka

(1994),Cook(2001),Bignell(2001)andvanLeeuwen(2005)mostlymakesome

mentionofbrands,butalmostasthoughtheyareincidentaltotheadvertising

message.Withregardtothelatter,withworkssuchasBernstein(1974),Ogilvy

(1983)Brierley(2002)andAaker(2010),brandingisafactorwhichsitsatthe

verycoreoftheadvertisingmessage90.Thisaccordswiththeinterviewsas

brandpromotionwasviewedastheprimaryfunctionofcopywriters,unless

theyaredirectedbytheirclientstofocusonaproduct.Someoftheinterviewees,

suchasSubjectA,wereclearthattheywouldtryto“push”clientstowards

promotingbrandsoverproducts,whileothersweredisparagingaboutproduct

orientedadvertisingbeing,asSubjectBputit,“entrylevel”.Insomecases,

however,abrandmaybelessestablishedwiththepublicandfocusingonthe

uniquesellingproposition(USP)ofspecificproductsmaybetheonlyeffective,

ormosteffective,advertisingstrategy.ExamplesofproductUSPswouldinclude

SubjectC’sclientwantingtomarketOmega3fishoiltabletsandSubjectE’s

microwavablenoodles.Thelatterexamplecouldcertainlynotbedescribedas

entrylevelanddemonstratesthathighlyimaginativeapproachescanbeused

whereabrandisunknownorviewedasbeingoflessimportance.

90AnotableexceptiontothisgeneralobservationisBeasley&Danesi’sPersuasiveSigns(2002)

whichdevotesabouttwentypagestobrands,brandnamesandco-branding.Thisbookfunctions

asanauthenticinterdisciplinaryworkwiththefirstauthorbeinganeminentadvertising

specialistandthelatteraprofessorofsemiotics.Itcanbefurthernotedthattherearebookswhichfocusexclusivelyonbrands,suchasAaker(2010).

260

Itistemptingtoviewbrandingas,forthemainpart,invokingconnotations

whichthemarketerbelievesresidewithintheconsciousmindoftheconsumer.

Thisbecomesevidentwhenlookingatfull-pageadvertisementsinglossy

magazinesandwheretheycompriseaphotographandabrandnameormark,

andnoothercontent.Suchadvertisingdependsnotjustuponbrandrecognition,

butalsouponamorevagueimpressionofthebrandwhichmayhaveemotional

orotherwiseaffectivesignificancetoconsumers.SubjectFconfirmedthiswhen

hediscussedthetransactionalversusrelationalaspectandthatcanbeseen

operatingwhencomparingthekindsofsignifiersselectedfordifferentkindsof

advertisements,withtheformertypedirectingattentiontowardsspecific

products,emphasizingreasonstobuythemandtoclosethedeal,whilethosein

thelattercategoryoperatethroughaffectiveappeal,seekingtoattractdesire

andloyaltythroughsignifierswhichpointtolifestyle.Hepointedouthow

luxuryandglamourrelatedproducts,thosegenerallymarketedrelationally,are

positionedmorehighlyintheconnotativeindexastheytendtobemarketedless

explicitly,butwiththefocusonbranding.Analternativeunderstandingforthis

isofferedbypragmaticsand,inparticular,byRelevanceTheory(Sperber&

Wilson,1995;Wilson&Sperber,2012),wherebythecommunicatorreliesonthe

encyclopaedicknowledgeofthereceivertoenrichthemessage.

Whiletheintervieweesmostlyacknowledgedacleardistinctionbetweenbrand

andproductadvertising,allgaveexampleswhichcontainedbothkinds

simultaneouslyandtherewassomeinterdependencebetweenthesewhich

couldbedetectedinadvertising.Obviousexamplesofthisaretobefoundwhere

establishedbrandsmarketnewproducts,suchastheUmbrofootballboots

mentionedbySubjectD,wherethebrandwasakeyfeature.Conversely,when

SubjectE’spointaboutcarmanufacturerBMWseeking“tocapitaliseonits

reputationforexcellenceinengineeringqualityanddesign”(Subchapter6.5.5)is

considered,itwouldberationaltoassumethatitsbrandreputationwasbuilt

overaperiodoftime.BMWbeganitsbusinesswithnoreputationand,asaresult

ofitsproducts,thereputationitholdstodaywasearnedovertime.This,inturn,

wouldsuggestadvertisersmaybelievetheyhavetobeginmarketinganew

brandbybeinginformative,withstrongdenotationandmakingtheproduct

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relevant,andthenbeingabletoaccessconnotationsandculturalmythsasthe

brandbecomesestablished.

7.7FINDINGSASTHEYRELATETOTHESISQUESTIONS

Thisthesissetouttoanswerfivequestionsandthissubchapterisintendedto

providesummarizedanswersforeachofthesebasedupontheresearchfindings.

1.Whathavesemioticsandlinguisticpragmaticscontributedtoour

understandingofadvertisingdiscourse?Whatarethekeytheoreticalconstructs

andprinciplesthattheseapproacheshavebroughttobear?

TheresearchhasshownthattheapproachestosemioticsdevelopedBarthes,

Lévi-StraussandEcooffertoolsbywhichtheworkingsofadvertisementscanbe

understood.Thefeaturesoftheirmodelsincludetherelationofandinteraction

betweendenotationandconnotation,characterizationorclassificationofthe

signifierspresent,theirrelationtotheirsignifiedsandhowsignifiersand

signifiedsfunctiontogethertoproduceintendedmeanings.Barthes(1957)

proposestheexistenceofculturalmythsinadvertising(aswellasothergenres)

andheillustrateshowtheseareusedtosignify,andthusinvoke,embedded

culturalmeaningsinthemindoftheconsumer.Semioticsaccountsforthe

powerofsignifiersintheformofconnotationsandthisgoessomewayto

explainingtheworkingsofbrandsincludingbranddistinctivenessandbrand

values.

Regardingpragmatictheories,traditionallythesehavebeenconcernedforthe

mostpartwithspokeninteractions(ofteninvented)betweentwoormore

speakersandwithattemptstoexplainhowmeaningisgeneratedandrecovered

throughcontext.Advertisementsarenotdialogical,sotheyhavetogenerate

theirowncontexttovaryingdegreesinordertosituatetheconsumermentally

insuchawaythattheyrecognizetherelevance,andarethussusceptibletothe

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influencetheadvertiserseekstoexert.Thisdoesnotmeantosaythatpragmatic

principlescannotbeappliedtomonologicalutterances,audioandvideo

recordingsortheprintedword,andanumberofscholarshavedonethis,as

explainedinSubchapter7.1,above.Wherethereisaspatialand/ortemporal

distancebetweenthespeakerandthehearer/reader,however,theburdenof

providingrelevantcontextislikelytobegreater.Asanexample,theutterance

“itisraining”byoneindividualtoanotherinsideabuildingislikelytogiverise

toabeliefinthemindofthehearerthatrainisfallingimmediatelyoutsidethat

buildingattheprecisetimetheutteranceisdelivered.Assumingthiswasindeed

theintendedmeaning,itwouldberecoveredinstantaneouslyand

unproblematicallybythereceiver.Thiswouldnot,however,bethecaseifthe

samephraseappearedasaforegroundedtextinamagazinearticle,orprinted

advertisement.Inordertorecovermeaning,theprincipleofrelevanceas

describedbyRelevanceTheoryisinsightful.Relevancetheoristsexplainhowa

readerofatextmaystillneedtocontextualizethestatement,andthiscanoccur

throughthepresenceofothercues.Suchcuesmay,accordingtotheoristssuch

asTanaka(1994),consistofphenomenaintheimmediatereadingenvironment,

e.g.accompanyingtextorpictorialcontentinthesamepartofthesametext,or

thatwhichcanbereliedupontobeintheencyclopaedicmemoryofthereader.

Thecontextprovidedmaybeexceedinglysimple,aswithSubjectC’s

advertisementforasofawheretheretailer’snamewasprominentalongwith

theprice,andperhapsjuxtaposedwithrecognizableadvertisingbuzzwordssuch

as“sale”or“nowonly”.Ontheotherhand,areadermaybeforcedtosearchfor

thecontextincaseswheretheadvertiseraimstomakethewordingcrypticin

ordertostimulateinterest,aswiththeexampleoftheadvertisementinagolfing

magazineurgingreadersto“playlessgolf”.Animagecanalsobecrypticand

thusinviteviewerstoconstructtheirownmeaning.Thisisthecasewiththe

VersaceadvertisementdiscussedwithSubjectB,whichcontainednolanguage

beyondthebrandname.Inothercases,animagehasaccompanyingtextwhich

isneededinordertomakesenseofthemessagetheadvertiserisgenerating,as

withSubjectE’sexampleofthepicturesshowingbizarreusesforwoks,asused

topromoteinstantnoodles.Toanextent,itmaybesuggestedthatthereissome

degreeofcorrelationbetweenadvertisementsinthewaycontextisproduced

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andthereasonandtickledistinctionsasproposedbyBernstein(1974).Those

advertisementswhicharemorereasonorientedarelikelytotaketheformof

overtcommunicationandbedesignedtogivetheimpressionthattheirpurpose

isinformative.Conversely,anadvertisementwhichispredominantlytickleis

morelikelytobecovert;noinformativeintentionismademanifestandthe

strategyusedisdesignedtoattractinteresttotheadvertisementbytheartistry

involvedincreatingthestimulus.

2.Towhatextentarethespecificconceptualframeworksproposedintheories

ofsemioticsandpragmaticsvaluableinsheddinglightonthelinguisticand

communicativeprocessesinvolvedintheproductionandoperationof

advertisements?

Ataphilosophicallevel,itistruetosaythat,whilesignsexistindependentlyof

theirreferents,humanbeingsexperiencerealityandinteractwiththeworld

throughsignsdetectedbysensoryorgansandinterpretedbythebrainwiththe

aidofmemoryandintellect.Advertisementsaresignsandcombinationsof

signs,andsemioticsconstitutesamodelofhumancommunicationwhich

regardsthemassuch.Astheinterviewsrevealed,practitionersusethesesigns

inanattempttomakealinkbetweenaneed,wantordesireonthepartofa

consumerwhichamerchantaimstosatisfy.Atthemostbasiclevel,signs

operateassignifiersoftheexistenceofthesegoodsandservicesandtheymay

conveyotherinformationabouttheirquality,reliability,availabilityandprice.At

amoresophisticatedlevel,theyseektoassociatetheirproductsnotmerelywith

theirutility,butrathertopresentthebrandsandproductsinsuchawayasto

connectwithorinvokedeeperhumandesires,andespeciallythoserelatingto

lifestyle,socialstatusandsexualsuccess.Whilepractitionersmayormaynotbe

familiarwiththerelevanttheoreticalmeta-language,semioticconceptssuchas

connotationandsignificationprovideabasisforunderstandingthecreative

processesbywhichmeaningsareencodedandthustheyplayaroleinthe

creativeprocess.Itwasevidentfromtheinterviewsthattherewasalsoaclear

recognition,albeitanunconsciousone,ofthepowerofconnotationtomake

particularsignifiersmoresignificantandthusthemessageoftheadvertisement

becomesmorepotent.ThiswasconfirmedbySubjectB'scommentquotedin

264

Subchapter1.1abovethat“Ibetifyoubrokedownourprocesses…ifyoucould

lookintoourheads…we’dbeusingsemioticsinsomeway,butnotactively…not

explicitly”.Fromapragmaticperspective,ithaslongbeenrecognisedhow

personaldeictictermssuchaspersonalpronouns(e.g.us,we,you)andinformal

kinshipterms(e.g.mum,kids)canbeusedtogenerateimpressionsofintimacy

andempathywhile,atthesametime,distractingtheconsumerfromtheprofit

motiveoftheadvertiser,asnotedbyMyers(1991)andCook(2001).Some

workontheapplicationofRelevanceTheory(e.g.Tanaka,1994)accountsfor

featuresofadvertisingincludingtheuseofmetaphor,looseuseandadhoc

concepts,puns,crypticmessages,thewayadvertisementsmakethemselves

relevanttotheconsumerthroughthechoiceofparticularstimuli,andhowthey

relyuponassumedmutualknowledgeinorderforintendedmeaningstobe

conveyed.Theinterviewsshowthat,whileadvertiserswereunacquaintedwith

pragmatictheories,theywerecertainlyawareofcontext,andSubjectB'sclaim

aboutsemioticsbeingusedinsomeway,butnotexplicitly,couldalsobesaidto

applytopragmatics.

3.Howfamiliarareadvertisingprofessionalswithparticularsemioticand

pragmaticmodelsofcommunicationandtowhatextentdotheyattemptto

applytheoreticalprincipleswithwhichtheyarefamiliarintheirwork?

Itisclearthatwhilemany,ifnotamajority,ofuniversitiesdonotprovideany

inputonsemiotictheoriesintheiradvertisingandmarketingcourses,andnone

oftheprofessionalbodiesdo,copywriterstendedtohavesomedegreeof

awarenessofsemioticseitherfromothertrainingtheyhavereceived,e.g.in

coursesincommunicationsorgraphicart,orfromgeneralreading.Where

semioticinputwasfoundtoconstitutepartofuniversitycourses,itgenerally

reliedupontextbooksthatuseselectedsemiotictoolstodeconstructselected

advertisementsandthepracticalvalueofsuchinputcannotbeconfirmedwith

anycertainty.Ontheonehand,itmaybearguedthatthesetextbooksaremore

usefulforstudentsofsemioticsinexplainingandillustratingthetheoriesthey

areattemptingtocomprehendthaninofferinganinstructionmanualfortrainee

advertisingpractitionersincreatingcommercials.Ontheotherhand,exposure

tothetheoriescouldhaveaneffectofheighteningstudents’awarenessoffactors

265

suchassignificationandculturalmyth,andthisawarenesshelpsestablisha

foundationuponwhichprofessionalexpertiseisbuiltthroughexperience.It

wouldbedifficulttoestablishandmeasureanyofthesuggestedbenefitsthat

accruefromincludingsemioticsinthetrainingofadvertisers.Theresearchhas

shownthatsomepractitionerslamentthewayinwhichadvertisinghasbecome

de-intellectualisedandaccordinglytheircounterpartsinotheragenciesare

becominglessskilled.Itwasdiscoveredthatexpertiseintheapplicationof

semioticsexists,aswasevidentfromtheinterviewwiththecommercial

semiotician,butthisisemployedatthehighestendofmarketingmorebroadly,

andismakinglittleimpactupontheprofessionalknowledgeandmethodsof

provincialadvertisingagencies.Itbecameapparentintheinterviewsthat

practitionerswereacutelyawareofcontext.Theywereabletoempathisewith

theiraudience’sinterests,needsandwants,employahostofcreativestrategies

toensurethatdesiredmeaningswereconveyedthroughthegenerationof

implicaturesandtestaudiences'likelyabilitytobeabletorecoverthese

scientificallybymarketresearchandfocusgroups,andbyoff-the-cuffmethods

suchasSubjectE’s“Racheltest”91.Therewasacompleteabsenceofany

awarenessofpragmatictheoriesandconceptsonthepartofpractitionersand

soanyabilitytocontextualizetheircopywasentirelybasedonacombinationof

intuitionandexperience.

Theresearchrevealedthat,evenwheretheintervieweeshadexpressedsome

familiaritywithcertainsemioticprinciples,theydidnotmakeaconscious

decisiontoapplythese.Itmaybesupposedthatthisappliesacrossthe

advertisingindustry,atleastwithregardtosmallandmedium-sizedprovincial

agenciesintheUnitedKingdom.ThiswastheperceptionexpressedbySubjectF,

thecommercialsemiotician,whoseexperienceledhimtoconcludethat

copywriters’theoreticalknowledgewasofteninadequatewhenitcameto

applyingsemiotics,thattheyhadlittleideahowtoapplysemioticprinciplesand

wereafraidtousesemiotictermsastheycouldintimidateclients.Instead,they

preferredtoworkintuitively,basingtheirworkdecisionsontheirexperienceor,

91SeeAppendix3,below

266

asitwasexplained,they“freestyle”.Someawarenessofculturalmythsas

describedbyBartheswasdiscovered,albeitthatcopywriterswouldnothave

Barthes’stheoryinmindwhencreatingadvertisements.Therewasalsosome

levelofawarenessofmetaphors,andinvokingparallels,buttheseappearedto

bemorebasedongeneralknowledgecombinedwithextensiveworkexperience

inthefield.

Thepractitionersinterviewedwereacutelyawarethattheirprimaryfunction

wasmarketinggoodsandservicesandsotheirultimatepurposewasto

persuadeconsumerstobehaveinaparticularway,eveniftheirstrategywasto

distractfromthisbyconcealingtheirprimaryintentionbehindsomeother

apparentfunctionsuchasamusing,entertaining,perplexingorempathising.

Theyfullyappreciatedtheneedtoprovideastimulusinordertoattract

attentiontotheircommercials;thisstimuluswasgenerallythestartingpoint

andtheelementoftheadvertisementtowardswhichtheydirectedthemajority

oftheircreativeefforts.Simplycapturingattentionwasnotsufficient,though,to

achievetheaimsoftheadvertisement.Alinkhadtobemadebetweentheinitial

stimulusandthekeymessageforwhichtheadvertisementwascommissioned,

andtherecognitionofrelevancebythereceivermustnotbecomelostatany

point.IntermsofRelevanceTheory,thestimulusandotheraspectsofthe

advertisementcarryguaranteesoftheirownrelevancetotheconsumerandthat

itisworththeireffortinprocessingeachoftheelementsofitastheirattention

shiftsbetweenthem.Contextualisationwasgeneratedbycopywritersina

numberofways.Atthemostabstractlevel,andwheretheywereafforded

creativelicencetoapplyticklestrategies,theymentallyplayedaroundwith

thoughtssurroundingbrandsandproducts,relatingthemtootherphenomena

(suchasmusic)oraspectsoftheirownlivesandtryingtofindan“essence”92.

Thisenabledthemtomakeoutpatternsandparallelsthatcouldthenbeapplied

atamoreconcretelevel,wheretheywereseekingtoconstructandpositiona

messagewhichwouldprovideameaningfulstimulustoattractthedesired

92“Essence”wasatermusedbySubjectA.

267

attentiontotheadvertisementandpersuadethereaderorviewerofits

relevance.

4.Towhatextentdothecommunicativeinsightsandprinciplesofprofessional

advertisingpracticeprovidesupportfororconformtotherelevanttheoretical

models?

Anumberofattemptshavebeenmadeoverthepastcenturytoprovidea

definitivecompendiumoftheprinciplesofadvertising,butthedynamicnatures

ofculture,consumerismandmedia,wouldmakethisahugetask.Thepractice

hasevolvedmainlythroughexperience,althoughseveralacademicdisciplines

havecontributedtoitsdevelopmentandthebroaderfieldofmarketingisnow

anestablishedacademicdisciplineinitsownright.Sometextsusedincourses

andreferredtobypractitioners,includingsomeofthoseinterviewedinthis

study,(e.g.Bernstein,1974;Ogilvy,1983;Hegarty,2011)arelargely

experientialincharacterwhileothers(e.g.Brierley,2002)haveapproachedthe

topicaidedbyscientificunderstandingofmarketingtechniquessupportedby

citedresearch.Ithasbecomeclearduringthisresearchthatthereisnosingle

methodthatisuniversallyadvocatedwithinalltextsintermsofconstructing

advertisementsorinducingthecreativeprocessesthroughwhichtheyare

constructed.Therearemerelyfactorstobeconsidered,andapproachesthat

havebeensuccessfulorunsuccessful,givingrisetoaseriesofgeneralizedrules

ofthumbforpractitioners.Asforthepractitionersinterviewedforthisstudy,

certainthemesemerged,beginningwiththewaytheagenciesdescribed

themselves.Thefirstoftheseisacommonemphasisonoriginalthinking,with

SubjectA'sdescriptionofhiscompanyascomprising“curious,creativeand

somewhatnerdyminds”andclaimingthatthey“lookatthingsdifferently”and

thatthey“don’ttakethemselvestooseriously”.SubjectCdescribedhiscompany’s

advertisingcontentas“fun,inspiring,cool,imaginativeordownrightsurreal”,

whileSubjectDtalkedabout“freshthinking”.Thissuggestsanelementof

literarinessintheapproachoftheagenciesanditaccordswithnotionsfoundin

FormalisttheoriessuchasSchlovsky’sthatthetechniqueistomaketheobjects,

inthiscasetheadvertisementsproducedbytheseagencies,unfamiliar.There

268

wereexamplesofthisoccurringinadvertisementsproduced,includingthe

unfamiliaruseofwoksinthecommercialforinstantnoodles.Whileitisevident

SubjectEdidnothaveSchlovsky’stheoryinmindwhenheproducedthe

advertisement,heappearedinthisadvertisementtobeattempting:

“tomakeformsdifficult,toincreasethedifficultyandlengthof

perceptionbecausetheprocessofperceptionisanaestheticendin

itselfandmustbeprolonged”(Schlovsky,1917).

Agenciesappreciatedtheywereoperatinginthebusinessenvironmentandthat

theirartisticinclinationshadtobetemperedwithcommercialpragmatism.On

theirrespectivewebsitehomepages,theirself-descriptionsincorporated

expressionswhichinformedpotentialclientsofthisawareness,forexample

SubjectB:“speedyandefficientdelivery”;SubjectC:“achievingyourbusinessaims”

and“alwaysclear,eloquentandeffectiveincommunicatingyourmessage”andit

wassubtlyimpliedinSubjectD’sself-description:“Wetakeleaps.Butnotinthe

dark”.AsexplainedinSubchapter7.5above,practitionersweremindfulofthe

primarypurposeoftheiradvertisements,andthatpersuadingaudiencesto

behaveinadesiredway,e.g.bypurchasingproducts,wasthechief

considerationeventhoughthiswasrarelymadeexplicit;themoretickle

(Bernstein,1974)strategieswereapplied,themorecovertthisfunctionbecame.

Whilethecovertaimispersuasion,thestrategytoachievethiscanbyuseof

stylisticandpoeticdevicessuchasalliteration,homophonyandpuns,orphatic

approachessuchasbyusingpersonalpronounsandinformalspeechortryingto

showanempatheticawarenessofthereaderorviewer’slife,orsimply

informative,suchasbyshowingaproductalongsidewhatisclaimedtobea

remarkablylowprice.Provincialadvertisersmaynotinvokeclassicalfigures

suchasDionysus,ascitedbyBeasleyandDanesi(2002)93orFrenchintellectual

93MentionedinChapter5.6

269

novelslikeProust’sInSearchofLostTime,asmentionedbyTanaka(1994)94,

perhapsbecausetheyarelesslikelytobefamiliartoallreadersorviewers,but

thoseinterviewedwerecertainlycognizantofthepotentialforapplyingbetter

knownculturalmyths,suchasthetaleofRobinHood,andmoremodern

mythologies(inBarthes’terms)suchasthespeedoffootballerMichaelOwen.

Itisundeniablethatadvertisersseektoachieveaspecificcognitiveeffectand,in

ordertodothat,produceanappropriatestimulusasdescribedbySperberand

Wilson(1995),i.e.onewhichwillachievetheintendedeffectwhenprocessed.

Inthecaseofadvertising,however,thestimulusisfrequentlynotonethatis

directlyconnectedtothechiefaimoftheadvertiser.Itmaybeargued,for

instance,thatanadvertisementwithatickleelementmayhavetwodistinct

conativeaims.Thefirstoftheseisthatofattractingandsustainingattentionto

theadvertisementitselfor,asSubjectE’sagencywebsiteexplainedit,“grabthe

public’sattention”.Thisisaccomplishedusingcontentwhich,onthesurface,

appearsdistantfromitsmainaim,specificallytoencouragetheconsumertobuy

theadvertisedproduct.Accordingly,theambitionofapractitionerwhen

confrontedwithabriefwouldbetoapplyhisorhercreativeskillsprimarilyto

thetaskofdesigninganeffectivestimulus,andthisstimuluscouldbepictorial,

suchasa“wokchariot”fordogs(SubjectE),linguistic,asin“Rhubarband

Custody”(SubjectyE)orcrypticasin“Playlessgolf”(SubjectE).Asoutlined

above,practitionersalsodependedheavilyupontheencyclopaedicknowledge

ofconsumerstomakesenseoftheadvertingtheyproduced.Advertiserswere

awareoftheadvantagesofcombiningimageswithlanguageandhowthis

combinationboostedthemessage;oneinterviewee,SubjectC,statedthis

explicitlyasshowninChapter6.5.3.Barthes(1957)demonstrateshowimages

invokeculturalmythsreferenceto“ayoungNegrosoldierinaFrenchuniform

…saluting”(Subchapter2.7)andthebagofPanzaniproductswhichprojectthe

notionhecalled“Italianicity”(ibid)justasSubjectAsawthispossibilityby

utilizingastatueofRobinHood.Imagesmaybeusedasameanstoprovide

context,insomecasestoachievelittlemorethantoindicatetoareaderofa

94MentionedinChapter3.6

270

magazinethattheyarelookingatacommercialandnotjournalism,ortoreduce

thereadingburdenontheviewerandtherebymakethemessageeffortlessand

instantaneous,suchaspictureofasofawiththewords“nowonly£499!”.

Alternatively,animagemayitselfconstitutethetickle,actingasthestimulusas

describedbySperberandWilson(1995)bydepictingsomethingamazing,or

comicalsuchaspeopleplayingtenniswithwoks,orfamiliar,suchasthefaceofa

well-knownfootballer.

5.Whataretheimplicationsfortheoryfromthisconfrontationbetweentheory

andpractice,andwhatimplicationsarethereforprofessionalpracticeand

training/education?

Fromtheperspectiveoftheoreticalandacademicsemioticians,advertising

offersanalmostinexhaustiblebankofdatathatillustrateculturalsemiotic

principles.Barthes(1957)himselfusesseveralexamplesofadvertisinginhis

worksandsomeofthesewereknowntotheintervieweesinthisstudy.

Multimodalapproaches,suchasthoseadvocatedbyKressandvanLeeuwen

(2001)andvanLeeuwen(2005),areillustratedwithexamplesfromadvertising.

Moregeneralsemiotictextbooksaimedatstudentsofmediastudies,

communicationorphilosophyalsoexplainprincipleswiththeaidof

advertisements.

Modernadvertisingoperatesatahighlevelofsophisticationandappliesan

arrayoftechniquestoconveymessageswhichrangefromdetailedandspecific

tolooseandimpressionistic,whilemakingfulluseofliteraryandpsychological

devicestoachieveitsaims.Semioticapproachesarecertainlyinsightful,butthey

areboundtofallshortintermsofbeingabletoaccountforallofthese,andso

otherframeworksmustalsobeconsideredtoachieveacompleteunderstanding

ofthecommunicativeandcognitiveprocessesinvolved.Pragmaticsarguably

offersamoremodernapproachandonethathasdevelopedconsiderablysince

itsinceptionasaspecificdisciplinearoundthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury.

Itaccountsforthegenerationandcomprehensionofcommunicativeactshaving

regardtocontext,i.e.thosefactorsoutsideoftheutteranceortextsuchas

271

speakerintention,aspectsrelatedtotheimmediateenvironmentandthe

assumedsharedknowledgeofparticipants.Thisstudyhasarguedthat

RelevanceTheory,withitsdistinctiveconceptsofinformativeintentionand

communicativeintention,anditsconceptionoftheroleofencyclopaedic

knowledge,mayofferanespeciallyinsightfulframeworkforexplainingthe

processinvolvedinmeaningcreationandrecoveryinadvertising.

However,theresearchdescribedinthisthesissuggeststhatthesetheoretical

modelsarelesssuccessfulataccountingforthecreativeprocessesinvolvedin

theproductionofadvertisementsbyordinaryprovincialadvertisers.These

modelsmaybeinstructiveinunderstandingunconsciousinfluencesinthe

formationofideasinadvertising,buttheyweredesignedforthedeconstruction

ofmessagesratherthanfortheirconstruction;theyareessentiallytoolsfor

analyzingratherthansynthesizingsignsandthisishowtheyareusedin

textbooks.Consequently,theteachingofsemioticstoadvertisingpractitionersis

limitedtocloseexaminationsofexistingandselectedinstantiationsof

advertising,identifyingcertainfeaturespresentanddeducingorspeculatingon

theirintendedinterpretations.Ifsemioticsand/orpragmaticsaretofeaturein

thetrainingofstudentsofadvertisingandmarketing,andifitissuggestedthat

theprinciplescontainedwithinthesedisciplinesshouldbeadoptedby

practitionersintheircreativeprocesses,thebenefitstotheindustrymustbe

clear.Whileitwasrevealedintheinterviewsthatpractitionersmanagedtheir

processeswithoutanyconsiderationoftheories,preferringinsteadtorelyupon

theirprofessionalinstinctsandlifeexperience,aconcernwasexpressedthatthe

industrywasbecomingde-skilledasclientsweremorewillingtoproducetheir

ownadvertisingin-house,therebysavingthecostofcommissioningagencies.

Thatsaid,evidenceemergedwhichindicatedeffortstoprofessionaliseboth

marketingandadvertisingthroughtrainingofferedinhighereducation,upto

andincludingMaster'slevel,andaccreditationthroughprofessionalbodiessuch

astheInstituteofMarketingandtheInstituteofPractitionersofAdvertising.

SubjectF,thecommercialsemiotician,alsoprovidedevidencethatthereisscope

toapplysemioticsinthecreativeprocessesofdesigningadvertising.Indeed,the

insightsandtechniquesofindividualslikeSubjectFcouldformthebasisofa

272

practicalsubdisciplineofsemioticadvertisingthatwouldincorporateamethod

andprocessparticulartothatfield.Somerecommendationsonhowthiscould

beachieved,andhowthefieldofpragmaticscouldbedevelopedtohave

practicalapplicationsinadvertisingdesign,arepresentedinthenextandfinal

chapter.

273

CHAPTER8–CONCLUSION

8.1CHAPTERINTRODUCTION

Thisfinalchapterbeginsbyreviewingtheprocessoftheresearchunderpinning

thisthesisincludingtheprimaryandsecondarydatacollection.Itbriefly

describesthemethodofdatacollection,followedbyanassessmentofthe

processofresearchintermsofitsefficiencyandthevalidityofthefindings,

includinganylimitationsof,andshortcomingsarisingfrom,themethod.The

valueofthefindingstotherelevantdisciplinesisalsoassessed.Suggestionsfor

futureresearcharemade,alongwithrecommendationsinrespectofthe

advertisingindustry,andthethesisendswithsomeconcludingremarks.

8.2REVIEWOFRESEARCHPROCESS

TheresearchquestionslistedintheIntroductionofthisthesiswereformulated

todescribeanddelimitanexaminationofthecreativeprocessesinvolvedin

advertisingfromtwodifferentperspectives.Thefirstofthese,explainedin

Chapter2,wasbasedontheassumptionthatdesigningadvertisementsis

essentiallyamatterofcoding-selectingandcomposingsignifierstoproduce

desireddenotationsandconnotationsthatwillgenerateaneffectinthosewho

encounterthem,andthisisdoneforthepurposeofmodifyingtheirbehaviour.

Advertisementsaresyntheticsigns,composedofcontinuouslinguisticsignifiers

operatingatalllevelsoflanguageandthesearemostlyjuxtaposedwithnon-

linguisticmodes,suchasselectedimages,typefaces,colours,musicandsound,

dependingonthemediumthroughwhichtheyaredelivered.Attheculturallevel,

thesesignssummonculturalmyths,ancientandmodern,intothemindofthe

receiver.Thisperspectivearisesfromthefieldofsemioticsandthereisan

establishedacknowledgementofanassociationbetweensemioticsand

advertising.Thesecondperspective,discussedinChapter3,considers

274

advertisingasconsistingofcommunicativeactswhichdependupon,generate

andmanipulate,context.Itexaminedprevailingpragmatictheoriesthatattempt

toexplaincontextincommunicationgenerallyandconsidershowthesehave,in

thepast,beenappliedinthedeconstructionofadvertising.Havingcompileda

summaryofthebroadertheoriesandhypothesesfromsemioticsandpragmatics,

thefourthchapteroutlinedamethodologybywhichresearchwasundertakento

establishwhataspectsofsemioticsandpragmaticsweretaughttostudentsof

advertisingandmarketing,andthecontentofsemioticsandpragmaticsin

advertisingtextbooks.Thereafter,asecondlimbofthisresearchconsistedofa

smallnumberofadvertisingcopywritersbeinginterviewedandtheirknowledge

ofsemiotics,theircreativeprocessesandotheraspectsoftheirworking

practicesandexperience,beingrecordedandanalysed.Researchasdescribed

wasconductedandtheresultssubjectedtoacloseanalysisasoutlinedin

Chapters5and6.InChapter7,theimplicationsoftheresearcharedirectly

comparedtoandcontrastedwiththetheoreticalapproachesfromsemioticsand

pragmatics.Broaderconclusionsastotheroleofbothdisciplinesinadvertising

weresuggestedandasummaryoffindingsastheyrelatedtothethesis

questionswereproducedattheendofthispenultimatechapter.

8.3RESEARCHEVALUATION

Theextenttowhichtheresearchquestionshavebeensuccessfullyaddressed

hasbeenoutlinedinSubchapter7.7above,sothissubchapterexploresthe

limitationsoftheresearchaccordingtotheperceptionsoftheauthorandthe

possiblevalueofthestudytotheadvertisingindustry,tothosetrainingfuture

practitionersandtoacademicswithinterestsinthetheoreticalfieldsmentioned.

Tocompletetheresearchunderlyingthisthesis,itwasnecessarytoadoptan

interdisciplinaryapproachtosomeextent.Tworelated,butdiscrete,areas

relatingtocommunicationandlanguageusehavebeeninvestigatedandapplied

275

inrelationtoadvertising,namelythecode/signbasedapproachofsemioticsand

thecontext/inferenceapproachofferedbypragmatics.Thiswasessentialin

ordertocomparethetwoandanswertheresearchquestions.Inaddition,

marketingandadvertisingarespecializedfieldswithwhichtheauthorhadno

previoustrainingorexperienceandsoitwasnecessarytobecomeacquainted

withthese,andtheirrespectiveterminology,toatleastabasiclevel,inorderto

conductthestudy.Itwouldhavebeenbeneficialtohaveperformedthis

researchinpartnershipwithascholarofmarketingwhowasabletoprovide

insightsatanearlystageasitwouldlikelyhavesavedtimeandenabledthe

studytobemorefinelyfocused.Suchapartnercouldhaveassistedinexplaining

thetermsused,thevariousrolesofindividuals(e.g.copywriter,graphicartist,

artdirectorandcreativedirector)anddevisingthequestionnaireatthedesign

stageoftheresearch.Thiswouldhavemadetheresearchprocessmoreefficient.

Heorshemayalsohavecontributedtoknowledgeaboutthetrainingofthose

workinginadvertisingandmarketing,sothatinitialassumptionsthatall

workinginthesefieldshavereceivedformalmarketingeducationwouldhave

beendispelledatanearlystage;theinterviewsshowedsomeoftheinitial

assumptionswereincorrect.

Withregardtotheaspectwhichinvestigatedthetrainingofadvertising

practitioners,thedifficultyinobtaininginformationfromuniversitiesand

professionalbodieswasunder-estimated.Inthecaseoftheformer,outofthirty

universitiescontacted,onlytenatmostcouldbedescribedasinanywayhelpful.

Therewasatendencyforthosecalledtoeither'passthebuck',bynaming

anothercolleaguewhotheysaidmightbeabletohelp,ormakingpromisesto

respondtoemailsandfailingtokeepthem.Insomecases,anoff-the-cuffand

non-committalanswerwasgivensuchas“Iamnotawarethatwecover

semiotics”,andthisgaverisetothesuspicionthattherespondentdidnotknow

forcertainanditwouldbetoomuchtroubleforthemtofindout.Inhindsight,

andwiththebenefitoftheexperiencefromthepresentstudy,thisaspectofthe

researchwouldhavebeenmoresuccessfullycompletedbymaking

appointmentstomeetuniversityteachersanddirectorsofstudyinthefleshand

tohaveinterviewedthemwithapre-preparedquestionnaireasoccurredwith

276

thecopywriters.Itwouldthenhavebeenpossibletohaveobtainedfromeachof

themcomprehensiveliteraturelists,andthereaftertohavemadeadetailed

inspectionofalltheworksmentioned.Thiswould,however,havebeen

immenselytime-consumingandnotfeasibleas,asidefromthefiveface-to-face

interviewswiththecopywriters,theresearchforthisthesiswasconductedin

SwedenandnotintheUK.Itshouldalsobenotedthatmanyoftheuniversities

didnotcoveranythingrelatedtothisstudyandinsuchcasestheinterviews

wouldhaveprovedfruitlessandsotimewouldhavebeenwasted.Althougha

moresystematicstudyasdescribedwouldhavesuppliedmorerobustdatain

thisrespect,theoneconductedservedapurposeofprovidingatleastanotional

insightintothetrainingofstudentsofmarketingandadvertisingandwas

adequatelyinformativeintermsofdesigningthequestionnaire.

Afurtherlimitationintermsofthescopeofthestudyisidentifiedasbeingthe

smallnumberofcopywritersinterviewedevenforaqualitativestudysuchas

this.Whiletheintervieweesworkedwithinagenciesofverydifferentsizes,

rangingfromSubjectA,asoleoperator,toSubjectE,adirectorofamedium-

sizedcompanywithsubsidiariesandemployeesnumberingindozens,andthey

werediverseintermsofthekindofadvertisingcommissionstheyundertook,

theywereallmale,andallhavetheirbusinessesintownsandcitiesinthenorth

ofEngland.Itmayormaynotbesignificantthatnonewerefemale;itisknown

thattherearesomewomenworkinginadvertisingatalllevelsandthe

possibilitythattheircreativeapproachmaydifferfromthatofmencannotbe

discounted.Further,itmustbenotedthatnoneoftheinterviewees,asidefrom

SubjectF,thecommercialsemiotician,werefromtheprestigiousagenciesin

London,withtheirmulti-millionpoundbudgetsand“highconcept”approaches.

Theresearchundertakenforthisthesiscommencedwithareviewofthe

trainingofadvertisersandtheinputtheyreceiveonsemioticsandpragmatics.

Itthenpresentedoriginaldatawhichcomprisedasnapshotoftheworkofa

smallnumberofadvertisingprofessionalsintermsoftheirbackgrounds,

trainingandapproaches,astheyexplainedtheminpre-arrangedandrecorded

interviews.Itwasdiscoveredthatpractitionerswhohavenoformaltrainingin

advertisingormarketingwerecommonplaceandareapparentlyoperating

277

successfullyintheindustry.Indeed,aswasrevealedintheinterviews,an

applicantwhopossessedsuchtrainingmaynothavebeenthefirstchoicewhen

agencieswerelookingtorecruitthenextgenerationofcopywriters.Owingto

therangeofpractitionersintermsoftheirrespectiveagesandvaried

educationalandcareerbackgrounds,andthefactthatsomehavegained

knowledgeofthetheoriesthroughotherkindsoftraining,orevengeneral

interestreading,furtherresearchintothecontentofadvertisingcourseswould

notyieldareliableassessmentoftheknowledgeofpractitionersoftheoretical

frameworks.

Inspiteofthelimitationsmentioned,itisexpectedthatthisstudywouldbeof

interesttothoseworkinginthefieldofadvertising,tothoseresponsiblefor

designinganddeliveringtrainingtoadvertisersandalsotoacademicsin

disciplinesrelatedtocommunicationandlinguisticanalysis.Copywritersand

otherswhoareemployedindesigningadvertisementsareinvariablyawareof

theneedtostimulateandretaintheinterestofconsumersandtoconveydesired

messagesiftheirworkistobeeffective,andthisthesishas,perhapsforthefirst

time,shoneatheoreticallightonthecreativeprocessoftheadvertising

practitioner.Itcomparedandcontrastedsemioticideas,ofwhichtheymay

alreadyhaveatleastsomesuperficialknowledge,withamoderncognitive

approachtounderstandinghowintendedmeaningisrecovered,andhowa

consumer'sexistingknowledgeandmemoriesareinvokedincommunication

andcouldtherebybeefficientlyexploitedinconstructingandrelayingmessages.

Itprovidedabroadoverviewofwhatistaughtinasampleofuniversities'

advertisingandmarketingcoursesintermsofsemioticsandthecourse

materialsused,highlightingissuessuchasthelackofconsistencyastowhat

aspectsofthistheoreticaltopicaretaughtandtowhatlevel.Ithasfurther

suggestedanapproachfrompragmaticswhichmayoffervaluableinsightsinto

howadvertisingmessagesaremaderelevanttoconsumersandunderstoodas

intended.Thefindingsoutlinedinthisthesismaybeofinterestto,andof

practicaluseto,studentsandacademicsofmediaorsemioticsasitaddstothe

existingbodyofworkinthisfieldbyscholarsmentionedinChapter2.

Researcherswhohaveaninterestindevelopmentswithinpragmaticsand,in

278

particular,howRelevanceTheorycanbeappliedinunderstandingthecognitive

processesinvolvedinproducingpublishedandbroadcasttexts,mayfindsome

aspectsofthisresearchuseful,especiallyasitexaminesthecreativeaspectsof

communicationfromtheperspectiveoftheproducerratherthanthereceiver.

8.4RECOMMENDATIONSANDFUTURERESEARCH

Whenenteringanyprofessionthatrequiresaperiodoftraininginaninstitution

thatisremotefromthefinalworkplace,thereisariskthatadisparitymay

emergebetweenwhatistaughtintheformerandwhatactuallyhappensinthe

latter.Thishasbeenobservedinoccupationsasdiverseassportsmedicine

(Reider,2011)andeducationalresearch(AlHijji&Fadlallah,2013)andithas

previouslybeendiscussedinthecontextofmarketingeducation(Tregear,2010).

Ashasbeenoutlinedinthisthesis,advertiserswerenotalwaystrainedinthis

fieldbeforehandwithinuniversitiesandcolleges,butoftenenteredthe

professionobliquely,havingstudiedsubjectsinhighereducationthathadlittle

orevennoobviousrelevancetotheirdailywork.Thisisnottodiminishthe

valueoftheirpreviousstudiesasthesemaywellhaveequippedthemwith

broadertransferableskillsthattheywereabletoapplywhenworkingas

copywriters,artdirectorsandcreativedirectors.Suchskillsmighthave

includedresearchmethods,criticalthinkingandproblemsolving,creative

thinking,presentation,andknowledgeofbusinesspracticesandfinance.For

whatappearstobetheminorityofpractitionerswhohadcompletedspecific

advertisingcoursesatauniversity,thetheoreticalcontentmayormaynothave

includedsemioticsand,whenithad,thetextsusedwouldhavetendedtooutline

somesemiotictheoriesanddeconstructedselectedpastadvertisementsto

illustratethese.Professionalbodiesappearedtohavenointerestinsemiotics.

However,thisdoesnotmeanthatcopywriterswereignorantoftheoretical

principlesanddidnoteverapplythemintheirwork;theresearchhasshown

279

thatthereweresomepractitionerswhowereatleastvaguelyfamiliarwiththe

theoriesofsemiotics,althoughnonehassaidtheymadeadeliberateattemptto

applythemsystematicallyintheirwork.Theresearchalsorevealedthatthe

advertisingprofessionalswerekeenlyawareoftheculture,valuesandlifestyles

ofthosetowhomtheiradvertisementsweredirectedandtheywereableto

invoketheseaspartoftheirdesignpractices.Similarly,whilepragmatic

principlesdidnotfeatureinanyaspectofthetrainingofthepractitioners,and

therewasnoapparentawarenessoftheoreticalpragmatics,theyappearedto

haveaninnateorexperience-basedunderstandingofcontext,itskeyrolein

communicationandhowtheirmessagescouldbecontextualizedbyrelying

heavilyonempathyandencyclopaedicknowledge.

Lookingtothefuture,amoreexpansivestudyofasimilarnaturetothisone,but

involvingagreaternumberofpractitionersfromacrossallpartsoftheUnited

Kingdom,andespeciallythecapital,wouldbeofvalue.Suchastudywouldonly

bemeaningfulifitweretobeconfinedtotwogroups;bothgroupswouldconsist

ofpractitionerswhohadstudiedadvertisingormarketingatuniversity,butone

wouldincludeonlythosewhohadreceivedinputonsemioticswhiletheother

wouldincludestudentswhohadnotstudiedsemiotics.Onthatbasis,a

judgmentcouldbemadeastotheroleanunderstandingofsemioticsplaysinthe

creativeprocesses,dependinguponwhetheranindividualhadbeenexplicitly

trainedinitornot.Afuturestudyoughtperhapstobeundertakenbyoneor

moresemioticiansandlinguistsworkingalongsideoneormoremarketing

specialists.Itwouldalsobeadvantageoustocomplementthedataobtained

duringtheinterviewswithobservationofthepractitionersintheirnormaldaily

work,e.g.duringtheperiodwhentheyareattemptingtoformulateideas,

discussingthemwithcolleagues,designingstrategiesandperformingother

workinrelationtothem.Thiswouldoccurwherearesearchercouldwitness

andrecordtheentireprocessofadvertisingcampaignsfrominceptionto

completion,orbepresentatcertainpointsincampaignswhenadvertising

strategiesarebeingconsideredanddecisionsmade.Aclosedissectionofsuch

observationaldatawouldtendtoconfirm,orpossiblycontradict,thatwhichis

obtainedthroughinterviewsandenableprocessestobeobservedofwhichthe

280

intervieweesarenotconsciouslyaware.Whetheraccesstothedeliberations

andconversationsinadvertisingagenciesandcompanymarketingdepartments

wouldbepermittedisuncertainowingtofactorssuchascommercial

confidentiality,orsimplybecausesuchpractitionershaveotherprioritiesand

thepresenceofresearchersontheirpremiseswouldbeadistraction.

Studyingadvertisingfromtheoreticalperspectivesmaybebeneficialinthatit

offersframeworksthatcanbeexploitedbyadvertisersthemselvesinadvancing

theircraft.Suchanoutcomecouldonlybeachieved,however,iftheinsights

gainedweretobetranslatedintoworkingprinciplesthatcouldbereadily

understood,andfromwhichmethodologiescouldbedevelopedandapplied.It

cannotberationaltoteachstudentssemiotictheoriesanddemonstratehow

theycanbeusedtodeconstructselectedinstantiationsofpre-existing

advertisementsinthehopethat,indoingso,theywillsomehowbeableto

constructadvertisementsoftheirownusingsemioticprinciples.Itistherefore

recommendedthatamoresystematicapproachshouldbedesigned,possibly

basedontheknowledgeandexpertiseofcommercialsemioticianssuchas

SubjectF.Fromthis,abodyofknowledgecouldbecollatedandwhichcould

formthebasisofaconsistentsetofprocessesbywhichthosetrainingtoworkin

advertisingwouldbeequippedtostarttheprocessofidea-formingfromthe

perspectiveoftheory.Inotherwords,the“blue-skythinking”and“blankpieceof

paper”approaches,asdescribedbytheinterviewees,wouldhaveatthevery

leasttheadvantageofatheoreticalstartingpoint.

Foranyadvertisementtobecomprehendedasintended,thecontextmustbe

indicatedorembodiedwithinit,otherwisethenecessaryimplicaturesmaynot

bedrawn,causingittofailinitspurpose.Asshowninthisthesis,such

implicaturescanbenarrowandspecific,aswhenaproductisbeingpromotedat

anexceptionallylowprice,implicatingthatthisistypicalofthedealstheretailer

offers.Alternatively,implicaturescanbevagueanduncertaininorder,for

example,toconveyageneralimpressionofabrandimageandthelifestyle

associatedwithit.Advertisementsmustalsosecuretheattentionofthereceiver

bywayofastimulus;thatmusttaketheformofaforegroundedelementwhich

hasrelevancetothem,andconvincesthemthatitisworththeirefforttoengage

281

withthecommercialinquestionandrecoverthecoremessage.Itistherefore

furtherrecommendedthattheeducationofthoseenteringadvertisingshould

includeatleastsomeelementaryinstructioninpragmaticsinordertoincrease

awarenessoffactorssuchascontextandimplicature,andhowthesecanbe

generatedinadvertisingtoproducethedesiredcognitiveeffects.

Appliedpragmaticsiscurrentlylimitedinitsscope.Therehavebeenattempts

tomakepracticaluseofpragmatictheoriesinthefieldsofspeechtherapy,

especiallyintermsofdevisingstrategiesfortreatingaphasias(Marangoloetal,

2013)andthepedagogicalaspectsofsecondlanguageacquisition(e.g.Barron,

2011).Itisrecommendedthat,iftheteachingofpragmaticsweretobe

introducedintotrainingcoursesforprospectiveadvertisingcopywritersand

creators,thoseresponsiblefordesigningcoursesshouldbeginbydrawingupon

theexperienceofspecialistsworkinginthefieldsmentioned.Theteachingof

pragmaticstostudentsofadvertisingshouldconsistofmorethanjustpragmatic

deconstructionsofadvertisementsmadebyothers.Instead,itmustalign

theoreticalprincipleswithpracticalproceduresandinsuchawaythatstudents

wouldseetheirrelevanceandidentifyapplicationsintheirwork.Acourseof

thistypemightincludeaspectsofRelevanceTheory,exploringthepossibilities

offeredbytheprocessofenrichmentasdescribedbyWilsonandSperber(2012).

Aunifiedpragmatic/semioticapproachcouldconceivablybeadoptedbywhich

theenrichmentisviewedasoperatingintandemwiththesemiotictheoryof

culturalmyths.Complexandmulti-facetedmeaningscantherebybe

transmittedandinterpretedasintendedalmostinstantaneouslybythe

appropriatechoiceandcombinationofsignifiersandstimuli.Studentscouldbe

madeawareofhowadvertisementswhichrelyuponencyclopaedicknowledge

thatareceiverdoesnotpossess,orenvironmentalfactorswhicharenotreadily

manifest,areunlikelytoachievetheirgoalandmayevenantagonizeconsumers,

andhowsuchpotentiallycostlyerrorscouldbeavoided.Inthecourseoftime,it

wouldbepossibletoconductresearchandcollatedatawhichwouldindicate

whetheranawarenessofpragmatictheoriesandframeworksmightaidthe

creativeprocesses,andifsohow,andasystematicpragmaticmethodfor

practitionersofadvertisingwouldeventuallyemerge.

282

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Appendix1

ListofUKuniversitiescontactedinconnectionwiththisthesis:

AberystwythUniversity

AngliaRuskinUniversity

AstonUniversity

BirminghamCityUniversity

BournemouthUniversity

BrunelUniversity

BuckinghamshireNewUniversity

CardiffUniversity

CityUniversityLondon

CoventryUniversity

DeMontfortUniversity

EdgeHillUniversity

Heriot-WattUniversity

KeeleUniversity

LancasterUniversity

LoughboroughUniversity

NottinghamTrentUniversity

SheffieldHallamUniversity

TheUniversityofHull

TheUniversityofNottingham

TheUniversityofSheffield

TheUniversityofWarwick

TheUniversityofYork

UniversityofAberdeen

UniversityofBirmingham

UniversityofBristol

UniversityofChester

UniversityofEastAnglia

UniversityofLeeds

UniversityofSouthampton

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Appendix2

QUESTIONNAIRE

Part A – Interviewee Background;

1. By what route did you enter the advertising industry?

2. Did you study advertising at university? If so, which one?

3. What texts do you recall using when training in your field?

4. To what extent did you learn about semiotics, including cultural semiotics such as myths etc? (Will explain this further if necessary)

5. What, if any, texts do you refer to now in your work when constructing ads?

Part B – Forming Ideas

6. Explain the process of forming ideas for a new ad. Please briefly describe your general creative approach/philosophy daily work technique when you have to devise ads.

7. When devising an ad, do you visualize the completed ad from the start, or is this a building process?

8. To what extent does your approach differ according to whether you are promoting a brand or advertising a specific product?

9. How do you see the role that semiotics plays in your own process of forming ideas in designing advertisements? (if it does play a role. Explain if necessary and probe)

Part C – Strategy - Your Last Advertisement

10. Describe in detail the routine and/or process by which the last advertisement was devised and say whether you were working alone or working in collaboration with a colleague or other people.

11. Give as much information as you can about where the advertisement was to appear (e.g. magazine, newspaper etc), its size and distribution (geographic and numerical)

12. What did you aim to do? What was your brief? Was there a creative brief from a client, or did you have a free hand?

13. To whom was your advertising directed (e.g. a particular group of people)? How did you identify them?

294

14. Summarise what else went on during the design process. What were the main considerations?

15. How did you ensure a reader/viewer would readily understand/make sense of the advertisement? What thought/elements went into ensuring this aspect would be successful?

Part D – More Generally

16. Describe how, if at all, you try to use symbolism and icons in your advertising.

17. Describe how, if at all, you try to use cultural phenomena, stereotyping or aspects of folklore in your advertising.

18. If you are advertising a specific product, how do you try to appeal to the audience’s pre-existing knowledge? How do you ensure it is immediately relevant to your target audience? ’

295

Appendix3

Transcriptsofinterviewswithcopywriters.

(NOTE:Preliminaryintroductionsoftenoccurbeforetherecordingbeginsandtheintervieweemayappeartostarttheexplanationunprompted):

SUBJECT A

SothefirstquestionIhavegotis,[0.10]wellIhavegotthemallinakindofanordersoeverybodygetsaskedthesamequestion.Thefirstoneisbywhatroute

didyouentertheadvertisingindustry,whatwasyourwayin?

SUBJECTA:WellPR.AndIwent,IdidadegreeincommunicationatBournemouth

University,erm…andmyoriginalintentionwastodojournalism,andIdidalittlebitof

journalismworkexperienceandatthetime,erm…thejournalistsweregettingthese

pressreleases,andtheydidn’tevenhaveaPCtheyhadakeyboardwithatinylittlestripandtheywouldjusttypeupthesepressreleases,andIthoughtwellthisisnotwhatI

imaginedjournalismtobelike,wherearethesepressreleasescomingfrom.Andthat

gotmeintothinkaboutPR,erm…afteralittlebitoftoingandfroingandtryingto[0.58]

voluntaryworkandthingslikethatIeventuallyworkedforaBradfordPRagency.Idid

abitofeverything,andwithin6monthsIhadleftthereandgonetoabiggerLeedsagency,andthenIwasthereforacoupleofyearsasaPRguyandthenerm…thenI

wenttoBrahmandeventuallywhathappenedwasIwasworkingonaToyotatheir

industrialequipmentdivisionandmostoftheagenciesIworkedatwerefullservice

agenciessotheywoulddoPRandadvertising,andtherewouldalwaysbealittlebitof

crossover,erm…IwasthinkinginpreparationfortodayactuallyIwasthinkingoneofthe,aguywhoerm…Iusedtoworkwithhewasacopywriterthatwashissortofallhis

job,andhesaidthathisjobwastotakethebullshitandcondenseitandminewastogo

theotherway.Andheerm…asaresultofworkingonToyota’sadvertisingcampaign

theagency,theyaskedmetogetinvolvedwiththePR,inordersotheycouldgetbothsidesofthebusiness,whenIlefttheagencyItoldtheclient,theclientsaidwellwecan’t

makeanyguaranteesbutwewouldliketogowhereyougo,whichwasveryflattering.

SoIendeduptravellingtodifferentplacesandasaresultofworkingonthatparticular

client,theyhadadealerstructure,andIwoulddoworkforthemaincompanybutalso

fortheirdealersandthedealerswouldsaytomeerm…wouldyoudosomeworkforus,andthenIdecided,theyweresayingifyouworkedforyourselfwewouldgiveyousome

worksothatiswhatIdid.Iwenttoworkformyselfandthenitwastheirrequirement

ofdoingotherthings,designwork,webwork,advertisingwork,thatkindofnotforced

me,butledmetogo,tosortofbecomealldifferentthingssoallmarketing.Somycore

isIamaPRguybutactuallyovertheyearsthathassortoftakenabitmoreofabackseatandIdoamixtureofeverythingnow.

296

Right,

SubjectA:That’sagoodanswer.

Yessomynextquestionreallyyousortofhalfpre-empteditbecauseIaskedyou

didyoustudyadvertisingatuniversityandthatyoutoldmeBournemouthand

youstudiedcommunicationstudies?

SubjectA:Noitwasjust,notcommunicationstudies,itisactuallycommunication,

withoutthes.Thereisasubtledifferenceinthatitincludedthingslikeerm…erm…editingandpublishing,itwassortofmoreakintothejournalismdegreesthattheydid

andthattherewasadvertisinginvolvedinthatbutitwasn’tadvertisingoraPRcourse

actuallyitwasabit,itwassortofabitofeverythingandnothingyouknow.Itwasjust

broadenoughtoget,catchalotofotherpeoplewhowere,thePRcoursestherethe

mediaproductioncoursestherewereverypopularandIthinktheystartedthiscommunicationdegreetocatchsomeoftheotherpeopleandsorryyoucan’thave,we

arenotgivingyouthePRcoursebutwewillofferyouthisandthat’showalotofpeople

fromdifferentbackgroundswentintoit.Myfriends,endedonthesamecoursesome

wentintoIT,somewentintojournalismyouknowitwasabitofabroadmix.

Ok,doyourecallusinganyparticulartextrelatingtoadvertisingwhenyouwerestudyingthataspectofyourdegree?

SubjectA:YesIhavestillgotsomeofthemactually.Erm…

Doyourememberwhichonestheywere?

SubjectA:EffectiveuseofadvertisingmediaIthinkisoneofthem.Andallabout

erm…whichitseemslikeareferencebooknowbutitisalltodowithyouknow

productiondetailswithsortofbillboardsizesandyouknowallthatkindofstuff.AndI

thinkwhatIlearnt,wellwhatIfeelIlearntfromworkingwithadvertisingpeopleyouknowandmediaproductionpeopleandthatkindofthingwasthatoftentheerm…the

thingsthatthetextbookswilltellyouabouttheeffectivenessofadvertising,andwhere

toplaceadvertisingallthatkindofstuff,isfineandIamsureatsomelevelsitisvery

importantbuttheclient’sopinionoftenoverrulesitandsoyouknowifyouare,for

example,(05.00)choosingalotoftheworkthatIhavedoneovertheyearshavebeen

297

involvedinthematerialshandlingtrade,so[05.08]andtradepressandtherearetwo

orthreemagazinesthatareverysimilar,somethinkthatoneisthemagazinetobein,

somethinkthattheotheristhemagazinetobeinandtheyhaveverystrongopinionseitherway.Don’tletthefactsstandinthewayofagoodstory.Sothe,youknowthose

kindofbooksandreferencesandthingslikethat,havehelpedbutonlysofar.

Sofar,yesIcanrelatetothat.Thenextquestionistowhatextentdidyoulearn

aboutsemioticsincludingculturalsemioticswhenyouweretraining.

SubjectA:Yesitwaspartoferm…whatIdid.Erm…atleastIthinkitwas.Itisalong

timeago((laughs)).Erm…IrememberwedidthingsonChomskyandallthatkindoflanguageuseoflanguageandparticularlyerm…thingslikeerm…Istilltellpeopleabout

this,butIwastoldinalecturethaterm…signpostwentupatarailwaycrossingin

YorkshirethatsaidwaitherewhilelightsflashingandtheYorkshireguydrivesup,

waitsuntilthelightsflashandthengoesandgetshitbyatrain.Erm…andIremember

atthetime,mebeinganortherneronthesouthcoast,everybodytherewasquiteyouknowwelloffcomparedtomeandtheywouldgoIdon’tthinkIhaveanaccent,Idon’t

haveanaccentandIwouldbetheonewhowouldgo,listenatyou,youknow((laughs))

soitdidcomeintoit,butIdon’trememberagreatdealofdetailaboutittobefair.

YoumentionedChomskyIamajustcuriousbecausereallyitwouldn’tcome

undersemiotics,whatwouldyou,whatChomskydoyouremember?

SubjectA:Itisalongtimeagonow,butIjustremember,IrememberthatasectionofthedegreecoursewasinvolvedinthekindofIamsureitwassemioticsandlike

languageandliteratureandallthatkindofstuffwasputintoitbecauseitwas,sucha

broadyouknowtherewaselementsofEnglishliteratureinitaswellso,erm…Iforget

now.

DidyoutalkaboutforexampleSaussure?

SubjectA:No

OrBarthes

SubjectA:No

298

RolandBarthesoranyofthatculturalmyths?

SubjectA:Yes,yessomeofthat.Someofthaterm…onlytouchedonitthoughIthink.

Yes.Imeanwearetalking20oddyearsagonow.

Iappreciate…

SubjectA:((laughs)).

Doyouactuallyrefertothosetextsnowwhenyoudoadsorisitjust…

SubjectA:NobecauseIthink,IthinkIwouldlookatmyselfasfromtheoutsidelooking

inIwouldlookatmyselfasprobablymoreerm…theworkthatIdoisbasedin,thepeoplethatIworkwithorworkfortheyareverymuchdowntoearth,Iamfrom

Doncaster.IambasedinDoncaster,Iamnot,IdidgrowmybusinesswhereIhad5staff

atonepointbutnowIhavecutbackanderm…Ihaveworkedinbiggeragencies.Ifelt

thatunlessImovedtoLondonthenIwasalwaysgoingtohaveacertaintypeofpeople

thatIwasgoingtoworkfor.Thereisonlycertaintypesofbusinessesbasedinourarea,whowouldbewillingtoworkwithsomebodylikeme.So,Iverymuchlookatthework

thatIdoassortofapractical,onapracticallevelanditisnotthatsortof,Ifeelanyway,

itisnotsortofthatrefinedlevelwhereIwouldprobablyrefertoatextlikethat.

Oknothatis…

SubjectA:Ifanybodydoes.

((laughs))that’sok.Erm…soyouwouldn’tpickupabookbyOgilvyoroneofthe

bigshots?

SubjectA:Iwoulderm…formyowninterestanditwouldcomeouteverynowand

againyouknowerm…andIwouldprobablyreferbacktothemeverynowandagain

andIdotakeaninterestinthatsortofstuff,particularlyseenasIdofeelasthoughIam

abitofanimposterinthatwaybecauseIhavegotaPRyouknowbackgroundandI

299

movedintosortofdoingthis.Buterm…IknowIhaveworkedwithsomeverysortof

erm…somegoodadvertisingpeople,Ihavehadagoodbroadbackground,youknow

whichhasstoodmeingoodstead,IthinkandIrespectsomeofthethingsthatIhavelearntovertheyears,andbutatthesametimeyouknow,Idorecallbeinginbig

agenciesandgoingtopeopleandsayingIcan’tbelievethisadvertisingisrunningyou

knowhowterribleisthisad,what’stheagencylikethatproducesthissortofwork,and

thebossessayingyoucanonlydoaswellastheclientwillletyou.Itisagoodcop-out.

Itisyes,

SubjectA:((laughs))

[09.38]Justimagineyouhavegotanewad,youhadtoformanideafromthequestionispleasebrieflydescribeyourgeneralcreativeapproachorphilosophy

fordailyworktechnique,whenyouhavetodeviseanewadfromscratch.

SubjectA:Erm…wellyou,onatechnicallevelorpracticallevelyouprobablywanta

brief,youwouldwanttostartwiththebriefandtry(10.00)andinterpretthebriefin

thebestwaythatyoupossiblycould.But,thatdoesn’talwayshappenyouknowandpeoplewillbeawareofanadortheywillbererunninganadandyouwillsaylook,you

knowIneedto,Ithinkyouneedtoimproveonthisanddosomethingdifferent.And

erm…mytakeonitis,Iwanttotryandboildowntheessenceoftheadasmuchas

possibleandactuallysometimesintheworkthatIdo,becauseoferm…PRanddesign

andwebworkandallthatkindofstuff,isalittlebitmore,thereismoredetailtoit,focussingonanadandcomingupwithstraplinesanda,andacoremessageis

sometimesagoodwayoftryingtodemonstratetoaclientwhoisnotoverlybothered

aboutadvertisingorperhapshasn’taskedforthat,itisagoodwaytotryand

demonstratewhatthemainmessageis.SoIwould,Iamagreatbelieverinthaterm…I

thinkyouareatyourmostcreativewhenyouareprobablysubconsciouslyprocessingthesethingsandyousortoftryandimmerseyourselfinthedetailbutnottryandforce

ittoomuch.IronicallywithPRIfindsometimestheoppositeworks,isthatyouforce

yourselfintowriting,youmightbeginsomethinganditisnotquiterightbutcarryon

andthencomebacktoit,that’sagoodway.Erm…soIwould,Iwouldtendtotryand

boildowntoitsessence,andtryandgetakeythemeacrossandtheneverythingthatthelayout,thelayoutthedesign,thewayitlooksshouldinsomeway,itshouldfollow

onfromthemessagethatyouaretryingtodo.So,anditsoundspettysimplistic,butyou

knowIoftenIwouldsaytosomebody,youwantthecorevaluesofthebrandacrossyou

don’twanttosay,ifyouareamoderncompanygoodoldfashionedservice,ifyouaretryingtobeatechnologicallyadvancedorsomethinglikethatandyouwouldexpect

thatthelookandfeeloftheadtoreflectthosethemesaswell,so,erm…Itis,Iwouldsay

itisdifferenteverytime,butIwouldprobably,maybetheprocessesIgothroughare

300

thesameIwouldtryandcomeupwithsomemessages,focusonthemessagethatit’s

puttingacrossandthendodifferentversionsofthat,thatmessage.

Ok,soyouhalfansweredmynextquestion.Imean,whendevisinganaddoyou

visualisethecompletedadfromstartorisitabuildingprocess?

SubjectA:Thatisagreatquestion.Erm…Ithinkit’sdefinitely,Ithinkit’sabuilding

processonthewhole.Ithinkyoumayhaveaconceptthatyouconsidererm…for

example,Iusedtodoalotof,IhadDoosanforklifttrucksareaworklineandtheydo

trademagazineadvertising,andIcameupwithanideaforsomeadswhichwere

basicallyaroundthethemeoferm…doingmore,thecompaniesnameisDoosananditwasdomore.Andthethemebasicallywaserm…likesomebodywithafishingline

catchingagiantsquidorjust,andironicallyIhaveseenacarcompanysincethen,Iseea

lotofmyideas((laughs))Iamjustrecyclingotherpeople’sideas,butIseealotofideas

thatIthink,Ihadthatidea.Anderm…IhaveseenlikeaTVadwithawomanwateringa

gardenwithagianthose,andyouknoweverythingisgigantic,andthat,thatcameasasortoffullyerm…formedidea.IronicallywhenIputthatdownonpaperandlookedat

it,Ididn’tthinkitdiditjustice.Itdidn’tseemtomatch,probablymygraphicdesign

skillsmightn’thavebeenuptoit,oryouknowthewaythatIvisualiseditdidn’tlookso,

erm…occasionallythathappensbut,Iwouldsaymostofthetimeitisabuilding,you

arechippingawayatit,youaretryingtoshapeitintosomethingthatlooksright,andIwouldsayoneoftheadsthatIdoneatthemoment,onethatisrunningatthemoment,

iserm…thiscompanyhasnowgotbranchesacrossthecountry.AtthepointwhenI

startedtothinkaboutthisad,theydidn’tbuttheyhadanaspirationtodothat.AndI

kindof,wefocussed,Isaywebecausetherewasmorethanmethen,erm…wefocusseduponaphrasethattheycameoutwithwhenweweretalkingtothemontheprevious

adcampaigntothis,whichwastheysaid,erm…weunderstandlocalbusinesses

becauseweareone.Andweactuallyusedthatastheline.Andso,theadcampaign

beforethis,waswetriedtomakeheroesofthepeopleinthedifferentpartsoftheworld,

andputtheminfrontoferm…somethingthatwassymbolicofthatpartoftheworld.So,theguyfromNottinghamwasstoodinfrontofthestatueinNottinghamofRobin

Hood,theguyfromHullwasstoodundertheHumberBridge(15.00)weweredoing

thattosortofhavethelocalelement.Butthentheybecomealittlebitbiggerandwe

wantedtoexpressthisasa,asanationwidething.So,thisadcametogetherasmejust

sortofexperimentingwitherm…theUKandcomingupwithallthepicturesaremadeupoftheirworkobviouslyandthatidea,camefrommelooking,thumbingthrougha

bookoncreativeideasanditwasoneoftheideaswasmaps.Andthat,Iknowforafact

thatthatiswherethatideafirstcamefrominmymind.

Canyourememberwhatbookthatwas?

301

SubjectA:Ihavegotthebook.That’sit.

Thankyou.SotheA-ZofvisualhowtosolveanycreativebriefbyJohnIngledew.

SubjectA:ItisactuallytheA-ZofVisualIdeas.((laughs))Failedonthatonehasn’tit.

Thankyou.That’sgreat.

SubjectA:Yesjust...itisAtoZandIwasonlyflickingthroughit,erm…andthereisagreatthingaboutmaps,kindofstruckachordwithmeandthat’swherethatideacame

from.Itseems,itseemslikeacopynowbut((laughs))

No,noyouhavegotthecontrastingwordslocalandnationwide,aswell.

SubjectA:WellyesImeanthat,thaterm…wassomethinglocalservicenationwidewas

thetagthatIkindofcameupwith,atthesametimeandIwastryingtocomeupwitha

visualrepresentationofthat,thatideahencethe…

Hencethe…yes.

SubjectA:Hencethe[16.47]

Greatstuff.Anderm…towhatextentthendoesyourapproachdifferaccordingto

whetheryouarepromotingabrandoryouareadvertisingaspecificproduct.

SubjectA:Anothergoodquestion.Ithinkerm…overtheyearsthatIhavebeen

involvedinthecompaniesthatIhavedoneadvertisingfor,Ihavetendedtotryand

pushthemtowardsbrandthanproduct.Erm…becauseerm…intheworkthatIdo,the

sectoriserm…therearelotsofdifferentproducts,withinaforklifttruckcompanyforexample,withintheirrange,theyhavelotsofproductserm…andthendealers,ofthis

type,wouldoffermultiplebrands.Erm…whilstIwasdoingtheadvertisingforthe

manufacturererm…wetriedto,Itriedtotakeoutthepushthebrandnamebecause

erm…theyarecompetingagainstotherwell-knownbrandnamessoToyota,isa

302

competitorintheforklifttruckmarket,erm…Mitsubishi,Nissan,thesewerewell

knownnames,andwewantedtoraisetheprofileofthebrandsoIhadactuallyadvised

themagainstpromotingaparticularproduct.Ithinkiftheywereinsistentonthat,ondoingaparticularproductthenyouwould,youwouldautomaticallygothrougha

similarprocess,Ithinktotryandwhereasthecompanyyouaretryingtoidentifythe

corevaluesofthebrand,onaproductyouaretryingtoidentifythecorefeaturesand

benefitsoftheproduct,andpromoteitinthesamesortofway.ButmyIfeelthat

brandedadvertisingis…canbemoresophisticatedandmakeabetterimpressionthanaproductad,personallythat’smy,myfeelonit.BecauseIthinkproductschangeallthe

time,andunlessyouarejustdoingastraightforwardyouknow,itis99porit’s£100or

whateverthentheproductisgoingtochangeandpeoplearegoingto,takeaslightly

differentviewonit,asopposedtoabrand.AndallthetimethatIhavebeeninvolvedin

thisworkIhavealwaysencouragedpeopletotryandtalkuptheirbrand,asopposedtoyouknowfocusontheproduct.

Thatisinteresting.Howdoyouseetherolethatsemioticsplaysinyourown

processinformingideasifitdoesplayarole?Doesyourmindgotosemiotics

thinkingornot?

SubjectA:IwouldsaynoactuallyIwouldsayno.UnlessIdoitwithoutrealising

((laughs))youknowit’snota,asIsaidtobeginwithIam,Iamlookingforapracticalanswertoaproblem.IfithelpedmegettotheanswerthenIwoulddoit.

Ohthatmakessense.Erm…youworkonyourownmostofthetime?

SubjectA:Mostofthetimenow.

Okwhatisthesortofdailyroutinethenifyougeta,ifyougetacontractfroma

clientwhatwouldbethefirstthingyouwoulddo?

SubjectA:((laughs))erm…tryandgetonamassivefee((laughs)).Erm…infroman

advertisingperspectiveor…

Nojustyourdailyroutinewhatwouldyoudo,youhavegotacommissiontodoanadvert,forsomethingyoutalkeditoverwithyourclient,andyouwalkthrough

thedoorwhatisyournextstep?

303

SubjectA:Erm…(20.00)Ithinkyouprobablytryandputdownonpaperoratleastget

settledinyourmind,aboutallthedifferentanglesofwhatwearelookingat.Youare

tryingtocomeatitfromadifferentapproachandoftenyouwillthrowoutlotsofideasorthrowyouknow,youjust,it’sprobablymorerelevantwhenworkingwithother

peopletobefairbutyouknowIamnot100%boughtinbytheideaofbrainstorming,

butsometimesyoujustwanttodumpalltheideasdownasmuchasyoucanandtryand

getasmanydifferentideasforitandthenjustgiveyourselfabitofspaceandtimetotry

andletthemsettleandseewhichonesworkandwhichonesdon’t.Erm…fromthatpointofview,thenIwanttotryandvisualisethem.Intheolddaysitwouldbescamps

youknowtherewouldbepeopletherethatwouldbe,theirdrawingwouldbefantastic,

youknow.Nowpeopledon'tmakeadistinctionatleastwithme,betweenerm…

creativeworkwhichisanidea,andthefinishedarticle.Sotheykindofwanttoseeit.In

theolddaysyoucouldgetawaywithwhenIworkedontheToyotastuffIremembertakingthemintoroomswherewewouldhave100sofdifferentdrawingsaroundthe

room,verybasicpieceofwhitepaperandyoubasicallydumpedalltheideasinfrontof

them,andgonethereyougowhatdoyouthink.Andwewillworkuptheonesthatyou

like.Erm…nowthatjustdoesn’titdoesn’tworkandyouhavegottotryandgetasmanyof,althoughhavingsaidthatyouknowIhavegot,thiswasanold,Ihavejust

realisedthatIhavestillgotthese,theseweredifferentideasaroundthesamethought

processeswhereIdidexactlythatbutitwasobviouslyfinishedandweputthemin

frontoftheclient,presentedthemandsaidyouknowwhatdoyouthink.Hereisone,

thatconceptstartedwiththeideaaplayonwords,becauseerm…itwasascrappagescheme,10yearsold,theequipmentormore,andwewerecominguptotheendofthe

decade,soweused…

Usedahomophonedecadedecayedyes.

SubjectA:Andthat’swherethatideacamefromandthenasaresultofthatlayoutand

thatdesignwewentandshottheimage.

Clever.

SubjectA:ThisisonethatIdonealongtimeagoanditwasalltryingtoreallyerm…

squarethecirclealittlebitwiththeclient’serm…preferenceonproductfeaturesandbenefitswhereyouaretryingtopushabrand,youknow.Soherewehavegotalistof

sortoffeatures,whicharehopefullysomebenefitandpickingthemoutandtryingto

sortofusethat.Ihaveseenthisactuallysince,((laughs))Ihaveseenthisdone,byFord

asasimilarsortofTVadwheretheyhavegotalistofandIthinkthatisprobablythesamesortofideaasyouaretryingtopushthebrandbutsatisfytheclient’sdesiretoget

across,wellwehavegot,youknowwehavegotlights,bigdeal((laughs))wehavegot

brakes.So…

304

Thankyouthatisinteresting.Erm…Itakeitthenyouonlydo,youtendtodo

printoutsyoudon’tdoanythingonTV,radio,internet?

SubjectA:NoIhavenotreally,that’s,noIhavedone,Idosomeerm…on-lineadsbutit

ismoreofanextensionofprint.Ihavedone,Ihavedoneapostercampaign,erm…but

youknowIthink,itis,ledbythesectorthatIaminorpredominantlyin.YouknowIdo

someotherworkfora,erm…aSwisscompanyandtheyaresortofrelatedtoforklifttrucksbuttheyare,it’serm…automatedhandlingsoitiskindoftakingthetrucksout

anddoingeverythingwithrobots.Sothatisasimilar,andIhavedoneabitwiththose

butyes,ittendstobe,it…dependsonyourinterpretationofitbecausesomeofthe

thingsthatIdoIconsidertobesortofonthefringesofadvertising,likeerm…sayaPDF

whichisintendedtobesentyouknowovere-mail,butitispresentingmessagesalmostlikeanad,aninteractivead,almostlikethat.Itisonthefringesofit.

Itispersuasiveaswellasinformative?

SubjectA:Yesitisnotyesitisnot…yesitisintendedtogiveasortofamix,ofyou

knowgettingpeopleinterestedandthengivingthemthedetail.

Yessothenyouaregoingdowntheproductlinetosomeextentaren’tyou?

SubjectA:Erm…yes,yesIguesssobutithasbeen,Ihavedonethatforerm…tryingto

sell,wellifIgiveSwisslogasanexample,thisSwisscompany.They,theysellsolutionsreallyortheyseeitassellingsolutions.Erm…becausetheydon’tmanufacturea

product,theyputittogether,withtheyhavedesignersandadvisorsandtechnical

servicepeopleandtheyputitalltogether(25.00)erm…andtheyareverysuccessful,

verybigatitandsotheycametomeandsaidwearetryingtoboildownourbrand

values,youknowourcorevaluesandthatwasapigofajobbecausetheyjustcouldn’t,theywereunclearaboutwhattheywantedittookforever.ButIsettledondesign,

develop,deliver,asanideaandsothisiswhatwedo,design,develop,deliverwhich

theylikederm…andthenweproducedworkinordertoputthatacross.Soitwasn’t

specificallyaboutaparticularproductoraparticularserviceitwasaboutthewhole…

Ethos.

SubjectA:Yesthewholeethos,likeacorporatebrochurealmost.

305

Yes.InyourcasenowIamaskingthisquestiontowhomisyouradvertising

directed.Isitaparticulargroupofpeopleandhowdoyouidentifythem?

SubjectA:Goodone.Erm…well,thebecauseIaminbusinesstobusinessstuff,erm…

we,alwaysmyexperienceworkingwithbiggeragencies,oratbiggeragencies,really

taughtmethatwearetalkingtomorethanonelevelofpeople.Erm…andbecauseof,in

thecaseofa[26.09]handlingequipmentyouwanttoattracttheguywhoisusingthekitbutoftenheisnottheguywhoisspecifyingthekit.Andoftenheisnottheguywho

ispayingforthekitsoyouaretryingtoattract,aimyourmessageatmultiplelevels.

HencepartlymybrandingsortofethoswiththatandIthinkthaterm…we,wehave

veryspecifictradepressdesignedthattheyareaimingatthosekindofpeople,the

logisticsmanagersanderm…managingdirectorsandfinancialdirectorsandspecifiers.But,thenyouwillhaveaswatheoferm..publicationswhicharespecificallyintendedfor

asectorandyouwouldquitesimplyjustlookatitandsay,wellwhatsectorisusingSIC

dataIguess,whatsectorsuseerm…forklifttrucksinthisinstance,morethanothers

andwhicherm…magazinesshouldwegofor.Now,Iremembererm…workingatacompanycalledCharlesWallsinLeedsandwe,theydidanexerciseforToyota,

preciselytosaytothem,attheendofit,ifyouwanttoreachthemostnumberofyour

targetmarket,youwouldgoinRadioTimesorSkymagazineyouknowwhichwouldbe

ridiculoustohaveanaditwouldcostthemafortune.Soitwasallabouttargetingand

boilingdownanddecidingwhichonehastheleastwastage,ratherthanthemosteffectiveIguess.Erm…Ithinkthat’sprobablywhytheamountofbillboardadsIhave

doneislimitedbecauseithashugewastagebutitisdoneforthetacticalpurpose.Isay

once,IhavedoneitafewtimesnowIamthinkingaboutotherbillboardsthatIhave

done.Erm…yeslikeforDoosanandDaewooaswasIdidbillboardadstosupport

exhibitions.So,youareexpectingthepeopledrivingintoseetheadandthat’s,youknowtheyaregoingtoaninventwhichisintendedforthem,erm…thenwindow

displayadsaswellwhichIhavedoneforthemerm…andagainit’salltiedaroundan

eventsoyouareexpectingthemtobetherightpeople.YesasIsaidtobeginwithitis

difficulttogetclientsinterestedinyouknowthenuancesofwhoisgoingtoseeitas

opposed,

[28.35]

SubjectA:Theirmindsaremadeup,[28.38]

Ohright.Ok,Erm…nextquestionistosummarisewhatelsewentoninthedesign

processes,isthereanyotherconsiderationsthatyouwouldliketomentionwhen

youareactuallydoingthedesignprocess?

306

SubjectA:Erm…wellobviouslytheactualmediumitselftakesa,isaveryimportant…

willdictate,howyouproducetheadsanderm…youknowIwouldtendtolookatfull

pageadvertisingbecausethatiswhereyouwanttopushyourclientintohavingthe

impactorevendoublepagespreads.Erm…andthat,thatinitself,sortofdictatessome

ofthewayinwhichyouwouldapproachit.Erm…thenthereisthingslikeerm…abellywrapwhichwasasanexampleweoncedida,anadinaplasticspipemagazineor

something,andithadabellywraparoundthemiddleofthemagazine,whichwasapipe

anditstucktoadoublepagespreadwithinthemagazine,soyouopenedupitupatthat

ad.Andsothatwouldobviously,thewholedesignofthatwas,wascameabout,the

wholeconceptcameaboutbecauseofthedesignandIdaresaythatthewholeideacameaboutbecause(30.00)themagazinesaidwecannowdothis.Sosometimesyou,

sometimesyoulookattheideaandlookfortherightplaceforittogoandsometimes

youlookatwhatisavailableandwhatispossible.Andthathelpsyoupush,theidea.

Youknow.Didamock-upofaflieronceerm…amailerinthedesignofapaper

aeroplane,youknowerm…becauseIknewitwaspossible,thatkindofthing.

Yes,theartofthepossible.Doyouactuallythinkintermsof,Ithinkyouhave

alreadyansweredthisoneorpartlyansweredthisone[30.33]itsaysherecan

youdescryhowifatallifyoutrytousesymbolismandiconsinyouradvertising.

Doyouthinkintermsofsymbolic…

SubjectA:YeswellIwouldsayIdoyes.Iwouldsayerm…Iamverymuchawareof

themesinadvertisinganderm…becauseIguessmydegreecourse,becauseoftheworkthatIhaveseenIsee,IwasverydisparagingwhenIwasworkinginbigagenciesabout

advertising,becauseerm…workingwithPRatthetime,itwasverymuchsegmented.

SoIwasinaPRpartofBrahmerm…andIwouldjustsayit’sjustanad,apictureanda

wittybitofcopythat’sallitis.Thereisnotmuchmoretoitthanthatandobviously

thereisbut,youknowIdidapresentation,aspartofmytraining,youknowadsarebad,includingthisone,andpresentedanadandjustexplainedwhyitwas,thatIfeltthat

advertisingwasn’tasgoodasPR.Erm…andIthinkthat,erm…Iuseadvertisingasaway

toleveragePReditorialcoverageinawaythatprobablysomebodywhosebackground

wasmoreadvertisingwillprobablydotheoppositetheywoulddoanadcampaignand

wanttoleverageitforPR.Erm…Idotellmyclientsoftenthatif,orperspectivenewclientIsayifyougotoaPRagencyandaskthem,tellthemthatyouhavegotaproblem,

theanswerwillbePR,ifyougotoanadvertisingagencytheanswerwillbeadvertising.

Andiftheonlyerm…iftheonlytoolyouhaveisahammer,youtendtoseeevery

problemasanail.

That’sright,exactly.OneoftheseareasIamlookingatrelatestohowmuchdoyouuseculturalphenomena,stereotypingfolklore,nowImean…

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SubjectA:Theadcampaignwherewediderm…liketriedtouseerm…localsymbolism

itkindof,itkindofrubbedoffonthaterm…

RobinHoodstatueand…

SubjectA:RobinHoodstatue,theBullintheBullRing,it’stryingtorepresenttheplace

wheretheyarecomingfrom.Itwasaverydeliberateattempttodothatbuterm…I

thinkonthewhole,thepeoplethatI’ve,youwillbeabletoaskthemyourself,butthepeoplethatIknow,thatworkinadvertising,Idon’tthinktheythinkthatsophisticatedly

andIthinkbacktothisfuroreovertheerm…thewoman’sbody,thebeachbodyadthat

hasjustbeen,youknowareyouabeachbody…

Yes

SubjectA:AndIcanvisualisehowthatadcameaboutandIamalmostcertainthatthey

probablydidn’tthinkitwasgoingtocauseabigfussandassoonasitdidtheyprobablythinkthat’sthebestthingeveryouknow.

Yespublicity

SubjectA:ItwasjustdoneautomaticallybutIthinkbackyes,becausethereisnosuch

thingasbadpublicity,theoldthing.Buterm…youknowIthinkbacktoagainatcollege

Irememberitverywell,thembeingshownadvertisingwherewomenwereshownas

bits,youknowsoyoudon’tseetheheadoryouknowanderm…andshowingtheworstexamplethelecturercouldfindwaserm…anadvertisementforcarpetunderlaywitha

womaninunderwearanditsaid,becausewhatmattersiswhatyouhavegot

underneathanditissuchatenuouslink,andalsoyouknowitjustseemedpointless.

AndIthink,IamawareofallthosethingsandItry,oneofthethingsthatIoftensayto

theclientsbecauseitisquiteanarrowfieldbut,youknowyoudon’twanttolooklikeeverybodyelse,thewholepointistostandsodon’tlookatwhateverybodyelseis

doing,tryandavoidthosekindofthingsbutthesymbolismofthelocalareasIguesswe

trytouseasashortcuttosaying,weareinyourpatchsortofthing.

Ohthatispuresemioticisn’tit?

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SubjectA:Yes

Absolutely.

SubjectA:Ifyousayso((laughs)).

Thelastquestionreallyisifyouareadvertisingaspecificproduct,ifthat’sthe

caseyouhavegotthebriefthisistheproduct,notforgetthebrandtellusabouttheproduct,howwouldyoutrytoappealtotheaudiences’existingknowledge,

howdoyouensureitisimmediatelyrelevanttotheir,toyourtargetaudience?

SubjectA:Erm…that’sadifficultonebecauseIthinkoftentimesyouaretryingto

challengetheirexistingknowledge(35.00)orchallengetheirperceptionofwhatthey

alreadyknowbecause,erm…theywillhavemadeuptheirminds.Erm…andIcangiveyouanexampleofanadthaterm…Ididthatdidn’tgetchosen,andactuallywhenIlook

atitnowIthinkIcanunderstandwhyitdidn’tgetchosenbutatthetimecomingfresh

toanaccounterm…thecompanyDoosantookoverDaewooandDaewoowerewell

knownerm…intheUKatleast,forgoingbusterm…theircarcompanysideofit.This

wasadifferentsideofthebusinesstheyhadanelectricforklifttruckthattheywantedtolaunch,theytoldustodoanadcampaignonitandoneofthethingsthatIcameback

tothemwithwaserm…apictureoferm…Seoul,anditsaidSeoullikeTokyoonly

cheaper.Nowtheywerefrightenedtodeathofanythingtodowithmoneyanditsteered

themawaybutmyideatherewastosaythatthebrandleadersinthatsectorwere

Japaneseforklifttruckmanufacturers,andIwastryingtosaytothemwewereasgoodasthembutcheapererm…theydidn’tlikeit((laughs))theydidn’tdoit.Erm…but

therewereawholeseriesofthembasedaroundthatkindofideaofchallengingerm…

whatthepeople’s…andoneofthecampaignsthatIdidrunapostercampaignsaidBe

Surprised.And,thiswasagaintheKoreantheyhavesometimesasmallchipontheir,

probablyachiponbothshoulders,thatyouknowweareasgoodastheJapanesebutyouknowwedon’tgettherespect,andpeopleseeJapanesecompaniesandthinkthey

arebrilliantandpeopleseeSamsungandLGandthinktheyareJapaneseandtheyare

not.So,erm…oneofthethingsthatIdidtherewastohaveathemeofbeingsurprised

andthenyearslater,KiaaKoreanforklifttrucktheyhaveaverysimilarstraplineofyou

knowlet’ssurpriseyouallit’ssimilarandIthinkIwonderiftheyarecomingatitfromthesamestandpoint.Intermsofactuallytryingtosortoferm…confirmwhatpeople

wouldthinkIdon’tknowhowyouwouldprobablydothatsomuchotherthanIdon’t

reallyknow.

No,notsurprising.

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SubjectA:Itwouldbeaninterestingexercisebeaskingtheclientwhywouldtheywant

todothat,why,youknowiftheyalreadythinkthatwhyareyouadvertisingatallyou

knowtotryandconfirmtheirpointofview.

Okyes

SubjectA:UnlessIguess,unlessyouareMcDonaldsorFordoryouknowerm…

Ithinkaparticularproduct,averyspecificonewhereyouhavegotsomethingyou

knowweknowthebrand,butnowwewantyoutopromotethisparticularthing.ItmightbetheSamsungS6phonethelatestonethathasjustcomeout,youknow

everyoneknowswhoSamsungis,buthowareyougoingtosellthisphoneto

peoplethatknowwhatSamsungis,theyknowwhataniPhoneiswhatisgoingto

makeyoubuythatSamsungthatparticularmodel.NottheS5,buttheS6.

SubjectA:Wellfunnilyenougherm…againharkingbacktomyDoosanworkbuterm…whatIdidtherewhenIfirststartedwiththemisIwentandsurveyedtheemployees,

theerm…theirdealernetworkandIdidthiswithToyotaaswellactuallyandoriginally

withtheToyotaguysIdidthetradepressaswellIhadtheeditorsIwentand

questionnairedthemandsaidtothemwhatdotheyknow.Erm…oneofthethingsthat

camebacktomewithDaewooatthetimetheywerebuildingequipmentforCaterpillaryearsago,anderm…oneoftheguyssaidtomeifwehadeverythingthesame,ifwehad

thesameequipment,thesameprice,thesamesupport,butwejusttookofftheDaewoo

badgeandputCaterpillaronit,wewouldsellmore.Isaidwellifthatisnotabranding

issue,Idon’tknowwhatisandso,Italkedtothemaboutwhattheywantedandwhat

theylikedandtherewerethreethingsthatIfocussedon.Onewastheequipmentinthatmarketwassimplecomparedtootherpeople’s,becausethereisanissueregardingthe

complexityofengines,anythingwithanenginenowitneedsamanagementsystemonit,

whichprobablymeansyouneedadiagnosticstool,alaptoptofixit,theirswerevery

simple,andtheywereknownforthat.Theyhadbigenginesinthemsotheywere,abit

ofgruntyouknow,thatiswhatpeoplearelookingforinthissectorsotheywerepowerful.AndIsaideverybodywantsto,itwasabitofanaspirationforthematthe

timebecausetheydidhavesometechnicalissues,buteverybodywantsaperformance

outofit,soIcameupwithsimple,powerfulperformanceandthatwasthestraplineand

everythingthatItriedtodo,wasfocussed(40.00)ondeliveringthatmessage.Simple,

PowerfulPerformance.Itwasinallthethings.TheKoreansstrugglewithPs((laughs))soactuallysayingitwouldbedifficultbutwhenyoustartedtohearpeoplesayitbackto

you,erm…thenyouknewthatyouhadprobablystartedtohitachord,strikeachord

withit.Andtheyarestillusingitnowitislike10yearson,erm…andIthinkerm…one

ofthethingsthatInoticedaboutthatwasthat,wewereabletousetheadvertisingin

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tradepress,todeliveramessagethatalthoughonthesurfacewasaimedatanenduser

wasactuallyinthedealerstructure,wasprobablymoreeffectivewiththedealersand

theystartedtobelieveit,andthathelpedthecompanytoerm…havegainconfidence,gaintheconfidenceoftheirdistributors,andIoftenusedtosaytothemunlessyouhave

gotamillionpoundstospendonamassiveadcampaignyouarenotgoingtobeableto

getacrossthemessagesthatthelikesofToyotabecausetheyhavegotsuchawayahead

start,soyouneedtogetitatthegrassrootslevelandtheonlywayyouaregoingtodo

thatisbygettingthebuy-inofyourdistributorsandsothismessaging,thissortoffocussingonthat,wasawayofussayingtothedistributorsohlookhowmuchweare

doing,wearedoingallthis,butactuallyitwasasmuchfortheirbenefitasanybody

else’s.Youknowsellingtothem.Doesthatansweryourquestion?

Itdoes,noitdoesthankyouforthat.Iamgoingtostoptheinterviewthereifthat

isalrightwithyou.

SUBJECT B

CanIaskyoubywhatroutedidyouenteradvertisingtheindustry?

SubjectB:Erm…myfirstjobswereinadministration.And,Ierm…thecompanyI

workedforwhichwasBritishCoalatthetime,wasgoingthroughprivatisationsothe

early90s,andtheysetupafledglingmarketingdepartmentandIwasinterestedin

doingthatbecauseitwasdifferenttowhatIwasdoing,justlookedmoreinteresting.So

IwenttonightschoolanddidmyCharteredInstituteofMarketingqualifications,gotajobinthemarketingdepartmentandfromthatthenwent,workedfor10yearsin

marketingonclientside,soIworkedmostlyinthegamesindustryafterthatinitialjob

atBritishCoal.So,thecomputerandvideogamesindustry,andthenerm…thenImade

theswitchtoerm…workingforanadvertisingagencygroupcalledMediaSquare,which

wasaPLCwhichnolongerexistsinthatform,erm…andsothatis,andthat’showIgottoworkinadvertisingIwasbasicallytakenonasanaccountdirectorfromworking

clientsideasamarketingmanager,takenonasanaccountdirectorerm…andthenmet

mybusinesspartnerhere,whoisthecreativedirectorandaswithmanyagencieswe

ranawayandsetupthiscompany.Thatwas10yearsago.

Right.So,Imeanthenextquestionreally[02.12]Iamsayingdidyoustudyanyadvertisingatuniversitylevel?

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SubjectB:No.Ididmymarketingqualificationswereatcollege.Idon’tknowwhatlevel

theyareat,theyareprofessionalqualificationsbytheCharteredInstituteofMarketing,

soIoriginallyhadthecertificateandtheAdvancedcertificatetheywerecalledthen.Butadvertisingwasn’tactuallycoveredinthatatall.

Ok,thatisinteresting.Soifyoudidn’tcoveranyadvertisingatallthenyouwill

havecoverednotextthatinvolvedadvertising?

SubjectB:No

Rightok.[02.45]ItakeitonthatbasisthenyouhaveneverlearnedortellmeifI

amwrongaboutsemiotics.

SubjectB:No.No.Ihaven’tbeenno.Notatall.

Rightok.Doyouuseany,whenyouareconstructingadsdoyouactuallyrefertoanytexts,anytextbooksormanualsoranythinglikethattoguideyou?

SubjectB:ThisisinterestingbecausethisiswhatIamdoingmyMastersdissertation

on.Notonthecreativedevelopmentprocessbutonaverysmallpartofit,thecreative

decisionmakingprocess.Erm…wefollowerm…akindofcreativeerm…briefing

process,howdowegettothepointwherewearereadytostarttalkingaboutthecreative,itisthiskindofwell-wornroute.Erm…Iwouldhavetorefertothetextbooks

butyoucanfindtextbookexamplesofhowyoudevelopthecreativeerm…briefifyou

like,makingsurethatyouarecoveringwhotheaudienceis,erm…coveringwhothe

competitionis,whatisthepurposeoftheadvertisingerm…andthenwhatthe

propositionis.Andthatisbasicallytheculminationofaninsightthatbringsallthosethingstogether.Andfromthat,thatcreatestheverysmallstartingpointforwhatthe

creativeideascouldbe.Andthentheremightbesomeotherconsiderationsthat,there

mightbesomepracticalconsiderationsaboutbudgetormediathatyouneedtobe

awareof.Soyeswefollowthatprocessandthat’s,itisnotreallyanacademicprocessit

isanindustryprocessandifyoulookatsay,theIPA,thatisaprocessthattheysuggest.IfyoulookatthetextbooksIcan’trememberthenameoftheauthorswhichisterrible,

becauseIhavebeenteachingitthisyear,ontheadvertisingmodule,aspartofthe

marketingdegreeatHallam.Erm…thatprocessisreferredtoinmoreorlessthesame

detail,insomeofthetextbooks,thatyouusethereaswellsowefollowthatprocess.

Theactualdevelopment,creativedevelopmentprocesswedon’tmapoutanyfurtherthanthat.Soitisthenablankpieceofpaperandit’showdowewantittodevelopfrom

there.

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Rightokthatwillleadtosomemorequestionsatthemomentbecausethatis

quiteinterestingthingyoumentionedthere.Erm…so,(05.00)youmentionedthe

blankpieceofpaper.Soyouhaveablankpieceofpaper,youhaveabrief,froma

clientwhatsortofjusttalkmethroughtheprocessthatyougothroughto

generatetheideasforthead.

SubjectB:Ok,itdependsonthe,itdependsontheproject.Butifitwassayforexample,Iwillgiveyouanexampleofaclient.OneofourclientsisCostcutterthesupermarket

group,andthey,wedoalltheirpressadvertising,theirdigitaladvertising.Andthey

haveaskedustolookattheirTVadvertising.Sotheywanttomakea,theywanttomake

astepchangeinhowtheydothings.Atthemomenttheydothingsataveryentrylevel,

sotheypresenttheiroffersandthatisit.Voiceoverandanicebitofmusic,andhereisthetinofbakesbeansandthisishowmuchwearesellingitfor.Theywanttomove

towardsadvertisingthatismoreemotive,thatbuildsthebrand,hasmoreengagement

withit,andfromourpointofview,wewanttomakepeoplewanttogotoCostcutteras

ashoppingexperienceratherthangotherejustbecauseoftheproducts.Sothatisourstartingpoint,soweareoverherewithwewanttomakepeoplegotoCostcutter,the

clientisoverherewiththebriefsayingweneedtoselltheseHeinzbakedbeansbecause

theypaidustoputitonTV.Andthen,thestartingpointissomewhereinthemiddleof

that.Sohowweapproacheditonthisoccasionitisnotalwayslikethis,butthiswould

betheidealoccasion,isfortheaccounthandlertowritethecreativebriefbasedontheclientbrief.AndsothatcoversthethingsImentionedbefore.Whotheaudienceis,what

theobjectsare,whatthepropositionis,andthatpropositionisthenchecked,bymeso.

NowIwrotethebriefandIwascheckingitaswell,sosometimesthereisacrossover,

sothebriefischeckedbeforeitgetschuckedinwiththecreativeteam.Butwhatwedid

inthiscase,becauseitwasanewclientwithanewopportunity,thewholeoftheagency,anditisnotabigagency,thereisonly6ofus,allsatroundthetablebehindyou,andwe

wentrightthisisthebrief,andinveryshort,inveryshorttimewesummarisedthe

brief.Thisiswhatwewantpeopletodoandhowwewantthemtofeel,howcanwe

bringthattolifeandthenwediscussedideasandwechuckedthemroundandwedid

whatwecallleapfrogging,whichiswedon’tdiscussthequalityoftheideas.Thereisaphrasethatweuseandit’scalledgettingtheshitout,soyouhavetosaythemost

obviousandthemostbanalstuffyouhavejustgottogetitout,becauseifyoudon’tthen

itdoesn’tleadtoanythingelse.Sosomeonemightsaysomethingthatisreallycrap,and

verypoorandwewouldneverdiscussinfrontofaclientbutthatisfinebecause

withoutremovingthatbarrieritdoesn’topenthefloodgates.Soweusethisrathercrasstermgettingtheshitout.

Abitlikebrainstormingthatkindof…

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SubjectB:Itislikebrainstormingyes,itisthrowingideasaroundandthensomeone

pickinguponawordthatsomeonehassaid,wellwhataboutifwedidthis,andthenwe

mightbepluggedintotheinternet,wemightlookatwhatSainsbury’saredoing,didanyoneseethatJohnLewisad,andjumparoundandthenandbygoingupdifferentcul-

de-sacsandkindofmindmappingandwritingideasdown,onbitsofpaperwithpencils,

wewillstartbuildingupaflowandwewillfindthatwewillprobablyhave,weended

upwithprobablyabout12routes,12ideas,12veryhighconceptsofwhatwecoulddo

withit.Andweknowfromexperiencethatcertainthingswouldbeveryexpensive,certainthingswillbeverycheap,certainthingswillbeverychallenging,certainthings

were…hadbeendonebeforebutmaybebysomeoneelseinadifferentmarket,soyou

areborrowingideasorstealingideasifyoulikefromotherpeoplebutthatisthe

process.Andthenitisfiltereddown,andweprobablywanttogettoabout5or6that

wewillpresenttotheclient,andsowewillleavethat,andwewillthen,thereisa,justtobeacademicaboutit,theprocessthatwehavethereisakindofamessynatureto

creativedevelopment.Thereisanareawhereyoudon’tknowwhetheryouhavegotit

right,sowhatwedoiscreatethoseideasthenweleaveitwewalkawayfromit,wego

andworkonsomethingelse.AndthentheleadteamsothatismeandChristhecreativedirectoronthisproject,willthencomebackandreviewallthose12/15ideas

andwewillgono,no,yesthathasgotlegs,no,nosoweletthemsettleandlettheideas

developandsitinyourbrain,becauseyouareworkingonitwithoutthinkingaboutitas

well.Andthenfromthatwewillthendeveloptheideasmore,wewilldoalittlebitof

scriptwriting,bitofcopywriting,dosomevisualresearch,wemightspeaktoaproductioncompanyaboutcostifwearesuggestingsomethingerm…thatmightbe

quitecostly.Wemighthaveachatwithafewsuppliers,andthenfromthatwewould

presenttheconceptstotheclient.

Right,thenextonereallyyouhaveansweredalreadyformebecauseIamsaying

whendevisinganaddoyouvisualthecompletedadfromthestartorisita

buildingprocess.Whatyouaretellingmeitisclearlyabuildingprocessinaseriesofstagesisn’tit?

SubjectB:Yesbecauseotherwiseyougetcaughtupinthecraft,(10.00)andthecraftis

differenttotheconcept.Erm…andwhatyouweretalkingaboutearlierabouterm…we

don’thaveartistsinthesamewaythatweusedto,weusedtohavecommercialartists,

whohadcraftwhocoulddoanamazingofsomeoneridingabikeforRaleighanditwouldbelikeapieceofartbutitwouldbetosellaproduct,commercialcraft.Nowthe

firstthingyouhavegottodoisdecideerm…whatisthescenewiththebicyclein,what

doesthepersonlooklike,whyaretheyridingandtellthatstory,makesurethatyouare

comfortablewiththat,andthatyoucansellitaswellithastobeappropriate.Andifthe

appropriatenessboxistickedcanwesellit,canweaffordit,erm…dowewanttodoitaswellthatisimportant,erm…becausethereisalotofpaininadvertisingsoyouhave

gottobemotivatedtowanttomakeithappen.Thenoncethoseboxesaretickedthen

youendupwithashortlistandthentheyarefurtherrefined.Andfurtherrefined.And

furtherrefinedasyougothroughthekindofclientengagementprocess.

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Right.Thenextonereallyagainyouhavepartlyansweredit,butIwouldliketo

getyourcommentsonthisone.Iamaskingyoutowhatextentdoesyour

approachdifferaccordingtowhetheryouarepromotingabrand,youarebrand

advertisingorjustaparticularproduct.

SubjectB:Itdoesn’tatall.Itdoesn’tintheslightest.Thatisourapproach.Our

approachiswearealwaystryingtotellastory,whichisthekindoflanguagethatyouwillhearalot.Butforexample,erm…Iamjusttryingtothinkof,erm…some

advertisingthatwehavedonerecently.WehavejustlaunchedLincolnCastle.Lincoln

Castlehasjustspent£22million,onadevelopmentandithasgotcertainproducts.The

productsaretheyhavegotawallwalkyoucanwalkroundthemedievalwalks,youcan

gotoaMagnaCartaexhibitiontheyhavegotaMagnaCartaanditisinavault,theyhavegotaVictorianPrison.TheyareproductsandLincolnCastleisthebrandthatbrings

thosealtogether.Wehavethesamecreativedevelopmentapproachwhetherweare

talkingaboutvisitLincolnCastle,orwearetalkingaboutvisittheMagnaCarta.Soitis

exactlythesamecreativedevelopmentprocess.Thereisnodifferenceforusbetweenabrandandaproductbecausetheyhavethesameattributes.Theyhavetohavesome

personality,theyhavetotalkinacertainway,intermsofadvertisingtheyhavetotake

youthroughthesameprocess,ifyouusetheAIDAprocess,attentionInterest,Desire,

Actionyouhavestillgottotakethemthroughthatprocesstogetsomeonetoengage

andthenactbasedontheadvertisingsoitmakesnodifferenceatall.Althoughpeoplewillrefertobrandadvertisingversussayaproductadvertising,anditmightbeabrand

advertising,itmightnottalkaboutpriceorplace,itwilltalkmoreaboutwewantyouto

wanttobuythisbrandorengagewiththisbrandandmaybethepriceisn’tthat

importantatthatpoint.Thatwillbetheonlydifference,butthatisacraftdifference,

executionaldifferenceitisnotacreativedevelopmentdifference.

Isee.YesIwaserm….oneofthethingsIhadinmindwasifIlookataVersacead,itisnottellingmeanything,itisnotgivingmeanyinformationwhatsoever.

WhenIcontrastthatwithsomethingIseeintradejournals,very,very,very,very

detailed,intermsofwhattheyaresellingforwhatkindofprice.Butwhatyouare

tellingmeitisstillthesameprocessthatyouarefollowingthrough?

SubjectB:Wellifyougorightbacktothebeginningonhowyoudevelopthecreativebrief,andifyouhaveunderstoodtheaudienceandyouhaveunderstoodwhatthe

purposeisofthebrief,andthenyouhavedevelopedtheproposition,ifatradeadis

talkingtoaspecialistaudience,whoknowsthattheyaregoingtobuythiswidgetthis

electricalpumpthentheirinterestisaboutwhatisthevoltage,whatisthewattagehow

manyhaveyougotinstock,canIgetittomorrow,howdoIfitit,haveyougotthetechnicalplansbecausethatistheirmotivation.WithVersacethemotivationisdoesit

makemelookgood,doesitmakemefeelgooderm…doesitreflecthowIwantother

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peopletoperceivemeitisstillatickbox,ofthingsitisstillthesameprocess,itmightbe

deliveredinadifferentway,erm...anditmaywellnotobviouslysayanythingbut

actuallybynotdoingthatitissayingquitealot,quitealotaswell.Sointermsoftheprocess,thereisverylittledifference.Andifsomeonewastocomealonganddoatrade

adthatwaslikeaVersacead,thenyoucouldarguewellhaveyouunderstoodthe

audienceproperlyforthat.ButyoumaywelldoaVersaceadasatradeadbecauseyou

gowellthatgivesusapointofdifference.ThatcreatestheattentionpartoftheAIDA

modelandmakesitstandout,makessomeoneengagewithitandmaybewillthenpushthemouttothewebsiteforthatdetail.Sotheyarethekindofconsiderationsitisnot,it

isnotblackandwhite.(15.00)ButIcanseewhy,whyatradeadmightbeseenasmore

working,moreaverageitisbecausetheaudience,thatiswhattheaudiencewantto

consumetomakethemreacttoit.

Yes.Thankyouthatisinteresting.ThenextoneIdon’tthinkyouwillbeabletoanswerbecauseIamsayingtoyouwhatroledoessemioticsplayinyourprocess

offormingideasbythesoundofit,itdoesn’treallybecauseyouhavenotengaged

withsemioticsyoucomefromadifferentbackgroundtosomeofmyother

intervieweessounlessyouhavegotanycommentstomakeonthat.

SubjectB:Wellyoujust,welljustexploreitabitfurtherwhatdoyoumeanby

semioticsthenintermsofadvertising.

Thenotionofsignification,Iamgoingbacktosomeofthetheorystuffthatsome

oftheadvertisershavedoneonmarketingandadvertisingcourses.Wherethey

arelookingatstructuralism,theyarelookingaterm…Saussure’snotionofwhat

constitutesasign,goinguptoengagingwithculturalmythsfolkloreandsoon.I

amguessingthatthatisnotsomethingthatyouthinkaboutparticularly?

SubjectB:Wellwemightdowithoutrealisingit.AndIthinkprobablypeopledoengagewithsemioticsandsymbolismandaddcoloursbutwithoutactivelythinking

aboutit.Thereisalotofimplicitprocessesincreativedevelopments,thataren’tmade

explicit.Butintermsofprocessno,wedon’tgo,thisisaredadvertbecauseitsignifies

this.Wemightmakeitaredadvertbecausedeepdownculturallythatworksforusand

sowouldn’tinIndonesiaorsomewherelikethatwhereitmeanssomethingelse.So,soyesandnotothatanswerIwouldn’t,IthinkifyouweretodigdeepIbetyouwouldbe

abletofind,ifthereisatruthaboutthatsubjectareaifthereisanunderlyingtruththat

itexists,naturallythenIbetwedoinsomeways.

Butitisintuitiveratherthanfollowingsomekindoftechnical…

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SubjectB:Exactlyyes.

ThatismorewhatIwouldexpect.Yes.Erm…youtoldmealittlebitaboutyour

processeswhatwasthelastadvertisementthatyoudid,doyourememberwhatit

was?Orhaveyougotseveralongoingatonetime.

SubjectB:Yeswehavegotloadsgoingon.WehavejustplacedsomeadsforCostcutter,

forsomeoftheirbarbequeproductsmeatsandstufflikethat,andsaucesandstuff.Pressadvertising.Andwehavejustplacedaradioadforthemaswell.Erm…once

againitisenteringbarbequeseasonbutthatwasacompletelydifferentapproach

becauseitwasadifferentaudience.ItwasonTalksportRadioerm…andwehavejust

placedaloadofadsforLincolnCastleaswell,sothereis,thereisanumbergoingonat

themoment.

Right,erm…whenyougetbriefsfromclients,Itakeit,Imeanwhatisthesortofvariationinthatthenfromtheclientaretheyveryspecificastowhattheywant

ordoyougetalotoffreedomtocomeupwithwhatyoufeellikecomingupwith

orisitsomewherein-betweenordoesitvary?

SubjectB:Itvaries.Itdependsontherelationshipyouhavegotwiththeclient.Most

clientswespendalotoftimeintryingtoshapehowtheythinkabouthowtheybriefusandwhatwerequire.Whatwerequirefromtheclientandthesearetheconversations

thatwehavewiththemisthingssimplyaroundwhataretheobjectivesoftheadverts,

andthenweworkbackwardsfromthatandaskquestions.Whoistheaudience.Doyou

understandtheaudience.Doyouhaveanyinsightfortheaudience.Doyoucurrently

haveapositioningforyourselvesthatyouwanttoreinforce,andsomepeopledoandsomepeopledon’tandsoyouare,youarecreatingthatsoitisverydifferent.Some

clientswillsendyou,thisisaslightexaggerationforeffectbuttheywillsendyoua10

pagebrief,thatisuselessandtheconversationthatyouhavewiththeminthecorridor

isthemostusefulconversationthatyouhaveasyouareleavingthebriefingmeeting.

Otherclientswilljustringup,wedidsomeforanautomotivecompanycalledRingAutomotivebeforeChristmas,theyrangup3daysbeforeChristmastosayweneed

someads,andthisiswhatwearetryingtodo.Andwedidtheadsanditwasdoneand

thatworksjustaswell.Becausewhatevertheychuckatuswegothroughourprocess,

soitdoesn’tmatterhowitstartswebreakitdownintoourcreativebriefingprocess.So

itisarealmixbutthoseclientswhoweworkwithovertime,startbriefingusontheobjectives,thetone,thetheme,thisiswhatwearetryingtoachieve,thisiswhatwe

wanttododifferently,orwewantmoreofthesamesowetryandmakeitreallysimple.

Ihaven’thadaclientsaytomeIwantanadthatlookslikethisanddoesthatandthisis

theheadline.

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Youhaven’thadthat?No.

SubjectB:Iwasgoingtosaynotforalongtime.IrememberwhenIwasayoung

productmanager,thatwasinmyearly20sandIwasbriefingagencies,thenwhichwas

20yearsago,erm…(20.00)thenprobablythatwaswhenalotofthathappenedandI

wasprobablydoingthatwhereyouwouldgothisistheproduct,thisiswhatitlooks

like,canyouputittogetherforus.Erm…butIcan’trememberthelasttimethatpassedmydesksomeonedoingthat.Butthatmightbebecauseofhowweinitiallyengagewith

clientsandweareveryupfrontabouthowweworkanditisimportantthatwework

likethisway.Maybethatiswhatattractsclientstoappointusandwhentheyare

lookingattheworkthatwehavedoneinourcredentialsandtheysaywellhowdidyou

dothatandweexplainthentheygoohokwellwewillbackoffthenandwewillgiveyouwhatyouneedtoachievethat.Soyesthathasn’thappenedforafairlylongtimeso

thebriefingis,justtogobacktotryandanswerthequestionmoreclearly,thebriefing

isquitewideranginginhowithappensbutitisveryrarethatpeopletelluswhattodo.

Wetryandgetthemtotelluswhattheywantittodo.

Andthentheytrustyoutocomeupwithsomethingthatyouthinkisgoingtowork?

SubjectB:Yesandnormallyerm…ifweareenteringnewground,oritisanewclient

wewilldomultipleoptionswewillinvestigatedifferentareas,wewillgotothe

extreme,ofeitherendwewillgosafe,wewillgosomewhereinthemiddlejusttoshow

thatwehavecoveredtheground.Erm…ifweareinaverystrongrelationshipwiththeclientwherewecanreadeachother’sminds,wecanbriefwithouttalking,thenwe

mightjustturnitroundveryquicklyandgothereyougoandbecauseweknowwhere

weare,erm…soitalldependsontheclientrelationshipandtheneedsoftheirbusiness.

Right,erm…youhavealreadyansweredalargepartofthisone.Iamsayingto

youtowhomisyouradvertisingdirectedandofcourseyourcaseyouaredealing

withCostcutterthenobviouslyitisthegeneralpublicasopposedtoanyparticularaudience,oramIwrongaboutthat.Doyouactually,areyouableto

identifyaparticularaudienceandthinkweareaimingthisatyouasopposedto

someoneelse?

SubjectB:Yes,yesonceagainthereissubtletieswithinthatforexamplewehavejust

donesomeradioadvertisingforCostcutter,andwehavegot,theyhaveaverystrongerm…alcoholandbarbequemeatofferatthemomentsothatsaystousinbroad

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brushstrokesthatcouldapplytomen,appealtomen.Itcouldequallyapplytowomen

planningfoodaswell.Themediabuyerwhoisaseparateorganisationwentwellwhy

don’twelookatsomeerm…maleradiostationslikeTalksport.Wellthatisagreatidea,theclientsaidyeslet’sdothat.Soweputtogetheraverymaleorientatedadthatwas

verytongueincheek,aboutbarbequemeatsandstufflikethatandalcohol.Andsowe

identifiedtheaudienceveryclearly.Andyoucandothatifyouhavegotaroutetothat

veryclearaudience.Ifforexampleifweareadvertisinginthetabloidsorbroadsheets

theDailyMailortheDailyMirrororsomethinglikethatyoucanpicksectionsofthatwhereyoumightgointoalifestyleorafoodsection,soyoumightbeappealingmoreto

women,erm…youcouldgointothesportspagesoryoucouldgorunofpaper,whereit

istoeveryone.Andso,ononelevelyesyoucanidentifytheaudience,butyouarenot

identifyingtheaudienceinaverygranularwayitisreallyitismen((laughs))women,

womenwhoshopforafamilythenitbecomesabitmoredetailed.Menwholikesportwiththeirmatessoitbecomesabitmoredetailed.Andoccasionallysayifweare

workingsaywitherm…wedoworkwithDestinationsaswell,likeVisitPeakDistrict,

youmaywellgowellwearegoingtotalktofamilieswithyoungchildrenunder6,who

needacertaintypeofaccommodation.Orwanttofeelasthoughthereissomethingforthemtodoifitrains,itbecomesmoredetailedthenandthenwemightwritepen

portraitswhicharen’tscientific,sometimestheyarepseudoscientificinthatthereis

organisationsthatidentifydifferentaudiencesandwhatmakesthemup,andwemight

usethoseandthenrewritethosepenportraitssothatwecanjustgetintothemindof

theconsumer.Butalotofthatisaboutshowingtheclientthatwehaveunderstoodwhattheirneedsare,ratherthanjusttheconsumer.Erm…so,onceagaintoanswer

yourquestiondowehaveaparticularaudiencesinmindyes,sometimestheyarevery

broadmen,sometimestheygetabitmoredetailed.Erm…yes.

YesImeansoclearlythenit’sIsupposeunavoidablethatyouwillhavetoengage

insomedegreeofstereotypingofpeoplebecause...

SubjectB:Ohabsolutelyyes.YesImeanthewholepurposeofmarketingismasscommunication,becauseyoucan’tselldirectlybecausethereisn’tthetime(25.00)or

themoneyformetositdownwithyouandfindoutwhatyoureallywantandhowyou

wanttobesoldthisproductsoIhavetotakebroadbrushstrokes.Andthatistheway

thatthecommunicationchannelsaredevelopedaswell.Weareacutelyawareofthat,

andyouhavetobecarefulsometimesabouthowyoucreateyourstereotypesinyourownmind,butwehavealwaysgottheconsumerinourmindandwearealways

discussingandarguingaboutwellwouldhousewives,anditisterribleword,

housewiveslikethat,whatdoyoumeanbyahousewife.Wellsomeonewhoisshopping

forthefamily,okmightnotbeawomanthen,mightbeaman,itcouldbeanywaysoyes

itcanbecomequitecomplicated.

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Okobviouslyyouareusingimagesandyouareusingwords,howdoyouensure

thatwhatstepsdoyoutaketomakesurethatwhatyouaredoingisactually

understood,theyaregettingit,whatyouaresaying?

SubjectB:Okintermsofcomprehension.Wellsometimeswetestcreativesowedofocusgroups.Atthemomentwehavegoterm…erm…apieceofresearchbeingdoneby

Costcutteronourcurrentcampaignthatisrunningwithanorganisationcalled

MillwoodBrownwhodoalotofconsumertesting.Andtheytestforeverythingfrom

comprehension,throughtobrandrelevanceandlotsandlotsofdifferentdetailsandtheydothison-linewith100–150differentpeoplelookingattheadvertising.

Previouslywithcampaignssaylastyearwedidsomefocusgrouptesting,notjustofthe

campaignsbutjusttogetagreaterunderstandingandusethecampaignsasamirrorto

holduptothataudience,sothatiswhenthereisthebudgettodoitanditisworth

doingitaswell.Soifyouarespendinghalfamillionpounds,onmediathenitisprobablyworthdoingsometesting.Erm..ifyouarespendingamillionpoundsover

yearthenitisprobablyworthdoingsometesting.Erm…ifforexamplesaywithLincoln

Castlewhodon’thavesuchlargebudgets,thecreativitywedidforthemwasnewand

innovativeforthem,thenwejustworkwiththeclienttomakesurethatthe

comprehensionwasthereandpeoplewithintheclientteamandweknewfromourcraftnottheconcept,abouthowanadshouldworkproperlyandhowitis

comprehendedandsoitisarealmixagainbetweenpeoplespending£20,000on

researchtopeoplegoingupanddownthecorridorwithitandaskingpeoplewhatthey

think.Andbothare,bothareequallyasvalid,ifnotasrobust.

Yes,Ok.Ihaveaskedthisisoneoftheseagain,itisasemioticsoneIwasIsayinghowifatalldoyouusesymbolismandiconsIthinkyouhavealreadysortof

prettywellcoveredthatforme.

SubjectB:Goodifthathas.I,I…Ibetifyoubrokedownourprocessesandourifyou

couldlookintoourheadsIbetwewouldbeusingsemiotics,insomewaybutnot

actively.Ornotexplicitly.

IwillgiveyouanexampleofoneIspoketoyesterdayheisachapinDoncaster,he

wasatradeadvertiser.Andhewasdoinga,waspreparinganadaboutfromalocalfirmthatactuallynowcoversnationwide,andsoheshovedinpicturesofthe

statueofRobinHoodinNottingham,oftheHumberBridge,ofTrafalgarSquare

showingdifferentpartsofthecountryallmadeintoacollageshapedlikethemap

oftheUK.Sothatwashisattemptatusingsymbolismtoshowthenationalnatureofitall.Sothatisthekindofthing,andIwouldimaginethatyouwouldgofora

similar…

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SubjectB:IfyouwanttoholdonforasecondIwilljustgetsomeonetograbanadandI

willshowyou,andIthinkthatwilljust,justholdononesecond.

Iwilljustshowyouoffourwebsite.Isaidearlierwedidsomeadvertisingjustbefore

Christmasforanautomotivecompany,and…thiswasaveryquickturnaroundbutwe

wentthrougherm…wewentthroughourcreativeprocess,thereyougo.Right,

FirstAidforcars(30.00)andtherewehaveadiagnosticmachinewireduptoacar.

SubjectB:Theheartofacaralmost.

Yes,yes.

SubjectB:Andsoyoucanseethatweareusingthiskindofsymbolismtoshowthe

importanceofthisproduct,butwearenotgoingthroughaprocesswhereweare

activelyengagedwiththatsoweareusinginthisinstanceanywaysymbolismvery,very

strongly.

Yesyouhavegotaparalleltherewhichis[30.23]interestingthankyouforthatyes.

SubjectB:Sohopefullythat’sshownwherefromwhatyousayIthinkwedodoitbut

wearenot,wearenotkindofbreakingitdownandusingitexplicitly.

NoIcan’tseehowyoucan’tuseitbutanyway.Lastquestionofallifyouare

advertisingaspecificproductyoutoldmethatyoudon’ttendtodothatsomuch,

erm…howdoyoutapintopeople’spre-existingknowledgeoftheproductorevenofthebrandisthereanywaythatyoucan,doyouthinktoyourselftheyalready

knowthis,howdoyouknowwhattheyknowandhowdoyoutapintothat?

SubjectB:Welleitherfromtheclienttellingusthatthisishowtheproductisreceived,

andisunderstoodandiscomprehended,andsometimestheytelluswhattheproblems

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arewithitandthatmightbederivedfromtheirownresearchoritmightbederivedjust

fromtheirownexperiencesowegettoldthat.Erm…sosayforexamplewiththis,

erm…Ican’t,thatisapoorexample.Soweeithergettolditorwemakeassumptionsthattheproductis,orthetypeofproduct,theproductcategoryisunderstood.Andifit

isabrandnewerm…productthathasneverbeenseenbefore,thenthatwouldbea

differentproblemtosolvethanifitisjustanotherproductwithinacategorythatiswell

understood.SoIthinkwearejustmakingassumptionsastohowpeopleunderstandit

unlesswearetolddifferently.

Yes.Righterm…Ithinkyouhaveprettymuchansweredallmyquestionsand

thankyouforthat.

SubjectB:Good.

SUBJECT C

SomyfirstthenisIwanttomovesequentiallythefirstpartisaboutyou

personally,whatroutedidyouentertheadvertisingindustry?

SubjectC:WellIdid,erm…Isupposeerm…thefirstpointwasbeinggoodatartat

schoolreallyso,erm…intermsofcopywritingIhavecomethroughanindirectroutein

asense,erm…andIstudiedthe,myAlevelswereEnglish,literatureandartandhistory.

So,Ialwaysintendedtodoerm…todoartandIintendedatquiteanearlyageIguesstogointographicdesign.Erm…whichIthenwenttoerm…collegeanddidafoundation

course,anartfoundationcourse,kindofspecialisedingraphicdesign,thenIwentto

theUniversityofHumberside,anddidadegreeingraphicdesign.Erm…atthatpoint,I

enteredtheindustryinsothisiserm…kindof1993,Ienteredtheindustryerm…asagraphicdesignersoinasenseIhadabsolutelynoresponsibilityforcopyifthatmakes

sense.Erm…throughthatIerm…startedmyownbusinessbecausetherewasnojobsat

thatpoint,verymuchlikenowinmanyways,althoughIthinkitishardernowthanit

wasthen.Erm…andquite,Isupposequitequicklyandasbeingagraphicdesigner,was

alwaysaboutwhatitwas,whatthemessagewas,formesoIwasn’t,Iwouldn’tsayIwasapuregraphicdesigneractuallyIwasalwaysmoreofanartdirectorifyouunderstand

thedifferencebetweenanartdirectorandagraphicdesigner.

Canyouexplainitformedoyoumind?

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SubjectC:Yes,agraphicdesignerIwouldsaytheremitofadesigneristomakethings

lookprettyandmakethemlooklegibleandadheretowhateverstyle,form,howeverit

needstoconformtowhateverstyle.Iamnotbeingveryclearhere.

Isthatthroughthebrief?

SubjectC:Iwouldsayadesignerisgivenasetofcopyerm…abriefaroundhowit

needstolookandwhattheaudienceisandthentheywoulddesignapieceaccordingly.

Whereasanartdirectorwould,wouldbemoreaboutsettingthestyle,andanart

directorwouldbemoreconcernedaboutthepieceasacommunicationratherthanjust

avisualstylekindof,asaflatpieceofpaperitwould,anartdirectorwouldbemoreconcernedabouthowthatkindofcommunicatestoanaudience.So,Iwouldsayfrom

theverystartIwasmoreofa,Ihadleaningstowardsbeingagraphic,anartdirector,

thanagraphicdesigner.AndoneofmyfirstjobsactuallyIwasaskedthatquestionby

thecreativedirector,areyouadesigneroranartdirector,andIdidn’treally

understandthedifferenceatthatstagebut,andIthinkthereisalotofoverlapinthataswellerm…butIthinkyesIwouldsay,designerispurely,isavisualartist,avisualcrafts

personwhereasIthinkanartdirectorismuchmorearoundthemessageandhowthat

worksasanadvertisingcommunicationifthatmakessense.

Itdoesyes.

SubjectC:So,erm…soImeanintermsofmyprogressionIstartedasagraphic

designer,Iworkedmyfirst,Isetupmyownbusiness,workedinthatforaboutayearandthenIgotajobwhichwasalwaystheintention.Myfirstjobactuallywasonerm…a

listingsmagazine,aWhat’sOnmagazine,whicherm…whichwasagainestablishedfrom

scratchsoIdidalltheidentityandallofthevisualofit,erm…anditwascalledBrag

Magazine((laughs))anditexistedforaboutayearbeforetheparentcompanyranout

ofmoneybasically,butitkindof,itdevelopedquiteagoodnameandareputationintheyear(5.00)thatitexistedandironicallyitbecome,itgottothepointwhereitwasat

leastcoveringitsexpensesbythetimeitwascloseddownbutithadincurredsomuch,

somanylossesingettingthere,theparentcompanydidn’thavedeepenoughpockets

anddidn’tunderstandthemagazineworldenoughreallytogointoasaventure,but

theylearntfromthatmistakebygoingbustbasically.SofromthatpointIthenenteredtheagencyworld,myfirstjobwasinacowboyoutfitquitefrankly,erm…andIthinkI

wasthere3or4monthsandthatwentunderaswell.Erm…butIjumpedshipquite

successfullyandIwasverymuchadesignerthereIwouldsay.AndthenIjumpedship

erm…andIjoinedquiteawell,quiteawell-knownagencyinLeedscalledOutsidetheBox,andthat,thatwasthefirstpointactuallywhereIwentintoanenvironmentthatI

wouldconsideraprofessionalagencyenvironment.Andtherewasadistinction

betweencopyanddesignandwhatweweredoingasdesignersandartworkersassuch

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andIwouldliketothinkIhavealwayspersonally,Ihavealwayshaderm…aneyeora

noseforcopyandbeingabletowritecopyandwriteheadlinesandthenactuallywrite

thejobasitgoesthrough.And,itwasnoticedquitequicklywhenIgottoOutsidetheBoxthaterm…Ithinkthestudiomanageroncequippedshesaidohitdoesn’treally

matterifyouarenotmuchofadesignerorartworkerbecauseyoucanwrite,andIwas

likeohthatisquiteanicethingtosaybutIalwaysconsideredmyselfa,adesignerart

directorfirstandawritersecond.SoatthatagencysoIthinkthisis,Ithinkthisis

probablykindofquiteindicativeofhowcopyistreatedintheprovincesassuch,sowedidn’t,thatagencywhichwasquiteabigagencyatthetime,andstillisquiteanamein

Leeds,erm…sortof20yearslatertheydidn’temployacopywriter,itwaskindof

cobbledtogetherquitefranklybytheaccountmanagersandtheclient.Andthefactthat

Iwouldthenactuallysortoflookatthecopyandtryanddissectitandmake

recommendations,wasalmostarevelationatthatpoint.Erm…again,intheearlypartofmycareerIflittedaroundalot,andsoughtother,otherbetteropportunities,and

quitequicklyIthinkIonlystayedthere6monthsandthecreativedirectorgot

headhuntedtogoandworkatMcCannEricsoninManchestersoIfollowedhimabouta

monthlaterandgotajobthere.Andnow,that,thatobviouslyMcCannEricsonManchester,Idon’tknowIyouknow,butImeantheywereatthetimeandIthinkthey

probablystillarethebiggestagencyoutsideLondon.So,basedoverinPrestburyjust

southofManchester,Ithinktherewerelike300peoplethereatthetime,andIamnot

surewhatthenumbersarenowbutIthinkitisquitesimilartobehonest.Andatthat

point,thatwasmy,thatwasthefirsttimeasadesignerbecauseIwasstilladesignerthenIwouldsaythatIencounteredcopywriterswhojustwrotecopy.And,erm…we

were,Idon’tknow,ifIamgoingintotoomuchdetaildoforgiveme.

Noit’sfine.Pleasecarryon.

SubjectC:Atthatpoint,erm…Iwentintoakindof,aself-containedunitreally,sothere

wasthecreativedirectorwhoIfollowedover,therewasacopywriterwhowasofa

seniorlevel,andthentherewasmeasthesortof,designerkindofartdirectorandthenwehaderm…adesignjunior,whowaskindofundermeassuchandthenerm…there

wasateamofartworkers,andaproofreaderactually,whichwasinteresting.Theproof

readerservedalotofdifferentunitsifthatmakessensebutweworkedwithaproof

readerforthefirsttimeandapropercopywriterforthefirsttime.Andatthatpoint,

havingalwaysusedtobeinggivencopyandcobblingittogether,atthatpointIstartedtoworkwithwhatIwouldcallapropercopywriterwhogave,whothoughtaboutthe

jobandthecommunicationpieceandgaveyoucopy.Andthenmy,itwasmyjobto

makeitlookprettyandcommunicateeffectivelywhatthepointoftheactualpiecewas.

Andweworkedonerm…weworkedonafashioncatalogue,whichwaslikeayoung

ladiesfashionpiece,anderm…anditwasaquitestructured(10.00)kindofcommunicationsortofprogrammethatwesortoffitintoreally,soIdiditforabout,

andtherewasacatalogueevery6monthssoyouwentthroughacyclefor6monthsso

youeffectivelydesignedthecataloguebutweonlydidthefrontbitandtheveryendbit

whichwasthecalltoactionandtherestofitwasdonebypeopledoingthattobe

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honest.Erm…sowewereliketheagencydoingthekindofcleverbitsatthefrontand

theendifthatmakessense.And,erm…andthecataloguewentoutandwedidsowe

workedonpress,withinthat,weworkedonTVwithinthatbutthenwealsoworkedonquitea,quiteacomprehensiveerm…sortofdirectmailprogrammeerm…combined

withmonthlystatementmailings.Soifyoubought,ifyougotacatalogueyougota

statementeverymonth,andifyouorderedfromthecatalogueyouwentintoacertain

mailingcycleandifyoudidn’torderfromthecatalogueyouwouldgointoanother

mailingcycle,soitwasquitekindofcarefullyplottedandthoughtoutandithadbeendevelopedasasystemovermany,manyyears.Erm…andawayofgettingtheoptimum

outoftheinvestmentofdoingthecatalogueandsendingitouttosomeonebecauseyou

knowitwouldcostmaybe£10toprintandpostthatcatalogueout.Soitwasaboutkind

ofpullingtheinvestmentoutofthatassuch.

Ididthatonce,quiteenjoyedit.IdiditagainthoughtokIamtreadingonwaternow,Ihave,ImeanIwas26atthispointsoIwasgoingthroughthesecyclesoflearningandso

Ididthefirstoneenjoyedit,didthesecondoneerm…enjoyeditlessaskedforakindof

move,becauseIdidn’treallywanttogothroughanothercyclehavingdoneitforyear,

askedforamovetoanotherkindofdepartmentintheagencyandtheydidn’tmove

veryquicklysoIagainIleft((laughs)).IcamebackovertoLeeds,missedhomeactuallysoIcamebacktoLeeds,anderm…thenjoinedacompanycalledWWAVNorth.Now

thereisWWAVwereabignameindirectmarketingatthetime,andWWAVnorthI

thinkwerethebiggestdirectmarketingagencyoutsideofLondon.SobasedinLeeds

don’texistnow,completelyfallenover.IthinkWWAVstillexistinLondon,itwas

WWAVWardledidiArnolddidiandquiteakindof,wellatthetimeIwouldsayabiggishnamein,wellverybignameindirectmarketingandareasonableagencyname

inLondon.SotherewasWWAV,IworkedinWWAVLeeds,erm…thentherewasWWAV

therewasliketheLondonoffice,therewasanEdinburghoffice,aBristolofficeanda

Leedsoffice,soitwasquiteabigagencysortofnetworkreallyatthattime.Erm…andit

wasverymuch,itwasverymucharoundthesortofthebigburstindirectmarketingthatkindofhappenedinthesortofIguessinthemid-80sandthentailedouttowards

the2000sandthentheinternetsortoftookoverreally.Erm…but,soIguessifIam,ifI

sitinfrontofyoutodayandyousaywellwhatisyourbackgroundIwouldsaywellitis

directmailreally,directmarketing.AndImeanIdon’tknowifyouknow,alotabout

directmarketingintermsofhowitworksandstufflikethat,buterm…itisquitethescientificalmostprocess.SoIwillgiveyou,Isupposeitisinterestinginlanguageterms

andIwishIhadacopytoshowyounowactually.ButwhatwewoulddoissoIwentto

WWAVNorth.NowIwouldsayWWAVNorthweremorescientificabouttheworkthat

weweredoing,intermsofdirectmarketing,thanwewereonakindof,inManchesteratabiggeragency.ButIthinkWWAVweremoreinvestedindirectmarketingasa

conceptandasasortof,asaskillsetreally.Soweworkedforerm…theydid,theywere

builtontheGrattonbusiness,theGrattoncatalogueanderm…didalotofsortof,alotof

thecatalogueswithintheGrattongroupsoIwas,whenIjoinedWWAVNorthIcame

andworkedonGratton’sversionoftheyoungfashioncataloguethatIhadworkedoninManchester.So,Idroppedstraightintothataccount.Andthatwasmyrolewastosort

ofservicethataccount.Soasaforinstance,wetalk(15.00)aboutcataloguegoesout6

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monthcycle,cataloguegoesout,bunchoffollow-upmailingstosortofbasicallygetthe

recipientofthecataloguetopurchase.Soalotofthemailingswereaboutgettingthe

erm…theperson,gettingthecustomertokindofgolookbackintothecatalogueonamonthlybasisbecauseitwouldsitthereandgetputinabunchofnewspapersand…

Remindthemit’sthereand…

SubjectC:Yesexactly,yes.Andaspartofthiswholecampaign,sowedidtheerm…

therewas,therewasthe,sorrythereisnamesforit,therewasactivationwhichwas

gettingthemtokindofgobackintothecatalogue,andthentherewasrecruitment

essentiallysoitwasprospectingandgettingnewcustomers.Sowedidalotofdirectmailintermsofyouknowsendingittokindofidentifyingaudiences,buyingdata,

sendingmailingsout,tothataudience,enticingtryingtogetthemtotakeacatalogueon

basically.Soaspartoftheprocesswasconcerned,nowIthinkyouwillfindthis

interestingandIamprobablygettinggoinglikethattoomuch.

It’salright.

SubjectC:Whatwewoulddoiswewouldhavea,wewouldhaveasellmailing,andthentherewouldbeatestagainstit.Sotherewouldbeamailingthatwaslikethebest

performingmailingforthatparticularerm…briefsoitmightbe,itmightbetakea

catalogueorlookbackatthecatalogueorwhateverthebriefwas,sotherewouldbea

sellthatwaslikethebestperformingmailing.SoquiteoftenwhatIwouldget,isIwould

gettherewouldbeasellmailingandIwouldgetabrieftobeatthatmailing.AndthenthatmailingwouldmytreatmentandtheoriginalsellwouldgoouttoanA/Bsplit

audienceandthatwouldperformatlike0.5or.5%andthatwouldwellitwaslikethat

wouldperformatlike1.12%andthatonewould,ifthatonecameinat1.15%thatthen

becamethesell.Soyouwereinaconstantprocessoftestandrefine.Anditwas,anda

lot,sometimesitwasofferbased,sometimesitwaslanguagebasedandquiteoftenitcouldbelike,erm…likeweirdlittlethingsthatyouwouldjusttryandputinthere.So

therewasalotoftestingonlikedidanalarmclockworkbetterthanatowelincentive.

Didmoneyoffworkbetterthanapercentageoffetc,etc.Sotherewasalotoftestingof

thatkindofthinggoingonaswell.Erm…so,youknowasyouwouldexpectanalarm

clock,whichwasahighoratoasterwhichisahigherperceivedvaluethanatowelwouldworkbetter,butmoneywouldalwaysworkbetterthananykindoflikematerial

incentive.Erm…soevenifyouhadsomethingthatwasworth£50itworked,offering

£10offwouldworkbetterthanahigherperceivedvalueitemifthatmakessense.And

moneyhardcashalwaysworkedbetterthanpercentage.Andweworkedoutthattheaverageordervaluepersaytheaverageordervaluepererm…orderwas£100we

testedthingslikegivingthema£10offvoucherorgivingthema15%offvoucher,and

£10alwaysworkedbetterthan15%.And£10alwaysworkedbetterthan20%aswell.

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Youhadtokindofescalateitmassivelyandwecouldn’tworkoutwhetherjustpeople

justvaluetheideaofhardcashmore,ortheydidn’tworkoutthattheyareactually

ordering£100therefore20%voucherwasbetter,sotherewasalotof,Idon’tknowifthatisinterestingyoufromalinguisticsperspective.ButImeanpeople,wewondered

whetherpeoplecouldfounditeasiertotake£10offtheirorderthanworkoutwhata

15%offwaseventhough15%mightequatetolike30quid,etc,etc.Butquitealotof

teststhatwedidwerebasedaroundlanguageaswellinthesensethat,erm…inadirect

mailpieceandyouwillhavereceiveddirectmail,sometimesthetheoryisthatifyouareinterestedinasubject.SorryIwillgoback.Sothefirstthingistheouterenvelopeand

normallytherewillbesomethingonthatouterenvelopethatwillenticeyouin.Now,

that’sthefirstbarrierforadirectmailpiece,ifthatenvelopeputsyouoffforwhatever

reason,itgoesstraightintothebinsoitdoesn’tevengetopenedsothefirstbarrieristo

sortofgetthemtoopentheenvelopeandsometimes,(20.00)dependingonhowerm…whattheperceptionaroundthebrandis,ifitisakindoflowgradebrandyoudon’t

featureitbutifitisahighgradebrandyouwouldfeatureit,ifthatmakessense.

Erm…butquiteoftenwewoulddotestsonenvelopesaroundyouknow£15offvoucher

inside,15%voucheroffinsideandthingslike,testthingslikethat.Andthen,therewasaverysortofalmost,erm…quiteastrictkindofrationalearoundhowpeopleopened

directmailandhowtheyreadit.AndthiswasformulisedbyProcterandGambleas

well.IlaterworkedonProcterandGamble,inanotheragency.And((laughs))ifyou

havegottimeIwillyouaboutthataswell.

Yes

SubjectC:Buterm…essentially,soyougetyourmailpiece,youhavegotmaybe3or4secondsforsomeonetolookatitanddecidewhethertoopenitornot,iteithergets

binnedoritgetsopened.Sothefirstthingtheydoistheywilllookattheletter,and

normallyinamailpacktherewillbe,therewouldbealetterandatleastoneleafletand

maybe2leaflets.Andthefirstthingtheydoistheywilllookattheletterandseeifitis

addressedtothem.Soifitispersonalisedtothemandithasspelttheirnamecorrectly,whattheywouldthendoiserm..scanthelettersowhattheywouldtypicallydoisscan

theheadlinesandthesubheadsandthinkisthisrelevantifitisn’t,binifitwas,then

theywouldreadfurther.Atthatpointtheywouldputdowntheletter,andtakeupthe

leaflet.Andreadtheleaflet.Now,normallyatthatstageyouwouldn’thavenormally

personalisedtheleafletsbutnow,atechniqueweuseandtheartworkIwasjustsending,wasamailpackactuallywhichwedon’tdoagreatdealofanymorebutitwasa

simplelettermailingwithamessageontheouter,apersonalisedletter,butthenthe

leafletispersonalisedaswell.Andthejoboftheleafletintermsofwasreinforcement

intermsofwhatthepointofthemailingwas.Sotheletterwouldoutlinewhatwewant

youtodoandwhatthesubjectis,andtheleafletsimplyregurgitatesthatinaslightlydifferentformatbutperhapsinamorevisualwayaswell.And,andthetrainofthought

wasthatoncetheyhavegottheleafletintheirhandtheywouldlookattheleafletand

scantheleafletandtakeavisualmessagefromit,andtheniftheywerestillinterested

theywouldgobackandreadtheletter.Now,therewasobviously,therewasdifferent

327

theoriesoflettersaswellintermsoftherewasalongletter,therewerelongletter

treatmentswhichwerelike2pagesofdensecopytalkinginintricatedetailaboutthe

benefitofthisgizmowhateveritwas.Oryoucoulddoashortletterwhichwaspunchierandmaybehadmorevisualsonit,sowewouldtestlonglettertreatmentsto

shortlettertreatmentsaswell.Soitwasquiteerm…intermsofdiscipline,itisasfar

awayfromthekindofartydesignerpieceasyoucanimaginereallybutthatsortof

thingreallyappealedtomeandreally,Ireallyfounditquiteinteresting.Anditwasvery

muchacraftratherthananartisticpursuitinasense,althoughmyjobwastooverlayasheenandabrandoveritetc,etc.Youknowso,yesIkindofmovedtoWWAVNorth

andgotinvolvedindirectmailinthatrespect.

NowatthispointIhadworkedwith,Ihadworkedwithanumberofcopywritersso

therewasacreativeteamofabout10generallyspeakingtherewasacreativedirector,

therewaserm…probablytherewasthecreativedirectorhadakindofMacguywhodidhisMacwork,becausehedidn’twanttoworkonMacsatthattime,andthentherewere

like5artdirectorsand5erm…copywritersgenerally.Soeveryonehadacopywriter.I

waslikethejuniormemberoftheteamatthatpoint,Iwasbyfartheleastexperienced,

andIdidn’t,Iwasn’treallyassignedacopywriterIgottoworkwithmaybe2or3

copywritersonaregularbasis,whichwasactuallyreallygoodbecauseIlearntdifferentthingsfromdifferentcopywritersandlearnttheirskillandlearntwhattheirindividual

strengthswas.OneguyIworkedwithwaserm…hewould,hisheadlineswouldbe30

wordslongandIwouldcomeinandrewritehisheadlinesandhedidn’tmindthat

becauseheknewIwassnappierthanhewas.Buthewrotelongdensecopyandhewas

almostlikeafinancialservicesexpert,andwehadalotoffinancialservicesclients,atthatpoint(25.00)andhewasalmostlikethe,hewaslikethefinancialguysowhenI

workedonafinancialclienthewouldgetassignedasthecopywritertothat.Sothere

weredifferentcopywriterswithdifferentstrengthsanddifferentstyles.Anderm…andI

meanatthatpointIwasanartdirectoratthatpoint,soIunderstoodthedifference,and

IknewIwanted,inManchesterIknewIwantedtobeanartdirector,notadesigneranymoreandthatwasajobwhereIwasanartdirector,andthatwasmyjobtitle.AndI

wasn’tevenrequiredtouseaMacatthatpointwhichwasincredibleforme,becauseI

hadgrownup,orIwaslikethefirstgenerationofusingAppleMacs,todesignonandat

thatpoint,erm…IcouldifIwantedtojustsitandscampandjustprovidescamps,and

thenartdirectdesignersandMacoperators.

Whatisascamp?

SubjectC:Scampisadrawingofthelayout.

Ok

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SubjectC:SoIwoulddrawoutalayoutandmarkitupintermsofIwantthatcolour

there,thisimagehereandIprovideanegativeoftheimage,andIwouldgiveittoanart

workerandtheywouldconstructitandthenIwouldgetit,makemyamends.And,thatwasquitenoveltome.Butthatwasoldpracticethatwasoldpracticewhichhasdied

outcompletelynow.WhereasIwasn’t,IwasthenewbreedwhowasveryMacliterate

comparedtoeveryoneelse.AndIkindof,wasquick,tobehonestIwasquickerandI

wasatleastasgoodastheotherartdirectorsatartdirectingatthatpoint.Soerm…yes

ImeanwithoutbeingtooIkindofrosethroughtheranksoftheartdirectorsvery,veryquicklyactuallyandImeanthesewereguyswhowerelike15yearsseniortomesoI

was,Imadethatwasat,atthatpointIwaslikehotpropertyasasortofanartdirectorif

thatmakessense.Apologiesifthatsoundsboastfulbut…

No,no

SubjectC:Butitwas,Iwaslikethenewbreedcominginwhowas,Iwasquicker,IwasI

hadhad,Iwasjust,Iwasprobablyquicker,Iwasprobablymoreambitious,andIworkedharder,anderm…

Yougotnoticed.

SubjectC:IgotnoticedandIquicklybecametheartdirectorthatalltheaccount

directorswantedontheiraccount.Erm…and,Iwas,quitea,Iwasquiteafirebrandat

thatpointactuallyIwas,Icouldbevery,verydifficultandveryargumentative,and

quiteegotisticalattimes,buttheyputupwithitbecausetheyknewIwoulddotheworkandIwoulddoittomybest,thebestofmyabilitiesandtakeitvery,veryseriously

whereacoupleoftheotherartdirectorswereabitmoretimeservedandabitmore

sortoflikeblaséandtheywouldlet,theywouldletthemselvesbeledbytheaccount

directorswhereIneverwould.ButtheaccountdirectorsrespectedthatIthinkandit

wasveryinterestingatthatpoint,becauseatthatpointafterbeingthereayearortwoIwantedtobeacreativedirector,IhadcomefromadesignertoanartdirectorandnowI

wantedtobeacreativedirector.Iamacreativedirectorme.AndIthinkatthatpoint,I

started,therewasverymucha,athemandusthingaboutcreativestudioandthe

accountandthedepartment.Youknow,weweretheartytypes,whowerearsyandgot

inlateandyouknowblah,blah,blahandtheywerethetightarsedsuits,theywerethebagcarriersforourworkkindofthingbutIthinkatthatpointIalmostkindofstarted

todeveloprelationshipswithaccountpeopleinawaythatthestudiopeopledidn’t

reallyandIthinkthatwasthebridgeformeactuallythentobecomeacreativedirector

andthensortofgoonassuchso.ButyessoImeanIsupposeatthatpointthatwasit,thatperiodformewasarealintenseperiodoflearningandIworkedwithsomevery

dourcopywritersandboringcopywritersbutverythoroughcopywriters.ButIworked

withoneguyerm…whocompletelyopenedmymindatonepointandhewasaboutthe

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sameageasme,hewasn’ttrained,hadn’tgonetouniversityhejusthadapure,hehada

pureknackforcopyandhewasprobablytheclosestIhavecometobrilliancein

copywritingintermsofotherpeopleIhaveworkedwith.Anderm…Imeanhewasworsethanme,ifIwasdifficulthewasanightmaretobehonestbuthewasbrilliant

andIonlyworkedwithhimforaboutmaybe6monthsandhecamein,Iwasgivenhim

wewerejoinedupasateam,sohewaslikemyfirstpropercopywriter,whowaslike

mycopywriterandunfortunatelyhegotheadhuntedafterabout6monthstogoandbe

acreativedirectorsomewhereelse,buthehadatotalabilitytocutthroughallthebullshit(30.00)aroundabriefbecauselikeinthosedayswewouldbegivenabrief

whichmaybelike5or6pageslongforajobandactuallyyouwouldreadthebriefand

youwouldthinkIhavegotnoideawhatyouwantmetodoandyouwouldreaditagain

andactuallyitwasaskill.Itwasaskillsetwasdecipheringabriefandpickingoutthe

pointsthatwererelevantandhehadagreatskillatcuttingthroughallofthebullshit,andhewasn’toneforlikewritinglonglettershewaslikepunchyandhewasshortand

hewasabrasiveandhewasverydirectandkindofsubversiveinwhathedidinterms

ofhiscopy.AndImeanatthatpointwewereallworking,IsupposeIwasworking12

hourdaysgenerallyspeaking,itwouldbelikeIwouldgetthereat9,leaveat9literallyandhisguywouldpissoffatlike5.30,butnoonecouldtouchhimbecausehewasso

good.SoIkindoflike,hemademelookatwhatIwasdoingandtheworkIwasdoing

quitekindofcarefullyandIsupposeinaweirdwayIhave,Ihavetakenalotofhisstyle

andtriedtoreplicatethat.AndIthinkifI,ImeanIwritealotofcopynowandfunnily

enough,copyisbecomingevermoreimportantintermsoftheexplosionoftheinternet.Erm..becauseitisallaboutcontentnowagain,ithasturnedroundtocontent.AndI

amfindingactuallyIthoughtmyskillsetwasslippingoutofrelevancequitefranklybut

actuallyIamcomingtotheconclusionthatitisbecomingmorerelevantthanever

becauseIhavegotthetrainingandtheexperiencethatalotofpeoplehaven’tand,andI

thinksointermsofcopyhewasarealkindof,hewaslikeablast,hewasanicyblastonawarmbeachImeanhisimpactwasincredibleonme.Buthewas,hewasbasicallyhe

wasnevergoingto,hewasnevergoingtohaveoldbonesthisguyandIthinkhediedin

hismid-30ssoandthatisprobablylike10yearsagonow.So,Imeanhedrank,he

smoked,hedrugged,hefuckedhedideverythinganderm…andIthinkitwasvery

interestingactuallyhewasn’t,hewasfromLeeds,hewasasortofLeedslad,hehadneverbeentouni,buthehadthisincredibleintuitionforcopyandImean,subsequently

Imeanheusedtosittheretalkingaboutallkindofrudethingsandwomenhewas

seeingandstufflikethat,andbasically3or4yearslaterhecameoutasbeinggayand

completelyturnedhislifearoundandlivedinadifferentwayandactuallydiedwhile

outjogginginwinterandhadaheartattackandslippedintoagutteranddiedfromexposure.

Sobuthewasaverykindofartisticcharacterwhoobviouslywashugelyconflictedat

thatpointbutitmadeforbrilliantwork.AndIfoundhimfascinatingreallyandhewas

arealsortofinfluenceonme.Soyes…

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TocutalongstoryshortIrosethroughtheranksatWWAVIwasmadeheadofart,

whichwasunderneaththeartdirector,IthinkIwasthere3.5yearsinallIwasmade

headofart,erm…becameabitofaplayer,Iwouldbetheonewhoworkedonallthepictures,didallofthatandIhadarecordofwinningpicturesatthatpointaswell

whichwas,Iwaskindofhotproperty.Igotheadhuntedthematthatpoint,erm…andI

wentandworkedforMcCannEricsoninLeedsthistimeascreativedirector,soatthis

pointIhadkindoflike,Ihadgotmycreativedirector’sjobIwantedanderm…andsoI

wentandworkedthere.Itwasalesswellrunagency,itwasasmallerdepartment,atthatpointIwasresponsibleforrecruitingcopywriterstoworkwithme,andsoI

probablywentthroughabout4or5.Iwasthereabout3yearsIthinkandIwent

through4or5peoplefreelancersandpermanentappointments,andagainhadthe

opportunitytoworkwithareallybrilliantcopywriterwhoemigratedtoAustraliaandis

quiteabigguninSydneyorsomewherelikethat.Andagain,qualityofwhatshedidreallysortofopenedmyeyesnotnecessarilyintermsoftheheadlinepunchbutmorein

thesortofqualityoftheactualbodycopy,andactuallydeveloping(35.00)astyleand

a…itwasalmostlikeinsteadofwritingcopythatwassellingshebroughtinadialogue

kindofstyleistheonlywayIcandescribeitanditwaslikeapersonalconversationwithmeandyouanditwaspersuasiveandyouknowhadempathyanditwasn’tit

wasn’tharshanddirectitwaskindofpersuasive.

Intimate?

SubjectC:ItwasintimateyesinawaythatIhadneverreallyseencopywrittenbefore,

erm…soshewasabrilliantsortof,shewasabrilliantcopywriterallround.Ihadthis

sparkyguywhowaslikeabrasiveandveryconceptdrivenandverysortofheadlinedrivenbutshewasmoreofthekindoftotalpackage,shewasn’tquiteassparkyashe

wasbutshekindofalmostlikeroundeditoffformeintermsofworkingwithpeople.

AndImeanIworkedatMcCann’sforabout3yearsandthenIsetupmyownbusiness

withanaccounthandlerbasicallyandatthatpoint,itwasa2manoutfitandatthat

pointIstartedhavingtowriteallthecopymyself,soIwentfrombeingacreativedirectorwithstudiopeople,withcopywriters,etcIstartedmyownbusinessandhadto

doeverythingmyself.SoatthatpointIreallystartedtosortofdoalotwithcopyand

workwithitinamorekindofingrainedway,andnow,Ican’tseparatetheprocess

reallyandIcan’t,Ican’timagineworkingwithacopywriterinsomewaysbecauseI

wouldratherdoitallmyselfbecauseit’saclearandcohesivepiece.AndIhaveessentiallyrunmyownbusinessnow,thisisthethirdbusiness,Iwasinonefor5years,

left,tookhalftheclientbasewithmestartedagain,withanotherguythatlastedayear,I

walkedouthewasanutterandIstartedthisbusinessanditwillbe6yearsoldin

September.Soagainlikebeinginbusinessyourselfandintheagencyworldinthe

middleofvariousslumpsandcreditcrunchesit’sbeenwhoalikethatandweareatourlowestebbnowthereis3ofusnowatthemoment.Erm…butthereisreasonsforthat

buterm…ImeanattheheightIhadcopywriters,andwehavegonedownagainandI

havewrittencopyagainanditisnowatthepoint,IamatthepointwhereIamthe

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copywriterforthebusinessagaininaseriousway.Soerm…soyes.Thatismy

background((laughs)).

Ok.WasitHumbersideyousaidyouwereatuniversity?

SubjectC:UniversityofHumbersideyes.ItwasHullcollegeofhighereducationwhenIapplied,itwasHumbersidePolytechnicforthefirstyearor2IwasthereandI

graduatedfromtheUniversityofHumbersideanditwasatthatpointsothiswaslike

90-93whenallthepolyswerebecomingunisbasicallyandthecollegeofhigher

educationbecameunisaswellorfurthereducationorwhateveritwas.SoyesIactually

itdidhave3differentnameswhileIwas,andIthinkitistheUniversityofEastLincolnshirenoworwhateveritisnottheUniversityofHumbersideanymore.

Ididn’trealisethat.Doyourecallanyparticulartextsthatyoustudiedthatdeal

with,Idon’tsupposeyoudiddidyoufromwhatyouhavetoldme…thatdealwith

advertisingor…

SubjectC:IdidImeanerm…Iwas,IreadRolandBarthesmythologies.AndIreadoh

therewasasuperbbookandIwishIshouldhaveremindedmyselfofit,WashingStainsbyJackieitwasaseminalkindofbookaroundtheuseoflanguageinadvertisingitwas

somethingtodowithwashingitwaslike,itwastheideaoflikehowdoyousellwashing

powderwhichessentiallywashesyourclothesandhowdoyoutalkaboutitandmakeit

seemdifferenttotheotherwashingpowders.

IsitcalledWashingStains?

SubjectC:IthinkitiscalledWashingStainsIwillhavetolookitupIwill,

Ifyoucouldjustdropmeane-mailthatwouldbegreat,thatwouldbesuper.

SubjectC:Iwilldoyes,yes.SoImeanaspartofmydegreeIthink20%ofitwas,80%

waspracticallikedoinggraphicdesignandtheotherpartofitwaslikeyouhadto

basicallywriteonthetheoryoferm…graphicdesignandwriteaboutthatkindoflike

mythologiesstylesortofthinking.SoIdidmythesis,myfinalthesisonerm…theonthe

languageandthelanguageandvisual(40.00)themesusedinelectionadvertisingsotalkingabouthowtheykindofwrite,therightofpoliticspartiesspokeandwhat

332

languagetheyusedandwhatlabourdidandthingslikethatandhowtheAmericans

havesortofsetthesceneandadvertisinginAmericainthe50s,hadsetthescenefor

stuffthatwashappeningoverhereinthe80setc,etcandthatsoitwasallaboutallthekindoflanguagearoundallofthosesortsofpostersandImeanandthiswasjustafter

the1992election,soIdon’tknowifyourememberittherewaserm…oneoftheTory

posterswaslabour’spolicyonarmsanditwasasoldierlikeinsurrenderlikethat,and

sostufflikethatreallyintriguedmeatthetimeandIwasquitepoliticalatvarious

pointsanditsortofintriguedmethatwholelanguageandIthinkit’syouknowit’sthosebarriershavenowbeenerodedreallyinthesensethatwealways,weunderstood

laboursupportedtheNHSbecausethatwaspartofthemythologyarounditwasn’tit,

semiotickindoflanguage.Whereasnowyouknow,theToriesyouknowyoucould

arguetheTorieshavedonegoodthingsfortheNHSbutbecausetheyareperceivednot

tocareabouttheNHSeveryonethinkstheydon’tcareandtheyaredoingit,andprobablythetruthissomewhereIthemiddleisn’titbut,erm…soitwasverymuch

aroundthepointlikeitwasn’tworthlabourtalkingaboutdefencebecausetheycould

neverwinbecausetheTorieswereperceivedtobethe…

Thepartyofdefenceandlawandorderandallthat.

SubjectC:Exactlyand,itwaserm…itwasalmostlikewell,youknowhowcouldlabour

everkindofwalkthat,howcouldlabourevertalkabouteconomicpolicyordefence,becausetheyweren’tperceivedtobetheirstrongpointssoyesitwasallaboutthat

reallyso,soyestherewasapartwherewehadkindofa,wehadaclass,wehadakind

ofweeklyclassthattalkedaboutallofthiskindoferm…youknowthesemioticsaround

advertisinglanguageandthingslikethat.

Socialsemiotics.

SubjectC:Yes,yes.NotverymanypeopletookitveryseriouslyinmyclassIhavetosay.

Really.

SubjectC:ButIwasoneofthefewwhodidanderm…yes,butIthinktheywere

designersyouseeandIwasanartdirectorandtherewasadifferencethereso,

Doyounowtoday,doyourefertoanytextanytheoreticaltextinthisarea,in

yourworkoristhisstuffinthepastyouknowitandyougetonwithyourjob?

333

SubjectC:Ithinkformetherewaslikeahugekindoferm…shockactually,acultural

shock,therewasaculturalshockwhere,

Anepiphany?

SubjectC:Yeswellyoukindof,yougotoUniandeveryoneistalkingaboutthehip

designersandtheseyouknowthesewritersandtheseculturalthingsthatareallgoing

on,andthenyougoandgetajob,andeveryoneistalkingaboutfootballandfightingandpornandlikebrawlingandbirdsanditis,andthatkindoflikeculturalintellectual

aspectoflifejustdoesn’texistinagenciesinthewaythatitdidatuniversitywhichis

sortofobviousIthinkbut,youknowImeanasapointofinterest,whendiscussingyour

appointment,mybusinesspartnerwhoisanintelligent,rationaledegreeuniversity

educatedman,sortofsaidheaskedmewhatsemioticswasandIamlikedon’tyouknow,hewaslikenobecauseheisnotfrom,hedoesn’thavethatkindofcapacity,he

doesn’thavethatbackgroundorlearning.Itisnotthatheisnotcapableof

understandingwhatitis.Butitisjustnotpartofhistrainingorconsiderationreally.So,

Couldyoujusttalkmethroughtheprocess,whenyougetabriefforanewadand

youhavegotalotofleewaytodowhatyouwant,canyoujusttalktomebriefly

aboutyourcreativeapproach,yourphilosophyandwhatgoesthroughyourmindwhenyougetthebrief?Startfromthebeginningofit.

SubjectC:Ithink,ImeanItalkedabouthowyoukindofcopewithabrief,erm…Imean

Irarelygetbriefsnowbecausewearenotthatkindofbusiness,butwhatIwilldoisI

willspeaktoaclient,anddragabriefoutofthem,((laughs))justusingmyexperience

really.ButIthinkthereisalways,thereisalwaysapointtoabrief,anditisaboutfindingwhatisrelevanttothecustomerortheprospectortheclienterm…Imeanwe

doyouknowalotofwhatwedoisn’tIwouldsayhowcanIputthis,thereisprobably4

or5agencies(45.00)inLondondoingallthekindofreallycleverheadlinedriven,high

conceptsortofmulti-millionpoundbudgetstuffandthenthereiseveryoneelseweare

partofthateveryoneelsemix.Imeanalotofourclientsarebusinesstobusinessclients,soweworkforerm…weworkforatheatreanddrapebusiness,whoareactuallyI

meantheyareinthetop5ofthattypeofcompanyintheworldbutwhenwedowork

forthemandwehavejustredonetheircatalogueandrebrandedthemandcreateda

newwebsitefromscratchanditisverymuchaninternationalfacingthingssoyoucan’t

affordtobetoocleverandtoosortofobtusewithyourlanguageoryoucan’tplayonculturalsortofreferencestoomuchbecausesomeoneinShanghaiprobablywon’t

understandwhatyouaretryingtogetat.ButImeanIthink,Ithinkerm…mostclients

havegreatdifficultyincondensingwhattheydointoasimplestatement.AndIseethat

asmyjob.Ialwayssay,Ineedtoknowyourbusinesstheclient’sbusinessenough,I

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needtoknowitjustenoughtounderstandhowIneedtoexpressittosomeonewho

doesn’tunderstandit.Ifthatmakessense.Soforme,abriefisalwaysaprocessof

simplifyingsomethingtoitsbasicbroadestterms,butactuallythatisnotaneasythingtodoandespeciallyforaclient,whocan’tseethewoodforthetrees.Andusuallythere

is,abriefthereisapointtoabriefinthesensethatitmightbeIwanttosellmoreyards

offabricorIwanttodoerm…atheatrerefit,hereorsomethingofthatilk.Whereas

erm…youknowactuallygettingacrosswhattheydoinverybasictermsanderm…

wrappingthatroundintoasortofshortstatementisactuallywhat,that’swhatIdoreally.SoIthinkvery,veryrarelywillItrytodoanythingcleverwithlanguageonanyof

myclients.Becauseclientsdon’t,don’twantthat.Inmyexperience.Probablyatthis

highfalutingkindofinternationalcocacolaaccountlevel,althoughthelanguageincoca

colaisverystraightforwardaswellisn’tittobefair,erm…youknow,peopledon’t,

clientsdon’ttendtowantintellectualspinsonthingsintermsoflanguage,andintermsofconcepts.Sosomeclientsjustdon’twantconceptdrivenworkatallandyoujust

deliverit,youdeliverthemessagefortheminaverystraightforwardclearway.So,I

don’tknowifthathasansweredyourquestionbutIthinkitisaprocessofactually

strippingawayallthebullshitaroundabrief,drawingitdowntobrasstacksandtryingtogetintotheshoesofaconsumerandunderstandingwhattheirmotivationwillbeto

makeapurchase,orbuythatserviceorwhateverthepointoftheactualbriefis.Soitis

very,verykindoferm…actiondriven.Mymindisactiondrivenitislikewellwhoare

you,whatdoyousell,whatisthebenefitofthat,andwhatdoyouwantmetodo.SoI

thinkthereis,Igothroughthatprocessandcomeoutwithsomethingattheend.

RightthatisinterestingbecausemynextquestionIwanttocometo,youwillstarttoseewhereIamgoingwithitinaminute,butsomethingthatyousortofmainly

answeredIthinkforme,whenyouaredevisinganadvert,andvisualiseit,isit

sortofisyourmentalconcept,onceyougetyourbrief,isitacompletedprocess

fromthestartorisitabuildingprocessrequiringalotofchangesandrefinement

overtime?Ordoyouseeitfromthestart?

SubjectC:Erm…Ithink,IthinkIwouldsaymostthingsIcanseequitequicklybecause

Ihavedonethembeforelikeseveraltimesanditisadifferentspinonaslightly

differentproductordifferentcompanyetc,etc.SoItendtoknowwhatIamdoingquite

quickly.

Soyouhaveamentaltemplateinplace?

SubjectC:Yes

Anditvariesaccordingtotheparticular…

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SubjectC:Ihavekindof,yes.Ihavedone,ImeanIremembergoingtoWWAVthe

companyinLeedsandbeinggivenabrief,afinancialservicesbriefandIremember

beinginthisbriefandbeingutterly,utterlyconfusedoneofthefirstjobsIeverdidat

WWAVandIthoughtwhoawayoutofmydepthhere,Ihavenotgotacluewhatthey

aretalkingaboutanditwasfinebecausethecopywriterwentohyes(50.00)Iknowwhatthatis.Wentawayandwroteit,gavemethecopyandItookthecopyandlooked

atthebriefagainandthought,ohyesthatiswhattheymean.Andthecopywriterhad

donethatjobandIwas,asaninexperiencedartdirectoratthatpointIwaslike…andit

tookmeabout6monthstokindofgetwhatthatprocesswasandthenstartdoingitfor

myselfbutIwasverygratefultotheseveryexperiencedcopywritersthattheyshowedmethewayinmanyways.AndIthinkitisreallyinterestinglike,peopleatthatpoint,

peoplewereanyone,everyonecanwritecan’tthey,everyoneImeaninmyexperience

noweveryoneisadesigner,everyonecandodesign,noyoucan’t.Erm…buteveryone

canwritesoacopywriterwouldquiteoftenproduceareallynicelycraftedpieceofcopy,

andthentheaccounthandlerswouldcomeoverandmakealoadofamends,andthentheclientwoulddothesameandthecopywriterswerehugely,hugelyabusedinmy

opinionandIcouldn’tbelievethatthecopywritersdidn’tstandupfortheirworkmore

asIdidingraphicdesigntermsatthatpoint.SoIthink,like,andthatwasprobablythe

typeofcompanywhereIwasatthatthetimeofdirectmarketingverysortoflike

scientificandkindofcraftedandfocussed,andthecopywasalmostthebitthateveryonecouldhaveabitoffunon,whoweren’tinthecreativedepartmentbecause

everyonecanwritecan’tthey.AndnormallyatbestitwouldbelikeyousaypotatoIsay

potatotheyjustwriteitinaslightlydifferentway,butnormallytheywouldmakeit

kindofsignificantlyworse((laughs))andIthinkerm…copywhatImeancertainlymyexperiencewasabusedbymeddlers,madmeddlersalotbutittendedtobethesortof

morethebodycopyratherthantheheadlinestuff.Theywouldleavemealoneactually

toalevelbutthenreallystickthebootinwiththecopywriters((laughs))andchangeit,

whatwasyourquestionIcan’trememberyourquestion.

Yeswhetheryouseeitasacompletedfromthestartorwhetheritisabuilding

process.

SubjectC:YessoIsupposewhatIwassayingwasatthatpointItookthatbriefIwasoutofmydepth,Ineededthecopytoshow,Ineededthecopywritertoshowme.Nowif

yougavemethatbriefIhaveprobablydoneit,IhaveprobablydoneImeanIhavegot

20Iwouldhavegraduated23yearsIthinkinSeptemberornoroundaboutnowisn’tit

actuallywhenyougraduate,graduatedin93,no22yearssoIhaveprobablyseenthatbriefbefore,atsomepointbecauseIhavenever,Ihavenevertakenabreakfromthis

sectorIhavealwaysworkedinthisjob.So,theprocessnowisIhavealwaysgot

somethingtoreferencethatIhavedonepreviouslysothatkindofworkingoutthatthat

copywriterhadtodoforme,Ialreadykindofknowthatinmyhead.

336

Thatworkingoutthatyouhavejustmentionedthere,whatdoesitactuallyentail,

thatiswhatIamtryingtosortofreallydiginto.

SubjectC:IthinkitiswhatasIsaidbeforeitislikestrippingawayallthebullshit.

Totherealpurposeofit?

SubjectC:Yes,

Wasthecreativeprocess[53.30]

SubjectC:Quiteoftenwithaclient,Iamtryingtothinkofagoodexampleofaclientwe

havegot,theymight,soweworkwithashippingconsultancy,atthemomentwhoare

aninternationaloutfit,andagainwerebrandedthemlastyearanderm…wedidtheir

websiteandwehavejustactuallywhenIwasonthephone,wehavejustdoneane-mail

communicationthismorningouttotheirdatabasewhichhasgoneoutwhichIwroteanddesigned.And,erm…interestinglyiftheygiveyouabrieftheywillsayIwanttodo

acommunicationtomydatabaseandIwanttotalkaboutpre-purchasevessel

inspectionsandIwanttotalkaboutdrydockingandIwanttotalkaboutflag

administrationandIwanttotalkabout,andIwanttotalkabout,andIwanttotalk

aboutanddon'tforgettomentionthis.AndweareinShanghaiandinDubaianditislikewhoa,andIthinkpartofmyjobagainistosayactuallyifsomeoneisgoingtoread

ane-mail,atbesttheyaregoingtoglanceatit,inthewaythatpeopleglanceatthat

letter,thatdirectmailletterandthereisalotofsimilaritiesbetweenwhatdirectmail

didontheskillsIlearntthenandwhathappensnowinon-linecomms.Peopleatbestwillseeavisual,thatwillhopefullytellthemwhatthethemeis,theywillseeaheadline

thatwillsetitandtherewillbesomesubheadswithinthatletterthattheycanscan,

(55.00)andthentheywilldeleteitortheywillgotosomethingelse.Iftheyarereally

interestedtheywillthenreadthatletterandpressonalinkanditisaboutyouknowa

clientandaccounthandlersgenerallywillwanttodosomethingbuttheywillwanttotalkabout20things,itismyjobtosayno,noyouneedtospeakabout1thing,youneed

tobereally,reallyfocussedaboutoneaspectofthatcommunicationandgetacrossone

pointonthebasisthatsomeoneisonlygoingtotake3secondstolookatit.Soone-mail

forinstance,asacommunicationplatformthesubjectlineisreally,reallyimportant.I

meanobviouslythereare,ifyouusefreesexchocolatekindof,ifyouusethewordfreeorsexoranykindofovertlysalesylanguageinasubjectlineitwilljustgointoaspam

boxsoyouhavegottobecarefulaboutwhatyousaybutthatlinecanreally,really

affectwhetherthate-mailisdeletedoropened.So,thereis,itis,solanguageislike

vitallyimportanttothesuccessofacommunicationon-lineinthee-mailsenseandI

think,andthatisagainlikeyoucanonlywritewellaboutonethingIwouldsay,anditis

337

aprocessofsayingwellthisiswhoyouare,thisiswhatyouaregoodat,thisiswhatyou

do,thisiswhatyouwanttheclienttodo,anditisonethinganditisasortof,buta

clientwillnaturallywanttotalkaboutall15thingstheydo.Andso,itisalmostlikeacorralling,itisajobofcorrallingtheinformationandusingtherightsortofthing.Sothe

programmewearedoing,thereis,thee-mailthatwentouttoday,isthefirstofa5stage

e-mail,communication.Sothereisane-mailgoingout,onceaweekforthenext5

weeks,andthatprogrammeisgoingtobuildupastoryofallthethingstheydo.And

workasakindofdripfeedintermsofallofthe15thingstheydoaregoingtobeencapsulatedinallofthesee-mailsbutnotatthesametime.

Sowhatdoyouheadlinethen?

SubjectC:What’swhat?

Goingbacktoyourheadlinethen,youhavegotoneshotreallytomakethat

immediatelyrelevant,tothereader.

SubjectC:Yes

Andifitisnotrelevanttothemitgoesinthebin.

SubjectC:Yesthatisdirectmailyes,whichisthesamewith…

Thatisveryinterestingtomywork,thatisveryinteresting.Iwillspeakmoreaboutthatlater.

SubjectC:Ok

ThenextonereallyandagainitisagenericquestionforalladvertisersIdon’t

knowifitappliestoyou,itpossiblydoesdo,towhatextentdoesyourapproach

differaccordingtowhetheryouarepromotingabrand,thatisyourmainissue,

gettingyourbrandknownoradvertisingaspecificproduct.

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SubjectC:Yeserm…

Isthereadifference?

SubjectC:Thereiserm…yesthereisadifferenceyes.Erm…becausequiteoften,erm…

quiteoftenyouknowproductswillbedefinedbyservicearoundit,regardlessofhowgoodornotthatproductis.Wehaveoneclientactuallywho,thisismoreabranding

thing,wehaveoneclientwhowedidaresearchpiecearounderm…itwasabout2

yearsagonow.Wehadmorestaffthen.Erm…andessentiallythey’reabusinesswho

areresellerforareallywellknownsoftwareproduct,inindustrialautomationboring

subjectbutbasicallyifyouhavegotaproductionline,andyouaremakingjamtartsthejamthatpopsintothemiddleofthetarthastobe56%Fahrenheithot,ifitis45itwon’t

setproperly,ifitistoohotitwillburnthepastryunderneathit,sotheirsoftware

automatesalltheprocessesinanindustrialprocess.So,that,seeIhaveexplainedthat

toyouin20seconds,theycouldn’texplainitinthoseterms,somyjobistounderstand

whattheydoandtellittoyouinareallysimpleway.Thedifferenceis,withthemisthattheyareoftentalkingtokindofprocessengineerswhounderstandalltheinsand

outsofit,butandIstilldon’treallyunderstandwhattheydo,butIunderstandit

enoughtotellyouwhattheydo((laughs))whichis,whichistheprocessthatIhadtogo

through.Buttheywouldstruggletotellyouthatinthoseterms.

Sotogobacktoit,sotheyareabusinessbasedinManchester,sortof20millionpoundturnoverbusiness,workinternationally,erm…gotthisreally,reallywellknownpieceof

softwarewhichisliketheindustrystandardinmanyways,oritisoneoftheindustry

standards.Itisnotquite,itisnotquiteacocacola,itisnotpepsi(1:00:00)butitis

probablyavirgincolatypeintermsofanalogy.Theyareactuallydefinedbythat

product.Nowthatproductisasoftware,itisapieceofsoftware,anditwilldocertainthings,butwhattheydoistheyprovidethesupportandthekindoftraining,todeliver

thisproduct.Thatthatmakesitislikethatproductbuythatproductfromus,wedoall

ofthisaroundit.Productsisagreat,productthereislotsofotherproductsthatare

greatproducts,thereislotsofotherbusinesseswhowillsellyouthoseproducts,butthe

reasonyoubuythatproductfromusistheservicelevelaroundit.So,itcanvary,butandthatwasanexampleofwhentheyhavetobeconnectedbecausesometimes,itis

like,itislikeshoppingatLidl,isn’tit.ShoppingatTescoIdon’tknowifyouhave

shoppedatLidlandTesco,intheUKrecentlyyougointoTescoeverythingisprobably

30%moreexpensive,andbutthereislotsofstaffonthecheckoutssoyoudon’thaveto

waitverylongandtheyareusuallylikequitetidyandcleanandpoliteandyouwalkouthavingpaid30%more.YougotoLidlitisalotcheaperbutthereisonecashieron,

thereisamassivequeue,gottopayforyourowncarrierbags,like,servicecustomer

serviceislikenon-existentalmostbutyouacceptitbecauseyouarepayingalotlessfor

it.So,Ithink,Ithinkthereisaverycleardifferencebetweenwhatyouareselling,and

whatthoseproductsare.Andthen,andthenthecompanywhodeliverthat.SoIdon’tknowifthathasansweredyourquestion.

339

Yes,Iwasjust,howyourapproachasadvertiserwoulddifferifyouwere…you

weretheretosupportabrand,wewanttogetoutbrandknowntothepublicout

thereversuswellwehave[01.01.52]newbakedbeanswithachillisauceonthem,

theyarereallyniceandwewanttogetthoseouttothepeople,wantpeopletogo

andtastethem.

SubjectC:Ithinkitvariesfromclienttoclienttobehonest.Imeanweworkforafurnitureretailerwhoareerm…again,theyarenot,thereisthebig5furnitureretailers

intheUKlikeDFS,SCSandpeoplelikethattheyarenumber6intheUK.Sotheyarea

bigoutfitbutnotnationallyknowntheyareveryregionalised.Andwhenwedowork

forthemitisallaboutproduct.Soitissofasbasically,anditisallaboutthissofaatthat

price,andthatishowmuchyousave,andisn’tthisagreatsofa.Liketheotherconcernsaroundtheirservicelevelsandtheirshopsbeingthisstandardorthatstandardis

irrelevant,totheminthatadvertising.

Sotheyaretransmittinginformationreally.Thatiswhattheyaredoing.

SubjectC:Basicallyanditisn’tandwehave,wehaveattemptedtosortofdobrand

buildingthingswiththemandwehaveattemptedtokindofyouknowwhywouldyou

goandbuyasofafromLauraAshley,becauseitisLauraAshley.WhydoyougotoIkea,becauseitischeapyoudon’tbragtoyourmatesyouhavegotanIkeasofa,doyouand

wehaveattemptedtodoanamountofbrandworkwiththem,andtheyarelikethey

havegotlikeasalesmentality,theyarenotinterestedatall.Soanyattempttokindof

deliverabrandedcampaignwithintellectualcontentitislike,apictureofasofa,pictureofasofa,apricepointandasavingpointandisn’tthisagreatsofa.Itismadeofthis

typeofleather,andithasgotthisprotractiblebit,isn’titgreatforthisprice,bangthatis

it.SoitcanvaryverymuchbutImeaninterestinglytheerm…themarineshipping

consultancyImentionedearlier,theyareallaboutqualityoftheservice,youknow

thereisotherpeoplewhodowhattheydo,butitisthoroughnessofwhattheydoandactuallytheirbigsellingpointistheclarityofthereportingaroundwhattheydo.So

speakingtopeopleinlayman’sterms.Sotheywilldothisbigcomplextechnicalship

inspection,buttheywere,theirpositionisthattheyworkforalotoflikefinancial

entities,sotheyneedtospeaktothefinance,thesepeopleinchargeofthesefinancial

entitiesinacertainwaynotinakindoftechnicalwayitisusinglayman’slanguageassuchsolaymen’sterms.Sobuttheyareallabouttheservice,aboutthekindof

standardsthattheykindofgetover.

Rightyouhaveansweredthatquestionthankyou.Doyouactuallyconsciously

thinkaboutsemioticswhenyouareactuallydesigningadsnowordoesitoccurto

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you,doyoureflectbacktowhatyouweretaught?Orisitnowjustsecondnature

andinstinctiveandintuitiveandsoon?

SubjectC:Ithink,Ithinkitwouldbeintuitive,reallyerm…Ithink,Ithinkatthelevel

wework,Ithinkvery,veryfewclientswantasortofclever(1:05:00)semiotickindofapproachtowhattheydo.

Youdon’tpulloutBarthesor

SubjectC:NoIthinkthaterm…it’s,obviouslythisisanonymousisn’titassuch.

Ofcourseitisyes.

SubjectC:YesImeanIthinkthe((laughs))Iamturningroundjustincasethe

marketingmanagerwhoworkshereisinhere,erm…Ithink,Idon’tknowifthisisjust

megettingoldandgettingcynical,andbecomingbitterIdon’tthinkitis.Ithinkthelevelofintellectual,marketingusedtobeanexpensivethingtodoandbein.Likeinmy

WWAVdaysinLeedsinthesortoflatetomid90s,midtolate90slikeyouknowwe

weredoingprintrunsofhalfamillion,onaDMpiece.Youknowwewouldmaybe

charge10grandpermailing,forthecreativeitwasbig,itwasbigcost,itwasbigprint

runstherewasbigstakes,erm…Imeanmyerm…myrecordintermsofaprintrunis22.5million.ImeanIwouldsayIhaven’tdoneaprintrunbiggerthan1000forquite

sometimenow.Soyourentrylevelisvastlydifferenttowhatitwas,sowhereasitused

tobeanindustryfullofprofessionals,Iwouldsaynowitisanindustrythathas

professionalsatvariouslevelsbutisfull,isfullofpeoplewhodon’treallyknowwhattheyaredoingandthat,soIthinktheindustryhasbeendeskilled,de-intellectualised,

andthecontentisalmostbecominglessimpressiveandthatiswhyIthinkmyskillsare

actuallybecomingmorerelevantbecauseIknow,Ihavedone,Barthes,Ihavegot

BarthesIhavedone…JackieWalsh,IwillseekitoutandIwille-mailyou.Erm…andI

thinktheintellectualcontent,marketinghasbecomekindofitisalmostlikeIamgoingtosoundreally,reallypatronisingnow,butithasbecomethekindofchoiceofpeople

whoaren’thugelyacademicwhowantabitoffluffaroundwhattheydoandit’skindof

likethereisalackof,thereisareallackof,ofprofessionalrigourwithinmarketingasa,

andifanythingon-linehasmadeitworse.Anyonecanputupawebsite,anyonecancall

themselvesawebsitedesignernowtheydon’thavetobe,IcancallmyselfadesignerbecauseIwenttouniversityandIhavedonethejobfor20years,butIwillbeup

againstsomekidwhohasneverbeentoartcollegeorneverdoneadegreeindesign,he

willbelikeohyesIamawebsitedesignerandwhathedoesisknowshowtouse

WordPress.

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Semi-skilled.

SubjectC:Heissemi-skilled.SoIthinktheindustryhasbeenmassively,massively

deskilled.And,erm…asa,asaforinstance,andthisislikelifeintheregionsIguessI

mean,Iam,weareprobablyabletochargeabouthalfwhatwewereabletocharge10

yearsagoforourtime,soImeandon’tgetmewrongitisstillaninterestingjobanditis

stillengaginginawaythatworkinginasupermarketisn’tbut,whereasyouknowIwouldsaythereisstillalotofmoneyinitforthebigfirmsdoingthathighfalutingstuff,

anddrivingtheworkwithbigbrands,buttherehasbeenarealmovetokindofin-

houseservicesnow.Soeventhesoftwarethatweusehasbecomeeasiertouseand,the

levelofknowledgetooperatethesoftwarehasbecomedeskilledanyonecanlikeknock-

outadoublesidedfliernowitis,sotheworkwetendtogetisactuallymorecomplicated,intelligentstuffnowthankfullyanddoingthatbrochurechurn,anyonecan

useword,youcaninsertapictureintowordandtypestuffin,peoplekindofalmost

thinkthatisdesignnow.SoIdon’tknowifyouthinkthat,orIdon’tknowifitisjustme

beingbitter…

No,nowhenyoulookatsomeoftheadvertsIseeinthenewspaperfromlikeAsda,IlookatthoseandthinkIcouldhavewrittenthatandIhavenoexperience

whatever,Icouldhavedonethat.

SubjectC:SoIthinkyourquestionaboutsemioticsisinterestingactuallybecauseI

thinkitisbecominglike,morebrainlesstobehonestasabusinessandasanindustry

andIthinkyouknowtherewillalwaysbethatrealtopechelonofstuffgoingon,(1:10:00)butIthinkthereisalot,alotofshitegoeson,alotofshiteanderm…yesthat

ismyprofessionalopinionyeswhichsoundsverybitterIknowbutthereweare.

Nothatisonlytruth.ThenextoneyouhaveansweredformesoIwon’taskyou

thatoneagain.Erm…wehavetalkedaboutthatonesoIammovingdown

quickernowerm…ifyouareadvertisingtogroupofpeoplehowdoyouactually

identifyyourtargetaudience,whatworkdoyoudoforthatorisitpartofthebrieforhowdoesthatwork?

SubjectC:Alotofitisarounderm…itisvery,very,veryrelevantandIthinkalotofit

isarounderm…wedoalotof,whenwedodirectmailalotofitisarounddataselection

andselectingtherighttypeofdata.Wetendtodomorebusinesstobusinessstuff,so

forinstanceIputadatabriefouttheotherdayforsomething,anditwilltendtobearoundseniordecisionmakers,sodirectorlevelpeopleincertainsectors,inbusinesses

342

ofacertainsize,inacertaingeographyandthatistheselectionsothat’sfroma

businesstobusinessperspective.

Yes,yeswellactuallythatisprobablygetting,whatweprobablydoissaywewantto

starttospeaktofacilitiesdirectmanagersandoperationsdirectorsinthesesectors,in

thesegeographiesandwhatisthedatacountpleasetypething.Ifyouaredoingkindof

moreerm…consumerstuff,Iwillgobacktoourfurnitureclientactuallywhenwedidabig,thelastbigmailingactuallywhichwasprobablyabout4yearsago,3yearsagothat

wedidwasforthemandIthinkitwaslike,itmighthavebeenacoupleof100thousand

ormaybehalfamillionorsomethinglikethat,itwasthelastbigjobwedid,anditwas

basicallyitwasbasicallyasalesleafletlikeadouble,wellalittlebookletIguessandit

wassentouttoaspecificaudience.Sothesofa,furnitureclient,itiskindoflikeitisnotLauraAshley,itisnotM&Sbutneitherisitsortofbargainbasementtheyarekindof

likeamiddleground.Theyareaffiliatedtotheco-opsothatgivesyouanidea.Theyare

nottoo,theyarenottoomuchthat,theyarevery,theyareactuallyrightinthemiddle

nowIthinkaboutit.Sotheir,thedataselectionaroundthem,wasaboutidentifyingpeopleofacertainage,orcertainageband,ofacertainsortoferm…acertainincome

level,livingincertaingeographies,socertaindrivetimesofthevariousstoresthatwe

werekindofpromoting,soitwasmoreitwaslessaboutthekindofintellectualkindof,

itwasn’taboutdotheyreadtheGuardian,ordotheyreadtheSunitwasmoreabout

welliftheyliveinthatkindofarea,andtheyareinthatkindofhouse,probablyeducatedtothatkindoflevel,andtheyareprobablythetypeofpersonwhobuys

furniturefromthisstore,soitwasmorearoundlifestyleandsortofthosekindsof

indicatorsratherthanbeingkindofmoremicrointhekindofculturalsenseintermsof

youknowlikelifestylechoicesandstufflikethat,itwasn’tthat.Butitistothepoint

where,youknowtherewillbeastreettherewhohasahouse,housesofacertainsortofsizeandyouknowyouwant3,youwanthouseswith2bedroomsetcbecausethat

indicatesfamilyblah,blah,blahincertainareasbutthestreetnexttoitmightbearow

ofcouncilhousesforinstance.Andyouwouldn’tnecessarilymailthatstreeteven

thoughitisnexttothatone,eventhoughtheyareinthesamesortofarea.Soitisdown

tothatkindoflevelreally.

Right.Erm…

SubjectC:ButsorryIwillgiveyouanotherexampleofstuffwearedoingatthe

momentandthisisreallyinterestinganditisagainitisaboutlanguage,wellitisabout

audience.Sooneofthebestplatformsatthemoment,oneofthebestplatformson-line

intermsoflikeadvertising,isFacebook.HowdoFacebookmaketheirmoney

Ihaven’tgotaclue.

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SubjectC:OkFacebookok,soIamonFacebook.SoFacebookknowsthatIam44years

old,yesIam44yes.Ihadtothinkaboutthat.SoFacebookknowsIam44yearsold,it

knows(1:15:00)Ihavegotaninterestincricket,inliterature,infilm,indi,didididi,

anditknowsIlivewhereIliveaswellso,Facebookisverygoodatprofilingwhoyou

are.NowifyoudoFacebookadvertisingyoucanselectveryspecificagegroupsandaudiences,soweareatthemomentdoingacampaignwhichisprovingtobevery

successfulandveryeffectiveforauniversitywhodoacertaintypeofvocationaldegree

basedaroundthemusicandentertainmentindustrybasically.Andsowhatweare

doingatthemomentiswearetargeting17to18yearolds,whohavegotinterestsin

music,incertaingeographiclocations,whoerm…whoareprobablygoingtogoto,arethinkingabouthighereducation,furthereducation.Sowearedoingaverytargeting

campaignsoyouwon’tseetheseads,ifyouare22ifyouare18youwill.Sowehave

locatedanagegroup,incertaingeographiesaroundwherethisuniversityis,butalso

goneintowhattheirkindofculturalinterestsare,becauseweknowtheyneedtobe

quitetechnicalbecauseitislikeitisbasicallylikeerm…stagemanagement,visualproductionstypethings.Sotheyneedtobeabitarty,theyneedtobealittlebit

technicalaswelltheyareprobablygoingtobeinterestedinmusic,andentertainment

andfilmandthingslikethat,andweknowtheyneedtobetherightageinthis,andwe

knowthattheyneedtobekindoflookingtogotouniversityandstufflikethataswell.

Which,youknow,wearefunnellingthiscampaigntothatvery,verysmallsortofdistinctaudienceandthatcampaignisworkinglike[01.16.56]thesign-upsaregoing

very,verywell.So,andthatisavery,thatislikedirectmarketingsothatisaboutlike

writingtherightkindofad,andwehavecomeupwithacampaignconcept.Itisoneof

thenicestbitsofworkwehavedoneactuallyintermsofconceptdrivenstuffanditisallabouterm…thecampaigniscalled,itis#becauseitisallonlinenow.

#careerslessordinary.Anditisallaboutthemdoing,takingadegreethatwillendupin

ajobwheretheywillbeastagemanagerforatouringconcertthattourstheworld.So

itisverymucharoundwhattheiraspirationsare.Itisacareerlessordinaryitisnotan

officejob,itisgoingtobeontheroad,itisnotgoingtobe9–5,itisgoingto,youaregoingtomeetpopularartistsandrockstarsandroadiesandallthatkindofthing,you

arearoadieyoucanbearoadieyouknowasaresultofdoingthisdegree.Soanditis

verymuchabouttappingintokindofthataudiences’sortofaspirationsortoflikeI

don’twanttoworkatTesco,Idon’twanttoworkina9-5job,Iwanttodosomething

thatisgoingtoearnmelikeagoodamountofcashandbeaninterestingvariedcareer,soIthinkthatis,andencapsulatingcareerslessordinaryasaconcepttheme,theclient

boughtitabsolutelyboughtitstraightawayitwaslikemetellingthemwhattheir

campaignconceptisanditwaslikeandIpresentedit,inapitchitwasoneofthefirst

ideasIhad,ohyes#careerslessordinary,bang,thatiswhatthatisanditwasaboutand

theyboughtit,liketheydidn’tevendiscussittheyboughtitthereandthen.So,sothatisthebitthat,thatiswhat…

That’sasspecificasyoucangetisit…yes.Soaquickquestionaboutthis,could

youjusttellmehowdoyou,whatstepsdoyoutaketomakesurethatyou,the

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intendedrecipientoftheadvertactuallyunderstandsitandgetsthefullpointof

whatyouaresaying?

SubjectC:Ijustthinkit’sabout,againlikeIsaidboilingitdowntoasimplestatement

thatyoucanunderstandreallyquickly.Italkaboutthat,industrialautomationsoftwareproviderwhatdoyoudo,well((laughs))youcouldsitherefor2hours,atechnicalguy

wouldsitherefor2hoursandtellyouwhattheydobutifIsayohtheycontrolthe

temperatureofthejamthatgoesinthetartsinanindustrialautomationprocess,the

softwaretheyprovidedoesthat,yougetitdon’tyou.AndIthinkitisaboutthatiswhatanadisisn’tit,itislikesayingwellwhatdowedo,whatisthebenefitofdealingwithus,

whathowarewegoingtomakeyourlifeeasierorbetterorhowarewegoingtomakeit

moreinterestinganditisalmostlike,boilingdowntothatverybasiccoredesire,you

know.Allthese17–18yearoldkidswhatistheircoredesire,itistohaveareallygreat

timeatworkandearnloadsofcash.Itisacareerlessordinary.And…

Iwasthinkingbacktoyourmythologieswhichiswhatyoumentionedthere(1:20:00)ImeanoneoftheexamplesthatBarthesgivesiserm…Italianicity

Idon’tknowifyourecallthatone.

SubjectC:Yes,yes

Where…

SubjectC:Usingred,yellowandgreen.

Italiancoloursthiskindofthingforthepasta.

SubjectC:YesdoyouknowthatisinterestingIrememberedthatfrommythologiesand

Iusedittoexplaintheconceptoferm…semioticstomybusinesspartner.Icouldn’trememberthetermItalianicitybutIuseditasasortofexample.

Yesitiswhathecameupwithisn’tit,andonedoeswonder,Iwondertosome

extendisdopeopleseethatItalianicityinthatadvert.Aretheygettingitthat

message?Itisverycleverlycraftedbutaretheygettingit?

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SubjectC:Yes,yesIthinkitisinterestingisn’tit,itisnotjustthroughlanguageisit,it

isthroughvisuallanguageaswell,andImeanthis,thee-mailIdidthismorningforthe

shippingconsultancyithasgot,erm…a5point,thereis5pointswhytheirserviceisbetterthananyoneelse’s,andIwrappeditupasa5starguarantee,sotheopeningline

wasguaranteedby[01.21.07]thecompanyandthenIhavegot5starssoIamusing

visuallanguagetoreinforce…

SignifywhatBarthes…

SubjectC:YesandIverymuchdoubtwhetheranyonewillreadthroughthe5points

buttheywillsee5starguarantee,and5lovelylikesilverstarslookingniceandclassy,andtheywillgoohyes,yes.Ohyestheymustbegoodbecausetheyguaranteeit.What

dotheyguaranteewellweneveractuallysayreally((laughs))butitisjustgettingthe,

it’sjustgettingacrossreallyquicklythattheyaresomeonewhocanbetrusted.That’s

basicallyitislikeareyougoingtomakemelookstupidinfrontofmyboss,isoftena

corekindofconcernforpeoplebuyingprofessionalservices.YouknowitistheIBMthing,youknownoonegetsfiredforbuyingIBMdotheyanditislikeyouhaveto

almostpositionyourclientastheIBMofwhatevertheirworldis,so.ButasIsayitis

likeIsayitisthroughvisuallanguageasmuchaserm…aswordsandIthinkthat’s

whereyouknow,agraphicdesignerwouldjustthinkvisuallyIthinkandIthinkanart

directororacreativedirectorwouldthinkabouthowthatvisualcancombinewithamessagetomakeitmorepowerfulandworkharderandbeclearer.

Doyoumakeaparticularpointofusingiconsinfactyouhavejusttoldmeyou

have,haven’tyou,youhaveusedsomeiconsinyourstars.Obviouslyyouhavea

mentalcollectionofthesethatyoucancalluponand…

SubjectC:Ithinkyes,Ithinkyouknowifyoucanmake,ifyoucanvisualisesomething

andmakeitclear,Ithinkpeoplewillalwayslookatvisualsfirst,andthentheywilllookatwordssecond,soifyoucancombineanaptvisualwiththerightkindoflanguage

thenyouaredoingyourjobveryquickly.

Soyoumakeanassociationbetweenthevisual,andawordortwooraphraseor

somethinglikethat?

SubjectC:Yes,yes.

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Andthetwooperatesasacombineunittocreateacombinedmeaning?

SubjectC:YessowhereasIthinklikeIgobacktomyolddaysofworkingwith

copywriterstheywould,someofthemwouldthinkvisuallyandtheguywhowas

brilliantbutburntoutwasvery,veryvisualintermsofthewayhethoughtbutacopywritersomecopywriterswouldjustwritewhatthebriefwasbutnotvisualiseitin

anyway.OnecopywriterIusedtoworkwithactuallyerm…did,reallyhewouldalways

provideascamp,adrawingofthewayhewouldthinkitwouldworkvisually,not

necessarilyintermsofstylingbutintermsofhierarchy,andhewould,hewasastick…hedidstickmendrawingsandtheywerehilariousreallybuthe,hewouldseekto

visualisewhathewastryingtogetacrossthroughthesereallyrubbishdrawingsbut

theyactuallyonceIsawthemandsawhiscopythatIknewinstantlywhathewasafter

andhewastheguywhowasinthatoriginaltheexamplewhereIdidn’tknowwhatthe

jobwas,andhegavemethecopyandIunderstoodit.HewasthefirstgoodcopywriterIworkedwith,hereallytaughtmealotoftheropesandyes.Soyeswhen,whenitislike

theItalianstuffisn’tit,whenitgetsvisualandcombineswith[01.24.31]thatiswhenit

isatitsmostpowerful.

Thelastquestionreallythen,becauseIthinkyouhaveansweredeverythingelse

erm…doyou,Ithinkyouevenhaveansweredthis,Iamjustitisaquestionreally

aboutpre-existingknowledgeofthecustomer.Andhowmanyassumptions,whatkindofassumptionsdoyoumakeaboutthatandhowdoyouverifythose

assumptionsarecorrect,becausetheymusthavesomeknowledgeotherwisethey

arenotgoingtounderstandyouradssurely.

SubjectC:Abouttheendconsumer?

Yes

SubjectC:Sorryjustrepeatthequestion.

YesIamlookingattheareaIwasthinking,(1:25:00)inordertomakesenseofyouradvertsyoumustassumesomepre-existingknowledge.

SubjectC:Yes

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Andhowdoyousortofcheckthatoutordoyou,orwhatassumptionsdoyou

makeaboutthat?

SubjectC:Ithinkthatisagutfeelthingreally.Ithinkerm…Ithink,sometimes,

sometimesitisnotjustasellingjob,itisaneducationjobaswellanderm…wehavedonealotofworkwithahealthsupplementbusiness,overtheyearsanderm…and

theyarenottheBootsendofsupplements,theyarenotlikeyouknow3packsforafiver

sortofendtheydosomeverysortof,verytheyworkwithdoctorstoputquitekindof

sophisticatedproductstogetherforveryspecifickindofhealthconcernsandissues.And,oftentheissueswewillcomeupwithwhenhedoessomething,isthatnoone

knowsabouttheproduct,nooneknowsaboutwhyyoushould,thereisn’tanyinherent

knowledgeinthemarketoftheproduct.Heisatrailblazer,hewillputthisnewproduct

together,andeveryoneisgoingwhythefuckdoIneedthat,Idon’tunderstandwhyI

needthat.And,andwhenIdoworkforhim,thereisoftenaneducationjobtogowithit,whichmeansyoucan’tdoitasacompletesell,sell,sellbecauseyouhavegottoeducate

anaudienceabouttheparticularproductfirst.Soheworksin,hedoesalotoferm…

likeerm…soheworksinthefieldoffishoilsandomega3,anditislikeyoumight

understandwhatomega3isandwhyitisimportantornotbutmostpeoplehavea

vaguesensethatfishandfishoilisgoodforthembuttheydon’tknowwhy,andtheywillgotoBootsandbuy3tubsforaquidorwhateveritis,andwhattheyaretakingis

morefishfatthatomega3,buttheydon’treallyunderstandwhatbitoftheomega,what

bitofthefishtheyneedorthefishoiltheyneed.Sothatisaneducationalprocesserm…

buttodo,togetthatacrossandthensellisreallyhard,becauseyouhavegottokindof,

youhavegottodoitinastagedwayandunfortunately,thisclienthispocketsaren’tdeepenoughtodothatjobquitefrankly.Eventhoughhehas,hehascreatedasetof

productsthatareabsolutelybrilliantreally,buthejustitisjusttoodifficulttogetit

across.

Marketiteffectively.

SubjectC:Yes

Can’taffordtomarketit.

SubjectC:Exactlyso,Imeanhisfishoil,atubofhisfishoilwillbelike£25butitwillbe,itwillbelikeanindividualcapsulemightbe10timesmoreeffectivethantherubbish

thatyoubuyatBootsbuteveryonesees£25tub,3tubsforafiver,whatareyougoing

tobuy.So,yesthatisaninstancewhenthatyouhavetodotheeducationbitbeforeyou

startsellinganditis,thatisdifficultthat.Anditisthatisreallyhardtodo.Anderm…

andquiteoftenaswell,thereis,likethebenefitsoftakingfishoilaresolongandvaried,

348

thatitisnotaneasyconcepttogetacross,veryquicklyeither,soImeanIwouldliketo

thinkIhavedonesomegoodstuffforhimovertheyears,butitisreallyvery,heactually

valueswhatIdo,becauseIcankindofmyjobistosimplifyhim,istosimplifythebenefitsofhisproducts.Andthedoctorwhoisconnectedwiththatbrandheactually

calledmeageniusatonepoint,andIamlikeIamnotageniusyouareageniusandthis

doctorisascleverashell,andheislikehedealswithliketreatmentsforaddicts,that

arekindofbeyondtheunderstandingofmostGPs,andthereforeheislikeheisonthe

vergeofbeingstruckoffhalfthetimebecauseheissoadvancedinhisthinking,andhethinksIamageniusbecauseIcankindofboildowntheproductsthattheyaremaking,

intosimpletermswhereashehadgotthe28reasonswhyyoushoulddoitinhishead,

whileIsaynoyoucantalkaboutallthis.AndIamnotageniuswhatIamdoingisgoing

throughthatmentalprocessofsimplificationandcondensingitintoaparagraphbutit

appearsgeniusbecausehecan’tthinklikethat((laughs))inthatsense.Soyes.

Thankyouthat’sbeenabsolutelymarvellous,Ihavegotlotsof…

SUBJECT D

SubjectD:Sothethoughtprocessesisquiteaninterestingone.Everyonehasgot,I

don’tthinkthereisaparticularrightorwrongwayofdoingit,forastartpoint.Imeanmyerm…oldlecturererm…veryinspiringchapwholiterallyusedtoseeshadowson

thewall,andshapesandthingslikethatandsuddenlygoohifwedidthat,his,he

openedyourmindtothepotentialthatcouldbethere.SoIthinkthekeythingis,whatI

havelearntfromthatwasthatactuallyideascancomefromanywhereatanypoint.You

havetojustbeopenenoughtoacceptthatthereisanideathereorthatparkitinyourhead,writeitdown,somehowrecorditandmakeamentalnoteofit,thatthenwill

actuallycometolifeatsomepoint.Andthatmightbeatsomepointin6months,ayear,

6yearsyoujustdon’tknowandIthinkyouknowyourmind,whatIdonowwiththe

purposeofthedigitalworldIusedtoalwayskeepascrapbookbecauseascrapbookwas

justmy,mythingsthatinspiremeadsthatIthoughtwerefantastic,lines,imagery,colours,typography,allworldsofdifferentformsofinspirationerm…thateventually

unravelthemselvesatsomepointwhetherthatwasconsciousorsubconsciouswhichI

thinkthesubconsciousmindisplayinganawfullottodowhatwedo.Erm…youcan

actuallyIhavecaughtmyselfdoingonceortwicewhereyoucomewithanideayouthinkitiscompletelyoriginalandthenmaybewhatyouhavedonesubconsciouslyyou

haveseensomethingtwoweekspriortothatonaprogramme,caught5secondsofit,

andthathasregisteredinyourhead.Ithinkyouneedtobemindfulofwhatisgoingon,

intheworld,youneedtobeontrendandifnottryingtokeepaheadoftrend,erm…you

needtokeepyourselfuptospeedandalwaysneverthinkatwhateverstageyouareat,thisiswhatIhavealwayserm…taughtmyselfthat,youneverknowalltheanswers,

erm…thereisalwaysprobablyabetterwaytodosomething,surroundyourselfbya

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mixtureofyouth,energy,experienceandindividualsfromalldifferentwalksoflife,

erm…andthatlendsitselftoabeautifulmixofdifferentthoughtscomingintoplay.

Don’talwaysthinkyouareright,thatisacrucialthingis,sometimesyourgutfeelingisright,andthathasprovedmeverysuccessfulthroughthecourseoftime.ButalsoI

havebeenwiseenoughtounderstandwhentoactuallystepbackandrecognisethat

eventhoughmyideaisonthetable,abetterideaisdonebyaguyoverhereoragirl

over,itisjustbeingopenmindedenoughtothatparticularthought.Andthatidea

actuallywhatItrytosaytopeopleisyoucanthinkonemindcanthinkwell,2mindsalwaysthinksbetter,3mindsalwaysthinksbetteragain,ifyoubouncetheideasaround

itisabitlikeanurturingmachinewithinthebraintotryandfindthisholygrailofa

beautifulidea.TodothatsometimesitisactuallythenknowingwhentostopandI

thinkthat’s,thatisasecretandatipwithinitselfisdon’toverbakethecake.Don’tkeep

goingandgoingandgoingandifwedid,itisknowingthatthatpointtheskillistorecognisewhentheideaisperfect,it’speaked.Thisisitguysdon’tprocrastinateany

more,nowitisacaseoflet'sbedecisivelet'sgook,weallknow,thegoodthingis

everyonehasgotexcitedbythisideahere,let'snowwehavegotanideahere,thatwe

havegotlikeanexcellentsortofstartpoint,nowlet'sexecutewithexcellence,soitispointlesshavingabeautifulideathatthenyoudon’tcraftandexecuteaswellasyou

possiblycando.Soagainyouhavepeoplewiththedifferentskillsetstocomeinand

thenbuildthatbeautifulideatoconveytheonbrandmessageforwhatpeopleseein

magazines,on-line,onTVcommercialsoranythinglikethat.Butitisalotofrecognising

pointsandIthinkthatisthecrucialpartthatalotofpeoplearecapableoferm…comingupwithageniusidea,buthalfthetimetheydon’trealisetheyaredoingitorsayingit,it

isactuallyjusthavingthat,thatsortoflikeconfidenceinyourselftoactuallyknowwell

whatyousaidthere,nottheotherbitsIthinkifyougobackonestepandwhatyousaid

thereaboutthat,thatlittleinsightthatobservation,thatwasreallybeautifulwhatwe

didthere,ifwetakethatinsightandobservationandthenweactuallyapplyitoverhereanddoalittlebitofatwistalmostlikemirroringitaroundthenyouhavegotsomething

reallyoriginalandfresh.AndIthinkalotofthatisjustthepointbeingthere,thereisno

setwayofactuallycomingupwithanideainmyheadIthinkthereisanumberof

differentprocesses,sometimesyoucanbeinthemiddleofwatchingamovieinthe

cinemarelaxinglostinthemomentandthenyouseesomethingorsomethingjustcomesinyourheadandthenyouthinkwow,that’sitIneedtorememberthatorthat,

thatpointthere,that,thattransition,thatsortofwaythatthewaythelighthitthat

persontherethewaythatcolourways,thatanimationsequencewellwecouldapply

thattothecampaignIamworkingonrightnow.Soitisbeingmindfulofallthose

differenttouchpointsthatyoucouldjustbeatanypointitcouldbeinteractingwithyourchild(05.00)itcouldbeplayingagameitcouldbejustthemomentwhenyouare

probablymostresponsivetogreatthinkingisactuallywhenyourelaxandwhenyouare

actuallyletyourmindunwind.IfyouactuallysitinaroomandthinkIhavegottothink

ofsomethingIhavegottothinkofsomethingIdon’tthinkyouwill,Ithinkyouneedto

handlethatpressurethatmomentandtrainyourmindtobesusceptibletoopenitislikeit’sagiantspongeitisaspongeoflightthathasbeenimmersedinthousands,

millionsofimages,ofwords,ofsounds,ofcoloursanditisjustknowingwhentosortof

likehowyouactuallygetthatsortoflikeallgoingandmixingintherightway.Andto

dothatyouneed,youneedaveryclearbrief,youneedtounderstandthebrandorthe,theserviceyouaretryingtobringtolife.Erm…youneedtosortofhaveandbe

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surroundedbypeoplewhoarelikeminded,inmanywaysbutatthesametimedifferent.

AndIthinkthatisthekeyisyouneedthedifferencesinthepeople,youneedpeople

whoareopenandrespectfulofoneanother,bouncingthoseideasaroundisreallycriticalandalotofpeopleerm…peoplesaythereisnosuchthingasabadidea,Ithink

unfortunatelytherearesomebadideas,butIthink,Ithinkitisthewayyourespondto

thatandyouactuallydon’thighlightthat.Youknowtheremightnotbeagreatideain

thatbutwhatyousaidthatwordingtherethatledyouimmediatelytosomethingelse,

soit’salllittlegentlesteppingstonesinthemindthatleadyoutotheactualgreatpointintheend.

Right.Thanksforthatyes.

SubjectD:Doesthatmakesense?

Itdoesindeed,yes.Ihavegotalittlebitofaquestionnaire,[06.34]notmiss

anythingoutandalsoforconsistencyofgoodresearchsoIaskeveryonethesame

questions.Someofthemyouwillhaveperhapsalreadyansweredorhalfanswered.

SubjectD:No,no,noIhaveliterallyjustsaiditasmymindsortofgoes.

Thatfine.Iwillletyoufreeflow,[06.49]Icanpickthebonesoutofthatlateron.

SubjectD:Wellhopefullythereisoneortwonuggetsinthere.

Definitelyyes,yes.Iwillstartoffwith,Ihavegotaquestionnaire,Iwillstartoff

withthequestionsaboutyoupersonallyifthatisalright.Myfirstquestionisby

whatroutedidyouentertheadvertisingindustrywhatisyourbackground?

SubjectD:OhmybackgroundIwastopofyearinadvertisinggraphics,erm…andIjustwonanationaladvertisingstudentaward,erm…soIwasencouragedbymylecturerat

20yearsoldtonotgoonanddoaBAironicallyeventhoughIprobablyacademicallyI

wantedtogetaBAbehindme,hesaidwhatyouneedtodorightnowiswhileyouhave

gotthisfootprintintoLondonandyouhavegotthebigguystakingnotice,youhave

beenjudgedbysomeverybignamesonthejuryoflikeandtheyhaveawardedyouavery,verygood,veryhighendstudentaccoladegonow,usethatasastartpointasa

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catalystforyourcareerandbelievemeunfortunatelyashardasitisforalecturertosay

this,noonewilleveraskyouwhatgradeyougotinmylineofwork,Iknowitisslightly

differentifyouareanuclearphysicistorsomethinglikethat,butinthelineofworkwedo,yourwayforward[08.04]thethingthatformulatesanyjobisyourportfolioofwork.

Yourportfolioofworkcanbedone,Ihaveseenitbedonebysomeerm…not

necessarilyveryeducatedpeoplehighenddegreesortof,buttheyhavegotagreat

mind.Andtheyhavegotagreatwayofactuallycominginto,andthedepartmentthe

creativedepartmentismadeuplikeafootballteam,ofdifferentpeoplewithdifferentskillsetsyouneedpeopletoplaydifferentrolesatdifferenttimes,andIthinkyouknow

that,thattraditionalwayinofalotofjobswhereyouneedalawdegree,youneedthis

degree,sothatisabsolutelyappropriateandrightforthosecareersbutwhatIwas

advisedbytheguywhoheadedthecoursewasrightnowyouaretopofyourcourse,

youaregettingadistinction,youjustwonanadvertisingawardyouandyourpartnerrightnow,at20yearsoldneedtoreallygoforitandItookhisadvice.Really,really

hardslogmiddleoftherecessionin1992,butweeventuallygotitandwemadeour

firstjobbeforewewere21[09.30]soitwasgreat.

Whatwasthecourseyoumentioned?

SubjectD:ThecoursewasHNDinadvertisingandgraphicsatStockportcollege.

Rightokthatisinteresting.Doyourecallanyparticulartextsthatrelatetoadvertisingthatyouusedinyourstudies?

SubjectD:Erm…nottextIthinkwewereverymuchencouragedtodo,wedidalotof

arthistoryerm…verymuchIlovedallthesurrealistserm…movementIthinkthatwas

quiteinspiringthingforme,seeingDaliandallthoseguysverymuchalotoftheart

movementsarequiteinspiring.Erm…creativereviewcampaignthemodernartistI

guessastheyprobablyweredeemedtobe,erm…inspiredmemoreIthinkbecausewewereimmersedinaworldofadvertisingatthetimeitwasHaagenDazitwas,

Boddington’sitwastheseweretheartistsoftodayandIthinktheyweremymajor

inspiration.IwanttoemulatethoseguystheyweremyMessisoftheadvertisingworld

(10.00)ifyoulikeandIwanttobelikethem.

Rightok.Sointermsoftheactualartofcopywritingofwritingupadsisthereanyparticularbooksthatyourecallbeingused?

SubjectD:IthinkOgilvyandAdvertisingwasagreatone,erm…alltheanythingwith

Bernback,theywerefantastictoreadaswell,erm…thosesortofliteraturesideof

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thingswewereencouragedtonotnecessarilysitdownandreadlotsandlotsofthings

likethisbutjustimmerseourselvesintheworldofwhatweenjoyedandthatworld

erm…wascouldbeanythingfromlyricsfromtheHappyMondaystowhereyourinspirationcancomeyouknow.Ithinkmusicwasabigformofinspirationforme,

erm…thepopcultureitself,thesportingculturebecauseitwasmy,mybackgroundis

sport.Myinspirationwasnotlikeatraditionalliteraturejourneyitwasmoreacaseofa

culturaljourneyifthatmakessense.

Itdoes,yes,yes.Thatisgreat.Doyourecallyoulearntaboutsemiotics?

SubjectD:YeswewerelearntasmallamountaboutsemioticsbutIthinkmycareerasithasprogressedIguessIhavelearntmoreandmoreaboutsemioticsandthe

importanceofhowtheyareandwhattheydoandlikeyouneedtobemindfulofwhat

happenswiththoseanderm…andbetailoringthingsinto,tosuitthatinthewaythat

weare.

Whatkindofsemioticsdidyoulearnaboutthenordoyouthinkabouttoday?

SubjectD:Goodquestion.((laughs))Deepquestion.Erm…Ithinktheindividualculturalones,thewaypeopleare,thewaytheyreact,erm…youknowhowcultural

inferencescansortoflikeerm…impactonthose.Erm…thedifferenttrendswhichare

comingthroughallthoseneedtoinformhowyouactuallygoabouttalkingtopeople,

erm…inacertainwayfromwhenIadvertiseXboxyouneedtounderstandalltheEmos

allthedifferentsortoflikepeopleyouaretalkingto,itisnotjustoneaudienceitislikealldifferentwavesofpeoplecomingthroughandsometimesnoonemessagestrikes

everybodydoesitlet'sfaceit.

Indeednotandthatissomethingwearegoingtotalkaboutinalittlewhilethat

aspect,trytodevelopthatabitmorewithyou.Soyouareseeminglyfamiliarwith

culturalsemioticsandthiskindofthingdidyoulearnaboutBarthesandthiskindofthingRolandBarthes?

SubjectD:No,no.

Okdoyouuseanytextnowifyouare[12.41]adsdoyoueverrefertotextorisit

justyourexperience?

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SubjectD:Ithink,unfortunatelywithover20yearsIguessofdoingIthinkIjusttap

intomyexperiencemorethananything.I,IamverymindfulIamvery,Ihavereadyou

knowliketheD&ADofthisworldhavebeenmybiblesthelikeIsaytheCraig(?)Reviewsunderstandingalltheawards,immersingmyselfinthatworldofwhatisgreat,

theEconomistadvertising,greatwordsfromthatpointofview,thattheyarethewords

thatinfluenceme.Readingbookserm…liketheOgilvyerm…Imeantheyarethe

influenceaswell.JohnHeggartyIreadhisgreat,youknowtheyaregreatbooksaswell

hislanguageheusesagainheisamassiveheroofmeerm…hewasliketheultimatesortofguywhenIwasgrowinguphewasliketheGodofadvertising,erm…andI

wantedtobe,Iwouldlovedtohaveworkedforsomeonelikethatbecausehestruckme

asacompletelyinspiringerm…veryreallywellmannered,verygifted,verybright,very

calmingsortofchapwhojustproducedgeniusandtheywere,theywerethebiggest

influencesformeandmygeneration.

Thankyou.Okyouhave,thenextpartofthisisaboutformingideasandIthink

youhavealreadysortofexplainedthatverythoroughlyformeerm…becausethe

questionwouldhavebeenexplaintheprocessofformingideasfornewadswhich

Ithinkyouhavejustdonethatanyway.

SubjectD:Yes

Therewasthebrainstormingprocess,thewaythatyouworkwithotherpeople,throwingideasaround,

SubjectD:Yes

SoIthinkwehaveprettymuchcoveredthat,erm…isthereanythingyouwantto

addaboutyourphilosophyofyourdailywork?

SubjectD:Erm…myphilosophyIthinkerm…constantlylooktostriveandbebetter

erm…don’tbelieveyouknowalltheanswersbecausenoonedoes.Lookatwhatis

happeningintheworld,liftyourheadupawayfromyourlaptop,awayfromyourcomputer.Erm…Ihavethreeyoungchildrenwhoare11,13and9seeingtheirworld

unravelandthewaytheyare,thewaytheyinteractwiththeirfriends,howtheirlifeis

changinghowtheyarelookingattheirworld,opensmyworldinadifferentway.So

beingaparentinfluencesmyworldandmythoughts.Istillhavealoveandapassionto

dogreatthinking.AslongasthatremainsIthinkIwillstrive,wanttobethebestbutIstillthinkthereisbettertocomeandmaybehopefully10,15,20years(15.00)down

thelineImightstillthinkthat,butthat,myphilosophyisdefinitelytryandlooktobe

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better.Looktoimprove,lookatnewthings,neverstoplearning.IneverstoplearningI

havelearntsomethingneweverydayandlikeyouknowbutitisbeingmindfulenough

andopenminded,thatyoucanlearnevenfromayoungpersonwhocanjointheteamyoucanlearn,theycanteachmethingsIwouldneverevendreamof.LikeI,viceversaI

canteachthemdifferentthings.Itisthatmixofdifferentskillsetsanddifferentmind-

sets,cominginthatcreatesgreatgreatness.

Rightgreat.Whenyouaredevisinganad,yougetabrief,youhavegotanadisit

somethingthatyoucomeupwithfairlyquicklyorisitagradualprocessabuildingprocess?

SubjectD:Erm…thatisaverygoodquestion.Ithinkthereisnotoneanswer.Ithink

sometimesyougettherevery,veryquickly,someoneoncetoldmethisisaverytrue

sayingthedifferencebetweensomeoneoffthestreetandsomeoneprofessionalinthe

businessweareinisthatsomeoneoffthestreetcancomewithsomethinggenius,or

nothingsomeoneprofessionalcancomewithsomethinggeniusorsomething.Youliketothinkyouarealwaysgoingtocomewithgeniuseverysingletime.Certainbriefs,

certainrestraints,budgets,timings,thebriefbeingovercomplicated,havingseveral

propositions,notjustone,tryingtosortofleverageeverysinglepoint,touchpoint

insteadofhavingaprimarysortoflikething.Thesimplerthebrief,youwillalwaysget

therequickerandyouwillalwaysdofargreatercreativework.Modernbriefsnow,clientstendtooverthinkthem,erm…myexperience[16.40]thebetterclients

understandwhatweneedtodo,thebriefisaspringboard,acatalystforthecreative

imaginationifyouovercomplicateabrief,youactuallyovercomplicatetheendproduct

soerm…forwantofabetterphrase,ifthebriefisrubbishtostartwithchancesareyouareprobablygoingtogetsomethingquiterubbishattheotherend,orsomething

professional.Ifyouwantbrillianceyouneedtodoalotofworkwithstrategy,insight,

distillingalltheclientinformation,lookingatthe…lookingatallthethingsoutthere,

beingculturallyaware,beingawareofthelandscapeofthecompetitorswhoareout

there,soallthosethingsneedtobemashedtogethertocreateagreatbrief.Oncethatbriefisstartedthegreatbriefwillalways,youcanalwaystellagreatbriefwhenitis

briefedinbecausepeoplecan’twaitforthepeopletoleavetheroombecausetheyare

readytogo.Thatisthesecret.Ifyougetthatsortofbriefyouwillgetto,youwillgetto

greatsolutionsquickly.Evenwhilesomeoneistalking,andbriefingyouIamalready

thinkingaboutwhatthatcanbe,sothatisagreatbrief.Ifyougetabriefthatisreallyconvoluted,erm…thatiswhenyourproblemkicksinandthat’swhenitbecomes

harderandharder,itbecomeslikemoreofaconvolutedendproductwhichcantakefar

longer.Brillianceactuallymyunderstandingofbrillianceandmyexperienceofit,can

strikeyouvery,veryquicklyifyouhavegotreally,reallycleverpeoplebriefingyouwho

havedistilleditdown,whoarecleverplanners,whoarecleverindividualswhoknowwhattheyneedtofeedandseedintocreativetogetthemagicattheotherend.Thatis

hard,thatisthehardbit,towriteafantasticinspiringbriefisthesecrettogreat

creativity.

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Sobasicallyitisdistillingitdown,totheactualcoreofit,getridofallthe

extraneousstuffanddevelopingthat.

SubjectD:Yesandthatisthehardbit,isthatpeopledon’tlikelettinggoofthingsitis

likeyouknowsometimesyoucanwrite,youseepropositionsandtheyaretwo

sentenceslongyouneedtowritemeapropositionthatisafewwordslongtoinspire

methatIcanthenimmediatelyIknowmy,myendproductthenismuchmoreclearandsimplerformeandyouwillgetamuchmoreamazingsortofadcampaignwhatever

therewillbeattheendofthat.Butthemagiconlytakesplacewhenthetwoarereally,

reallymarriedtogether.

Thatmakessensethankyou.Thisone,thisdoesn’tapplytoalladvertisingpeople

butIthinkitwillbeapplicabletoyourthingbecauseyouarequiteabigfirmaren’tyou?

SubjectD:Yesweareprettybigyes.

Thequestionistowhatextentdoyouapproach,isyourapproachdifferent

accordingtowhetheryouare,yourmainfocusisenhancingabrandorabrand

imageorwhetheryouaretryingtoflogaparticularspecificproduct.

SubjectD:Ithinkitcanvary.Imeanwe,inonedayIcanactuallyjustbefocussedon

oneparticularproductandabigofbrands.Thatcouldbe,aparticularfooditemwhenthereisabigfleetofdifferentfoodsthatmightbe,soIcanbeasfocussedandtailoredas

that,butothertimesyouareactuallydoingabrandideathatwillbemuchmore

extensive,bigger,moretimeconsumingandwewillprobablydialintodifferentpeople

withdifferentskillsets.SoIthinkagainyoutailoryoursolutiontowhateverisrequired

atthatmomentintimeandthat,andthatisthesecretinabigagencythatyouhaveanumberofdifferentskilledpeople,whoyoucanthenbuildthedreamteamto(20.00)

answerthatparticularproblem.

Iamthinking,ImeanIamdifferentaltogethertothissoyouwillhavetoforgive

meifIambeingIamthinkingintermsofIwasinadvertisingIwouldassume

thatifIamtryingtoflogVersaceasabrand,ontheonehandorontheotherhandIamCadburysandIhavecomeupwithawholenewchocolatebiscuitthatisall

newflavouredthathasgotchilliflavourinitorsomethinglikethat.Iwouldhave

356

thoughtthattheactualapproachtothetwowouldbequitedifferent.Thereisno

pointintellingpeoplethatVersacesmellsnice,or..

SubjectD:No,no,nosure.Ithinkthatthepointyouaremakingisamassivelyvalidone.

Youneedtounderstandthetwobrandsyouhavedescribedtherearequitepolarisingso,alotoftheparallelshoweverinwhatyouaresayingisabsolutelyrightbutisalsoat

thesametimethereisthethoughtprocessandapproachtobothwouldbeverysimilar

inmanyways.Whatyoubasicallywouldhaveisyoustillneedpeopletoimmerse

themselvesandgetundertheskinoftheclientbrief,understandthebrand,understandthecompetitorlandscape,ifitisanewproductlaunchlikeaCadbury,Cadburywillhave

awayofdoingit,anddesignedtoreach[21.14]andtheirworld.InVersaceweneedto

bemorefashionorientatedandlessmoreclassicadvertisingline.Youneedto

immediatelyrecognisewhatyouaretryingtodothereandtheaudiencesyouare

talkingtoandhowyouactuallyneedtoengagewiththem.Soyesthereare,lotsofdifferencesbutthereislotsofsimilaritiesbecauseeachwillhaveitsownunique

audience,itsownmarketplace,share,voice,brand,reasoningerm…itwilllikea

CadburywillhavedifferentissuescomparedtoaVersace.Soyouneedtodissectthat

particularissueandthenagaintailoritbuttherewillbealotofthethoughtprocesses

thatgoesintobothofthosethatwillbeveryapplicabletoboth.Youjustcomeupwithacompletelydifferentsolutionintheend.Butbycomingtothismagic,creativefunnel

andaskalotofverysimilarquestionsbutthentailoritasitgoesthroughandthenyou

comeupwithtwocompletelydifferentbutappropriateanswers.

Yes,doesbrandalwaysplayarole,ImeanifIinventedsomethingnewandmy

namewasunknownandIwaswantingtoflogthisparticularitemmyinvention,wouldIhavenobrandtooffer,Ihavenobrandtohighlight.

SubjectD:Yesbut,Ithink,myanswertothatwouldbebrandprobablydoesplayarole

realisticallybecausepeoplebuybrands,webuyintosomethingdon’tweImeanyou

knowweneedto,whetherthatbrandisestablishedlikeaCadburyoreventhestart-up

thatneedstohaveavoice.Youneedtostandforsomethingsothebrandhastostand

forsomethingthatcouldbevalue,thatcouldcompletepremiumnature,thatcouldbeeconomical,thatcouldbeforeverylikeaDove,likesuddenlyDovereinventedtheway

beautycameaboutandDovewaslikeacampaignforrealbeautythatitselfdefinedit’s

marketplace,share,amongstalltheotherbrandsdoesn’tit.Sowhatitdoes,itactually

defines,whoyouare,whereyouare,whatyoustandfor.

Howyoudifferfromtheotherones.

357

SubjectD:Howyoudifferfromtheotheronesbecausethatissortofwhatmarketingis

doing,isitisgivingyouauniqueplacewithinthatparticularsectorofmarketwhether

youareacar,youhavetobeatypeofcarformetobuyintoyou.SoyouareabrandwhetheryoulikeitornotIguessyouhavetounderstandthat…

Youcan’tseparateitoff.

SubjectD:Notreallyno.Imeanyoumightbeasmallbrand,withinagiantmarket

sharesosuddenlyyouarenotagainstaFordbutyournichewithinthemarket.We

havetocleverlyworkoutwhereyousit,whatmarketplaceyouareat,whoyouare

talkingto,whatdemographic,whatisthestrategy,whatistheuniquethingwecanactuallytryandunravelforyou.WhenSkodayouknowwhentheyactuallycamewitha

greatlineoflikethereisawaitinglistforaSkodathatwasunheardof.Butbecausethat

wasjustsuchagreatstatementthatthey[24.12]oflikespunSkodaasabrandonits

headandmadeitsomethingasifitwasabadgethatyouwantedtohavenowinsteadof

somethingyoudidn’t.Butthatwasreinventionofabrand.Sotherecanbesomanydifferentwaysthatultimatelywheneveryougetanyonecomingthrough,thinkingabout

itnowbecauseyouarereallymakingmethinkaboutit,Idon’tthinkthereisanythingin

myheadwhere,thereisnotoneclientthatcomesthroughthedoorthatisn’tabrandin

somewayshapeorform.Theymightnotbelievetheyarebuttheyareabrandbecause

thatiswhatwedo,Imeanlikeyouknowyoumightbeaservice,youmight,butultimatelyaserviceisanothernameofabrandisn’tit.Ifyouareabusservice,yourfirst

bus[24.55]youknowyouarestillabrandsoyouhavetobetreatedintherightway.

So,howareyouasabrandareyoucosteffective,(25.00)areyouefficient,areyou,you

knowareyousupertasty,areyoureallycheekyandlovableyouknow,allthosethingsthatunravelabrandyoupeelawaythebrandonionorlikeyoupinpointtothebrand

eye,allthesedifferentterminologiesthatpeoplewillhavethecleverbitwherepeople

payalotofmoneyforisactuallytogivethemareallystrongstanceinamarketplaceto

definewhatthebrandis.Onceyoudefinewhatthebrandis,whatitstandsfor.Play

StationstandsforsomethingcompletelydifferenttoFord.Fordstandsforsomethingcompletelyto…tolikeaFerrari.Youbuyintothesebrandsdon’tyou.Iamthattypeof

personwhetherwelikeitornotconsciously,subconsciouslyyoubuyintoit.

IliveinSwedenandofcoursethebigbrandofcarisVolvo

SubjectD:Absolutely

Andtheycertainlyarewellawareofhowtheirbrandisperceivedandthatiswhat

their,basicallytheonlybrandlessadvertisingprobablyisclassifiedads.

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SubjectD:Yes

Everythingelsehasgotbrandon.

SubjectD:Igenerallywouldn’tgoanywherenearclassifiedadsbecause,Iamabig

brandthinkersoImeanIguessthat’swhatIhavemademycareerdoingisre-inventing

brands,givingthemapointofdifferenceinthemarketplacefromIhavebeenlucky

enoughtoworkforbrandsfromlaunchingLynxApolloLeaveamancomebackahero,toCadburystococacolaglobalIhavebeenfortunateenoughtoworkonsomeofthebig

world’sbiggestbrandsyouknowyoudefinecocacoladifferenttoDuluxpaintsto,the

wayIhavedefinedCadburybiscuitstoyouknowallthosebrands,theyallImeanthe

beautyofwhatwedo,iswhatIdoandwhatIloveisIlovethewaytobechallengedI

lovethefactthatIamlookingatablankpieceofpaper,andyoulookatitandthemagichastounravelsoIhavegottounravelthatsomehowbyimmersingmyselfinthe

internetsomepastwork,somegreatbrief,justlettingmymindlooseintothatworld,

andsolvingthatproblem.AndIlovethatchallengethefactthatyoujust,youdon’t

knowwhattheanswerisuntilitjustsuddenlymaterialisesandthenyoupushit,and

thenyoupushitagainandthenyousqueezeitthenyoustopthatisit,thatisan.

Itisrecognisingthatpointandthereissomanypeoplewhodowhatwedo,itislikeanythingyouhavegottheMessisofthisworldandyouhavegotliketheVauxhall

[27.26]andyouareallpeopletheyallwouldliketothinktheyareMessi,buttheyare

notitisunderstandingwhatyouareaboutandhowyoudoitandwhatyoudoandas

longasIhavegotthatbuzzandenergytocrackthingsandsolvethings.IamaproblemsolverattheendofthedayIamjustasophisticatedproblemsolverwhohasgotlotsof

amazingpeoplearoundmeandamazingthingsatmydisposaltosolvethatandengage

andmakesomeone’sbrandstandoutabovesomeoneelse.

Thenextquestionreallyrelatestosemiotics.IhaveaskedyouifyoucanexplainI

thinkyouhavecoveredthatinyourfirstanswersoIwillmoveonfromthere.

Erm…very,verybrieflyindeed,Idon’twanttostopverylongonthisone,ifyoujustdescribeformeyourroutineifyou,[28.14]youhavegotabrief,itis,you

havegotit,youhaveagreedit,youaregoingtodoit,whatisthefirstphysical

thingyouaregoingtodo.

SubjectD:ThefirstphysicalthingIamgoingtodo,isItrytoclearmyheadofanything

thathappensinyourlifeatthatmomentintime.Soyouhavegotto,IhavegotyoungchildrenIcouldhavewalkedoutofthehouseandmydaughterisdoingsatsthisweek,

359

mysonisoverhere,myotherdaughterisdoingthisoverheresoitisabusyworldwe

arein,thatismyworld.Myworldislikeadad,ahusband,comingtowork,Ihavethen

gottheproblemsomehowmybrainistrainedandprogrammedorwhateveritwillbetosomehowjustdepartmentalisethatpartofmyworld,atthatmomentintime.OnceI

actuallyreadthebriefandimmersemyselfinthebrief,IamthereIamlikeinadifferent

zoneitislike,itisthewaymybrainissortoftrainedtowork.Erm…Ihavetocutout

thedailygrind,thatweallhavelet’sfaceitsometimesitismoredifficultthanothers,

butIwilllookatthebriefinterrogatethebrief,toapointthatIwillaskthequestionsoftheaccountguysifIamnotclearonsomething,Iwillimmersemyselfintheworldof

thebrand.Iwilldosomeitcouldbeon-linesortofresearch,itcouldbelookingatthe

website,lookinghowthecompetitorisdoingstuff,lookatothersectorswhoaremaybe

doingsomethingsimilartosortofgetmymindinthat,intothatsortoflikestatewhere

itisstartingtoflowwithsomecreativethinking.MaybenotjustformtheideasjustyetbutIamstartingtogetmyselfthecreativejuicesinyourmindyoucanfeelthemflowing.

Thenyoustartunwindingyour,literallyscribblingdownsomethoughtsitcouldbeyou

findanimageon-lineitcouldbeaword,aphrasesomethinglikethatyouarejust

bouncingideasaround.Ithinkitisthat,thoughtprocessofbouncing(30.00)someideasaround.Everyonehasgotadifferentwayofworking.Somepeoplearequiet,theyjust

gettheirheaddowntheydoit,theylikeworkingstraightontoalaptop,somepeopleare

quitefreeandtheylikeworkingstraightintoapad,otherpeopletheyareverymuch

theytalkandtalkandtalk.ImeanmepersonallyIneedabitoffreeheadspaceIneeda

bitoftimetoconsider,thinkandreflect.OnceIhavedonethatIcanthenstarttalking.IfIgostraightintoitIdon’tfeellikeIhavehadthereflectivetime.Youneedabitoftime

toreallyabsorbandimmerseyourselfinwhatitisyouaretryingtodo,soyougetyour

headinareallygoodstrongthoughtprocess,andthenIaminthatworld,thenonceI

aminthatworld,themagicunravelsprettyquickly.Andlikemymindthinksvery,very

erm…very,veryfastinthatenvironmentthere,andIcandrillanumberofdifferentideasandbouncethemaroundandrecognisethingsinotherpeopleveryquickly.So

eveninamatterofhoursyoucancracksomethingquiteamazing,butthenthereisa

thingwhichisalwaysavery,verygoodtechniqueisalwaysdoanovernighttestonan

ideabecausewhatyoumightthinkisagreatideaattheendofplaywhenyouaretired,

andyourbrainhasprobablyhadabitofa,highlows,peaksofthedaymybestthinkingisalwaysdonemid-morning,between9.30/10o’clockand12o’clockthenIwillhavea

diptheIwillcomebackinmidtolateafternoonsowithinthatIprogrammemydayto

givemyselflittlepeaksbecauseyoucan’tthinksolidlyatalevelyourbraindoesn’twork

likethat,yougettired,yougetjadedyouneedabreakawaygoandgetacoffee,goand

chatwithsomeone,gointoanothermeeting,thengobackinagainsoit’shavingthosepeaksandrecognisingwhenyouthinkatyourbest.Mybestthinkingtimeisthe2or3

hoursinamorning,alwaysmybesttime.Everyone’sisdifferent.Somepeoplemight

thinkbetterlater.Recognisewhenyourstrongpointsofthedayare.WithinthatIthen

gobackinanddoanovernightersoifIlookatitfirstthinginthemorningagain,inthe

coldlightofday,anditstillworksthatistheproofofagreatideaandthatisalwaystheproofformeIhavealwaysdone.

360

ThatisthesameadviceactuallyIgivetomyessaystudentsbecausetheyhavethe

samekindofupsanddownwiththeirthinkingprocesses.

SubjectD:Youcan’t,wearenotprogrammed,wearenotlikemachineswecan’tjust

thinkofthesamefrom,Iwouldlovetothinkthatbetween9and5.30Icouldjustthinkatthesameratealldaybutyourmind,Ihavegottogetinterestedyouknowthatisjust

thewayourmindworksisn’tit.

Itisyes,yes,that’sliketakethedogforawalk,ifyougetstale.

SubjectD:Youneedtorecognisegoandgetadrink,let’sgetsomefreshair,havea

break,reconvenein15minutes,justdoingthatthatiswhybrainstormingshouldreally

neverbelongerthan45minutesbecausepeople’s,youhavelostthemyoucanseethemtheattentionspanintheroomhasgone.Itisshortsharpout.Japanesegreatmeeting

ethicstheycomeinandthereisnochairs,youstand,youmeetyoufocus,youdon’thave

theseinthemeetingroom,youareinthemeeting,youareinthemeeting.Whatisit,

whatistheproblem,10minutesalrightokbrillIamgone.MuchmoredecisivethatwayandthatisthewayIliketobe.Iliketobedecisiveaboutthings.

Couldyoujusttellmesomethingaboutwhatyouaredoingatthemoment,what

advertsyouareworkingonatthemoment.

SubjectD:WhatIamdoingatthemoment,wearejusterm…wearedoingabig

campaignforSoreenMinionssotheMinionsmoviecomingout,itisanewonpack

promotionwinabigstarprizetogotoUniversalStudiostomeettheMinions.Sothatisreallyexciting.Erm…IamdoingasuperrateTVcommercialandsoreconveneofthe

commercialwedid6monthsago,somemore10secondcommercialsaddedtoitand

someslightnewtwistsonthe30,erm…IamdoingafantasticprojectforLeedsRhino’s

FoundationwhichisLeedsRhino’sthebigsuperleaguecharity.SoIamanhonorary

memberoftheirTrustee.

Isthattherugbyclub?

SubjectD:That’stherugbyclubsotheyarethechallengecupchampionstheyareoneofthebiggestclubsinthecountryreallyso,theyarejustonourdoorstep.Igotaskedby

theChairmanofthecommitteetogetinvolvedwiththecommitteeanderm…youknow

onthebackofthatwearedoingafilmforthemerm…andvariouscollateralforfree,so

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wearedoingacharitypiecefortheseguyssotheydoamazingthingsforthecommunity

andasanagencywearebackingthatanddoingsomegreatstuffforthem.Sothatisa

fewofthethingsIamdoingrightnow.

Goodthankyou.Whenyouare,justtalkmethroughtheprocessthenofhowyoudirectyouradvertisingtoparticulargroups,particularsegmentswithinthe

community,whatistheprocessofworkingthatout.

SubjectD:YesIthinkthe,unfortunatelyerm…weareallbracketedintodifferent

categoriessowhetherwelikeitornotweareA1,As,B1,C1s,Dsyes,withinthatIknow

Ihavetotalktopeopleinacertainwayinacertaintime.YouknowLeedsBeckettUniversityisoneofourbigsortofclients(35.00)anderm…theyhavetoposition

themselvesintherightway,theyarenotOxford,theyarenotCambridge,theyhaveto

sortofselltotheirstrengthsandplaytotheirstrengthsinthatarea.Theystillgetvery

brightpeople,butjustwantingmoreofavocationalapproach.LikeaSuperbreak

whichisoneofourclientstheyareslightlymoregreymarket55,bitmoremoneyinthebank,maybethekidshavefledthehome,therewillbemoredisposableincome,soyou

knowyoutalktothoseintherightway.Youthennotonlytalktothemintherightway

youreachthemintherightwayyouhavegottobookslotsthatreachthem,youknowto

understandwhattheywatch,whentheywatch,howtheytalk,howtheyinteractwhat

theyread,allthosethings,makeuphowyoucommunicatewithpeople.YouknowtotalktoaSunreaderwhoisabrickiewhois23yearsoldisdifferenttotalkingtoaguy

whoisconsultingsortofneurosurgeon,youhavegottorecognisehowpeoplereact.

Thatpeoplearevisualyouknow,75%ofpeoplearevisualanywayandbutthewords

youusehavetobeconsideredandrepresentativeofthepeopleyouaretalkingto,soyouknowthatplaysamassivepartinhowyouattackanything.

Doyoucheckupatallthatyouhavegotthroughtothemintherightwaydoyou

runfocusgroupsor…

SubjectD:Yesweerm…upuntilrecentlyweerm…hadprobablyoneofthebiggest

researchagenciesinEnglandwhowerejusthere,sotheywereabout40strong.They

areAsda’sresearchagencysoweusequalitativeandquantitativeresearchquite

frequently,youneedtoanalysewhatyouaredoingyouknowyouneedtobemindfulofthat,youneedtobeinformedandwhenyoudothingsagainyouaretheninformedasto

whatworksandwhatdidn’tworkwhatyouknow,andgofromthere.

Okthankyou.Wehavetalkedabitaboutsymbolisminadvertisingandicons,I

haveaquestionherebutIwilljusttellyou[37.08]someoftheadverts,someof

themoresophisticatedadvertsinmagazinesoftenalludetothingssuchaseven

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Greekmythologyandthiskindofthingyouknoworhistoricalevents,orart,that

Idowonderwhetherpeopleareactuallygettingitornot.Erm…

SubjectD:Yes,

Iwaslookingatoneadvertforaperfumeandtheanalysisinthetextbookofthisparticularadwastotheeffectthatitwasacomparisonbetweenthemodern

womanandtheDionysianlegendsofAncientGreeceandIwaswonderingif

peoplereallydogettheconnection.

SubjectD:Ithinkitisaverygoodquestion.Ipersonallydon’tgetthatdeepinto

mythologyandsymbolismandthingslikethat.Erm…Ithinktherearecertainpeople

whobelievethatitworks,erm…Ipersonallydon’tuseitverymuchasatechnique.Itisatechniquethatpeopleunravelerm…Ithinkwhatyoufindinadvertisingthaterm…

photographystyles,typefaces,colours,techniques,animation,illustration,icons,theyall

goincycles.Soatthemomentyoumighthaveacyclewherethisiscurrentlyontrend

anditisalltrends,andsoyouwillnoticethisasyougoandyoulookin3,4,5years’time,erm…Icanhaveanup-to-datecurrentbook,thisiswhereyouneedtoconstantly

keepontopofyourportfoliobecause,ifIdon’tdothatin4or5years’timefor

argumentssake,itcanlookverydated.AndIthinkthisisthething.Rightnow,itis

current,itisbrilliantbutthenifyoulookbackyouthinkwhoa,youlookatitnowweare

movingfromSkywillonlyacceptnowHDfilmssoyourcommercialnowhastobeHDreadytobesenttoSky.Erm…thatis,thequalityofeverythingthewayimageryisdone,

thewayphotographyiscapturedthewaytypefaces,whatlookedamazing5,10,15

yearsagoyoulookatitnowitlooksreallydatedandoutoftrend,becauseitislike

fashionitislikeeverything.Advertisingisafashionerm…youneedtotryandkeepon

thefashiontrend,rightyouneedtohaveyourownpersonalitybutyouneedtobeverymindfulofwhatisgoingonoutthereandIthinkthat’sthetrend,thatmightworkfor

somepeopledoesn’treallyworkforme.YouknowbutImean,itisapersonalchoice.

IremembertheFloraadisyourmanaFloramanandthehousewifebuyingthe

Floraforhimtoprotecthisheart.

SubjectD:Yes,yes

Youcouldn’tshowthatnowadaysitwouldbefoundjusthilarious.

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SubjectD:Yes,whatcanbedonethenisnotrightnowisit.Anditisjustbeingmindful

ofit.Imeanifyoulookhowcarshavechanged,lookhowtechnologyhaschanged,look

toafilmlikeanditisdoneinthe1980slookatthecomputerstheyhaveonthedesk.(40.00)Atthattimeitmighthavebeenastateoftheartcomputer,nowyounoticeitin

filmsaswell.IwaswatchingFriendstheotherdayandtheywerecapturingsomething

camera,peopledon’t,theycapturethecameraisonthemallthetimenowtheypickit

upandansweraphone,itisadifferentworldisn’tit.Itisbeingmindfulofallthose

thingsastheychangeconsistentlyandadvertisingisafashionandyouneedtokeeponit.

Yes.Doyouthinksometimestheyareabittoosophisticatedforpeople,

sometimestheymissthetargetbecausetheyarealittlebittooobscure.

SubjectD:Potentially.Thereisalotofcleverpeople,alotofcleverthinkerswhotry

andgetthingsrightbutthatdoesn’tmeantosayitisalwaysright.Ithinkyouareonly

toorightthere.

Doyouthinkthat,Isuspectthatyouaregoingtotellmethatyoudoerm…butitis

aquestionIhavetoaskyou,doyouthinkyoustillusethingslikestereotyping,in

youradvertisingor?

SubjectD:Ithinktherearedefinitelystereotypesyes.Imeanerm…youtrywhere

possibletoavoidthembut,therearenaturalstereotypes.ImeanyouwatchCarlsberg,

CarlsbergisaclassicifCarlsbergmadesupermarketsyouknowthereisaguywalkingoutwithabeeranditisalwaysbeerandsomeeggsorsomethingonablokesshopping

listforCarlsbergthatisastereotype.Itisquitefunny.Stereotypesareinherentandthey

alwayswillbe,erm…Ithinkitisjustusinganddeployingthemintherightway.

Theyaresemioticinonerespectaren’ttheybecausetheyareaculturalmythbut

youknowthetwohousewivestalkingoverthegardenfence,isaculturalmythreallyIamnotsayingitneverhappensbuterm…itissomethingthatwecansee

immediatelyandknowwhatisgoingon.Andknowwhattheyaretalkingabout.

SubjectD:ButIthinkthepointyouaremakingthereisavalidonethatsometimesit

helpsyouconnectAtoBquickerandthatisultimatelywhatadvertisingisabout,itis

communicatingthisbrandischeaper,bettervaluethanthatbrandor,youknowthis

oneisapremiumbrandcomparedtothatnotsopremium.Thatissometimesyouneedthemoststereotypicalway,toerm…tobringthattolifereally.

364

Yescanyoujustallowmequickly,thisisgoing[42.25]somethingwehaven’t

coveredthatoftencropsuphere,yourwordchoices,youobviouslyyouareoften

puttingwordswithimages,thiskindofthing.Doyouhaveanygeneralthoughts

abouthowyouchooseyourwordsordoyougoforpunsor?

SubjectD:PersonallyIreallydon’tlikepuns.

Youdon’t?

SubjectD:Punshavea,aplaceandtheyareacertaincharmtocertainpunserm…youknowthatgenerallyIwouldsaymyapproachandIagainthisisasubjectivething

becausewhatwedoissubjective,thereisnorightorwrongintheory,erm…Itryto

applyaclevernessthatIthinkactuallyerm…thewordsandthecraftinginthewords

arereallyimportanttome.Thatactuallymakesomeonestandupandtakenoticeand

think.Erm…likeforexampleIwonacopywritingawardawhileago,forarestaurantthatwasactuallyhousedinanoldpolicestation.Anderm…thelinewasrhubarband

custodyslightpunbutagainjusthadaclevernesstoit,sothatisasfarasIwouldliketo

go.Erm….withinthat,Igenerallythinkthebestwordsoutthere,thecleverwords,Ilike

theEconomistposters,thatreallymakeyouthinknatureversusyouknow,nature

versusnurture[43.45]thatistheclevernessofwordsforme.Ithinkthey’re,thatiswhereIwanttobe.ThatiswhatItryandgetoutoftheteam,mydepartment.Thereis

timeswhenyoupotentiallycouldbeabitpunnyandthereisafineline,butifitispun,

pun,punIthinkthatiswrong.

Ok,mylastquestionreally,erm…thereasonIamaskingforthis,thisisbasically

alinguisticsquestionifyouareadvertisingaspecificproduct,ifthatiswhatyourmainaimis,ratherthanfocussingonsomebrandpromotion,howdoyoutryto

appealtoyouraudiencespre-existingknowledgehowdoyousortofworkwith

that?Doyouhaveanythoughtsonthatone?

SubjectD:Well,ImeansayVolkswagen,Volkswagenhasgotahistoryoferm…being

reliable,alwaysstarting,alwaysbeingthingslikethatwhereyouhavegotapre-existing

templateifyoulike.

Yes,researchbasically.

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SubjectD:Yesyouneedtounderstandthebrand,understandthehistoryofthebrand,

whathasworked,whathasn’tworked,ifthereisaplethoraofthingsthatarethere,you

willberatherfoolishtoignore.SoIthinkyouneedtounderstandthestartpoint,beforeyougooffandignoreitcompletely.(45.00)Thatwouldbefoolishthingtodo.SoI

thinkifyouunderstandthehistoryofabrand,howitisworked,howithasmanipulated

itselfintothemindoftheperson,erm…thenyouinform,makeaninformeddecision

fromthere.

Yes.Rightsothatbegsthequestion,thesecondpartofthatquestionishowdoyoumakesurethatitisimmediatelyrelevanttoyourtargetaudiencebutIthink

youhaveprettymuchansweredthat.Therelevancepart.

SubjectD:Yes,

Howisitrelevanttoyou.

SubjectD:WellIthinkthekeyisyouaredoingadvertisingforsomeoneelsenotyou.

SowhenIgeta55–60yearoldclienttellingmethatwouldn’tappealtothemgoingto

university,Ihavegot[45.44]questionwellyouarenotgoingtouniversity,youhavegotsomeone40yearsyoungerthanyougoingtouniversity,soyouhavegottoputyour

mindintheirshoesnotyourshoes.

Yes,yes

SubjectD:Soinapolitewayitislikesayingitisnotmeanttoappealtoyouitismeant

toappealtosomeonefaryounger,likewiseifIdidanadappealingtoyou,itprobably

wouldn’tappealtothe20yearold.Soyouhavegottorecognise…

Theclienthastotrustyourtrustyourjudgementandexperienceinthatthenaswell.

SubjectD:Absolutelyyes.Yes.

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Wellthanksverymuchforthatyouhaveansweredallmyquestions,very

thoroughlyandIdon’treallyhaveanymoreforyou.Thankyou.

SUBJECT E

Rightsorrycarryon.

SubjectE:Iwasacopywriterforalongtime,butnowIdon’twrite,thoughIdoalittle

bit,erm…butIseealotofadvertisingandcritiqueitandbriefitandthatsortofstuffso

hopefullyIwillbeabletoansweryourquestions.ButIamjust,soyouknowsoIdidn’tspendyesterdaywritingads,thoughIspentmanyyearswritingadssoyouwillgeta

slightlydifferentperspectivefromme.

Butyouhavetheexperience.

SubjectE:Ohabsolutely.

Andyouworkintheindustrysothatisabsolutelyfine.Erm…Ihavegotasetof

questionshere,whatIamdoingthefirstpartisaboutyoupersonally,andthen

theotherpartsareabouthowyouformideasandyourstrategiesandsoon.Erm…someofthequestionsarebynaturerepetitivesoifIdofindusgoingover

stuffyouhavealreadytoldmethenIwillsortofmoveontothenextoneandso

on.Erm…soIwilltrynottomakeittoorepetitiveforyou.Myfirstquestionisby

whatroutedidyouentertheadvertisingindustrywhatisyourbackgroundprior

tothat?

SubjectE:Erm…IdidaPhDinAncientGreek.

Ohright

SubjectE:Soandso,thereweren’tasmanyobviousopeningsplusIlovewordsso

gettingintoadvertisinggavemeachancetoworkwithwordsandconceptsandthatis

howIgotinreally.

367

Righthaveyouhadanyformal,Imeanintermsofuniversityeducationin

advertisingormarketing?

SubjectE:No

Ok,

SubjectE:Tobehonest,I…weoftendon’temploypeoplewhohavethoughinthe

creativedepartmentwedo,butpeoplewhohavestudiedmarketingdegreesnotthat

interestedinthemtobehonest.ThoughiftheyareagreatpersonalityandverybrightthenyesbutIprefersomeonewhohadstudiedhistoryorgeographyorsomethinglike

thatbecausesometimesthemarketingdegreeserm…thecalibreisn’tashighasitmight

bewith…

Right.Journalism,Ifoundthesamewithsomejournaliststheyprefersomeone

withagoodEnglishdegreeratherthanoneinjournalism.

SubjectE:Yesabsolutelythatisidenticalforus.Exceptwhenitcomestothecreativedepartment,becausethecreativedepartmentyouhavetohavegonethroughsomesort

ofstudyofhowtocomeupwithideas,whichanEnglishgraduatereallyhasn’thad.

That’sjusttoclarifythatforyou.

Yes,yesindeedthatmakessenseyes.Erm…sothenextquestionwillnotapplyto

youbecauseitiswhattextdoyourecallstudyingbutofcourseyouhavenotstudiedanythingtodowiththisintermsofuniversityeducation.SoIcanmove

ontothenextbitthen.Imentionedsemioticstoyou,youobviouslyknowwhat

theyare.

SubjectE:Yes

Wherehasthatcomefromhowdidyoucometo…

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SubjectE:Semiotics.OhImeanIdidabitoflinguisticsatunibutitwasonlyayear,and

thatisalong,longtimeagoerm…andIjust,Imaygetthiscompletelywrong,buttome

semioticsisthelinguisticsofimagesandpicturesandsignsand…butImightbewrongthere.

Noyouareontherightlinesyes.

SubjectE:Andlikeforexample,erm…thatis,Iremember,ohwhyhashisnamegone

outofmyhead,youwillsayitinstantlyerm…theNameoftheRoseauthor.

Thewhichauthor?

SubjectE:TheauthortheItalianwhowrotetheNameoftheRose.Thebook.

TheRose.

SubjectE:TheNameoftheRose.

Idon’tknow.Sorry.

SubjectE:OkheisaprofessorofsemioticsatBolognaorsomething,andIthoughtthatwasawonderfulbook,anderm…hisnamewillcomebacktomeveryshortly,erm…

UmbertoEco.

Ohyes.

SubjectE:Andit’sfullofimageryandvisualso,soIneverstudiedsemioticsbutIam

sortofawareofit.

Yes,myareaofcoursebeingalinguist,Eco’sareaismorethevisualthingssothat’sprobablywhyitdidn’timmediatelyringabell,nowIknowwhoyouare

369

talkingabout.Erm…soIwasthinkingmoreaboutpeoplelikeSaussure,Peirce,

Barthespossiblynotfamiliarwith?

SubjectE:Erm…Barthesprobablyishe,isit,

Mythologiesguy

SubjectE:Yes,whatishisfirstname?

Roland.

SubjectE:IwasgoingtosaywasitRolandBarthes,IthinkIhavereadsomeofhisstuff,

yearsagoerm…butjustonlybecausewhenIwasdoingmyPhDItookthetimetoread

widely,(05.00)andthensincethenIhavereadwidelybutthenofcourseyouretain

certainthingsandyouforgetotherthingsandwhatever.

Yes

SubjectE:SoIjustknowbitsandnotalot.

Okthatiscool.Sointhatcasethenwouldyoubefamiliaroftheconceptofamythintermsofsemiotics?

SubjectE:Youwillhavetotellmewhatitisthere.

Ok,erm…theclassicexamplefromRolandBarthesiserm…thebrokenbagof

shoppingontheItalianPastacompanyandhecameupwiththenotionof

Italianicity,soyouseethebrokenbag,youseetheerm…pastaingredientsin

thereandthefreshvegetablesandthetomatoesandso,thesamecoloursexistinthesamewiththeItalianflag,andthenotion,youseetheItaliannessofitandthe

ItaliannamePanzaniimmediatelyyouhaveaconceptoftheItalianfamilylife,the

sunshine,theolives,thetomatogrowingandsoon,yestheMammacookingthe

pastaforthefamilyandsoon,yougetthewholeItalianmythsurroundingthat

370

eventhoughitisprobablynothowmostItalianpeoplelivetodayandthatwashis,

oneofhisideas.Andhewassuggestingthatwelookatsomethingveryquickly.

Whereasastopsignwejustknowthatmeansstop,whereasifyouseesomeonewearingacowboyhatandwearingawaistcoat,ablackwaistcoatandwithagun

beltandsoonwegetthewholecowboymythsurroundingthat,thatwashisidea.

Erm…andalotofadvertisingeducationerm…whenwetalkaboutsemioticsis

basedonthesuddenimageorafewwordsandyougetawholepicturethatwe

knowaboutalready.

SubjectE:Yesthatmakessense.Sowhatisthequestionoristhereaquestion?

NoobviouslymyquestionwaswereyoufamiliarwiththatconceptofmythsI

thinkyouarebutnotbythatname.

SubjectE:Notbythatname.

Nothatmakessenseokthat’sgreat.Doyouuseanyactualtextsthatyouregard

asseminaltextswhenyouaredevisingadvertstoday?Willyourefertoanother

writerOgilvyorSaatchioranybodyelse?

SubjectE:WellyouknowIhavereadsomeofthebooks,IhavereadOgilvyonadvertisingIhavereadsomeofcertainbooksonadvertisingbyacopywriterorsome

excellentessaysbycopywriters,oftenitwouldbemoretoreadwhattheyhadactually

writtenasanad,asopposedtowhattheywriteaboutadvertising.Erm…butgenerally

thereisafeelingthatyoushouldtryandcreateyourownstyleanderm…soandthereisabitaboutbreakingrulesthereiscertainrulesthatyoushouldn’tbreak,andthenother

rulesthatyoushouldbreak.Youknowtherearecertainrulesthataretherethatifyou

breakthemyoujustlooksillydonesomethingstupid.Erm…butothertimesyouwant

togiveyourselfasmuchcreativefreedomaspossible,sothatso,soIwouldn’thavesaid,

Iwouldn’tencourageacopywriterinhereerm…Iwouldn’tsayhere,readallthatstuffanddoitthatway.

NobutthereisnothingthatyouwouldthinktoyourselfIwillgotoOgilvyandsee

whathehasgottosayaboutthis,youwouldn’tor..

SubjectE:No

371

AreyounowsoexperiencedthatyouthinknoIwillgomyownwaynowIhave

gotallthat,thatisinthepast?

SubjectE:YesIwouldtryandgomyownway.

Ok.Couldyoujustexplaintomebrieflythementalprocessestheformingideasforadvertswhatgoesthroughyourmind,whenyougetabrief?

SubjectE:Wowright,wellerm…Iwouldprobablythinkwhatdoestheguy,youknow

orfemaleoutinthestreetthinkofthisparticularproductorservice.Whatisgoingon

intheirlifeerm…andthenIwouldtryandcomeupwithsomesortoftruththatwould

theywouldidentifywithandthinkohthat’sme.Erm…sothatoftenthenwouldmeanI

wouldn’t,asawritersometimesyouendupwithalittlewordplaysbutIwouldtendnottodothat.Sometimesthelittlewordplayerm…youhavecomeuponit,thatseemstofit

withtheproductbutitdoesn’tnecessarilyfitwithwhatthepeoplethatyouaretrying

topersuadeerm…soitisatechnique(10.00)overtheactualunderstanding.SoIoften

thinkthatthebest,hereisasimpleoneright.Ihavejustremembered,way,waybackwehadtheSkySportsCouncilaskedustopromoteoneoftheirgolftrainingcourses.So

erm…yougoalongtheywillteachyouhowtoplaygolf.And,oneoftheheadlinesI

rememberwritingitjust,andweputthisingolfmagazinesoitjustsaidbigbold,Play

LessGolf.NowmostpeoplereadingthatwouldthinkohIamgolferwhywouldIwant

toplaylessgolf.Butofcourseyoudoactuallywanttoplaylessgolfyouwanttogoroundin72shotsratherthan82shots[10.51]sothatwas,thatwasdesignedsoyou

askanygolferwouldyouprefertogoroundinfewershots,theywillsayyes.Thenthe

skillofthecopywriteristothencommunicatethat,communicateinawaythatmakes

thegolferleadonandthat,thatwasverysuccessfuladvertbecausegolferswhenyou

readplaylessgolfthinknoIwanttoplaymoregolf,butfundamentallytheyactuallywanttoplayless.Andthatishowtheadvert,thatadvert,thatparticularadvertworked

andwhatitwasdoingwastryingto[11.36],itisvery,verysimple,everygolferwantsto

goroundinfewerstrokes.Sotherewas,sothatwasjust,thatishowthatcameabout.

Yes,ifyourecallImentionedtoyouaboutoneofmyinterestswasin[11.51]

pragmaticsasopposedtosemioticsandthatisaclassicexamplebecause

pragmaticslooksatcontext,andthecontextbasicallymostofthemoderntheoriesonthatwouldsaythatitissomethinginordertoattractattentionithas

toberelevanttothepersonseeingit.Andplaylessgolfthenofcourseyouseethe

wordgolf,thenthatisrelevanttome,andIlookatthesentenceplaylessgolf,that

ispresentingmewithaconundrum,aquizwhyisthenwhichrewardsmedoesitnotbydecipheringwhatitmeansandnowIunderstandit.

372

SubjectE:Yesbecauseunderneathit,itexplainsit.Becausewewouldn’tleaveyouwith

justplaylessgolfandthenthelogobecauseyoumightn’tgetit.

Howlongagowasthis?

SubjectE:Ohthatisprobably20yearsago.

Rightok.

SubjectE:ButthatthoughtisanenduringthoughtImeanthatcouldbe,ifyoureadthat

nowitwouldstill…

Absolutelyyes,itwouldstillberightyes.Whenyouareactuallydevisinganad

thenlikethat,doyousortof,doyouhaveacompletementalpictureofwhereyou

aregoingwithitfairlyearlyandthenthatis,andyoudevelopthatorisitasortof

buildingprocess?

SubjectE:Erm…Isupposeitdependssometimesifitispartofacampaignso,where

youhavegotaproductthathasgotprobablyakeymessagebutdifferent,youcan

approachthesamemessageindifferentwaysandyouwanttoshowthatthe,person

thatyouaretalkingtothatthisproductismultifacetedandthereismore[13.30]tobe

hadfromtheproduct.Thisproductmaybeversusanotherandyouaregettingyourmoney’sworth.Sotherefore,erm…that,ifitwereforacampaignthenIwouldtryand

workoutwhatthekeymessagesare,andtheoverallfeel,youknowwhatisthetoneof,

generaltoneofvoice,amIbeingseriousor,amIbeingyouknowisthetoneofvoicelike

veryoptimistic,fullofbeans,erm…oryouknowwhat…soitishardtoanswerthat,

untilyouhaveactuallygottheblanksheetofpaperandthebrief.Sometimesthingsjustcomeveryquickly,becauseyou,youthinkaboutthepersonyouaretryingto

persuade,youputyourselfintheirshoesifyoucanandaninterestingwayoflookingat

itcomesquickly.Itoftenhappensthatyouare,youarewritingandthenyougetup,

walktothelooandbythetimeyouhavecomebackyouhavesolveditbecauseyouhave

movedawayfromyourseat.Ifoundthathappensalot,orusedtohappenalot.SometimesotherthingsIusedtodoerm…isifIwouldsometimeslistentomusic

(15.00)thatIthoughthadthesamesortoftoneasIwantedtogetacross.SoifIwas

beingquiteaggressive,Iwouldlistentoquiteerm…wellsayHolstPlanetsMars,bringer

ofwarsomethinglikethat,youknowIwouldthinkyesthat’sthewayIshouldandyou

knowandperhapsmyheadwouldthenfillwiththosetypesofthoughts.Thatkindofattitude.IfIwantedtowritesomethingquiteerm…sweetandyouknowImightputthe

PastoralSymphonyonorsomethinglikethatthere,whateverthatsometimesworked.

373

Thatsetsyourmoodready,butagainsomeoneelseIwastalkingtoaboutthis

saidthathewillwritedownideasandthengo,inanafternoonandthenputit

away,andnotlookatitagainuntilthenextmorningbecausehesaidonthenext

morningIwouldseeitdifferently.

SubjectE:Yes,yes.SometimesIusedtowriteonyellowpaperjust,itdoesn’thavetobe

yellowbutaslongasitwasn’twhite,sothatitmademefeeldifferently.YourpaperiswhitethereandmoststuffyouseeisonwhitepaperandafterawhileIjustthoughtit’s

abit,thesamewhereasifyouhavegotabitofyellowpaperandabitofBeethoven

goingoninthebackgrounditmightjustmakeyou,takeyououtofthehumdrumtake

yououtofthewhatyouareusedtoandthatisofcoursewhatIamalwaystryingtodo

isgetoutofwhereIusuallyamandputmyselfsomewhereelse.

Yes,thatissomethingelseIamlookingataswellwhichis,yesformalism.Erm…

yessomethingthatisinterestingaboutthisparticularlyisimagineyouhave,let’s

comparetwodifferentbriefs.Oneisbrandpromotionthatisyourmainaim,we

wanttogetourbrandbetterknown.TheotheroneisIwanttoadvertiseavery

specificproduct,somethingnewIwanttogivepeopletheinformationsothattheyaregoingtomakeachoicetobuythatone,andnotmycompetitors.

SubjectE:Yes

Isthereadifferentapproachthatyouusebetweenthetwokindofbriefs?

SubjectE:YesprobablyImeanwithoutknowingwhatthosetwothingsspecifically

were,itsplits,thenormalanswertothatwouldbe,thefirstonethebrandonewouldbe

moreemotionallybiasedandtheproductonewouldbemorerationallybiased.Sohere

Iamtryingtogetanemotionalattachmentbetweenyouandthebrandandmakethatbrandfeelasifitispart,thatthatbrandgetstooccupyaprivilegedpositioninyour

panoplyofbrands.Thoseonesthatdependingontheconsumerbutoftensome

consumers,meincluded,areveryparticularaboutwhatbrandsIbuy,andtoget,and

theyandIwillbevery,veryloyaltothemiftheycontinuetodeliver.Andthatisquite

emotional,okthereisa,rationalelementtoit,buterm…becausetheyperform,butIjustliketheassociationandIliketheemotionalassociationofabrand,thatwherethere

isanexpertiseinvolvedohtheydoitbeautifullyanderm…so,sothatiswhatIwould

tryanddowiththebrandoneIwouldsay,trytosaytothemthatisabrandforyou.

Andhereisthereasonswhy.Anditwouldtendtobequiteemotionallybased.Ifitisaproductthatdoesthejob,erm…thenIwouldgointothedetailofitbecauseIwouldsee

374

thatthepersonIamtryingtosellittoisinadifferentmode,wheretheyhavegota

problemthatneedssolvingandthissolvesitinthatitdelivers.Iboughtarucksacknot

thatlongagoandnotparticularlyerm…asaresultofanadvertisementbutifIweretoadvertisethatrucksackoneofthethingsIwoulddowould,Icyclealot,andcyclingto

worksoitisacommutingrucksack.And,itsproductbenefits,featuresareexcellentsoI

wouldbelistingthemandsayingwhytheyweresogoodandtotryandattractthe

personwhoisfindingthattheircurrentoneisn’tworkingaswell.Sotherewouldbe

twodifferentwaysofdoingthatIsthatthesortofthingyouarewanting?

ItisexactlywhatIamlookingforbecauseImeanIamthinkingbackto

Bernstein’snotionofReasonandTickle?

SubjectE:Sayagain.

Bernsteinisoneofthewritersinadvertisinghewroteaboutsomethingcalled

ReasonandTickle.

SubjectE:Reasonandtickle?

Yes.Thereasonbeingwhatyouhavejustsaid,whatyouhavejustgivenme.The

reasonsIamgoingtobuysomethingareherearethereasonsforit,Iamgoingtolistthemdownforyou,(20.00)thesearethe,andontheotherhandyouhavegot

ticklewhichisasyousaidemotionallybased,itisstimulatingyourinterestand

identifyingyouwiththeproductandgivingitanaura.Anexampleofthat,I

sometimestalktomystudentsaboutiserm…ifIwastoadvertiseVersacejustabrandnamedVersace,erm…orChannelperfumeeven,Iamnotsayingtopeople

howitsmells.IhaveneverseenanadvertyetforaChannelperfumethatgives

meanyinformationatallitisjustall,itisalljustimageandmakingthemostofa

particularmodelClaudiaSchifferorwhoeverhappenstobethere,isassociated

withitbutbeyondthatIamgettingnoinformation.Butifyouwanttosellmecomponentsforaerm…forklifttruckinatrademagazine,thenyouarenotgoing

touseClaudiaSchifferandthatkindofthing,andabranditisinformation.Soyou

havegotinformationandyouhavegotreasonandticklethatwastheideaandhe

suggestedthatboth,mostadvertsareamixtureofthetwotosomedegree.

SubjectE:YesIwouldneverhaveusedtheexpressionticklebutthatisuptohimifhe

wantstouseit,erm…butyes.WellIthinkthereis,thereisa…itis,itistherewillbesomeadsIsuppose,thatareprettydevoidofemotion,andsomethatareprettydevoid

ofanyrationalreason.Erm…butmostadshaveamixture.

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YeswhichiswhatBernsteinwassayingbasically.

SubjectE:Yesandtobehonestthatisprettyobviouswhichisfine((laughs)).

Noitisyes,yes.AnditisinterestingtomeaswellbecauseIwouldarguethatifwe

arebranding,weareusingsemiotics,more.Ifweareusingthereasonratherthan

theticklethenweneedtobeusingpragmaticsweneedtosetcontext.And,

advertisersmaybe,futureadvertisersmightbealittlebitbetteroffiftheywereawareofthatthetechniquesforattractingattentionbywayofrelevance.Sothat

is…

SubjectE:Yesthatmakessensetome.

Thatismyhypothesisanyway.Erm…youhaveexplainedtomehowyousortof

you[22.22]processofformingideaserm..canyousortofrelatetomearecent

advertisementthatyouwereinvolvedinitspromotionandhowitpannedout?

SubjectE:Arecentadvertisement?Well,erm…onethatIwasinvolvedinrecentlyitishappeningatthemoment,anditis,itdependswhatyoumeanbyadvertisement.

Yesbroadestpossiblesense.

SubjectE:Yesthisisquite,itisbroadish,butitdoessortof,itisgoingtoplayoutmore

inon-linecontent,butthatinitselfiserm…videocontent.Stillissortofanad.Oneof

ourclientsproduceserm…microwavablenoodles,erm…BangkokStreetNoodles,and

theyareexcellent,soitisasfarfrompotnoodleasyoucangetreally.Theyhavegotanewtechniquefordoingit,anderm…ifIservedyouthemupnoweventhoughittakes

90secondsinthemicrowave,youwouldthinkwow,howcanmicrowavablenoodlesbe

asgoodasthat.Sothatisagreat,thatisabitofafirst.So,thethoughtprocesshereis

howdowe,howdowegetoverthestigmathatmicrowavablefoodisabitmorelikepot

noodleerm…soweinventedtheverysimplephraseWokQualityNoodles.WhichisalittlebitlikeLaboratoiresGarniererm…SalonBeautifulHair.Soandwestartedwith

WokQualityNoodles,sowesaidohrightmicrowavebuttheyareWokQuality.Thento

sothattobehonestthatisalittlebitoftherationalandpossiblyabitofthepragmatic,

thattheyaregoingtotasteerm…reallygood.Sobecausetheyareaimedatabitofa

snackingmarketyoudon’twanttobeeatingsomethingthatdoesn’ttastegood.Sothey

376

arewokquality,Iamgettingatickthere,Iwillgivethematrythecaloriesaregood,as

fortheactualengagementofthepeopletomakethemsitupandtakethatinandenjoy

thebrandanddothesortofthingthatperhapsthatPeperamididinthatithadanattitudeaboutitsoyoubuyintotheattitudeaswellasifyoulikethe,thesortof

whateveritwas,salamiwhatevertheycalled.Whateveritissomesortofwurstor

othergoingon.(25.00)We,erm…wethencameupwiththeideaofyoudon’tneed

yourWokanymore.Ok.Soyoudon’tneedawokanymore,becausewokqualitynoodles

areavailablefromthemicrowavesomyideawasthisthingofwokcycling.Whatareyougoingtodowithyourwokhowareyougoingtorecycleyourwoknowthatyou

don’tneeditanymore.Soweareshootingsomelittlevideosofawokwithwheelson

beingusedtopullalittledog,alittledogalong,erm…itcanbeusederm…toplaytennis

withyoucanplaytenniswithwoksandit’sallthecampaignofnowthatwehavegot

wokqualitynoodles,fromthemicrowave,howareyougoingtowokcycle.And,sothat’s,thatisthesortofthethoughtprocessthere,thereisabitofpragmaticbut

actuallyquiteinterestingfunstuff,erm…goingonandofcoursepeoplecanthenadd

theirownversionsofthat.Erm…Ican’trememberthedifferentoneswearedoingnow

tobehonestbutthereislotsofthem.Youcanwearthewokasahat,justanythingsillyandthatishowthatworks.

Soagainaswiththeoneyougivemewiththegolf,peoplearehavingtolookatit

andthentheyarehavingtolookattryingtoworkoutthecontextfromit.

SubjectE:Correct

Aspartofalittlementalpuzzle.Andthentheyrewardthemselvesobviously…oh

yesIunderstandthat.

SubjectE:Yesthatisthetechniquebeingusedthere.

Yes.Erm…youdoTVadvertsobviouslydoyoudo,whatotherkindofadvertisingdoyoudohere?

SubjectE:Allsorts,anythingreally.

Magazinesor?

377

SubjectE:Absolutelyanythingwehavedoneandstilldo.

Andyoudonationwide?

SubjectE:Ohyes,andEuropeanandallsorts.TobehonestIspendalotoftimein

Swedenerm…theyareoneofthebiggestkitchenholdingcompaniesinEuropeiscalledNobiaitisheadquarteredinStockholmandtheyownMagnetkitchensherewhichis

Doncaster,andLeeds,andHygenawhichit’sjustsoldandvariousotheronesandthere

isabrandinDenmarkcalledHTHsowerunthatadvertisingoutofthisofficewellmost

ofit.

Right.SoyouarefamiliarwithStockholm.

SubjectE:YesIhavebeenontheArlandaexpressmany,manytimes.IloveStockholm.

Idoitisoneofmyfavouritecities.IlikeCopenhagenaswell.

SubjectE:YesIhavebeentherejusttheotherdayIwasthere,

Iamtheretomorrow.

SubjectE:Verygood.

Erm…rightsoIthinkwehaveansweredthenextcouplethere.Justageneral

questionyoumayhavecoveredthisalreadyIthinkyouhavebutifyouwantto

addanythingtoitIwouldbeinterestederm…itisabouthowyouactuallyidentify

towhomtheadvertisingisdirected.Doesanysortofapproachesgoingonthere,astowhothosepeopleare?

SubjectE:Wellerm…thatisusuallyworkedoutlessbythecopywriterandmorebythe

clientandtheaccountmanagerintheagencythatis,andthemediapeople.Becauseyou

cangetquitesophisticatedwaysofworkingouterm…whowearetryingtotargetand

particularlynowinthisverydigitalage,itiseasiertoworkoutwhoisconsumingwhat

378

typeofadorproduct.Thereisawholethinghappeningatthemomentcalled

programmaticmediabuyingandadvertisingwhichisacomputerisedhighly

sophisticatedverytargetedanswertothatquestion.SoifIwereyouifyouhaven’tseenthis,itisabigbuzzwordatthemoment.

Whatisitcalledagain?

SubjectE:Programmatic,soasinprogramme

Programmatic.

SubjectE:Programmatic,havealookatthat,thatanswersthatisawayofdoingthat

butitisonlyjusthere.Erm…onlyinthelast6months,reallyonpeople’sjustbecause

erm…withallthedatathatyoucanhave,andthecomputingpowerandtheerm…sophisticationofbrands,targetingpeopleontheinternetandfollowingyouround.You

willhaveseenyourselfbeingfollowedonceyouclickonaproduct,andthenyouthink

ohIdon’twanttobuythat,andthenyouareonanewssite,suddenlythereisanadfor

itnexttoit,thatisthemfollowingyoubecausetheyhavedroppedacookieonyouand

so,anywaythereisthatwholecomputerisedbitofit.ThepeoplethatyouaretryingtotargetI,(30.00)onceI,oneofthereasonsagoodcreativepersoninanagencytendsto

becausetheyhavetoworkoutwhatamIsellinghere,andwhatisthebestwayof

sellingit,theyoftenendupwiththesimplestandprobablymostaccuratewayofseeing

it,eventhoughtheclientandthemediacompanyandtheaccounthandlerspentmonths

tryingtoworkoutwhotheaudienceis,whattheyshouldsayandwhatever,itiswhenthepersontries,whoisresponsibleforhowdowesayit,itistheyhavetohaveitso

simple.Agoodwriterwillwantitsosimpleerm…sotheypareeverythingbackand

theythinkrightwhatismykeymessageandwhoamIsayingthatto.DoIunderstand

thosetwothings.Erm…soalthoughyouwillhavebeenpointedintherightdirection,

youhavetogetthatpersoninyourhead,erm…andyessoIwillhavethatpersoninmyhead,becausethat’showIstartedthiswholeconversation.YouaskedmehowIthink

upanad,IthinkofthepersonIamwritingitfor.

Soifyouhavea4or5pagebriefyouhavetodistilthatdowntotheactualcore

littleminisculepart.

SubjectE:Yesthat’sityes.Soweusedtohaveathingonourbriefitwasdividedinto

varioussectionsandtherewasonepartonourbriefpoint4,anditwaswhatisthekeythingwewanttosay.AndIwouldreadthatfirst.Erm…andbecauselikeforexampleI

remembergettingabrieffromaguyweusedtodoalotofadvertisingforUmbroand

379

erm…itwasthetimewheneverMichaelOwenwas,hadburstonthescenesoFrance98,

roundaboutthattimeheworetheirboots.And,ayoungladandIrememberseeing

point4inthebriefwrittenbyanaccounthandleranditwasprobablyabout3sentenceslong,andIlookeddownandlookedathimandsortofjokedwiththeguyandIjustsort

ofscribbleditoutinajokeywaybutstillmakingthepoint,allheneededtowritewas

andthesebootswerecalledlet'ssaytheywerecalledVelocity,thepointonthebriefhe

couldhavereplacedhis3sentenceswiththesewordsMichaelOwenislightningfast

becausehewasveryfast,andwewantedtosaythesearethebootsthatyoumakeforMichaelOwenheislightningfast,andlet’ssaytheyarereallylightandthingslikethat

soifyouareagoodfootballerandyouwouldliketobeasfastasMichaelOwenatleast

youcanwearthesamebootsashim,ifspeedisinyourgamethesearethebootsforyou.

Soinsteadofthesethreesentencesaboutormaybeonelongsentenceofover3linesthe

copywriterreallyjustneedstoseeevenjust2words,lightningfast.Andthenallyouthinkthenisrightspeed.Orjustonewordspeed.Youknow.

Yes

SubjectE:Youtryandpareitdown,ok.

That’sgreat,thankyou.Yes.Thenextquestionishowdoyouensurethereaderof

your[33.27]willunderstanddoyouhaveanysortofcheck-upstomakesurethat

peoplearelikelyunderstand.OneoftheissuesIhavewhenlookingatsomeadsisIcanseetheartistryindesigningthead,butIamnotalwaysentirelysurethat

theyaregoingto,everyreaderisgoingto[33.44]magazine[33.44]onTVisgoing

togeteverything.

SubjectE:Yesok.Wellthisisabitofa,erm..thereisacoupleofanswerstothis.We

havegotsomethinginhere,anderm…calledtheRacheltest.Nowerm…weusedto

haveareceptionistcalledRachel.Rachelisalovelygirlandshe,shewasn’tthebrightesttoolinthebox,andshemadelightofthat,she…oftenpeoplehavegotthejobsthatsuit

themandthereceptionistjobwasrightforRachel.Erm…itwasn’tafemalethingitwas

nothinglikethatbutthatwastherightjobforher.Shehadalwaysagreatsmileonher

face,andsheusedto,sheusedtomakejokesaboutthefactthatIdon’tknowwhatshe

wouldsaybutwhatever.Erm…butandshewasfullybehindthisandloveditbecauseIwouldsometimesbringherinanadandsayRachelwhatdoesthatmeanandshewould

lookatit(35.00)andshewouldtellmeandshewas,shelovedusdoingmeorwhoever

itwasdoingtheRacheltestbecauseifRachelgotitwewerefine,ifRacheldidn’tgetit,

weneededtoknowwhy.Andweneededtolookattheadagainasitwastoocleverforitsowngood.So,Idon’t,weweren’tbeingsexistoranything,becauseshereallyenjoyed

itandactuallythatformewasagoodwayofdoingit.Sometimesyoucanjustbetoo

advertisingforyourowngood.TheissueIoftensayandwhenwearecritiquingwork

380

intheagencyisallofyoupeoplewholikethisparticularadknowwhatthebriefis,and

havehadsomeonesellittoyou.Youknowsowewouldgetthecreativepeoplein,and

sayrightshowmewhatyourideasareandtheywouldsaywellwehavedonethisbecausewethinkitisreallygoodblah,blah,blahso,bythetimeyouaretheretomake

yourjudgementonit,youalreadyknowawholestackifyouhavegotthebackstory.

Whichisprettyobvious.So,weerm…wehavetotryandimaginethatsomeonedoesn’t

knowanyofthat.That’swhyIdon’tknowifyounoticedwhatthebigsignonour

receptionsaid,youmightn’thaveevenseenit.

Didn’tseeit.

SubjectE:Wellonyourwayoutyouwillseeitsaysthepowerofsimple.Sothatiswhy

wetellpeopletokeepitsimple.Sowhenevertheyare,asyousaid,consumersflicking

throughamagazineforexample,theyseeoneofourads,theygetit,erm….ortheyare

sufficientlyintriguedtoreadonabitlikeplaylessgolflikewhatyouknow,oritisreally

clearexactlywhatitmeansandwhyitisrightforthem.Sowedoaself-filteringthing,isitsimpleenough.WegiveitaRacheltest.Rachelisn’thereanymore,buterm…we

woulddoaMeenatestorwewoulddosome,wewouldtakeitroundandshowitto

people,takeithomeandshowittoourfamilies,andthenofcoursethereisresearch

youcando.

Focusgroupsandthiskindofthing?

SubjectE:Allofthosethings.Weprefernottodothosebutsometimesyouhaveto.

OneIwasthinkingofparticularlyitwasonethaterm…fromoneofthetextbooks

onadvertisingshowingClaudiaSchifferadvertisingBulgariisit?

SubjectE:BulgariisanItalianfashionbrand,thatdoesjewelleryitdoes[37.38]itdoes

jewelleryitdoesperfume,yes.

Thiswasforactuallyaperfumeanditwasapinkperfumewithagoldtoponit,

andtheshewassortofpositioning,youcouldn’tseewhatshewaswearingbutit

wassuggestingshewasnaked,butyoucouldonlyseeherfrom…obviouslyandthesuggestionofthetextwasthatpeoplewerereadilyrecognisedtheDionysus

connectionofancientRomewiththeRomanletteringofBulgariandIamthinking

381

tomyself,willthey.Willtheyreallyrecognisethatmythfromthat.Arethey

familiarwithit?IamnotsureIamnotconvinced.

SubjectE:Noerm…sosomebodyanalyseditthatway,

Yesthatiswhattheyaretellingthepeopleandthepeoplearegoingtounderstandthat.

SubjectE:Welltheyaren’tgoingtounderstandthatIdon’tthink.

NoIwouldn’thavethoughtso.

SubjectE:Erm…andIcanseetheBulgariBvbutaspecificmythwithwhich

particular…

Dionysus

SubjectE:WellDionysusisGreek,noheisnotheisBacchusisGreek,butDionysusisa

blokeandsheisnot.

YesbutitwastheideaofwithBacchustheideaof…

SubjectE:Bacchanaliaandthatsortofstuff?

Yesallthatkindofstuff,thatwaskindof…

SubjectE:Hedonismand…

382

Exactlyyes,thatwasthesuggestionandasIsayIwasn’tentirelyconvincedthat

thepublicwouldseethat.Iamnotevenconvincedthattheadvertisers

necessarilyhadthatinmindatthetimebut…

SubjectE:Notheywon’t.Butitdependswhatalltherestoftheadis,ifyoucanseebutagainerm…Isupposethat’s,erm…withoutgettingitisjustthefeelingyougetwhen

youseeit.

YesImeanIcouldseethelinktherewasalotofpinkintheadvertandthe

perfumewaspinksothefemininitywithClaudiaSchifferandthenyougotthe

goldwhichIunderstandagainIgetthegoldbit,theluxuryofawell-knownstarIgettheconnectionsthere,IgetthesignifiersbutIamjustsayingIthink[39.49]it

hasbeenoveranalysedwhentheyaresayingwearetalkingaboutyesDionysus.

Thatismysuspicion.

SubjectE:Yes,andyesIwouldguessthattherewillbeaverysmallproportionofthe

womenthatthatisaimedatthatwilllookatthatandthink,yestheyjustwon’t.Butthatisalayertobediscoveredbya[40.18]butthenofcourseyouoftenwouldthinkthatthe

personwhoknowsthat,youwouldn’tnaturallyassociatethepersonwhowouldknow

thatwithperhapssplashingmoneyon,onapremiumperfumebecausetheirheadtends

tobe,Iwouldsaythepersonwhounderstandsthat,headismoregroundedin

academiathanitis…(40.00)

In

SubjectE:Yesandluxuryandfrivolityandsuperficiality.

Erm…canyoujustgivemeafewwordsonhowyoutrytousesymbolismand

iconsforthingsinyouradvertising.

SubjectE:Yes,wellerm…iconsyouknowareoftenashortcuttowhatyouwanttosay,

sothereisawell-knowntechniqueinadvertising,orawell-usedtechniquein

advertisingwhereyoucombinetwosymbolstohelpyougetacrosswhatitisyouwant

tocommunicate.AndthishasbeengoingonforalongasIhavebeeninadvertising,anditisonethatIthinkworkswellbecauseyoudogeterm…quitealotoferm…enjoyment

outofseeingit.SoacampaignthatIsawtheotherdaythatweweredoinginhere,I

havenothingtodowithitbutitfollowsthis,isDreamsthebedretailer,andmattress

383

manufacturer.Erm…oneofourbiggestclientsandweareadvertisingtheirlatest

memoryfoamlatexmattresswhichinthesummerisquiteacoolmattresssooneofthe

messagesiscool.OkabitlikeMichaelOwenspeed,andwhatIhaveseenisapictureofamattressonalollipopstick,sotakingthetwothingsmattressandlollipoptogiveyou

coolmattress.And,whenyouseeitandprobablywiththeheadlinelet’scallitBritain’s

coolestmattress,thatwon’tbewhattheheadlinewasbutthatisthesortofthingand

youseethelollipopyouthinkwowyesIgetthat.Igetthatanditisdefinitelyamattress

becauseithasgotallthelittle,littlethingsonit,thatislightmattressbutitisonalollipopstick,sothatiswhereyoutakethetwoimages.Imeanyouwillbeawareofthat

thereisalotofthathappens.

Yesitdoes

SubjectE:Over,thereismanywonderful,wonderfulonesdoneinthisagencybutdone

brilliantlyinallofthebigagencies,anyagencythereislotsofthatgoeson.Andthen

yes,thereislotsofotherimageryweuselikefromyouknow,icons,butthat’swhattheyyouknow,thatisauniversalsortoflanguageiconographyandpictogramsandany

othertypesofimageryyouhaveinmindor…

NoIwasjustcurious.BecausewearetalkingsemioticsIcan’tdiscusssemiotics

withoutinvitingyoutotalkalittlebitabouticonsandsymbolsandsoon.Erm…

iconsandsymbolsinsemioticsaredifferentthingstechnicallybutasyouprobablyknow.Erm…

SubjectE:Idon’t,becauseIjustdon’t((laughs)).

Yeswellforexampleaniconlookslikewhatitrepresentstosomedegree.Sobut

ifyouseelikeasignfora,ifyouseeaknifeandforksignontheroad,itdoesn’t

meanthereisacutlerysaledowntheroad,weknowwhatitmeans.

SubjectE:Arestaurantorsomething.

Yesitisstillarbitrary,someonehasdecidedthatthatisasignforarestaurantbut

becauseitlookslikewhatitrepresents.Symbolsdon’ttheyare100%arbitrary.Thereisnothinginthemthatrepresents,sothattherewillbeasymbolbecause

thereisnothingintherethatsuggestswhyisthatgood,andnotthat,orthator

384

somethingorthatwhateveritisarbitrarysothereisthedifferencethere,that’sis

thepoint.

SubjectE:Okdidn’tknowthatinteresting.Ishouldreadabookonsemiotics.

Youmightnotneedtoerm…onelastquestionthenreallyjust,isthereanythingthatyoudospecificallyinmindwhenyouwanttodrawuponorgetyourviewers

orreadersorlistenerstoactivatetheirpre-existingknowledgetotriggerthemso

thattheymakesenseofthings.Becauseobviouslyyoumustrelyuponthatto

somedegreetheyknowstuffalready.AndIamgoingtotapintowhattheyknow

tomakesenseofthead.(45.00)

SubjectE:God.

Thatisatoughoneisn’tit.

SubjectE:Yes,so,wellImeanthisprobablyisn’ttheanswerorerm…thismightbe

answeringanentirelydifferentquestionbutsometimeswewillerm…referinanador

propanadwiththingsthatwewouldwanttheproducttobeassociatedwith.So,

kindredbrandsanderm…so,itisabitlikesayingyouwilllikethisbecauseitissetina

contextthatyouarefamiliarwith.Oryouwouldliketobewith.Familiarorassociatedwith.So,thatis,playingonthatbit.Erm…weprobably,ifyouaretalkingtooneof

thesespecialistaudience,orastheysometimescallthemverticalaudiences,[46.19]but

that’swhattheydo,erm…thenyoucanassumealotoferm…priorknowledge.That

person,thepeopleyouaretalkingtoknow.WedidalotofourearlyadvertisingwasforBerghausthemountaineeringpeoplesowewouldbetalkingtosometimethelast

thingyouwoulddoisgivethemJanetandJohnadvertising.OurspecificJanetandJohn

advertising,thesepeopleknowmoreabouttheoutdoorsthanwewilleverknow,erm…

soyou,Ioftenwheneverwewerewritingerm…BerghausadsIalwaysshowedthemto

myfriendsintheBritishMountaineeringCouncil,justtocheckIwasn’tpatronisingorerm…justyouknowjusttosaveuslookinglikesomeonewhodidn’tknow.Ithoroughly

enjoyedwritingaboutmountaineeringalthoughIdon’thaveaheadforheightsandstuff

likethatandIwouldhaveabashatit,IliketheoutdoorsbutIknewthatthepeopleI

metinthemountaineeringcouncilwerejustanentirelydifferentbreedtome,Iloved

theminalltheirgrubbinessandyoualwaysfelt[47.39]snowballandtherewasjustlovelythingsaboutthembuttheyweren’tme,butbecausetheyweren’tme,Ihadto

makesurethatwhenIamwritingadsforthemIdidn’term…look,thattheyhadthe

lookasiftheywerewrittenformountaineersbymountaineers.

385

Yesthatmakessense.Thatfitsinwell.Iamthinkingparticularlyofoneofthe

advertsinSwedenforVolvostheyarepredicatedonanassumptionthatyou

knowthatVolvohasareputationforsafety.Erm…andsoifyoudidn’tknowthat,thentheadvertwouldn’tmakeanysensetoyouwhatsoever.Youwouldthink

whataretheytalkingaboutthere.SothatiswhyIwas[48.23]thatonealittlebit,

erm…ifthatiseverbuiltintoit,inthedesign.

SubjectE:Wellyesbutoften,yesbutthatisbecauseyouthinkthatthebrandhashada

longheritageofadvertisingtodowithsafetyorwithVolkswagendidforalongtimewasreliability,andBMWisgreatengineering,andthenofcoursethesethingsmoveon

abit.Sowhenyouapproachthebriefyouapproachitwiththinkingthatallofthose

yearserm…ofindoctrination,haveplantedsomethinginthebrain,soIyesIamsortof

surprisedtosaythatbutthenIhaven’t,ImeanIsawtheJeanClaudeVanDammeVolvo

truckadvertwhereitsplitsandthereisabitofsafety,wellthereissafetyinvolvedinthatbuterm…IwouldhavethoughttheSwedeswouldallknow.

Theydoyes,theadvertsarepredicatedonthatsoforexampletheymightshow

twochildrenandtheymightsaydon’tforgetyourvaluables.Okweallpickupthe

[4941]fromthatohyesitisforsafety.

SubjectE:YesIcanseethat.

Whereasifyoudidn’tknowaboutVolvo’sreputationforsafetyactually…

SubjectE:Thatwouldn’tmakealotofsense.

Noitwouldn’tno,no.

SubjectE:Butthatisquiteanicelittleadthat,itsoundslikeanicead.

Yes.

SubjectE:ParenttomakesureyoubuyaboringsafeVolvoifyouhavegotkids.

386

That’sright.Thankyouverymuchthathasbeenextremelyenlightening.

SUBJECT F

SubjectF:Marketingandbrandingareverydifferentthingswheremarketinghas

becomemorelikebrandingovertheyearsinandofitself,butbrandingboth

commerciallyandtheguysinbrandconsultancyandthevisualidentitycompanywho

takeamassivesharefromadvertisingagencies,butalsointermsoftheacademia.The

shiftfromtransactionaltorelationalerm…paradigmsitdoesn’t…howweunderstandingmarketing,soitisnotjustaboutthetransactionitisaboutbuilding

relationshipsandthatiswhat,youknowsocialmediaisobviouslyinandofitself

contributedamassiveparttothedebateashasthewholenotionofyouknowconsumer

generatingcontent,prosumersallthesekindofbuzzwordsthatIguesstheykindof,theydisrupttheoldvalueequationofcompaniesuseagenciestocreatecommunication,

tobombardconsumersandthenthingshavebecomealotmorecomplexobviouslyas

weknowoverthelastfewyears.Buterm…firstofallIwould,Iwould,ifIwasto

describesemioticsIwouldn’tgothroughthelinguisticsarm,althoughImeanInever

studiedlinguisticssomyunderstandingofthisisverymuchinformedbymyreadingaroundit,althoughIobviouslyunderstandthefounderof,oneofthefoundersof

semioticswasalsothefounderofstructuralismandstructurallinguistics,Frederickde

Saussureandhisinsightserm…bothspawnsthewholeideaofscientificstudyof

languagesasakindofcomparativestudyoflanguagesandalsoasafootnotejustlike

RichardDawkinsspawningthewholefieldofmimeticsnotreallyintendingtoinakindofepilogueintheSelfishGene,SaussurehasthisphraseinhisCoursedeLinguistique

wherehesaysyouknowthereisthispotentialforthescienceofsemiotics,semiology,

whichwould,ofwhichlinguisticsisonesubset,andsemiologywould,wouldstudy,its

domainwouldbevast,itwouldstudyeverysignifyingentityanditsplaceisstakedout

inadvance,anditwouldstudythelifeofscienceandsociety,whichiseverythingfromflagstosemaphoretoyouknow,erm…youknowadvertisingandartandallsortsof

things.ButIguess,sorrythisisalongwayofsayingthough,thaterm…Iverymuch

thinkofsemioticsasmore,thinkofitintermsofthebranchofphilosophy,todowith

representation,Ithinkofit…becauseIthinkformethatwidensit,itsapplicationbut

alsoIthinkthatitiseasiertosee,Ithinkyouknowthenotionofthinkingofadvertisingasasortoflanguageoralanguageofcommoditiesisaverysortofnicely70s,80s

paradigm.Nottosayitdoesn’thavealotoftruth,butIthinkthat,becausethewhole

[02.40]communicationsareaissovisualnow,andwearemovingbeyondthevisual

intothehapticandthesensorialIthinkthatissofardivorcedfromwherelinguisticsis

intermsofpeoplethinkofglyphsandwriting,IthinkweliveinsuchavisualculturenowthatIthink,thinkingofsemioticsasabranchofrepresentation,abranchof

philosophytodowithrepresentationwiththerigouroferm…social,youknowsocial

sciencesandvariousyouknow,socialsciences,substrateslikegroundedtheorylike

adductionandotherkindofthingsthatgiveititsrigouranditserm…itssenseof

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systematisationitcanlookatthingssystematically.Ithinkthatformeis,isamore…it

makeswhatIdomoreexplicable.BecauseIthinkalsobecauseyouknowIwork,Iwork

withinthistraditionIthinkofculturalstudiesandIamquiteecumenicalintermsofthetheoriesIpick.WhereasIthinkifyoulookataFrenchsemiotician,theyareworking

withtheGreimasianframeworkthatusesthesemioticsquare,thatisadevelopmentof

structuralismintermsofbinaryoppositionsandlookingatcontradictionsand

contrariesandimplications.Anditismucheasiertoseewhattheydofromasadirect

resultofthelinguistickindofheritage.WhereaswhatIdocomesasmuchfromphilosophyandfromvisualcultureandculturalstudiesasitdoesthat,probablymore

soinsomerespects.Doesthatmakeanysense?

Yesitdoes,yes,yes,yes.YoumentionedthingslikeSaussureandthe

structuralist..

SubjectF:Yes

Iamwondering,seesomeuniversitieswhentheyareteachingthistopicthatisasfarastheygo,theylookatSaussure,lookatPeirceandsoon,oneortwowillgo

ontoBarthesandhisnotionsofmythologiesandsoon.Somegotoerm…Levi-

StraussbutI’vegotabitofasuspicionthatmostofthemdon’tgothatdeepwhen

theyactuallystartinthefieldofworkinadvertising.Isuspectthatthey,thatis

stuffatuniversity.AmIwrong?

SubjectF:Erm…I’mnotsureifIamgoingtoansweryourquestionbutIamgoingtotryandansweryourquestion.Erm…Ithink,thereprobablyarepeopleouttherethat

studythisstuffatuniversity,theyget…theyhaveasmatteringofwhattheythinkthey

needtodotodosemioticsandthenwhentheygetintothefield(05.00)theyprobably

forgetallofthat,andthenjustsortoffreestyle[05.06]diggingoutmeaningsthatthey

cometointuitivelyandsometimestheymayretro-activelyjustifythoseusingtheorysometimestheydon’t,sometimestheyjustleaveitandthinkofacademiaaskindof

somethingtheyhadtogothroughtogetthequalificationsandnowtheyare,nowthey

areinthefieldtheyjustpracticeit.Erm…Iamnotsomeonethat,thatyouknow,that’s

notwhatIpersonally,personallydoerm…Iamalsonotthatawareoftherebeingthat

manycourses,welltherearenotthatmanyqualificationsinsemioticsinfacttheremaybeonly1,thatIamawareof.Theremaybemorethan1.Wellnothat’snottrue,there

areprobablyafewbutahandfulandtheonesIknowofareinTartuwherethereisa

wholedepartmentinEstoniadedicatedtosemiotics.Thenyouhavegotplaceslike

AahusinDenmarkwhereyoucanstudycognitivesemioticsandplacesliketheCopenhagenBusinessSchoolwherethereissomeonewhoisveryestablishedin

semioticswhowillteach,Ithinkteachescourseswherethereisanumberofprofessors

teachingcoursesinsemiotics.Buteachofthoseplacestheywouldteacherm…a

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numberofdifferenttheories,buttheywouldhavetheirkindofhometheoryortheir

kindofcoretheory,andinTartuitiskindofYuriLotmanandthekindofSovietSchool

ofSemiotics.InAarhusit’sPeirceandhiserm…thosewhohavetriedtokindofclearupsomeofthequandariesanduncertaintiesinhisvoluminouswork,((laughs))ofwhich

therearemany,manyyouknowheisobviouslyanamazingthinkerbutyouknowthe

ScandinavianstendtobereallyintothePeirce.PartlybecauseIthinkthegeekinesskind

oftiesinwiththatvery,verykindofindepth,very,veryerm…thatkindofcontinental

philosophicaltraditionIthinkitreallyPeircereallyplaysintothatbutalsobecauseoftheirinterestindesignanddesignthinking.ThatPeirceisareallyhelpfulwayof

thinkingyourwayarounddesignobjectsusingthingslikeiconic[07.03]indexicality

andyouknowhow,howtheperceptionofanobjectrelatestomeaningindifferentways.

So,erm…Imean,likeIamnotreallysurewhatyourquestionwasbutIguessmy

answeris,sothequestionIthinkyouareaskingissortofsayingitfeelslike,Iwas[07.21],itfeelslike,youweresayingthattherecouldbequiteasuperficialengagement

withsomeofthesethinkers,withoutreallytyingittogetheristhat?

That’smysuspicionyes.

SubjectF:Yes,yesyouareprobablyrightyes.

Yesoncetheystartinthefieldtheyjustbasicallybinmostofthestuff,thatis

universitystuff,thisistherealworld.

SubjectF:Absolutelywellthereis,thereisthatImean,andforgoodreasonbecauseImeanyouknowIhavehad,Iwasrecentlyworking,IamnowdoingsomeworkwellI

amontheBBCrosterwhichisgreat,soIcanpitchforwork.AndIsentthemabrief,I

sentaproposalforabriefrecentlywheretheresponseofthefairlyjuniorresearch

personwasohyouknow,whyareyoumentioningRolandBarthesinyourproposalthat

scarespeoplethatyouaregoingtocomeupwithallthisacademicverbiagewecan’tunderstand.AndIwaslikewell,yesImeanIamputtingthisintherebecausemyyou

know,youhavegotanoverallunderstanding[08.16]Ithinkformeit’sanadvantageto

showthatthereisatheoreticalrigourinwhatIdo,butyouknowIamnever,Iamless

andlesssurprisedwiththesortofanti-intellectualismalmostthekindof,thevicious

anti-academic,anti-intellectualismIfindinbusinesswhereevenif,anacademicreferenceshouldhelptheunderstandingorgiveyoucredibilitypoint,peoplejustreact

asifthere…theyareallergictoit.AndsoIcanunderstandwhythereissomepeople

thatthereforeeschewtheuseoftheoristsandnameslikethatinanydocumentthat

goestoaclient,becausetheyhavebeenburnttoomanytimes.Havingsaidthat,Ithinkthatisprobablyaminority,accountsfortheminorityofpeoplethatdon’tdoitinthe

field.Ithinkoftenmorelikelytodowithacombinationoflaziness,lackofrigour,lackof

knowledgedoyouseewhatImean?

389

Hmm

SubjectF:ButIthinkitcanbebecausepeoplehavetriedthat,andtheyhavebeen

burnt,becausepeopledon’twantthat,somepeopledon’twantthat.Or,youknow,

becauseformethewayIseeit,youknowItryand,Iwillconvey,Iwilltellyouwhatmy

methodologyisbasedonbecauseultimatelyotherwiseitisjustbasedonmy

interpretationyouknowwhichis,Ithinkisverysound((laughs))becauseIthinkpeopledon’tgiveenoughweighttowhatsomeone’spersonalinterpretationisifthey

haveamassive,massiveerm…groundinginafield.ItislikewhatMalcolmGladwellsaid

youknow,instinctsarerealthingstheyhappenyouknowandtheycanbetrustedso

someone’sopinionisworthmorethananother,itisjustthewayitis.Imeanthiswhole

egalitarianthingontheinternethasgonetoofar,youknowelitismyouknowisimportant.Imeanyouwouldn’t,youknowifsomeoneishavingastrokeyouwould

ratherhaveabrainsurgeontrainedinfacialcodingrecognitionlooking(10.00)atthem,

thansomerandomwhogoes,ohyesIhaveseenacoupleofadsonTVtheyareprobably

havingthiskindofananeurismorwhatever.AnywayIamjustmakingargybuterm…yesbutasIsaytherearepeoplethathavebeenburntandtheyhavedecidedtoneglect

it,butIthinkitismorebecausethereis,itisdifficulttounifytheseworldsandIthink

youknow,theotherthingthatisprobablytrueisalthoughtherearesomeverysmart

peopleinmarketingthereareprobablyalotofnone…alotofpeoplethataren’tthat

smartandthosepeopletheyyouknow,theywentthroughuniversitynotyouknowmaybeengagingwithcertainthingsandsonowtheyareintheworldofworkand

earningmoneyitistheiropportunitytonotyouknowtonotengagewithit.Imeanthat

ismoreofakindofa,aparanoiac,perhapsslightlyparanoiacviewbutImeanIthinkall

thosethingscomeintoplay.

Yes

SubjectF:ButthereareacoupleofpapersIcansendyouthatcan,thereisonebyDavidGlenMickwhichisallabouthowpeopledon’tusetheoryrigorouslyenoughin

thecommercialworld.ThereisalsoathesisIcansendyouonthewaysdifferent

traditionsofsemioticshavebeenusedinthecommercialsemioticsintheUKwhich

shouldbequiteusefulaswell.

Thatwouldbebrilliantyes.Yes.

SubjectF:Thereisprobablyanotheractually,thereisprobably3things,Idon’tknowifthelastone,IamnotsureIcandigitout,IthinkIhavegotitsomewhere,itisabout

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basically,itisareal,it’samassivelong,itisasemioticapaperit’sabout100pageslong,

andwhenitwaswrittenin2004itwaslikeasurveyofallthecommercialsemiotics

erm…projectsthathavebeenpublishedinacademia,andlookingathowrigorouslytheyusedthetheory,withquiteacriticalperspective.

Yes

SubjectF:SoIthinkifyouarelookingforthatsortoferm…todevelopinyour

perspectivethosecouldbequiteuseful.

Thatwouldbegreat.ImeanoneoftheproblemsIhaveisthatmybackground

well,sincecomingtoSwedenhasbeenacademicandthataspectofit,Iamfroma

differentdisciplinealtogetheroriginally,butIamalinguistnowandIamtryingtoreconciledifferentapproachestoit.Oneofwhichistherehasbeensome

recentworkdonebyaJapaneseerm…linguistcalledKayKoTanaka,erm…and

sheissuggestingthatweshouldbeconsideringusingadifferentbranchof

linguisticscalledPragmatics,whichisreallymoremyarea.Thatislookingatlanguageincontext.It’showweactuallyuseittoerm…togeneratemeaning

withoutusingtheactualwords.SoforexampleifIsaidtoyouisthereawindow

open.IcouldbeeffectivelyaskingyoutoclosethewindowbecauseIamcold,

openthewindowbecauseIneedfreshair,orlockthewindowbecauseweare

goingtogooutandaburglarmightbreakin.Soitisthemeaningunderlyingit.Whenyoulookatclassifiedads,theyarepureinformation,whichbringsusonto

anothersetoftheoriesaswellthatwearetalkingaboutthe,thereasonandtickle

notion.Thisguyerm…Idon’tknowifyouhaveheardofhimDavidBursteincame

upwiththisbookinthe1970s.

SubjectF:Yes

[13.00]advertisingandpartofthathetalksaboutreasonandtickle.Andhewassaying,[13.05]hestickstothesameviewwelladvertsareusuallyacombination

ofreasonoflogicandofticklewhichistoinspireinteresttoamuse,tosoonerm…

againIamtryingtoreconcilethatwithanotionofdifferencebetweenbranding

something,andcreatingcustomerloyaltyandsoon,brandrecognitionontheone

handandontheotherhandahardnosedelementoffloggingsomethingtopeople.AndanexamplethatIsometimesgivewithmyownstudentsisIsaytothem,well

youknowyouareallSwedishstudents,youareallfamiliarwithVolvocarsand

youarealsofamiliarwithVolkswagencars.Sowhatisthecriteria,whatisthe

sellingpoint.Whatisityouaregoingtobemaking,whatisgoingtomakeyour

minduptobuyaVolvooraVolkswagen.AndifitnotloyaltytothefactthatVolvo

391

isaSwedishfirmthenitisgoingtohavetobesomethingabouttheproductthat

sellsit.SoitisthesekindofareasIamworkingin,inmypaper.

SubjectF:Yes,IwouldsayreliabilityandsafetyrespectivelyforVWandVolvo.Imean

historically,notmaybeonamodeltomodelbasisbutIthinkasamarque,asacarmarquethatiswhattheyarekindofknownfor.ButIthinkitisinterestingwhatyouare

doing,Imean,Iwouldsaythat,youknowthereis,therearevarioussemiotickindof

techniquesorideas,oneisthisnotionofconnotativeindexso,forexampleyoutakethe

Obamalogofrom2008wheneveritwas,erm…thathasgotveryhighconnotativeindex.Connotativeindexistheextenttowhichtherearedifferentpropositionsanddifferent

associationspackedintoaverysmallarea.Sothisideaofhope,theideaofagriculture

andfecundityandfertility,sothisideaofthesuncomingoverthekindofprairiewithin

theAmericancolourswiththesunkindofrisingerm…anderm…thattiesintoallsorts

ofthingsyouknowit’skindoftheresonanceofthe1940s,30sand40stheNewDeal(15.00)whichobviouslyforrightwingAmericansisnotthatcool,[15.02]butforalotof

Americansisverycoolbuteventhosethatdon’tassociatethepoliticswithit,itisatime

ofhope,atimeofprosperity,affluence,thebabyboomers,atimewhenAmericawas

suffering,sothereisallsortsofthingspackedintothat.

SoundslikeBarthesdoesn’tit?

SubjectF:Ibelievethatisbranding.ImeanobviouslyitworkstomarketObama,butIwouldarguethebrandingisoftenmoresubtleandmoreemotional,usuallyImean

againIdon’tthinkyoucancreateclear,acutanddriedbinaryoppositionsbetween

marketing.Ithinkoneismoretransactionalandoneismorerelational,brandingbeing

morerelational.ButIthink,youknow,thereisacombinationthere,butIthinktheidea

ofconnotativeindexforexample,perfume,spirits,luxuryproductstheyhavehigherdegreesofconnotationstheytendtobemarketingtoyoulessexplicitlybutmuch

strongeronbranding.Whereaswhatyoutalkedaboutinsurance,banking,classified

advertisingbecausetheyhavealowerlevelofconnotationstheirbrandingisless,there

islessdensityofmeaninginthere,theyareappealingtoyoumoreonarational,

rhetoricallevelbutyouknowonamoreexplicitlyrhetoricallevel.SoImeantherearethosethatwoulddisagreewithmebutIthinkingeneralmyexperienceissuch.SoI

thinkyoucouldlookatitintermsofconnotations,thatwouldbeawayofsemiotically

being,thatwouldbeoneindicatorofmarketingversusbrandingintermsoflookingat

advertising,oranysymbolic,anysymboliccommunication.Justasanexample.

Yes,ohthatwouldgoodyes,interesting.Youhaveprettymuchansweredmyquestion,whatexactlydoesyourfirmdothendoyouactuallyyoutakethebrief…

392

SubjectF:Ido,Imeanwhatwehavediscussedthekindofnittygrittyofanalysing

erm…advertisingandotherbrandcommunicationthatiswhy,that’sthekindof,that’s

thesortofbreadandbutterofwhatIdobutintermsofhowImakemymoneyisIwritereportsandIpresenterm…visuals,someinspirationdocumentsthathelpgive

companiesideasofhowtheycanmoveforward.Usuallybecausethey,theywanttodo,

theywanttocommissionanindependentviewontheirmarketplaceandtheirbrand,

thattheycanthengivetotheiragenciestomaketheiragenciesmoreeffectivein

communicating.So,soIcouldbedeliveringworktoadesignagency,toanadvertisingagency,toabrandconsultancy.Brandconsultanciesthereisthiskindofvery,youknow,

thereisnosurprisethattheycameintocurrencyalongwithspindoctorsinthelate90s

theyarekindof,thePeterMandelson’softhecommercialworldienoonereallyknow

whattheydo,buttheymakeshitloadsofmoney((laughs)).Youknowlike,Iamthinking

aboutWolffOlinsforexample,whocreatedtheOlympiclogoortheywouldrebrandDubaiforexample,orSingaporesotheyarecharginglike5millionor10million

whateverdollarsorpoundstodoit.Havingsaidthat,althoughpeoplegoohtheyjust

producedthatlogo,theamountofcheckingandrationalethatgoesintocreating

somethingthatisgoingtobereproducedmillionsandmillionsoftimes,couldlastyearsandyears,ithastoappealtoamassiverangeofstakeholdersfromemployees,to

shareholders,tothepress,toyouknowyounameit,alotgoesintothat,soyouknowI

amatpainstosayyestheydo,theystillprofiteeroverthetopbutprobablynotasmuch

asyoususpectbecausethereisahellofalotthatneedstogoonunderneaththehoodin

ordertobesure,gettotheinsideit’sallverywellyouhavemaybe5differentoptionsbutthentoworkoutwhichofthemdoesthebestjob,andguaranteethattheyminimise

risk,thatisawholeotherstory.Soanywayerm…butyessobrandconsultanciesIwork

withdesignagencies,andadvertisingagencies,andessentiallyIhelpinspirethemto

thinkindifferentwaysandthentoyesgivethemvisualevidenceforwhyIamsaying

whatIamsaying.Ifyougoontomywebsitethereareafewexamplesonthere.So,butletmesendyouthesedocuments.

Ifyouwouldthatwouldbegreat.

SubjectF:Theywillhelpyou,theywilldefinitelyImeanifyourquestionisyouknow,

thisdiscrepancyoryouknowhowdoesanacademicerm…trainingtranslateinto

commercialsemiotics,thenIthinkthesearethebestthingsIhavereadandIdo

continuallylookforthingsandtryandkeepuptodatesothereisnotthatmuch,probablythatIhaven’tread.ImeanIsaythat,itsoundsquitearrogantbutinEnglish

thereisIhavereadalot,let'sputitthiswayIhavereadalotofwhathasbeenwritten

onthistopic,becausethisiskindofwhatIdoandIneedtobuterm…andIhavealso

writtenapaperonhowtobecomeacommercialsemioticianwhichisasortofyou

knowerm…apaperthatIwrotefrommyownpersonalexperiencebutyouknowIusesemioticframeworkstoexplainwhatitisIdo,topeoplethatarecuriouserm…about

howandIguessoneofthethings(20.00)Iamsayingisactuallyalthoughitisimportant

tonottobe,nottosortofdiscardthetheoryandifyoucantobringitin,becauseIthink

itgivesmorecredibilityandvaliditytowhatyouaredoing,personallybutIalsothink

393

youknow,thisisonly…theoryisonlypartofwhyIamabletodowhatIdo,thereisa

lotoflateralthinkingandaptitudethatyouneedtocultivatelikeamartialart.Andthat

isnotlodgedinbooksandthatisnotabouterm…thefactthat,thatismore[20.32]thatismorehowtodosomethingratherthanaccessingfactoidsandgridsinyourheadof

thewayotherpeopledoit.Itismuchmorefreewheelinganditismuchmorecraftskills

andIthinkthatissomethingpeopleoftendon’trealise.ImeanitisnotthatIamthat

differentfromaforensicscientistorIdon’tknowanthropologistorwhoelsecouldbe

maybeevenapollsterlikeeveryonehasgotcraftskillstheyuse,butitisnotasifIwillreadBarthesandthenapplythis,rolloutthesametheories.No.Youknowsemioticis

objectbasedanalysisyouknow,appliedsemioticssowearenotmetaphysiciansyou

knowwe,weworkwithpackagingorweworkwithindustrialobjects,weworkwith

advertisingandeverythingweworkwithisdifferentandthereforeourtoolswillneed

tobedifferent.So,youknowthat’s,thatis,oneofthethingsthatis,hasanareaofcomplexityandmeansthat,erm…youcanneverjusttakeatheoryandgorightthat

theoryis,ifIjustapplythattheorysystematicallyitwilldothework,thatisnottheway

itworks.

No,no.

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